Transformers

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the operating principles, construction and maintenance of transformers.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Describe the principle of operation of transformers.
2. Describe the construction and operation of single phase transformers and
perform basic transformer calculations.
3. Describe the construction and operation of three-phase transformers.
4. Discuss transformer maintenance and cooling.

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INTRODUCTION
One of the reasons for the popularity of alternating current systems is the ease
with which ac voltage and current levels can be transformed. Large amounts of
power can be transmitted at high voltage and comparatively low current levels, to
be changed to lower voltages and higher currents in the locality where the power
is to be used. The size of the conductor is proportional to the size of the current,
thus each transmission methods effect large savings in copper costs.
The device that makes this transformation possible is called the transformer.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

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When a conductor moves relative to a magnetic field so as to pass through or

cut the magnetic flux, a voltage E is induced in the conductor. Whether the
conductor is stationary and the field moves, or the field is stationary and the
conductor moves, or both move, is immaterial as long as relative movement
between the field and conductor occurs. When relative movement ceases,
production of induced E ceases. This process is called electro-magnetic induction.
When a current is passed through a conductor, a magnetic field consisting of
concentric lines of flux is set up around the conductor. When the current is an
alternating current, the field also alternates, building up in one direction, then
collapsing into the conductor and building up in the opposite direction.
Lenzs Law
This is a law of electro-magnetic induction which states that when a magnetic flux
changes, and by its change is responsible for inducing an E, the direction of the E
is such that it tends to oppose the action producing the flux change.
Hence, if a current is passed through a coil of wire, the magnetic field, in building
up around each turn of the coil, cuts adjacent turns of the coil and induces an E
within them. The total E induced in the coil by Lenzs Law is a counter E which
opposes the voltage applied to the coil. This counter E produces an opposition to
current flow within the coil which is known as self-inductance.
Self-inductance is an opposition additional to that provided by the resistance of
the coil. In dc circuits, self-inductance delays the buildup of current to its
maximum value determined by the value of the applied voltage and the coil
resistance. Once the current reaches its steady maximum value, no further
induction takes place and self-inductance is no longer a factor. When the circuit is
opened, self-inductance again becomes a factor, this time trying to delay the
current collapse.

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In ac circuits, because of the continually changing current, self-inductance is

continually a factor in limiting the current through a coil.
When magnetic flux produced by one coil cuts the conductors of a second coil, an
E is induced in the second coil. This process is known as mutual inductance, and
is the principle upon which the transformer operates.

SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Fig. 1 illustrates the arrangement of a simple transformer with two electrically
isolated coils wound on a laminated, soft-iron core. When an alternating voltage
Vp is applied to one coil which is called the primary winding, an alternating flux is
produced in the core which induces an E, Ep in the primary winding by selfinduction, and also induces an E, Es in the other coil, the secondary winding by
mutual induction.
With the secondary open-circuited, Ep is almost equal to Vp, and the primary
current Ip is just enough to produce the magnetic flux and supply the iron-losses in
the transformer, as well as the very small heating losses in the transformed
primary.

Figure 1
Simple Transformer
In a well-designed transformer, it can be assumed that all the flux produced by the
primary cuts every turn of both the primary and secondary winding, thereby
inducing the same voltage in every turn. If the number of secondary turns is
greater than the number of primary turns, then the voltage induced in the
secondary will be larger than that induced in the primary. This transformer is
called a step-up transformer. If the number of secondary turns is such that
secondary voltage is smaller than primary voltage, then the transformer is a stepdown transformer.

