Introduction to Process Measurement

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the construction and operation of commonly used devices for measuring
pressure, level, temperature, flow, and composition.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Sketch and describe the standard types of pressure sensing and measuring
devices.
2. Sketch and describe the standard types of level sensing and measuring
devices.
3. Sketch and describe the standard types of flow sensing and measuring devices.
4. Sketch and describe the standard types of temperature sensing and measuring
devices.
5. Describe the principle and basic operation of a chromatograph.

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INTRODUCTION
Process measuring devices are used either as stand-alone indicators of process
conditions, or as the sensing element components of control systems or alarm and
logic systems. Depending on their specific application they may provide an
output which is visual, mechanical, pneumatic or electronic. In this module we
will only be able to look at the most common and basic types, since there are
literally hundreds of specialized measurement devices. The most common
process conditions which must be measured are pressure, level, flow, temperature
and composition.

PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

Pressure is probably one of the most important measured variables in power plant
operation as it includes measurement of steam pressure in a boiler, fuel pressure
entering a burner, feedwater pressure, and many others. Pressure is also involved
directly or indirectly in the measurement of other variables such as level, flow,
and density. Since these applied pressures, located in various parts of a plant, can
range from a few to many thousand kilopascals, the same type of pressure sensing
element cannot be used in all applications.
Manometers
A manometer is one of the most accurate and useful sensors for measuring
pressure in the lower ranges. There are three general types that are used in
industry.
1. U-Tube Manometer
This type can be a simple glass or other transparent material bent into the shape of
a U as shown in Fig. 1.

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Figure 1
U-Tube Manometer
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The U-tube manometer contains a liquid, often referred to as the manometer fluid,
which must not mix or react chemically with the fluid whose pressure is being
measured. Typical manometer fluids are water, mercury and light oils. Mercury
was a common manometer fluid in the past, but has largely been replaced due to
its environmental and health hazards.
With both sides of the manometer open to the atmosphere, the surface level on
one side will be the same as the level on the other side, or P1 = P2 as in Fig. 1 (a).
Suppose one end of the U-tube manometer is connected to an unknown pressure,
P1 whose value must be determined, while the other end is left exposed to the
atmospheric pressure, P2. If pressure P1 is greater than P2, the fluid on the right
side of the manometer, Fig. 1 (b) will be displaced from its previous position and
forced into the left side of the manometer until a balance in pressure is created at
points A and B, so:
Pressure at A

Pressure at B or

P1

P2 + the pressure due to the head of liquid h

P1

P2 + hg and

P1 - P2

hg

Where h

=
=
=

height, metres
density kg/m3
gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

If P2 is the atmospheric pressure, then the pressure represented by the liquid head,
hg, would be equal to the amount that P1, the gage pressure, is above
atmospheric pressure. P2 + hg would be equal to the absolute pressure applied
on the right side of the manometer. If the pressure P1 is below atmospheric, while
P2 is still the atmospheric pressure, the manometer fluid will be higher on the
right side. The main purpose of a manometer is to measure the difference
between two pressures which is often called pressure differential measurement.
Manometers can be used to measure low gage pressures, or the amount of vacuum
in a vessel. A common application is the measurement of furnace pressure or
draft in a boiler.

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2.

Inclined Manometer

Fig. 2 is a special design of a well-type manometer whose tube is inclined at an

angle to the horizontal while the vertical part contains a well or reservoir. The
inclined manometer produces a longer scale of measurement than the U-tube or
well-type for the same differential in pressure between P1 and P2 so a more
accurate reading can be obtained. It is used where very small pressure
differentials must be measured, such as boiler draft and furnace pressure.
The pressure due to the vertical height of a manometer, h, is equivalent to the
difference in pressure between P1 and P2, where P2 often represents the
atmospheric pressure.

