Air Pollution Control Forum 2016 Report

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
FORUM 2016
ASHRAE, UET, LHR.
Quantitative Analysis Of Vehicular Emissions
Quantitative Analysis of Vehicular Emissions
ASHRAE Air Pollution Control FORUM 16

MANAGER:
Fatima Anwar
ASSISSTANT MANAGER:
Tahreem Ejaz
MEMEBERS
Ayesha Siddiqa
Aleeza Ashfaque
Hafiza Amenah Mehak Ali
Komal Imdad Hussain
Sara Bilal
Sama Fayyaz
Reeja Nawaz
Sana Shahid Khan
Vaneeza Shaukat
Sobia Jamil
Shaha Batool
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL FORUM 2016

Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................. 4
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................ 6
1.1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 6
1.2
OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................. 6
1.3
SCOPE OF PROJECT ...................................................................................... 6
1.4
SITE SELECTION ........................................................................................... 6
1.4.1
Specifications of Area .......................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................ 9
2.1 POLLUTION ..................................................................................................... 9
2.2 TYPES OF POLLUTION ..................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 AIR POLLUTION ....................................................................................................... 9
I.
II.
Suspended particulate matter .............................................................. 10

Gaseous emissions ........................................................................... 10
2.3 POLLUTANTS................................................................................................. 11
2.4
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS ............................................................................. 11
2.4.1
ON THE BASIS OF EXISTENCE IN NATURE: ................................................ 11
(a) Quantitative Pollutants: ........................................................................ 11

(b) Qualitative Pollutant: ........................................................................... 11
2.4.2
ON THE BASIS OF FORM RELEASED IN AIR ............................................... 11
(a) Primary Pollutants: ............................................................................... 11

(b) Secondary Pollutants: ........................................................................... 11
2.4.3
ON THE BASIS OF ECOSYSTEM ..................................................................... 12
(a) Bio-degradable Pollutants: ................................................................... 12

(b) Non-degradable Pollutants: .................................................................. 12
2.4.4 STOCK POLLUTANTS ........................................................................................ 12
2.5
Zones of influence..................................................................................... 12
2.6
VEHICULAR EMISSIONS ..................................................................... 13

2.6.1 Exhaust gas or flue gas .......................................................................... 13
2.6.2
Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) ................................................ 13
2.6.3 Hydrocarbons (HC) ............................................................................. 15

2.6.4 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) ........................................................................ 15
2.6.5 Carbon monoxide (CO) ........................................................................ 16
2.6.6 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) ............................................................................. 16
2.6.7 VOCS: ................................................................................................... 17
2.6.8 Black Carbon: ........................................................................................ 18
2.6.9 Ozone ..................................................................................................... 18
2.6.10 Greenhouse gases ................................................................................ 19
2.6.11 Volatile organic compounds ................................................................ 22
2.6.12 Ozone ................................................................................................... 22
2.7 Engines .........................................................................................22

2.7.1 Types of Engine..................................................................................... 22
2.8 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION ............................................................... 27
2.9 MOVEMENT OF AIR POLLUTION .......................................................... 28
2.10 URBAN AIR POLLUTION AND CLIMATE........................................... 28
2.11 Regulations.................................................................................................. 29
2.12 How to use simplified online COPERT 4 methodology ............................ 30
CHAPTER 3.......................................................................................35
Methodology........................................................................................35
CHAPTER 4.......................................................................................37
4.1 Results ...........................................................................................37
4.2 Comments .....................................................................................39
4.3 Recommendations ........................................................................39
REFERENCES ..................................................................................41
Abstract
Vehicular emissions are basically the foreign material from the tail
pipe of the vehicles. All are linked with frequent and modern network
of transportation. The reduction can be achieved by cleaner
technologies for vehicles, cleaner and green fuels, aesthetic urban
living and green economy i.e sustainable management system for land
use pattern.
The study was done in order to analyze the present condition of air
of university which is effected by vehicles. Survey was done in order
to check the amount of vehicles entering in university. It was concluded
that about 2100 vehicles enter the university premises. Majorly
motorcycles are used by students and staff which are causing major
pollution.
It was concluded that CO2 was majorly produced i.e 7.6 Gg
annually. Second highest pollutant produced is CO i.e. 456.7 Mg. It is
suggested that there should be change in attitude of people, daily habits
of pollution should be changed.
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge this project to our whole team with whose
efforts and cooperation this project has reached its accomplishment.
The team has indeed proved itself to be competent. It is due to the
persistence and devotion of all members. All members put their endless
efforts in documentation and completion of whole project. We are
grateful to ALMIGHTY ALLAH for HIS blessings. We dedicate this
project to our parents for their moral support and prayers.
We acknowledge cherish able guidance of Sir Haroon Rasheed
who has supervised this project. Due to his guidance, support and
motivation; this project proved to be a successful one. His commitment
for project and concern for our team was appreciable.
Besides we thank ASHRAE UET student chapter for
providing us the platform to work on this project and helping us exhibit
our skills and usefully consume our energies. Last but not least, we are
grateful to our seniors who guided and helped us in our project.
Chapter 1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Cars produce air pollution throughout their life, including pollution emitted during vehicle
operation, refueling, manufacturing, and disposal. Additional emissions are associated with the
refining and distribution of vehicle fuel. Air quality issues, such as ground-level ozone,
particulate matter (PM), the release of other air contaminants and acid rain largely occur in the
lowest part of the atmosphere which holds the air we breathe.
1.2
1.3
1.4
OBJECTIVES
To collect the data of vehicles effecting UET environment.
To observe the amount of pollutant ed by UET vehicles.
To suggest the ways to reduce pollutants.
Calculation of emission of air pollutants by software.
To analyze the types of air pollutants.
To promote low carbon/low pollution society.
SCOPE OF PROJECT
Emissions from different vehicles is calculated.
Analysis of reasons of emissions from automobiles.
Comparison with history studies of air pollution of this area.
SITE SELECTION
The site selected for the analysis is UET Lahore.
1.4.1 Specifications of Area

Location
The campus is situated on Grand Trunk Road (GT Road), Begum Pura, Lahore
(313442.34N 742131.90E) and is within few kilometers from the Shalimar Gardens. It
has eleven gates, seven are numbered from zero to six; normal daily traffic is restricted to use
only gate number three for both Entry and Exit. Due to construction work at gate 3, gate no.
five is used for entry and exit.
Student enrollment
8865
PhD enrollment
188
Departments
24
Research centres
17
Faculty
741 (including 122 PhDs)
Foreign 180
Faculty under PhD training
Local 37
Undergraduate programs
29
Postgraduate programs
55
Supporting staff
1707
Student enrollment, undergraduate
7005
Student enrollment, postgraduate
1860
Total enrollment
8865
Student hostels
16 (2700 students)
Cafeteria
Sports facilities
5 play grounds
Transport facilities
51 buses
Student service centres
Figure 1: University of Engineering & Technology

Chapter 2
RELATED THEORY
2.1 POLLUTION
Human activities directly or indirectly affect the environment adversely. A stone crusher adds
a lot of suspended particulate matter and noise into the atmosphere. Automobiles emit from
their tail pipes oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and a
complex mixture of unburnt hydrocarbons and black soot which pollute the atmosphere.
Domestic sewage and run off from agricultural fields, laden with pesticides. and fertilizers,
pollute water bodies. Effluents from tanneries contain many harmful chemicals and emit foul
smell. These are only a few examples which show how human activities pollute the
environment. Pollution may be defined as addition of undesirable material into the environment
as a result of human activities.
EPA Definition: The presence of a substance in the environment that because of its chemical
composition or quantity prevents the functioning of natural processes and produces undesirable
environmental and health effects. Under the Clean Water Act, for example, the term has been
defined as the man-made or man-induced alteration of the physical, biological, chemical, and
radiological integrity of water and other media.
2.2 TYPES OF POLLUTION

