Aesthetics of design:

What is Aesthetics?
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the definition of beauty.
What is design?
To design, is the process of originating and developing a plan for an artistic
or architectural object, which may require countless hours of thought,
modelling, iterative adjustment, and re-design. The noun, a design, is either
the finalised plan of action, or the result of following that plan of action.
The elements of design:
A design is an arrangement. It can be reduced to seven basic elements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Point
Line
Form
Shape
Space
Texture
Colour

What is a point?

The simplest element in the form generation process.

The smallest possible visible mark on a 2D plane or within a 3D space

Point can be used to visually suggest the contours of a shape.

What is a line?

A mark with greater length than width.

Lines can be horizontal, vertical or diagonal, straight or curved, thick or

thin.

Used for the representation of shapes forms, objects, and structures.

Lines can bring meaning, symbolism, and expression to visual forms

and their messages

Line also communicates emotion and states of mind through its

character and direction

The variations of meaning generally relate to our bodily experience of

line and direction

Shapes form and space:

Shape and Form are areas or masses which define objects in space
Shape and Form imply space
They cannot exist without space
2D: Width & Height
3D Width, Height & Depth
Shapes are a closed line. They are flat and express length and width. They
have a 2D form.
Form:
Derived from the combination of point, line, and shape. They are 3D.
A 3D form has an expressive vocabulary similar to that of line
Angular forms and shapes placed diagonally in relation to gravity suggest
instability.
Texture:
There are 2 kinds of texture:
Tactile (i.e. a surface quality that can be seen and felt) and Visual (i.e. An
illusion of the surfaces texture. It is what tactile texture looks like on 2D
surface).
All surfaces have texture. It is a surface quality that can be seen and felt.

Colour:
Colour is electromagnetic radiation. Visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, TV
and radio waves, etc. are all forms of electromagnetic energy which travels
in waves. Different wavelengths= different colours.

The word Colour is the collective term which applies to the whole subject - red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, black and white and all possible combinations
thereof. Hue is the correct term for the pure spectrum colours commonly referred to
by the "Colour names" - red, orange, yellow, blue, green violet - which appear in the
hue circle or rainbow. Theoretically all hues can be mixed from three basic hues,
known as primaries.

Primary colours
The primary colours consist of three hues from which we can theoretically mix all
other hues. There are two commonly used definitions of primary colours: Additive
and subtractive
Additive or light primaries
Additive primaries - red, green and blue: These are used
when dealing with mixing emitted light. All colours (or
hues) can be produced by mixing these three. An
example of their use is on a computer monitor, where
varying intensities of red, green and blue light are used
to create the colours we see. If full intensity red, green,
and blue are mixed the result is white light.

Subtractive or printers primaries

Subtractive primaries - cyan, magenta and yellow: These
used with reflected light. Because of this they are used
when mixing paints or inks. The subtractive primary colours
cyan, magenta and yellow. A printer, for example, mixes
these three colours to produce different colours on the
paper. If full intensity cyan, magenta and yellow are mixed,
the result is black.
Saturation

Saturation refers to the dominance of hue in the colour.

Value

How light or dark a colour is is referred to either as a colours luminance

or value.
Value describes the overall intensity or strength of the light

are
are

Representation of HSV Values (how humans naturally respond to and

describe colour)

Hue= 0 to 360 degrees around the cone where

0= red and 60= yellow etc.
Saturation= 0 to 1, distance from centre of the
cone where 0=white.
Value=0 to 1, vertical position where 0= black
and 1= white.

Value is defined as the relative lightness or darkness of a colour. Hue also

has value. When contrasting hues are made similar in value, the spatial
effects are flattened out.
If values are close, shapes will seem to flatten out, and seem closely
connected in space; none will stand out from the others. If values contrast,
shapes will appear to separate in space and some will stand out from the
others. This works whether the colours are just black, white and grey, or
whether hues are involved.
Complements are colours that are opposite one another on the hue circle.
When complements are mixed with one another in paint, the resulting muted
tones de saturate or dull the hues.