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Figure 2
Inclined Manometer
Barometers
The earths atmosphere consists of a layer of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen,
to an altitude of about 75 km. This gas mixture in the atmosphere has a mass that
creates a pressure of approximately 101.3 kPa on the earths surface at sea level.
This pressure varies from day to day depending on the weather conditions and the
elevation above sea level.
One form of atmospheric pressure measurement is by the use of a mercury
barometer. It consists of a glass tube of uniform bore, approximately 900 mm
long, with one end sealed.
In Fig. 3 the tube is first completely filled with mercury, and is then inverted with
the open end submerged in an open dish of mercury. The pressure exerted by the
column of mercury, h, is balanced by the pressure of the atmosphere.

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Figure 3
Inverted Mercury Column

Fig. 4 shows the actual components of a mercury barometer. As you can see, the
mercury barometer is essentially a manometer, with atmospheric pressure on one
side and almost vacuum, or zero pressure, on the other side.

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Figure 4
Mercury Barometer
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Bourdon Tube Gage

One type of Bourdon pressure gage consists of an oval tube in the form of a C,
having an arc of about 270. The free end of the tube in Fig. 5 is sealed, while the
other end contains the pressure inlet, which is connected to a socket. When
pressure is applied to the inside of the tube, the tube becomes slightly more
circular in cross section as shown by the dotted lines in Section A-A. As the tube
becomes more circular in cross section, it straightens out slightly, causing the free
end to move. This linear motion of the free end is transmitted through a link to a
geared sector and pinion that causes rotation of the pointer. If the applied
pressure decreases, the tube will act like a spring and return to its original shape.
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Figure 5
Bourdon Tube Gage
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A Bourdon tube can also be shaped in the form of a spiral or helix as illustrated in
Figs. 6 and 7 respectively. These types are used to develop sufficient power and
rotation to position a pen directly on a chart without the use of gears. A greater
degree of rotation is achieved as more windings are added.

Figure 6
Spiral Bourdon Spring
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Figure 7
Helix Bourdon Tube

The Bourdon tube gage is generally a stand-alone device, more versatile and
rugged than manometers and probably the most commonly used instrument in the
process industry.
Diaphragm Elements
Bourdon tube gages are not well suited to low pressure ranges because of the
stiffness of their metal parts. A diaphragm element gage, using more flexible
material, can be used in low pressure applications.
Diaphragms are made of materials such as leather, cotton lined rubber,
impregnated silk, copper, and stainless steel, depending upon the pressure applied
and the temperature of the fluid. The diaphragm is a flexible disc, either flat or
with concentric corrugations to increase motion and sensitivity. Nonmetallic or
limp diaphragms are used for pressure from 0 to 0.5 kPa while the metallic type
are suitable for pressures of 0 to 2500 kPa.

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Fig. 8 shows an example of a corrugated diaphragm. If the applied pressure is

above atmospheric, the diaphragm is forced upwards and its motion is transmitted
to the pushrod that causes the pointer to rise on the scale. When the applied
pressure is below atmospheric, the motion of the diaphragm is reversed so the
pointer moves downward. The motion of the pointer can be increased with a link
lever mechanism.

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Figure 8
Diaphragm-Type Pressure Indicator

Bellows Elements
The bellows element is most often used for pressure measurement between a
pressure equivalent to 250 mm water head to approximately 350 kPa. It consists
essentially of a corrugated metal tube that will expand in the direction of its length
when a pressure is applied. Special calibrating springs are also used (Fig. 9) to
provide greater accuracy.
The expansion and (or contraction of a bellows can be used as a transducer, that
is, to convert different types of signals. Bellows are commonly used in pneumatic
devices to position nozzle and flapper clearances, and in electronic devices to
position rheostats and solenoid cores. Thus, unlike the Bourdon tube elements,
they are often incorporated in control loops rather than as stand-alone devices.
Fig. 9 illustrates a bellows used as a low-pressure gage. Pressure exerted on the
outside of the bellows tends to compress it, stretching the calibration spring and
moving the pen linkage on a chart an amount that is proportional to the applied
pressure. When the maximum design pressure is reached, the bellows comes to
rest against the over-range tube which protects the linkage and recording parts
from damage.