Pollution may be of the following types:
1. Air pollution
2. Noise pollution
3. Water pollution
4. Soil pollution
5. Thermal pollution
6. Radiation pollution
2.2.1 AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance including
noise and radioactive radiation in the atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly

and indirectly injurious to humans or other living organisms, plants, property or interferes with
the normal environmental processes. Air pollutants are of two types
I.
II.
Suspended particulate matter

Gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), NOx etc.
I.
Suspended particulate matter
Particulate matter suspended in air are dust and soot released from the industrial chimneys.
Their size ranges from 0.001 to 500 m in diameter. Particles less than 10m float and move
freely with the air current. Particles which are more than 10m in diameter settle down.
Particles less than 0.02 m form persistent aerosols. Major source of SPM (suspended
particulate matter) are vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refinery, railway yard,
market place, industries, etc.
Fly ash
Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal power plants as by products of coal burning operations.
Fly ash pollutes air and water and may cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies. Fly ash
affects vegetation as a result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces or indirectly through its
deposition on soil. Fly ash is now being used for making bricks and as a land fill material.
Lead and other metals particles
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is used as an anti-knock agent in petrol for smooth and easy running of
vehicles. The lead particles coming out from the exhaust pipes of vehicles is mixed with air. If
inhaled it produces injurious effects on kidney and liver and interferes with development of red
blood cells. Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative poisoning. It has long term
effects on children as it lowers intelligence. Oxides of iron, aluminum, manganese, magnesium,
zinc and other metals have adverse effect due to deposition of dust on plants during mining
operations and metallurgical processes. They create physiological, biochemical and
developmental disorders in plants and also contribute towards reproductive failure in plants.
II.
Gaseous emissions
Power plants, industries, different types of vehicles both private and commercial use petrol,
diesel as fuel and release gaseous pollutants such as carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and
sulphur dioxide along with particulate matter in the form of smoke. All of these have harmful
effects on plants and humans.
10

2.3 POLLUTANTS
Any substance present in the environment in harmful concentration, which ad-versely alters
the environment by damaging the growth rate of a species and by interfering with the food
chains, is toxic and affects the health, comfort and property etc. is considered as a pollutant.
Smoke from industries and automobiles, domestic and commercial sewage, radioactive
substances from nuclear plants and discarded household articles (tins, bottles, broken crockery
etc.) come under the category of pollutants.
2.4
2.4.1
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
ON THE BASIS OF EXISTENCE IN NATURE:
(a) Quantitative Pollutants:

These are those substances normally occurring in the environment, who acquire the status of a
pollutant when their concentration gets increased due to the unmindful activities of man. For
example, carbon dioxide, if present in the atmosphere in concentration greater than normal due
to automobiles and industries, causes measurable effects on humans, animals, plants or
property, then it is classified as a quantitative pollutant.
(b) Qualitative Pollutant:
These are those substances which do not normally occur in nature but are added by man, for
example, insecticides.
2.4.2
ON THE BASIS OF FORM RELEASED IN AIR
(a) Primary Pollutants:

These are those which are emitted directly from the source and persist in the form in which
they were added to the environment. Typical examples of pollutants included under this
category are ash, smoke, fumes, dust, nitric oxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons etc.
(b) Secondary Pollutants:
These are those which are formed from the primary pollutants by chemical interaction with
some constituent present in the atmosphere. Examples are: Sulphur trioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
aldehydes, ketones, ozone etc.
Nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are two primary pollutants released from automobiles but
in the presence of sunlight, they react to form peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone, two
secondary pollutants which are far more toxic than the primary pollutants from which they
are derived. This phenomenon of increased toxicity by chemical interaction among the
pollutants is known as Synergism.
11

2.4.3
ON THE BASIS OF ECOSYSTEM
(a) Bio-degradable Pollutants:

These are the pollutants that are quickly degraded by natural means. Heat or thermal pollution,
and domestic sewage are considered in this category as these can be rapidly decomposed by
natural processes or by engineered systems such as municipal treatment, plants etc.
(b) Non-degradable Pollutants:

These are the substances that either do not degrade or degrade very slowly in the natural
environment. These include mercury salts, long chain phenolic chemicals, DDT and Aluminum
cans etc.
Such non-degradable pollutants accumulate and are biologically magnified as they move in the
biogeochemical cycle and along food chains in the ecosystem. For example, DDT, when
washed from the ground goes to the streams where it is absorbed by the phytoplanktons which
are eaten by the fishes.
So, the initial dose of DDT which was harmless in the phytoplankton becomes very harmful as
it accumulates in the fish day by day, with the result that large populations of fish die or become
sterile and same is the case with the birds feeding on such fishes. This phenomenon is known
as bio-magnification or biological magnification.
2.4.4 Stock pollutants

Pollutants that the environment has little or no absorptive capacity are called stock pollutants
(e.g. persistent synthetic chemicals, non-biodegradable plastics, and heavy metals). Stock
pollutants accumulate in the environment over time. The damage they cause increases as
more pollutant is emitted, and persists as the pollutant accumulates. Stock pollutants can
create a burden for future generations by passing on damage that persists well after the
benefits received from incurring that damage have been forgotten.
2.4.5
Fund pollutants
Fund pollutants are those for which the environment has some absorptive capacity. Fund
pollutants do not accumulate in the environment unless the emission rate exceeds the
receiving environment's absorptive capacity (e.g. carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants
and oceans). Fund pollutants are not destroyed, but rather converted into less harmful
substances, or diluted/dispersed to non-harmful concentrations.
2.5
Zones of influence
Pollutants can also be defined by their zones of influence, both horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal zone
12

The horizontal zone refers to the area that is damaged by a pollutant. Local pollutants cause
damage near the emission source. Regional pollutants cause damage further from the
emission source.
Vertical zone
The vertical zone is referred to whether the damage is ground-level or atmospheric. Surface
pollutants cause damage by concentrations of the pollutant accumulating near the Earth's
surface Global pollutants cause damage by concentrations in the atmosphere.
2.6
VEHICULAR EMISSIONS
In this report we will deal with vehicular emissions only which are gaseous emissions. The
following are the major pollutants from motor vehicles:
2.6.1 Exhaust gas or flue gas

It is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline/petrol, biodiesel
blends, fuel, fuel or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere
through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack or propelling nozzle. It often disperses downwind in a
pattern called an exhaust plume.
It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions (and from stationary internal combustion
engines), which can also include:
Crankcase blow-by
Evaporation of unused gasoline
Motor vehicle emissions contribute to air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation
of smog in some large cities.
Composition:
The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen (N2), water vapor (H2O) (except with purecarbon fuels), and carbon dioxide (CO2) (except for fuels without carbon); these are not toxic
or noxious (although carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming).
A relatively small part of combustion gas is undesirable noxious or toxic substances, such
as carbon monoxide (CO) from incomplete combustion, hydrocarbons (properly indicated as
CxHy, but typically shown simply as "HC" on emissions-test slips) from unburnt fuel, nitrogen
oxides (NOx) from excessive combustion temperatures, and particulate matter (mostly soot).
2.6.2 Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5)

Particle pollution (also called particulate matter or PM) is the term for a mixture of solid
particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or smoke,
are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can only be
detected using an electron microscope.
13