Hue: The term for the pure spectrum colours commonly referred to by the
"colour names" - red, orange, yellow, blue etc.
Saturation: The degree of purity of a hue.
Value/Luminance: A measure of the amount of light reflected from a hue.
Those hues with a high content of white have a higher luminance or value.
Chroma: How pure a hue is in relation to grey.
Intensity: The brightness or dullness of a hue. One may lower the
intensity by adding white or black.

Shade, Tint and Tone, hues can be de-saturated (reduced in purity,

weakened) in one of three ways
Shade: A hue produced by adding black.
Tint: A hue produced by adding white.
Tone: A hue produced by adding grey or a complement.

Terms for describing colour changes:

Colour Proportion refers to the impact of the relative quantity of a given

hue or value used in colour compositions.
Optical mixture is the phenomenon which occurs when small particles of
different colours are mixed in the eye; this type of mixture differs from
pigment mixture in that it is based on light primaries.
Lecture 4: The principles of design:
The Principles are concepts used to organise or arrange the structural
elements of design. The way in which these principles are applied affects the
expressive content, or the message of the work.
The principles are

Balance
Proportion
Rhythm
Emphasis
Unity

Balance
Balance is the concept of VISUAL EQUILIBRIUM.
Most successful compositions achieve balance in one of two ways symmetrically or asymmetrically
Symmetrically balanced:
Can be described as having equal weight on each side.
When the elements are arranged equally on either side of a central axis, the
result is Bilateral symmetry.
It is also possible to build formal balance by arranging elements equally
around a central point, resulting in radial symmetry, which is used in
publishing.
There is a variant of symmetrical balance called approximate symmetry in
which equivalent but not identical forms are arranged around the fulcrum
line.
Asymmetrical balance:
involves placement of objects in a way that will allow objects of varying
visual weight to balance one another around a fulcrum (pivot point) point.

Unequal weights can even be balanced by shifting the fulcrum point on our
imaginary scale.
A darker colour looks heavier and is said to have a greater weight.

Radial balance:
The third main type of balance is radial balance, where all elements radiate
out from a center point in a circular fashion.
Rule of thirds:
Composition is balanced around the frame by dividing the image into thirds.
The rule of thirds is a compositional tool that makes use of the notion that
the most interesting compositions are those in which the primary element is
off center. Basically, take any frame of reference and divide it into thirds
placing the elements of the composition on the lines in between. This
technique is particularly popular with photographers.

Visual center: SLIGHTLY ABOVE AND TO THE RIGHT OF THE CENTER.

The visual center of any page is just slightly above and to the right of the
actual (mathematical) center. This tends to be the natural placement of
visual focus.
Proportion:
Proportion refers to the relative size and scale of the various elements in a
design. Ideal proportions can vary for the human body itself. i.e. women then
and now.
The golden section:

Golden Section is a proportion, in which a straight line (or a rectangle) is

divided into two unequal parts in such a way, that the ratio of the smaller to
the greater part is the same as that of the greater part to the whole figure
(AB:BC = BC:AC)

Rhythm:
Rhythm is the repetition or alternation of elements, often with defined
intervals between them. Rhythm can create a sense of movement, and can
establish pattern and texture. The presence of rhythm creates predictability
and order in a composition.
Rhythm can be created in several ways:

Linear Rhythm:
Linear rhythm refers to the characteristic flow of the individual line. A
repetition of a line with a small interval.
Alternation: linear rhythm with 2 shapes/ colours, etc. Alternation is a
specific instance of patterning in which a sequence of repeating motifs
is presented in turn; (short/long; fat/thin; round/square; dark/light)
Flowing rhythm
Progressive rhythm: Progressive rhythm employs a series of motifs
patterned to relate to one another through a regular progression of
steps. Graduation: object changing colour, angle etc.