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Figure 9
Low Range Element

Strain Gages
A strain gage is an extremely sensitive transducer that can be used to measure
pressure or force on a column, shaft, etc. This pressure or force is converted into
a proportional electrical signal.
The most common type of strain gage is the resistance type similar to the one in
Fig. 10 (a). It consists of a fine wire grid, the size of a small postage stamp,
which is cemented to a paper or plastic base. This base is then bonded firmly to
the column or shaft on which the force is measured. When a tensile force is
applied, the wire grid will increase in length while its cross-sectional area will
decrease. These two physical changes will cause an increase in electrical
resistance of the conductor. If this conductor is part of a bridge circuit, the
voltage imbalance across the bridge will be proportional to the pressure or force.
Since the output of a strain gage is electrical these devices are well suited to being
sensing elements for control loops using electronic signals.
Fig. 10 (b) shows a strain gage that can be used to measure the pressure in a
cylinder. A change in pressure, acting on the flush diaphragm, will vary the
compressive force on the tube on which the strain gage is bonded, causing a
proportional change in electrical resistance of the strain gage. The imbalance of
voltage across the bridge is amplified to provide sufficient power to operate a
controller and/or a recorder.

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Figure 10
Strain Gages

Pressure Sensing Element Protection Devices

Special devices are used to protect pressure sensing elements against such
conditions as high temperature, cycling pressures, vibrations, and corrosive or
congealing fluids.
A low cost device, shown in Fig. 11 (a), consisting of a U-shaped tubing filled
with a suitable seal fluid, will prevent the process fluid from entering the pressure
sensing pipe and the instrument. The seal fluid must have a greater density than
the line fluid for this system to be effective. Another method of preventing the
above problems is through the use of a diaphragm box as shown in Fig. 11 (b).
The space above the diaphragm containing the capillary and the sensing element
is filled with seal fluid so the line fluid does not enter the pressure gage.

In many different processes, equipment such as reciprocating and metering pumps

may produce vibrations or pulsations in pressure. These vibrations are amplified
considerably by the time they reach the pressure gages. This effect can be
lessened by a pulsation dampener illustrated in Fig. 12.

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Liquid Seal (a)

Chemical Seal(b)

Figure 11
Pressure Sensor Protectors

Figure 12
Line Pulsation Dampener

Fig. 12 (a) consists of a rubber bulb and felt plug that are connected to a pressure
gage and completely filled with glycerine. When the pressure from the process
fluid increases, the rubber bulb is compressed, causing the glycerine to be forced
through the plug, which acts as a restriction to the flow. The degree of damping
depends on the compression of the felt plug which is adjusted before the bulb is
filled with glycerine.
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Another practical means of restricting pulsations in the line leading to the pressure
gage can be achieved by means of a needle valve, Fig. 12 (b), which is placed
between the pressure source and the gage.

LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Level measurements include boiler water level, fuel tank level, water storage and
heater levels. In many applications, gage glasses are used to indicate the level of
liquids while other devices are used to record and control. Different types of gage
glasses will be illustrated in the next section of this course when boiler fittings
will be studied. Attention will be directed in this lecture to other basic level
measurement techniques that can be used for indicating, recording, and control
purposes.
Float-Type Level Measurement
One method of measuring and indicating level in an open tank is shown in Fig. 13
(a) where a float is attached to a weight by means of cables and pulleys. The float
is positioned within the tank while the weight hangs outside adjacent to a scale
which is marked in units of level.