Particle pollution includes "inhalable coarse particles," with diameters larger than 2.5
micrometers and smaller than 10 micrometers and "fine particles," with diameters that are 2.5
micrometers and smaller. How small is 2.5 micrometers? Think about a single hair from your
head. The average human hair is about 70 micrometers in diameter making it 30 times larger
than the largest fine particle.
These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different
chemicals. Some particles, known as primary particles are emitted directly from a source, such
as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires. Others form in complicated
reactions in the atmosphere of chemicals such as sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides that are
emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles. These particles, known as secondary
particles, make up most of the fine particle pollution in the country.
EPA regulates inhalable particles (fine and coarse). Particles larger than 10 micrometers (sand
and large dust) are not regulated by EPA. More about EPA PM Standards and Regulatory
Actions.
Health: Particle pollution contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so
small that they can get deep into the lungs and cause serious health problems. The size
of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. Small
particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems, because they
can get deep into your lungs, and some may even get into your bloodstream. More
information about health.
Visibility: Fine particles (PM2.5) are the main cause of reduced visibility (haze) in parts
of the United States, including many of our treasured national parks and wilderness
areas. More information about visibility.
Reducing particle pollution: EPAs national and regional rules to reduce emissions of
pollutants that form particle pollution will help state and local governments meet the
Agencys national air quality standards. More information about reducing particle
pollution.
Figure 2: Particulate Matter
These particles of soot and metals give smog its murky color. Fine particles less than onetenth the diameter of a human hair pose the most serious threat to human health, as they can
14

penetrate deep into lungs. PM is a direct (primary) and a secondary pollutant from
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxides. Diesel exhaust is a major contributor to
PM pollution.
In the bad old days, when diesel lorries produced clouds of black smoke as they accelerated
or climbed hills, a diesel engine in a car was a rarity, but during the last few years Western
Europe has seen a huge increase in the production of diesel passenger cars. Today more than
50% of all new European cars have a diesel engine. This increased demand results from the
introduction of the powerful turbocharged high-speed diesel engine that provides excellent
driving characteristics with high torque at low speed, and very good fuel economy. Modern
passenger car diesel engines produce much less soot or PM than did their older counterparts,
because of improved fueling and enhanced combustion characteristics. For instance, fuel
pumps operating at very high pressure enable injection via several very fine nozzles into the
cylinder and these injection systems permit multiple injections of fuel. In spite of the
improvements in PM emissions from diesel powered vehicles, there are still concerns about the
environmental consequences of these emissions. Legislation is being introduced that will
demand fitment of PM filters to all diesel car models sold in Western Europe, with the
implementation of the European Stage 5 emissions requirements starting in 2009. In fact a
growing number of new diesel passenger cars have PM filters, even though they may not be
necessary to meet current legislative requirements.
2.6.3 Hydrocarbons (HC)

These pollutants react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight to form ground level
ozone, a primary ingredient in smog. Though beneficial in the upper atmosphere, at the ground
level this gas irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung
capacity.
2.6.4 Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

These pollutants cause lung irritation and weaken the body's defenses against respiratory
infections such as pneumonia and influenza. In addition, they assist in the formation of ground
level ozone and particulate matter.
Like ozone, nitrogen dioxide is an oxidant pollutant, although it is less chemically reactive and
thus probably less potent. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a precursor of photochemical smog, is
found in outdoor air in urban and industrial regions and, in conjunction with sunlight and
hydrocarbons, results in the production of ozone. Automobile exhaust is the most significant
source of outdoor NO2, although power plants and other sources that burn fossil fuels also
release NO2 into the environment. The most significant exposure to NO2 occurs indoors in
conjunction with the use of gas cooking stoves and kerosene space heaters. Most ambient
NO2 is generated by the burning of fossil-derived fuels. Outdoor levels of NO2 are not usually
associated with notable changes in bronchial function in asthmatic patients. Controlled
exposure studies of subjects with asthma have produced inconsistent results regarding the
ability of NO2 to enhance nonspecific airway responsiveness with some evidence of a subgroup
with increased sensitivity. Results of epidemiologic studies suggest that exposure to NO2 is
15

associated with increased prevalence of asthma and rhinitis and with acute decrements in lung
function in asthmatic subjects.
2.6.5 Carbon monoxide (CO)

This odorless, colorless, and poisonous gas is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels such as
gasoline and is emitted primarily from cars and trucks. When inhaled, CO blocks oxygen from
the brain, heart, and other vital organs. Fetuses, newborn children, and people with chronic
illnesses are especially susceptible to the effects of CO.
The burning offossil fuels also contributes to carbon monoxide production. Carbon monoxide
occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high pressures in the Earth's mantle. Because
natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult
to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas.
Carbon monoxide is a short-lived greenhouse gas and also has an indirect radiative
forcing effect by elevating concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through
chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the hydroxylradical, OH.) that
would otherwise destroy them. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually
oxidized tocarbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide is both short-lived in the atmosphere (on average
about two months) and spatially variable in concentration.
In the atmosphere of Venus carbon monoxide occurs as a result of the photodissociation of
carbon dioxide by electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths shorter than 169 nm.
Due to its long lifetime in the mid-troposphere, carbon monoxide is also used as tracer of
transport for pollutant plumes.
Carbon monoxide is a temporary atmospheric pollutant in some urban areas, chiefly from the
exhaust of internal combustion engines (including vehicles, portable and back-up generators,
lawn mowers, power washers, etc.), but also from incomplete combustion of various other fuels
(including wood, coal, charcoal, oil, paraffin, propane, natural gas, and trash).
Large CO pollution events can be observed from space over cities.
2.6.6 Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Power plants and motor vehicles create this pollutant by burning sulfur-containing fuels,
especially diesel. Sulfur dioxide can react in the atmosphere to form fine particles and poses
the largest health risk to young children and asthmatics.
Sulphur dioxide is released into the atmosphere primarily as a result of industrial combustion
of highsulphur-containing coal and oil. It is primarily generated from the burning of sulphurAIR POLLUTION CONTROL FORUM 2016
16

containing fossil fuel and it has been demonstrated to induce acute bronchoconstriction in
asthmatic subjects at concentrations well below those required to induce this response in
healthy subjects. In contrast to ozone, the bronchoconstrictor effect of inhaled sulfur dioxide
in individuals with asthma occurs after extremely brief periods of exposure, especially with
oral breathing and high ventilatory rates, as in exercise. Significant responses are observed
within 2 minutes, maximal response is seen within 5 to 10 minutes. There can also be
spontaneous recovery (30 minutes after challenge) and a refractory period of up to 4 hours,
whereas repeated exposure to low levels of sulfur dioxide results in tolerance to subsequent
exposure. Pharmacologic studies suggest that the effect is a cholinergically-mediated neural
mechanism. Moreover, sulfur dioxide exposure enhances responses to other environmental
agents that exacerbate bronchospasm.
Hazardous air pollutants (toxics)
These chemical compounds have been linked to birth defects, cancer, and other serious
illnesses. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the air toxics emitted from
cars and trucks which include Benzene, acetaldehyde, and 1, 3-butadiene account
for half of all cancers caused by air pollution.
2.6.7 VOCS:
Respiratory, allergic, or immune effects in infants or children are associated with man-made
VOCs and other indoor or outdoor air pollutants.
Some VOCs, such as styrene and limonene, can react with nitrogen oxides or with ozone to
produce new oxidation products and aerosols, which can cause sensory irritation symptoms.
Unspecified VOCs are important in the creation of smog.
Health effects include eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches, loss of coordination, nausea;
and damage to the liver, kidney, and central nervous system. Some organics can cause cancer
in animals; some are suspected or known to cause cancer in humans. Key signs or symptoms
associated with exposure to VOCs include conjunctival irritation, nose and throat discomfort,
headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in serum cholinesterase levels, nausea,
vomiting, nose bleeding, fatigue, dizziness.[citation needed]
The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are highly
toxic, to those with no known health effects. As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of
the health effect will depend on many factors including level of exposure and length of time
exposed. Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and
memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have experienced
soon after exposure to some organics. At present, not much is known about what health effects
occur from the levels of organics usually found in homes. Many organic compounds are known
to cause cancer in animals; some are suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in
humans.
17