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Since the voltage in each winding is proportional to the number of turns in each
winding, it can be expressed mathematically as
Ep
Es

Np
Ns

where Np and Ns are the number of turns in the primary and secondary
respectively.
Hence,

Ns
Np

Es = E p

For example, if a transformer has a primary winding of 500 turns, and a secondary
of 1000 turns, and a voltage of 250 V is applied to the primary, because Vp Ep, the
secondary voltage

Es = E p

= 250

Ns
Np
1000
500

= 500 V
When a load is connected to the secondary of a transformer, secondary current
flows and produces a magnetic flux which opposes and tends to reduce the
primary flux. This tends to reduce the counter E in the primary, allowing more
primary current to flow - reestablishing the main flux to its former value. For this
reason the flux of a transformer is virtually constant through all normal load
conditions.
Single-phase transformers use two common forms of construction, and are known
as the core type and the shell type. Fig. 2 illustrates both.

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Figure 2
Single-Phase Transformers
In each case the low voltage coil is wound nearest the iron core, with the high
voltage coil wound over the low voltage coil. In the core type transformer,
primary and secondary windings are split into two equal parts, with one half of
the primary and one half of the secondary wound on each of the two legs of the
transformer. In the shell type, all of the primary and secondary is wound on the
center leg. The complete winding is then surrounded by a shell of iron, hence
the name.
Because primary and secondary power factor are almost the same, and ignoring
losses, this becomes

E p I p = Es I s
That is, output volt amperes equals input volt amperes.
In industrial transformers, it is usually far more convenient to talk in terms of
kilovolt amperes or kVA.

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
In industry, three-phase systems are used extensively, and three-phase
transformers are common. A three-phase transformer is similar in construction to
the single-phase, shell-type transformer except that primary and secondary
windings are wound on each of the three legs as shown schematically in Fig. 3. In
practice, the coils are placed in a similar manner to that of the single-phase
transformer, with low voltage coils closer to the iron and high voltage coils over
the low voltage coils, as illustrated in Fig. 4(a). Fig. 4(b) shows one of the
alternative methods sometimes used, pancake or sandwich windings.

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Figure 3
Basic Three-Phase Transformer
Three-phase systems often use banks of single-phase transformers to replace
three-phase transformers. The efficiency and cost of such single-phase banks
compare unfavourably with the three-phase transformer, but they can be much
more convenient. For example, if one coil of a three-phase transformer breaks
down, the transformer must be taken out of the system and replaced. If the same
thing happens in a three-phase bank of three, single-phase transformers, the
damaged transformer can often be disconnected leaving the remaining two
transformers to supply three-phase loads at 58% of normal capacity, until a
replacement can be obtained.

Figure 4
Alternate Three-Phase Transformer Designs
Transformer Losses
These relationships ignore the transformer losses due to the magnetization of the
core and resistance of the conductors (called iron and copper losses respectively)
and the flux leakage between windings. Any flux that does not cut the secondary
does no useful work and is called flux leakage.

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The iron losses are further defined as:

1. Eddy currents: These are small currents induced in the core material by the
alternating flux. They generate heat and waste energy. Laminating the core
reduces eddy current losses.
2. Magnetic hysteresis: When magnetic domains are forced to re-align, they
put up a certain amount of resistance. As magnetizing current is reduced to
zero, some magnetism is left in the core material. As the current flow
reverses, it must build up to some level before the residual magnetism
drops to zero. The energy required to fully cancel the residual magnetism
is lost. This loss is reduced by using core materials with low retentivity
(low hysteresis loss) such as silicon steel.
The copper losses are due to the resistance of the copper wire used in the
windings. As current flows through a conductor, power is lost according to the
formula P = I2R. The copper losses are reduced by using larger diameter wire, but
this increases the bulk, weight, and cost of the transformer.
Transformer efficiency is the output power divided by the input power, all
multiplied by 100%.

Instrument Transformers
The use of voltage and current transformers reduce the hazards of dealing with
direct measurement of high voltages, and in addition enable voltmeters to be
standardized at 125 V and ammeters to be standardized at 5 A.
Voltage or potential transformers are simply low power versions of the normal
single-phase transformer.
Current transformers are quite unique, and special care must be taken when
working on circuits using them. Current transformers convert large primary
currents into small secondary currents, and must therefore be voltage step-up
transformers. The secondary is permanently short-circuited by the very low
resistance of a 5 A ammeter. The primary voltage consisting of the volt drop
across one or at least a few primary turns is very low. If the secondary is opencircuited the voltage across the primary will suddenly increase producing a much
higher voltage in the secondary which can be dangerous to life. For this reason,
secondaries of current transformers should never be opened in active
circuits.