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Figure 13
Float-Type Level Measurement and Control Level
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Fig. 13 (b) shows a float-type level control system where a float positions the inlet
valve through a linkage arrangement. By moving the pivot to the left, a greater
change in level is required to produce full valve travel.
When it is not practical to have the float in a vessel or tank, a float cage or
chamber (Fig. 14) is mounted on the outside, with the bottom part connected to
the liquid space and the top to the vapor space in the vessel. If the level in the
vessel increases, the float rises to open the control valve further so more liquid
will flow from the vessel. Note that the cage will be under the same pressure as
that in the vessel. Similar float arrangements can be connected to a boiler drum
where the float may operate a switch to start and stop a feedwater pump and to
operate a low water-level fuel cutoff in case the water becomes dangerously low
in the boiler.
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Figure 14
Float Cage Unit

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Diaphragm-Type Level Indicator

Fig. 15 shows a level indicator that can be placed in a remote location when the
boiler is high and the gage on the drum is not visible from the operating floor.
This indicator has a large diaphragm with the upper side connected to the steam
space and the lower side to the water space of the boiler.
A condenser at the boiler drum maintains a fixed head of water or pressure on the
upper side of the diaphragm, while the lower side is subjected to a varying head or
pressure dependent upon the water level in the boiler. The difference in pressure
due to the liquid head between the two sides of the diaphragm is balanced by a
spring so the diaphragm moves in accordance with the water level. As the water
rises in the drum, the pressure under the diaphragm increases causing it to rise and
move the indicator upwards. Full boiler pressure is exerted on both sides of the
diaphragm, so the boiler pressure has no effect on its movement.

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Figure 15
Remote Water-Level Indicator
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Colored screens illuminate the inside of the indicator; blue represents the water in
the lower portion of the gage and red the steam in the upper part. If the water
level rises in the boiler drum, the diaphragm will move the shutter and pointer
upward so more blue color is visible in the gage glass.

Differential Pressure Manometers

The manometer, discussed in the section on pressure measurement, can also be
applied to liquid level measurement. The difference between the one shown
previously in Fig. 1 and the illustration in Fig. 16 (a) is that the movement of the
manometer fluid is sensed and transmitted by means of a float mechanism. The
body of the one in Fig. 16 (a) is made of steel.
Float motion is transmitted to an indicator by a lever connected to a spindle in a
pressure sealed bearing. The manometer is connected to the pressurized vessel so
that vapor pressure is applied simultaneously to both the float chamber and the
range tube, and the manometer reading is dependent only on the pressure exerted
by the height of liquid in the vessel. The external leg, frequently called the
reference or constant head, is usually filled with seal fluid whose relative density
is greater than that of the liquid in the vessel.

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Figure 16
Differential Pressure Sensors
In Fig. 16 (b) the differential pressure manometer has been replaced by a
differential pressure transmitter that uses a diaphragm as a sensing element,
similar to the type used for the remote level indicator in Fig. 15. Fig. 16 (b)
shows a differential pressure transmitter being applied to the same type of level
measurement as in Fig. 16 (a).
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An increase in level will move the diaphragm slightly to the right causing a
proportional increase in the output of the transmitter.
If a diaphragm-actuated differential pressure transmitter is used to measure level
in an open tank, the right side of the diaphragm is open to the atmosphere.

FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow is probably one of the most widely measured process variables. Many
methods are used to measure the rate of flow of steam, feedwater, fuel, and air,
but only the most common sensing elements will be discussed at an introductory
level.
Head Meters
Head type or differential pressure flow meters include a number of sensing
devices for fluid flow measurement such as orifice plates, venturi tubes, and
nozzles. Each of these devices will cause a restriction in the flow stream which
will result in a pressure drop, which has a certain relationship with the velocity,
and with the flow. If the net cross-sectional area of the fluid stream is reduced,
the velocity of flow increases and hence results in an increase in kinetic energy.
Since energy cannot be created or destroyed, the increase in kinetic energy results
in a reduction in pressure downstream from the restriction.
1.

Orifice Plate

An orifice plate is the most common form of head meter that is used in flow
measurement. It consists of a flat metal plate with an opening of a fixed area, Fig.
17. The concentric type shown in (a) is the most common, but the eccentric and
segmental in (b) and (c), respectively, are also used in special applications. The
outside of the plate is designed to fit inside the bolt circle on standard flanges.