2.6.8 Black Carbon:
Chemically, black carbon or BC is a component of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 m
in aerodynamic diameter). Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms. It is
formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass, and is emitted
in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot.
Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality.
In climatology black carbon is a climate forcing agent. Black carbon warms the Earth by
absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on
snow and ice (direct effects) and indirectly by interaction with clouds, with the total forcing of
1.1 W/m2. Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.
Black carbon is a form of ultrafine particulate matter, which when released in the air causes
premature human mortality and disability. In addition, atmospheric black carbon changes the
radiative energy balance of the climate system in a way that raises air and surface temperatures,
causing a variety of detrimental environmental impacts on humans, on agriculture, and on plant
and animal ecosystems. Particulate matter is the most harmful to public health of all air
pollutants in Europe. Black carbon particulate matter contains very fine carcinogens and is
therefore particularly harmful. It is estimated that from 640,000 to 4,900,000 premature human
deaths could be prevented every year by utilizing available mitigation measures to reduce black
carbon in the atmosphere. Humans are exposed to black carbon by inhalation of air in the
immediate vicinity of local sources.
2.6.9 Ozone
Ozone is the main component of photochemical oxidants and "Summer smog", and probably
accounts for up to 90% of total oxidant levels in cities that enjoy a mild sunny climate such as
those of the Mediterranean area, California, etc. Ozone is generated at ground level by
photochemical reactions involving ultraviolet radiations on atmospheric mixtures of nitrogen
dioxide and hydrocarbons deriving from vehicle emissions. Safety standards for ozone levels
are frequently exceeded in southern Europe, in particular in Mediterranean countries. About
40-60% of inhaled ozone is absorbed in the nasal airways, while the remainder reaches the
lower airways and it can affect both the upper and lower respiratory tract. Inhalation of high
concentrations of ozone induces deterioration in lung function and increased airway reactivity
to nonspecific and specific bronchoconstriction agents and is related to an increased risk of
asthma exacerbation in asthmatic patients. Increased atmospheric concentrations of ozone and
nitrogen dioxide have been linked to increases in respiratory morbidity and in hospital
admissions for asthma in children and adults. Ozone exposure has also been reported to have a
priming effect on allergen induced responses as well as an intrinsic inflammatory effect in the
airways of allergic asthmatics. Ozone produces an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen
species and in epithelial cell permeability, which could facilitate penetration of inhaled
18

allergens and toxins in the airways, so inducing an increased release of inflammatory mediators
(interleukin [IL]-1, IL-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-alpha, etc.).
Because ozone-induced airway inflammation may last several days and ozone-related asthma
exacerbations often occur several days after exposure, it seems feasible that ozone-induced
enhancement of pre-existing airway inflammation enhances susceptibility to obstructive
symptoms and asthma exacerbations.
It has long been hypothesized that ozone and other pollutants may increase the susceptibility
of allergic individuals to antigens to which they are sensitized, and there are animal studies to
support such an effect.
2.6.10 Greenhouse gases

Motor vehicles also emit pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, that contribute to global climate
change. In fact, cars and trucks account for over one-fifth of the United States' total global
warming pollution; transportation, which includes freight, trains, and airplanes, accounts for
around thirty percent of all heat-trapping gas emissions.
EFFECT OF INCREASED CO2:
Carbon dioxide is not normally considered a pollutant because it is a normal constituent of air.
However, excess of carbon dioxide is considered a [pollutant because it leads to adverse effects
on the environment. The higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is likely to
increase the temperature of the atmosphere. As already discussed carbon dioxide permits the
short wavelength visible radiations to pass through it but traps the longer wavelength infra-red
radiations (heat waves) reflected by the earths surface. This trapping of heat waves causes
excessive heating of earths atmosphere. This heating effect on earth produced in this way is
called GREEN HOUSE EFFECT. The excessive heating of earth and its atmosphere ca have
adverse effect on our climate, which will affect all the living beings. The climate will become
gradually hot.
According to an estimate, the average temperature of the earth has increased by 10 C in the last
50 years. It is predicted that if the global temperature rises by 3.60 C, the polar ice caps and
glaciers would melt. This would increase the water level of oceans by about 100 m and hence
lead to the flooding of low-lying coastal areas of the earth.
Emissions of Carbon From Human Activities

Several human activities release CO2 into the atmosphere (called anthropogenic, human-origin,
emissions). Fossil-fuel burning is the predominant anthropogenic source of CO2, but cement
production and other activities also contribute (including the land-use activity of
deforestation). Using a combination of modern and historic data, scientists estimate that
humans have sent a total of 305 billion metric tons of carbon into the atmosphere since 1751;
half of these emissions have occurred since the mid-1970s.
19
Today, atmospheric CO2 levels are 25% greater than at any time in the past 420,000 years.
Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, but also including land-use activities,
are responsible for the increase.
There has been considerable research and analysis of increased atmospheric CO2 and global
warming; see section on Climate Change. About half of the recent emissions are not
accumulating in the atmosphere, but are going into the ocean and, to a lesser extent, into soils.
These are considered sinks in the global carbon budget because they take up atmospheric
CO2. The chemistry of the ocean changes as a result of increased CO2concentrations; this
subject is further examined in the section on Ocean Acidification.
Ocean Acidification
The oceans are the Earth's largest carbon storage medium, so if the atmospheric CO2 increase
were "natural", it would likely be coming from the oceans. But we know the CO2 increase is
not coming from the oceans, because the pH of the oceans is dropping (a.k.a.ocean
acidification).
When CO2 is absorbed into a solution, it binds with a water molecule to form a molecule
of carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3
H2CO3 has a rather strong acidifying effect in that 95% of it turns into HCO3-. This loss of an
H+ ion causes the ocean pH to decrease (for more details on ocean acidification, see the OA no
OK series).
In short, the fact that the pH of the oceans is decreasing tell us that they are absorbing more
carbon than they are releasing, not vice-versa.
20