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The Auto-Transformer
An auto-transformer has a part of its winding common to both primary and
secondary as shown in Fig. 5. The transformation ratios are calculated in a similar
way to the normal two winding or double-wound transformer.

Figure 5
Auto-Transformer
Auto-transformers lead to savings in copper, but they are limited to small ratios of
transformation. This is because an open circuit occurring in that part of the
winding common to both primary and secondary can cause a large primary
voltage to be impressed across a lower voltage secondary load.
Double-wound transformers can be connected as auto-transformers as shown in
Fig. 6(b). Fig. 6(a) indicates how a double-wound transformer is represented
symbolically.

Figure 6
Double-Wound Transformer

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K-Type Transformers
With the use of electronic switches in equipment such as computers, lighting
ballasts or variable speed controls, a problem has developed from harmonic
distortions in the circuits which can contaminate the rest of the ac power system
in the building.
The harmonic distortion causes the load to heat up which can result in excessively
high voltages and currents being produced which will lead to short circuits,
capacitor explosions, reduced transformer life, deficiencies in performance,
insulation stress and fuses and circuit breakers burning out for no apparent reason.
A K-type transformer is used to trap the harmonics on the primary windings. In
this application the transformer acts as a power conditioner. K-type transformers
are shielded transformers which have the ability to withstand the heating effect of
harmonics and protect the primary line from harmonic damage. The K-type
transformer only traps certain cycles while letting others through to the primary
voltage and distortion increases due to added impedance of the transformer.
In this manner the harmonics can be directed to the primary side of the
transformer where they will create less problems.

TRANSFORMER COOLING
The kVA rating of a transformer, like most other types of electrical machinery, is
governed primarily by the safe working temperature of the insulating materials
used. If the heat produced within the transformer due to copper losses and ironcore losses can be dissipated at a faster rate thus lowering the temperature rise, the
transformer is able to work at a higher kVA rating as long as the maximum
temperature rating is not exceeded.
Dry type transformers which rely solely on the natural air-convection method of
cooling can have their kVA ratings increased by using forced cooling such as a
fan. Placing the core in an oil-filled tank further increases the rating because of
the much larger specific heat of the coil compared with air. Oil also has better
insulation characteristics than air. Unfortunately oil is combustible and building
and electrical codes require special precautions thus increasing installation costs.
Some of the hazards of oil cooling can be removed by using synthetic liquids such
as chlorinated hydrocarbons which have various trade names according to the
manufacturer. However, these coolants are much more expensive than oil and
often introduce additional hazards, such as toxic properties.

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Selecting a method of transformer cooling involves a procedure of compromise in

which cost is only one of a number of factors.
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TRANSFORMER MAINTENANCE
Transformers require less maintenance than any other type of electric machinery.
Transformers should be thoroughly inspected at least once or twice a year, and
should always be kept clean and free of dust and oil on all outside surfaces.
Inspections should include a check for loose or hot connections both inside and
outside the transformer. The acidity of the oil should be checked by competent
personnel, and where necessary oil should be filtered or replaced. Neglected
transformers can lead to build up of sludge and acidity, with the eventual costly
failure of the transformer. The normal variation of load on a transformer causes its
temperature to vary, alternately expelling air then sucking it back in. This
breathing causes moisture to be taken into the transformer and is the cause of
many transformer breakdowns. Some transformers use filters which remove the
moisture from the intake air. These filters must be changed periodically.
It is particularly important to consult manufacturers on the precautions which
must be taken with transformers using synthetic coolants, as many of these are
toxic, particularly when hot.
Never work on a transformer inspection alone. A companion should always be in
reach in case of emergency.

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