Figure 17
Orifice Plates
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Fig. 18 illustrates the pressure drop or differential pressure across an orifice plate.
Note that the flow pattern shows an effective decrease in cross section beyond the
plate, with the maximum velocity and maximum change in static pressure
occurring at the narrowest point of flow called the vena contracta. After this;
point in the flow stream only some of the pressure drop is recovered, as
turbulence and friction have created considerable permanent pressure loss.

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Figure 18
Pressure Drop Across an Orifice Plate
The pressure differential across an orifice is measured by two pressure
connections, one before the plate and another downstream from the plate. Fig. 19
(a) and (b) shows two types of connections. In (a) the pressure connections or
taps are located directly on the flanges, while in (b) the taps are located on the
pipe at a specific distance from the orifice plate.

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Figure 19
Flange and Pipe Taps
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The orifice plate is easy to install and replace. It is low in cost, and different sizes
may be easily substituted if the flow range is varied, but it is the least accurate and
creates the highest permanent pressure loss.

2. Venturi Tube
This flow sensing element, installed between flanges, Fig. 20 converges to a
minimum cross section, called the throat, and then diverges to the original pipe
size. High- and low-pressure connections are installed at specified locations as
indicated. The venturi tube produces less permanent pressure loss than an orifice
plate. On the other hand, it has the disadvantages of higher cost and bulkiness.

Figure 20
Venturi Tube
3. Flow Nozzle
The flow nozzle in Fig. 21 is an adaptation of the venturi tube. It consists
essentially of a venturi tube without the diverging section, but its pressure
recovery is not as efficient. Flow nozzles are used principally for measurement of
high velocity flows. The high-pressure connection is located one internal pipe
diameter before the inlet face of the nozzle, while the low-pressure tap is usually
one-half the pipe diameter downstream.

Figure 21
Flow Nozzle
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Variable Area Meter

The variable area meter, or rotameter, Fig. 22 (a), consists of a tapered tube in
which a float or rotor can move freely up or down, while the fluid being measured
flows upward in the tube. As the flow increases, the float assumes a higher
position and the area around the float is increased, thus the differential pressure
across the float remains constant when the flow stabilizes. The flow rate can be
read from a graduated scale located on the tube or adjacent to it.

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Figure 22
Rotameters

When comparing the head or differential pressure meter with a variable area
meter, one finds that the area is fixed and the differential pressure varies in a head
meter, while in a variable area meter or rotameter, the differential pressure is
constant and the area varies with a change in flow rate.
This rotameter is used mainly as an indicating device. It is fairly low in cost,
simple in construction, and quite accurate.

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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Glass Stem Thermometers
A glass stem thermometer, shown in Fig. 23, consists of a glass bulb, stem, and an
indicating scale. The bulb is completely filled with liquid, while the stem has a
uniform bore called the capillary in which the liquid expands when its
temperature increases. Usually the space above the liquid is evacuated, but in
some thermometers this space may be filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen to
increase the temperature range of the thermometer. The scale may be marked on
the stem or it may be mounted beside the thermometer, Fig. 23.

Figure 23
Glass Stem Thermometers
Mercury is the most common thermometer liquid because its coefficient of
expansion is nearly linear for temperatures between -39C and 450C. If the space
above the mercury is pressurized with nitrogen or argon, the upper temperature
limit may be increased to about 550C. At temperatures lower than -39C, the
mercury will freeze.
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Alcohol and other hydrocarbons can be used at lower temperatures but at higher
temperatures the liquid will evaporate.

Bimetal Thermometers
The bimetal thermometer consists of two thin strips of metal, with different
coefficients of expansion, laminated together without the use of any filler metal.
When one end is fixed, as illustrated in Fig. 24 (a), the other end will deflect in
nearly direct proportion to the change in temperature. Brass and invar, an ironnickel alloy, are the metals often used because the linear coefficient of brass is
over twenty times higher than that of invar.