Oceanic CO2 Rising Fastest at the Surface
If CO2 were being driven into the ocean from the air, the oceanic concentration would rise
fastest at the surface. If CO2 were being expelled from the oceans, we would expect to see the
opposite - decreasing concentrations at the surface.
The World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) and the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study
(JGOFS) has observed that as we expect for CO2 being driven into the oceans, concentrations
of CO2 in the oceans are rising fastest at the surface.
Atmospheric O2 is Decreasing
Burning carbon requires oxygen (O2), and when we burn an atom of carbon, the required
oxygen becomes part of the CO2 molecule. So if the CO2 increase is caused by burning
carbon (fossil fuels), we would expect atmospheric O2 levels to decrease at the same rate.
CO2 Rise is Smoother than Temperature
Some, most recently Murry Selby, have argued that the CO2 rise is in response to the
temperature rise. However, the temperature rise has been quite erratic (because there are many
factors which impact the average global temperature, especially in the short-term). If
atmospheric CO2 changes were in response to temperature changes, then we would expect to
see an erratic rise in CO2 as well. Instead, the atmospheric CO2 increase is very smooth,
similar to the increase in human CO2 emissions.
Isotopic Signature
Carbon is composed of three different isotopes: carbon-12, 13, and 14. Carbon-12 is by far the
most common, while carbon-13 is about 1% of the total, and carbon-14 accounts for only about
1 in 1 trillion carbon atoms in the atmosphere.
CO2 produced from burning fossil fuels or burning forests has a different isotopic composition
from CO2 in the atmosphere, because plants have a preference for the lighter isotopes (carbon12 and 13); thus they have lower carbon-13 to 12 ratios. Since fossil fuels are ultimately derived
21

from ancient plants, plants and fossil fuels all have roughly the same carbon-13 to 12 ratio
about 2% lower than that of the atmosphere. AsCO2 from these materials is released into, and
mixes with, the atmosphere, the average carbon-13 to 12 ratio of the atmosphere decreases.
Reconstructions of atmospheric carbon isotope ratios from various proxy sources have
determined that at no time in the last 10,000 years are the carbon-13 to 12 ratios in the
atmosphere as low as they are today. Furthermore, the carbon-13 to 12 ratios begin to decline
dramatically just as the CO2 starts to increase around 1850 AD. This is exactly what we
expect if the increased CO2 is in fact due to fossil fuel burning beginning in the Industrial
Revolution.
2.6.11 Volatile organic compounds

When oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence
of sunlight, ground level ozone is formed, a primary ingredient in smog. A 2005 U.S. EPA
report gives road vehicles as the second largest source of VOCs in the U.S. at 26% and 19%
are from non road equipment which is mostly gasoline and diesel stations. 27% of VOC
emissions are from solvents which are used in the manufacturer of paints and paint thinners
and other uses.
2.6.12 Ozone
Ozone is beneficial in the upper atmosphere, but at ground level, ozone irritates the respiratory
system, causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity. It also has many bad effects
throughout the ecosystem.
There's no reason to expect that a natural release of CO2 would have any effect on
atmospheric O2 levels. On the other hand, the O2 concentration is changing exactly as we
would expect from a fossil-fuel driven CO2 increase.
Other emissions
The production, distribution, storage and marketing of transport fuels also cause air pollution
emissions. An example is the emission of hydrocarbon vapors during refueling of vehicles.
2.7 Engines
Any device which can convert heat energy of fuel into mechanical energy is known as engine
or heat engine. Engine is widely used in automobile industries or we can say that engine is the
heart of an automobile. Basically engine may be classified into two types.
2.7.1 Types of Engine

1. External combustion (E.C.) Engine
It is an engine in which combustion of fuel take place outside of the engine. In this type of
engine, heat which is generated by burning of fuel is used to convert the water or other low
boiling temperature fluid into steam. This high pressure steam used to rotate a turbine. In this
engine we can use all solid, liquid and gases fuel. These engines are generally used in driving
locomotive, ships, generation of electric power etc.
22

Advantages of E.C. engine
In these engines starting torque is generally high.
Because of external combustion we can use cheaper fuels as well as solid fuel.
They are more flexible compare to internal combustion engines.
2. Internal Combustion (I.C.) Engine

It is an engine in which combustion of fuel take place inside the engine. When the fuel burns
inside the engine cylinder, it generates a high temperature and pressure. This high pressure
force is exerted on the piston (A device which free to moves inside the cylinder and transmit
the pressure force to crank by use of connecting rod), which used to rotate the wheels of
vehicle. In these engines we can use only gases and high volatile fuel like petrol, diesel.
These engines are generally used in automobile industries, generation of electric power etc.
Advantages of I.C. engine
It has overall high efficiency over E.C. engine.
These engines are compact and required less space.
Initial cost of I.C. engine is lower than E.C. engine.
This engine easily starts in cold because of it uses high volatile fuel.
Air Pollution:
Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce air
pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives
of the process are carbon dioxide CO2, water and some soot also called particulate
matter (PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and
animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There
are, however, some additional products of the combustion process that include nitrogen
oxides and sulfur and some non-combusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating
conditions and the fuel-air ratio.
Types of I.C. Engine
I.C. engine is widely used in automobile industries so it is also known as automobile engine.
An automobile engine may be classified in many manners.
According to number of stroke:

1. Two stroke engine
23

In a two stroke engine a piston moves one time up and down inside the cylinder and complete
one crankshaft revolution during single time of fuel burn. This type of engine has high torque
compare to four stroke engine. These are generally used in scooters, pumping sets etc.
Air Pollutant:
The 2-stroke engine emits significant amount of particulate matter (PM), un-burnt
hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx). CO and NOx
emissions by 2-stroke engines is much lower compared to 4-stroke engines.
2. Four stroke engine
In a four stroke engine piston moves two times up and down inside the cylinder and complete
two crankshaft revolutions during single time of fuel burn. This type of engines has high
average compare to two stroke engine. These are generally used in bikes, cars, truck etc.
Air Pollutant Emissions from a Four-Stroke Motorcycle Engine Influenced by Gasoline
Aromatic Content:
Motorcycles are one of the dominant sources of air pollution in many Asian countries. This
study focuses on the effect of fuel aromatic content on motorcycle emissions. Two levels of
aromatic content test-fuels were designed to investigate the criteria pollutant emissions [CO,
total hydrocarbons (THCs), and NOx] and gaseous organic compounds in the exhaust from a
non-catalyst four-stroke motorcycle engine. All experiments were operated in a cold start
mode. The data indicate that lowering aromatic content in gasoline from 30 to 20% (by volume)
reduced the CO and THC emission by 8-17% and 38%, respectively, especially in the cruising
test. The NOx emission, however, showed an inverse correlation with the aromatic content in
gasoline. Contrary to expectations, the emission factors of four organic groups and ozone
formation potential showed that the low aromatic fuel have highest emission factors. While a
reduction of aromatic content in gasoline may decrease emissions of benzene and toluene, it
will increase the emission of aldehyde. Since the percentage changes of emission factor of THC
and air toxics in the motorcycle were larger than those in passenger cars, the benefit of emission
reduction due to fuel composition changes in motorcycles may have significant impacts in
health risk analysis.
According to design of engine:

1. Reciprocating engine (piston engine)
In reciprocating engine the pressure force generate by combustion of fuel exerted on the piston
(A device which free to move in reciprocation inside the cylinder). So the piston starts
reciprocating motion (too and fro motion). This reciprocating motion converts into rotary
motion by use of crank shaft. So the crank shaft starts to rotate and rotate the wheels of vehicle.
These are generally used in all automobile.
24

2. Rotary engine (Wankel engine)
In rotary engine there is a rotor which frees to rotate. The pressure force generate by burning
of fuel is exerted on this rotor so the rotor rotate and starts to rotate the wheels of vehicle.
This engine is developed by Wankel in 1957. This engine is not used in automobile in present
days.
According to fuel used:

1. Diesel engine
These engines use diesel as the fuel. These are used in trucks, buses, cars etc.
Air Pollutant:
Diesel-powered vehicles and equipment account for nearly half of all nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and more than two-thirds of all particulate matter (PM) emissions from US transportation
sources.
2. Petrol engine
These engines use petrol as the fuel. These are used in bikes, sport cars, luxury cars etc.
Air Pollutant:
Petroleum-derived contaminants constitute one of the most prevalent sources of environmental
degradation in the industrialized world. In large concentrations, the hydrocarbon molecules
that make up crude oil and petroleum products are highly toxic to many organisms, including
humans. Petroleum also contains trace amounts of sulfur and nitrogen compounds, which are
dangerous by themselves and can react with the environment to produce secondary poisonous
chemicals. The dominance of petroleum products in the United States and the world economy
creates the conditions for distributing large amounts of these toxins into populated areas and
ecosystems around the globe.
3. Gas engine
These engines use CNG and LPG as the fuel. These are used in some light motor vehicles.
Main motor vehicle emissions while gas engine used:
NOx
Volatile organic compounds
Ozone
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Hazardous air pollutants (toxics)
25
Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
4. Electric engine
It is eco-friendly engine. It doesnt use any fuel to burn. It uses electric energy to rotate
wheel.
Air pollution:
While electric vehicles may not always hold an outright advantage in terms of pollution
reduction, they allow for more control over the pollution that is generated.
According to method of ignition:
1. Compression ignition engine
In these types of engines, there is no extra equipment to burn the fuel. In these engines
burning of fuel starts due to temperature rise during compression of air. So it is known as
compression ignition engine.
2. Spark ignition engine
In these types of engines, ignition of fuel start by the spark, generate inside the cylinder by
some extra equipment. So it is known as spark ignition engine.
According to number of cylinder:

1. Single cylinder engine
In this type of engines have only one cylinder and one piston connected to the crank shaft.
2. Multi-cylinder engine
In this type of engines have more than one cylinder and piston connected to the crank shaft.
According to air intake process:

1. Naturally aspirated
In this types of engine intake of air into cylinder occur by the atmospheric pressure.
2. Supercharged engine
In this type of engine air intake pressure is increased by the compressor driven by the engine
crankshaft.
26
3. Turbocharged engine
In this type of engine intake air pressure is increase by use of turbine compressor driven by
the exhaust gases of burning fuel.
2.8 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Stationary and Area Sources
A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move, also
known as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry cleaners and
degreasing operations. The term area source is used to describe many small sources of air
pollution located together whose individual emissions may be below thresholds of concern,
but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential wood burners are a good
example of a small source, but when combined with many other small sources, they can
contribute to local and regional air pollution levels. Area sources can also be thought of as
non-point sources, such as construction of housing developments, dry lake beds, and landfills.
Mobile Sources
A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its own
power. In general, mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation, which includes vehicles
such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a "non-road" or "offroad" category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and construction
equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.
Agricultural Sources
Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, can generate emissions of
gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or restricted area
(rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure emits various gases,
particularly ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be emitted from the animal houses,
manure storage areas, or from the land after the manure is applied. In crop production, the
misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can potentially result in aerial drift of
these materials and harm may be caused.
Natural Sources
Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the most
significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources of "pollution" as
well. Wildland fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also contribute gases and particulates
to our atmosphere.
Unlike the above mentioned sources of air pollution, natural "air pollution" is not caused by
people or their activities. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and gases; forest and
prairie fires can emit large quantities of "pollutants"; plants and trees naturally emit VOCs
which are oxidized and form aerosols that can cause a natural blue haze; and dust storms can
create large amounts of particulate matter. Wild animals in their natural habitat are also
27

considered natural sources of "pollution". The National Park Service recognizes that each of
these sources emits gases and particulate matter into the atmosphere but we regard these as
constituents resulting from natural processes.
2.9 MOVEMENT OF AIR POLLUTION

Air transport is the term used to describe the mechanism by which air pollution moves from an
emissions source to a receptor. A source is a location (i.e., smokestack, chimney, exhaust pipe)
from which the pollutant emanates and a receptor is the place (i.e., soil, vegetation,
waterbodies, human lungs) where the pollutant is deposited. The atmosphere itself is the
transporter of pollutants from sources to receptors. If the wind carries the plume of pollution
high enough in the air, it may travel for hundreds of miles before being brought to earth. This
is known as long-range or long-distance transport.
Poor Air Quality (Local / Regional)
Air quality issues, such as ground-level ozone, particulate matter (PM), the release of other
air contaminants and acid rain largely occur in the lowest part of the atmosphere which
holds the air we breathe. Air pollution can occur locally (e.g., smoke from wood stoves or
backyard burning) or regionally (e.g., forest-fire smoke, ground-level ozone and acid rain).
The main causes of air pollution in B.C. are fossil fuel combustion and wood burning.
Climate Change (Global)
Global climate change refers to changes in the climate of the earth as a whole, caused by human
activities releasing an overabundance of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
This unnatural buildup of greenhouse gases is warming the earth's atmosphere.
Global atmospheric warming, in turn, is triggering major alterations in the global climate.
Climate change is expected to be accompanied by significant changes in regional temperatures,
precipitation patterns and storm frequency. A worldwide rise in sea level associated with
melting ice sheets and glaciers, and thermal expansion, is occurring. This is expected to
accelerate over the coming century.
2.10 URBAN AIR POLLUTION AND CLIMATE

The processes like combustion of fossil fuels and biomass which produces carbon dioxide
(CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
black carbon (BC) aerosols, and sulfur oxides (SOx, comprised of some sulfate aerosols, but
mostly SO2 gas which subsequently forms white sulfate aerosols).
In addition, the atmospheric lifecycles of common air pollutants such as CO, NOx and VOCs,
and of the climatically important methane (CH4) and sulfate aerosols, both involve the fast
photochemistry of the hydroxyl free radical (OH). Hydroxyl radicals are the dominant
cleansing chemical in the atmosphere, annually removing about 3.7 gigatons (1 gigaton =
1015 gm) of reactive trace gases from the atmosphere; this amount is similar to the total of
28

carbon removed annually from the atmosphere by the land and ocean combined (Ehhalt, 1999;
Prinn, 2003).
To illustrate some of the impacts of air pollution policy on climate change, we examined five
highly idealized but informative scenarios for placing caps on emissions of SOx, NOx, CO plus
VOCs, NOx plus CO plus VOCs, and all of these pollutants combined. These caps kept global
emissions at 2005 levels through 2100 and their effects on climate.
These connections are complex and their nonlinearity is exemplified by the fact that
concentrations of ozone in urban areas for a given level of VOC emissions tend to increase
with increasing NOx emissions until a critical CO-dependent or VOC-dependent NOx emission
level is reached.
Above that critical level, ozone concentrations actually decrease with increasing NOx emissions
emphasizing the need for policies to consider CO, VOC and NOx emission reductions jointly
rather than independently.
In general, placing caps on NOx alone, or NOx, CO and VOCs together, leads to lower ozone
levels, and thus less radiative forcing of climate change by this gas, and to less inhibition by
ozone of carbon uptake by ecosystems which also leads to less radiative forcing (this time by
CO2). Less radiative forcing by these combined effects means less warming and less sea level
rise.
Placing caps on NOx alone also leads to decreases in OH and thus increases in CH4. These OH
decreases and CH4 increases are lessened (but not reversed) when there are simultaneous NOx,
CO and VOC caps. Increases in CH4 lead to greater radiative forcing. Placing caps on SOx leads
to lower sulfate aerosols, less reflection of sunlight back to space by these aerosols (direct
effect) and by clouds seeded with these aerosols (indirect effect), and thus to greater radiative
forcing of climate change due to solar radiation. Enhanced radiative forcing by these aerosol
and CH4 changes combined leads to more warming and sea level rise. Hence these impacts on
climate of the pollutant caps partially cancel each other. Specifically, depending on the capping
case, the
2000-2100 reference global average climate changes are altered only by +4.8 to 2.6%
(temperature) and +2.2 to 2.2 % (sea level). Except for the NOx alone case, the alterations of
temperature are of the same sign but significantly greater in the northern hemisphere (where
most of the emissions and emission reductions occur) than in the southern hemisphere. Note
that for the NOx alone caps, the temperature decrease caused by ozone reductions is greater
than the temperature increase driven by methane increases in the northern hemisphere while
the opposite is true in the southern hemisphere.
It is well established that urban air pollution control policies are beneficial for human health
and downwind ecosystems.
2.11 Regulations
International
Pollutants can cross international borders and therefore international regulations are needed
for their control. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which entered
into force in 2004, is an international legally binding agreement for the control of persistent
organic pollutants. Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR) are systems to collect
and disseminate information on environmental releases and transfers of toxic chemicals from
industrial and other facilities.
European Union
29