Emphasis: Creates a focal point. It marks the locations in a composition

which most strongly draw the viewers attention.
Emphasis can be achieved in a number of ways:
1. Repetition
a. Repetition creates emphasis by calling attention to the repeated
element through sheer force of numbers.
2. Contrast
a. Contrast achieves emphasis by setting the point of emphasis
apart from the rest of its background.
3. Placement
a. Placement in a strategic position will call attention to a particular
element of a design.
4. Isolation
a. If most of the elements in a work of art are grouped closely
together, an object by itself stands out as a focal point.

5. Continuance
a. Continuance is the idea that once you begin looking in one
direction, you will continue to do so until something more
significant catches your attention.
6. Dominance
a. Dominance relates to varying degrees of emphasis in design. It
determines the visual weight of a composition, establishes space
and perspective, and can be used to direct the eye around a
composition. There are 3 stages of dominance:
i. Dominant
1. The object given the most visual weight
ii. Sub-dominant
1. The element of secondary emphasis
iii. Subordinate
1. The object given the least visual weight.
7. Visual involvement
Unity:
Unity is the underlying principle that summarizes all of the principles
and elements of design. It refers to the coherence of the whole, the
sense that all of the parts are working together to achieve a common
result; a harmony of all the parts.
Unity in concept
Minimal- the bare minimum for the structure. The elements and
principles can be selected to support the intended function of the
designed object; the purpose of the object unifies the design.
Lecture 5: 2D illusion of a 3D Form:
The techniques for creating the illusion of 3D space are:

Rising Ground Plane

o Rising Ground Plane is based on the observation that objects in

the distance appear higher up in our field of vision.
Overlapping
o The effect is accomplished by allowing the body of one form to
be place over part of the body of another form, so that one
overlaps the other.
Changing Size and Placement
o Rather than simply being raised, the objects in the field of view,
also have their size reduced as they get higher.
Hue (colour) and Value
o Warm hues are normally interpreted as being closer than cool
hues. Similarly colours that are close in value are also seen as
being close to each other in space. Colours that have strong
contrast in value appear to separate from each other. Objects in
the distance tend to be either similar or neutral in value, and
desaturated in hue. Close objects tend to exhibit stronger, more
saturated hues, and more contrasting values.
Atmospheric Perspective
o It can be observed when objects placed in the upper part of the
picture, and meant to appear far away, lack contrast, detail, and
texture.
Linear perspective
o The basis of Linear perspective relies on the illusion that objects
appear to grow smaller as they converge towards a vanishing
point on the horizon.

There are 3 main techniques for drawing using linear perspective:

1. Single point perspective
2. Two-point perspective
3. Three-point perspective
Lecture 6: Drawings:
What drawings do?

Express impressions or ideas

Describe objects

Understand, evaluate, and resolve design problems

Heighten visual awareness and detail of forms.

Clarify ideas expressed by the written word.

10

Develop form sensitivity and awareness of visual relationships

Retain and communicate what has been seen and understood

Visually explore and develop ideas.

Understand concepts and pursue and develop ideas.

Lecture 7: Design Inspiration:

The concept sketch:

The concept sketch is the designer thinking aloud with a pen or a

pencil
Frequently, the making of a simple sketch to express a concept can in
itself suggest further conceptual ideas. Sketches, according to Bryan
Lawson, act as a kind of additional memory to freeze and store spatial
ideas which can then be evaluated and manipulated. The designer is
wrestling with future possibilities. attempting to give form to
uncertainty.
Concept sketches are Usually incomplete descriptions of the object
being designed.
As the project progresses, the concept drawings will be modified and
reshaped in line with any new information.

Top down:

Clean sheet of paper

Free-ranging solution

Any shape as long as it satisfies certain functional criteria

Bottom Up

Designer given a collection of existing components

Must combine them into a unified and aesthetically pleasing whole

Lecture 9: Posters
What is a poster?
An effective poster is a VISUAL communication tool.