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Figure 24
Bimetal Thermometers Bimetal Strip

To amplify motion, the bimetal strip may be wound into a helix or spiral. Fig. 24
(b) shows an industrial bimetal thermometer that uses a helical bimetal element
whose motion is transmitted to a pointer by a shaft.

Filled System Thermometers

The filled system thermometer, illustrated in Fig. 25, can be used to provide an
indication of temperature, or to produce a pneumatic signal proportional to the
measured temperature so it can be used for recording and controlling some
distance away.

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A basic system consists of a temperature sensitive bulb, capillary, a pressure

sensing device such as a bourdon tube, bellows, or diaphragm, and some
indicating or transmitting device. The system is completely filled with fluid
(liquid or gas). With an increase in measured temperature, the fluid in the bulb
will expand and increase the pressure in the bulb, capillary, and bourdon tube.
The pressure-sensing element responds to the increase in pressure by moving the
pointer up the scale. When used in a pneumatic transmitter, the movement of the
pressure-sensing device produces an output from the transmitter that is
proportional to the temperature.
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Figure 25
Filled System Thermometer

Thermocouples

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The thermocouple is probably one of the most widely used temperature sensing
devices. Basically, it consists of two wires, each made of a different metal or
alloy. These wires are connected at one end to form the measuring junction as
shown in Fig. 26. The free ends of the two wires are connected, directly or by
means of extension wires, to a measuring instrument to form a loop in which
current can flow. This connection is often called the reference junction. When
the measuring and reference junctions are at different temperatures a voltage is
produced by the thermocouple causing a current to flow. The magnitude of the dc
voltage is not quite proportional to the temperature difference between the two
junctions.

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Figure 26
Basic Thermocouple Circuit

A basic thermocouple and measuring circuit is illustrated in Fig. 26 where the

thermocouple circuit is connected to a millivoltmeter whose scale is calibrated in
degrees Celsius. An increase in temperature will cause an increase in current flow
through the moving coil, and a corresponding movement of the pointer on the
temperature scale. In actual practice, the measuring junction of a thermocouple is
placed at the point of temperature measurement, while the meter with the
reference junction may be some distance away.
Various combinations of metals may be used depending on the temperature range
required. Some types of thermocouples and their approximate temperature ranges
are shown in Table 1.
Type of Thermocouple

Temperature Range ( C)

Iron - Constantan

-20 to 760

Chromel - Alumel

260 to 1260

Platinum/Rhodium - Platinum

540 to 1480

Copper - Constantan

-185 to 370

Table 1
Thermocouple Ranges
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DETERMINING COMPOSITION
A chromatograph, Fig. 27 (a), is used to analyze the components of a gaseous
mixture or of a liquid in vapor form. It operates on the principle that if a gaseous
mixture is forced through a certain material that resists its flow, gases that have a
lower density or boiling point will pass through more quickly than the ones that
are more dense.
A basic chromatograph consists of a separation column, packed with an absorbent
material and installed in an oven that is maintained at a constant temperature. The
column is connected to a regulated supply of inert carrier gas, such as helium or
argon, indicated in Fig. 27 (a). The gas sample mixes with the carrier gas and
flows through the column. Each component of the gas mixture is identifiable by
the time that elapses between the injection of a sample into the column and the
emergence of that component.
Quantitative measurement of each component depends on the difference in
thermal conductivity between the mixture of carrier gas in the reference leg and
that of the carrier gas and a component in the detector leg. The heat sensitive
elements in the detector are often thermistors or semiconductors whose electrical
resistance decreases rapidly with an increase in temperature. When a greater
quantity of a specific gas passes through the detector, the wheatstone bridge, to
which these heat sensitive elements are connected, will become more unbalanced.
The resulting trace on a chart will appear like that shown in Fig. 27 (b). Peak
heights and peak areas above the base line are used to calculate the quantity of a
particular gas component in the mixture.

Figure 27
Gas Chromatograph
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