The European Pollutant Emission Register is a type of PRTR providing access to information
on the annual emissions of industrial facilities in the Member States of the European Union, as
well as Norway.
United States
Clean Air Act standards. Under the Clean Air Act, the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) are standards developed for outdoor air quality. The National Emissions
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants are emission standards that are set by
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which are not covered by the NAAQS.
Clean Water Act standards. Under the Clean Water Act, EPA promulgated national
standards for municipal sewage treatment plants, also called publicly owned treatment
works, in the Secondary Treatment Regulation. National standards for industrial dischargers
are called Effluent guidelines (for existing sources) and New Source Performance Standards,
and currently cover over 50 industrial categories. In addition, the Act requires states to
publish water quality standards for individual water bodies to provide additional protection
where the national standards are insufficient.
RCRA standards. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulates the
management, transport and disposal of municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and
underground storage tanks.
A tank or piping network that has at least 10 percent of its volume underground is known as an
underground storage tank (UST). They often store substances such as petroleum, that are
harmful to the surrounding environment should it become contaminated.
2.12 How to use simplified online COPERT 4 methodology

This article shows how to use the simplified version of the COPERT 4 methodology available
on the Enviroware web site. The methodology is based on the contents of
the EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook 2007, available on the internet site of
the European Environment Agency, more precisely on chapter 7, concerning Road transport.
Chapter 7 provides the methodology, emission factors and relevant activity data to calculate:
the emissions produced by the exhaust systems of road vehicles (SNAP codes 0701 to
0705),
the non-exhaust emissions such as fuel evaporation from vehicles (SNAP code 0706)
and
the component attrition, which means tyre and brake wear and road abrasion (SNAP
codes 0707 and 0708).
The simplified methodology allows to calculate the only exhaust emissions. For many
European countries, it gives the bulk emission factors in terms of grams of pollutants emitted
per kg of fuel consumed. The emission factors at national level have been obtained applying
the detailed COPERT 4 methodology using the activity data derived from TREMOVE.
Therefore the detailed COPERT4 methodology has been a-priori applied to obtain the
simplified emission factors.
The vehicles categories considered by the simplified COPERT4 methodology are Gasoline
Passenger
Cars (gPC), Diesel
Passenger
Cars (dPC), Gasoline
Light
Duty
30

Vehicles (gLDV), Diesel
Light
Duty
Vehicles (dLDV), Diesel
Heavy
Duty
Vehicles(dHDV), Buses, Mopeds and Motorcycles. The simplified methodology does not
deal with LPGs, 2-stroke and gasoline heavy-duty vehicles because of their small contribution
to a national inventory.
The simplified methodology allows to calculate the exhaust emissions of carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen
oxides (NOX),non-methane
volatile
organic
compounds (NMVOC), methane (CH4), particulate
matter (PM),
and carbon
dioxide (CO2). All PM emissions refer to PM2.5, as the coarse fraction (PM2.5-10) is
negligible in vehicle exhaust.
The application of the simplified COPERT 4 methodology must be done keeping in mind that
the emission factors
correspond to a fleet composition estimated for year 2005, therefore their accuracy
deteriorates as time distance increases from such year because new technologies appear
and the contribution of older technologies decreases;
correspond to national-wide applications including mixed conditions driving (from

urban congestion to free flow highway).
The methodology can be useful for example in simplified emission inventories, where rough
estimate of the transport contribution is required. It is observed that the methodology is not
suitable to be applied over small areas (e.g. a single town), or for a small time period (e.g. few
days), because in such cases it would be even more approximated.
Example of input data
The emission factors are given as function of fuel used by the transport sector, therefore the
first step is to obtain information about the total amount of fuel used. Considering for example
Italy, for the whole country and for year 2008, such information can be obtained from the
internet site of the Italian Oil Union (Unione Petrolifera). In 2008 Italy has consumed, for the
road transport sector, 11044 Gg of gasoline, and 25934 Gg of diesel. Since we want to estimate
the emissions in Italy, an assumption that we have to do is that all this fuel has been consumed
in Italy, even if a fraction of it has been consumed abroad. Similarly there will be a fraction of
fuel sold abroad and consumed in Italy.
Other assumptions are needed to split the fuel consumption among the vehicle classes listed
above (gPC, dPC, gLDV, dLDV, dHDV, buses, mopeds and motorcycles). A precise
calculation of the consumption split is beyond the scope of this article, however it is worth to
say that there are methodologies and software which allow a reliable estimate of the
consumption of each vehicle class. The EMITRA software, for example, uses the actual fuel
consumption, the number of vehicles and the vehicles fleet as known input data, then calculates
the total consumption starting from assumed values of the average speed on different road types
and of the average trip length for each vehicle type. If the calculated consumption is equal to
31

the actual consumption, or at least comparable within a degree of acceptability, the fuel split is
automatically obtained. Otherwise the procedure is repeated using different values for the
average speeds and the average trip lengths until the convergence is reached.
For this example we will simply assume that the fuel is consumed as summarised in the
following pie charts, which is, for gasoline, gPC: 93%, gLDV: 4 %, mopeds: 1%, motorcycles:
2%, and for diesel, dPC: 41%, dLDV: 11%, dHDV: 43% and buses: 5%.
Therefore the Gg of fuel consumed by the different vehicle classes is gPC 10270.9; gLDV
441.8; mopeds 110.4; motorcycles 220.9; dPC 10632.9; dLDV 2852.7; dHDV 11151.6 and
buses 1296.7.
These numbers are then used as input data for the on line procedure. We need to select Italy
among the available countries, then we must insert the fuel consumption for each vehicle class,
paying attention to the units because the above numbers are in Gg (i.e. kilotonnes), while the
system needs them in Mg (i.e. tonnes). An example of the input mask is shown in figure.
32