11

An effective poster is.

Focused on a single message

Graphic, lets graphs and images tell the story

Order keeps the sequence

An effective poser operates on multiple levels:

1. Source of information
2. Conversation starter
3. Advertisement of your work
4. Summary of your work

Lecture 10: Useful Maxims for good design:

Accessibility: Objects and environments should be designed to be usable
without modification, by as many people as possible.
Aesthetic Usability Effect: Aesthetically pleasing designs are perceived as
easier to use than less-aesthetic designs.

12

Affordance: A property in which the physical characteristics of an object or

environment influence its function
Alignment: The placement of elements such that edges line up along
common rows or columns, or their bodies along a common centre
Common fate: Elements that move in the same direction are perceived to
be more related than elements that move in different directions or are
stationary.
Entry Point: A point of physical or attentional entry into a design.
Flexibility Usability Trade-off: As the flexibility of a system increases, its
usability decreases
Forgiveness: Designs should help people and avoid errors and minimise the
negative consequences of errors when they do occur
Good Continuation: Elements arranged in a straight line or a smooth curve
are perceived as a group, and are interpreted as being more related than
elements not on the line or curve.
Hicks Law: Elements arranged in a straight line or a smooth curve are
perceived as a group, and are interpreted as being more related than
elements not on the line or curve.
Law of Pragansz: Elements arranged in a straight line or a smooth curve
are perceived as a group, and are interpreted as being more related than
elements not on the line or curve
Mapping: A relationship between controls and their movements or effects.
Good mapping between controls and their effects results in greater ease of
use.
Mimicry: The act of copying the properties of familiar objects, organisms, or
environments in order to realise specific benefits afforded by those
properties.
Mnemonic device: A method of reorganising information easier to
remember.
Ockhams Razor: Given a choice between functionally equivalent designs,
the simplest design should be selected.

13

Orientation Sensitivity: A phenomenon of visual processing in which

certain line orientations are more quickly and easily processed and
discriminated than other line orientations.
Performance Load: The greater the effort to accomplish a task, the less
likely the task will be accomplished successfully.

Performance versus Preference: The designs that help people perform

optimally are often not the same as the designs that people find most
desirable
Proximity: Elements that are close together are perceived to be more
related than elements that are far apart.
Satisficing: It is often preferable to settle for a satisfactory solution, rather
than pursue an optimal solution
Similarity: Element that are similar are perceived to be more related than
elements that are dissimilar.
Lecture 12: Summary:
Aesthetics:
a branch of philosophy dealing with the definition of beauty.
What is design?
Design is the PROCESS of SELECTING and ORGANISING elements or
components in order to fulfil a specific purpose.
Form follows function
To create a good design, determine what a thing has got to do and then
design it in the simplest form that will do that.
The result will be a purely functional design; and what is more it will look
right.
The Elements of design:

14

Point

Line

Form

Shape

Space

Texture

Colour

Point
The simplest element in the form generation process.
The smallest possible visible mark on a 2D plane or within a 3D space
Line
A mark with greater length than width.
Lines can be horizontal, vertical or diagonal, straight or curved, thick or
thin.
Used for the representation of shapes forms, objects, and structures.
Lines can bring meaning, symbolism, and expression to visual forms and
their messages
The principles of Design:
Balance
Proportion
Rhythm
Emphasis
Unity
Golden Section

15

The Golden Section is also known as the Golden Mean, Golden Ratio and
Divine Proportion.
It is a ratio or proportion defined by the number Phi
( =1.618033988749895... )
The ratio of the line A to segment B is the same as the ratio of segment B to
segment C
This occurs only where A is 1.618... times B and B is 1.618... times C

Tools for creating illusions of 3D space

Rising Ground Plane

Overlapping
Changing Size and Placement Relative Hue and Value
Atmospheric Perspective
Linear Perspective

16