Results
The results of the on line simplified COPERT 4 methodology are
given both in numerical terms and graphically. A table (see the
figure) gives the total emissions calculated for each pollutant and
for each vehicle class. The emission units are automatically
decided by the software starting from their values, they can be kg,
Mg and Gg. Moreover, six pie charts, one for each pollutant, show
the amount of emissions due to each vehicle class.
Using the input data discussed before, the amount of estimated emission due to road transport
over the whole Italy are 1910.9 Gg of carbon monoxide, 703.2 Gg of nitrogen oxides, 206.7
Gg of NMVOC, 15.0 Gg of methane, 26.8 Gg of particulate matter and 116.3 Tg of carbon
dioxide. As shown by the pie charts below, which are automatically produced by the on line
simplified COPERT 4 methodology, the greatest amount of carbon monoxide is emitted by
gasoline passenger cars (gPC), which is responsible for the emission of more than 81% of the
total. More than 52% of nitrogen dioxides is emitted by diesel heavy duty vehicles, while
passenger cars, both gasoline and diesel, are responsible for the emission of about 17% each
one. Methane and NMVOC are mostly emitted by gasoline passenger cars (about 60% of the
total). Important emissions of particulate matter, which is all PM2.5, are due to heavy duty
vehicles (more than 37% of the total) and to diesel passenger cars (more than 34% of the total).
Finally, the greatest emissions of carbon dioxide are due to heavy duty vehicles (30.1%), diesel
passenger cars (28.7%) and gasoline passenger cars (27.9%).
In a typical emission inventory, now that we have the total emissions of each pollutant, other
steps would follow. Among these steps, four important ones are:
the spatial disaggregation of the emissions (i.e. how they distribute over the territory);
the temporal disaggregation of the emissions (i.e. how they distribute over the
months, the days of the week and the hours of the day);
the chemical speciation of the NMVOC (i.e. the determination of the chemical species
within this pseudo-species which contains all the volatile organic compounds but
methane);
the NOX speciation into NO and NO2.
Concerning the chemical speciation, the CORINAIR methodology contains the fraction of
species (alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, alkines, aldehydes, ketones and aromatics) for each
vehicle category and fuel type. Even the NOX speciation, indications are given within the
CORINAIR methodology.
33

The size speciation of particulate matter would be another task in an emission inventory but,
as stated above, all the road traffic exhaust emissions of PM refers to PM2.5. Finally,
concerning the PM speciation in elemental and organic carbon, the CORINAIR methodology
contains ratios for different vehicle technologies.
34

Chapter 3
Methodology
Survey
A survey was conducted in which vehicles entering or already present within the
university premises was counted. The survey was done in groups by different members of
society.
The university was divided into different areas.
Location
Co-ordinates
Admin Block, EE, Research center,
Architecture Engg., VC office, PID, Isl. Deprt.
IEER, Mechanical
Bus stand, CRP back
Mining & Geo back side, Civil, Post Office,
Jannat Road, CS
Faculty Hostels, Zohra Hall
IBM, SSC
Gate 3
Main parking, boys hostel
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
(313442.34N 742131.90E)
The data was collected from 14th December 2015 to 27th December 2015. The results of
survey analysis is as follows:
Vehicles
Passenger Cars
Motorcycles
LDV
HDV
Buses
Fuel Type
Gasoline
Diesel
Gasoline
Gasoline
Diesel
Diesel
Gasoline
Quantity
432
185
1330
85
36
2
27
Calculations
The calculations were made in accordance to calculate the vehicular fuel
consumption rates. The fuel consumption rate of Pakistan was obtained by
World Bank study. According to latest study in 2009, about 6471 Kt diesel
was consumed by 818306 vehicles, while 1925 Kt gasoline was consumed
by 4700488 vehicles.
35

The data of consumption rates of diesel fuel for analysis was taken from
http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/road-sector-diesel-fuel-consumption-kt-of-oilequivalent-wb-data.html
And that of gasoline fuel was taken from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/pakistan/roadsector-gasoline-fuel-consumption-kt-of-oil-equivalent-wb-data.html
36

Chapter 4
4.1 Results
The calculation procedure is based on the COPERT4 simpler emission methodology. The fuel
consumption specific emission factors have been obtained applying the detailed methodology
at a national level. The production of these emission factors has been performed using the
activity data from TREMOVE and the methodology of COPERT4.
The calculation procedure allows to estimate the emissions for the main pollutants and for each
EU-15 country and countries classified as CC4, BC and NIS (Newly Independent States formed
in 1991 after the split of the Soviet Union).
The COPERT vehicle classes are grouped in gasoline and diesel passenger
cars (PC), gasoline and diesel light duty vehicles (LDV), diesel heavy duty
vehicles (HDV), buses, mopeds and motorcycles. The simplified methodology does not deal
with LPGs, 2-stroke and gasoline heavy-duty vehicles because of their small contribution to a
national inventory.
The consumption rates of vehicles of the above category for year 2015-2016 was used.
The total consumption rates are as follows
37

The emissions calculated are
38
4.2 Comments
Most of the air pollution is caused by motorcycles (i.e. 83.3% CO, 81.1% NMVOC, 80.3%
CH4) and diesel used in passengers cars (i.e. 79.5% PM, 59.1% CO2, 41.3% NOx).
CO2 (7.6 G g) is the highest pollutant formed within the specified area which is majorly
produced by diesel PC.
Buses are third largest contributors to air pollution in area.
Almost all the vehicles are contributing towards the NOx production.
4.3 Recommendations
Use of hybrid cars (A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as
internal combustion engine and electric motor.) The hybrid vehicle typically achieves
greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine
vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These savings are
primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:
39
1. Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs, resulting in a
smaller engine size more for average usage rather than peak power usage. A smaller
engine can have less internal losses and lower weight.
2. Having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy,
especially in stop-and-go traffic typical of the city driving cycle.
3. Recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally wasted as
heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic
energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the motor/generator.
Avoid over speeding and accelerating and drive within proposed limits
Improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the
drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air
causing more stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and
aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also
improve vehicle handling at the same time.
Using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high
grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical drag, once again
making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires
that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure and
rubber compound have lower rolling resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so
improving fuel economy whatever the power source.
Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and when
needed; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them continuously
with traditional engine belts.
Keep vehicle tuned up and running efficiently
Use public transport or carpool
Alternatives to driving. When possible, walk or ride your bike in order to avoid carbon
emissions completely. Carpooling and public transportation drastically reduce CO2
emissions by spreading them out over many riders.
Drive a low carbon vehicle. High mileage doesnt always mean low CO2 emissions. All
vehicles have an estimated miles-per-gallon rating. Electric cars emit no CO2 if theyre
charged with clean electricity.
Driving style- Studies have shown up to 30% of the difference in miles per gallon
(MPG) is due to driving habits alone. You could save more than a ton of CO2 per year
by:
- Accelerating slowly and smoothly
- Driving the speed limit
- Maintaining a steady speed
- Anticipating your stops and starts
Tire inflation and other tuning. Properly inflated tires improve your gas mileage by up
to 3%. It also helps to use the correct grade of motor oil, and to keep your engine tuned,
because some maintenance fixes, like fixing faulty oxygen sensors, can increase fuel
efficiency by up to 40%.
Avoid traffic. Being stuck in traffic wastes gas and unnecessarily creates CO2. Use
traffic websites and apps and go a different way or wait.
Engine modifications
40
Combustion cylinder alteration
REFERENCES
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/pollutants-definition-and-classification-ofpollutants/28277/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutant_Standards_Index
http://www.mech4study.com/2014/03/what-is-engine-what-are-main-types-ofautomobile-engine.html
http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/pdf/pollution2-strokeengines.pdf\
http://www.pollutionissues.com/Na-Ph/Petroleum.html#ixzz3sWKrio7N
https://www.epa.gov/pm/basic.html
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901115301003
http://www.dft.gov.uk/vca/fcb/cars-and-air-pollution.asp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_standard
http://www.bcairquality.ca/topics/vehicle-pollutants.html
http://www.dft.gov.uk/vca/fcb/cars-and-air-pollution.asp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle
http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/vehicles-air-pollution-and-humanhealth#.VxgkT_l9603
http://www.technology.matthey.com/article/53/1/27-34/
41
42

Air Pollution Control Forum 2016 Report

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Air Pollution Control Forum 2016 Report

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Quantitative Analysis of Vehicular Emissions

ASHRAE Air Pollution Control FORUM 16