Abstract:

In this report I will discuss how to measure temperature by using different types of
sensors. I will discuss the basics of each one, principle of measurement factors
affected by. I will discuss some practical application for theses sensors.

1. Introduction:
The word temperature was coined to describe the degree of hotness or coolness of
a material body. Temperature is an important factor during manufacturing processes
that depend on heat or affection generated by heat generation while the process is
done or in practical devices, For example the controller uses the sensor signal to
decide whether to turn the heater on or off to maintain the desired set point
temperature so that the temperature must be determined to understand the natural
of the process or to control the devices that depend on the temperature. To
measure temperature we use transducers that convert temperature to other
variables this variable can be calibrated with temperature to determine any
temperature. These transducers may be thermocouple, RTD (Resistance
Temperature Detector), thermistor, and infrared sensor each of which has its
method of application and measuring principle. All these transducers will be
discussed in the following papers.

2. Measurement principle [2]:

Principle of measuring temperature shown in the following figure (2):

Fig (2) principle of temperature measurement

3. Thermocouple:
Thermocouples are by far the most widely used type of sensor in industry. Thomas
Johan Seeback discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can produce electric current.
When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two
common junctions and the two junctions are exposed to two different temperatures,
a net thermal emf is produced, the actual value being dependent on the materials
used and the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions. A typical
thermocouple junction is shown in fig. 5. [1]

Fig. 3 a typical thermocouple

The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the relationship:
(1)
Where

and

are hot and cold junction temperatures in K.

and

depending upon the materials. For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple,

are constants
=62.1 and

=0.045 [1]
3.1 Thermocouple Standards:
Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used as a thermocouple. But in
practice, only few materials have found applications for temperature measurement.
The choice of materials is influenced by several factors, namely, sensitivity, stability
in calibration, inertness in the operating atmosphere and reproducibility (i.e. the
thermocouple can be replaced by a similar one without any recalibration). Table-I
shows the common types of thermocouples, their types, composition, range,
sensitivity etc. A certain combinations of alloys have become standards. These
standards are known as types. For example Type J, Type K, etc. [1]
3.2 Laws of Thermocouple [1]:
2

The Peltier and Thompson effects explain the basic principles of thermoelectric emf
generation. But they are not sufficient for providing a suitable measuring technique
at actual measuring situations. For this purpose, we have three laws of
thermoelectric circuits that provide us useful practical tips for measurement of
temperature. These laws are known as law of homogeneous circuit, law of
intermediate metals and law of intermediate temperatures. These laws can be
explained using fig. 4.

Table-1 Thermocouple materials and Characteristics

Fig. 4 Laws of Thermocouple

The first law can be explained using fig. 4(a). It says that the net thermo-emf
generated is dependent on the materials and the temperatures of two junctions
only, not on any intermediate temperature.
According to the second law, if a third material is introduced at any point (thus
forming two additional junctions) it will not have any effect, if these two additional
junctions remain at the same temperatures (fig. 4(b)). This law makes it possible to
insert a measuring device without altering the thermo-emf.
The third law is related to the calibration of the thermocouple. It says, if a
thermocouple produces emf e1, when its junctions are at T1and T2, and e2when its
junctions are at T2and T3; then it will generate emf e1+e2when the junction
temperatures are at T1and T3(fig. 6(c)).
The third law is particularly important from the point of view of reference junction
compensation. The calibration chart of a thermocouple is prepared taking the cold
or reference junction temperature as

. But in actual measuring situation, seldom

the reference junction temperature is kept at that temperature, it is normally kept at

ambient temperature. The third law helps us to compute the actual temperature
using the calibration chart.
3.3 Reference Junction Compensation [1]

From above discussions, it is imminent that the thermocouple output voltage will
vary if the reference junction temperature changes. So, for measurement of
temperature, it is desirable that the cold junction of the thermocouple should be
maintained at a constant temperature. Ice bath can be used for this purpose, but it
is not practical solution for industrial situation. An alternative is to use a
thermostatically controlled constant temperature oven. In this case, a fixed voltage
must be added to the voltage generated by the thermocouple, to obtain the actual
temperature. But the most common case is where the reference junction is placed
at ambient temperature. For high temperature measurement, the error introduced
due to variation of reference junction temperature is not appreciable. For example,
with a thermocouple measuring
in

, if the ambient temperature variation is with

, then the error introduced in the reading due to this variation would be

around 1%. Such a typical scheme is shown in fig. 7. Here a constant voltage
corresponding to the ambient temperature is added through the offset of the opamp. The thermocouple voltage is also amplified by the same op-amp.

Fig.7 Simple method for reference junction compensation

A more accurate method for reference junction temperature compensation is shown
in fig. 8. Here a thermistor or a RTD is used to measure the ambient temperature
and compensate the error through a bridge circuit. The bridge circuit is balanced at
. When the ambient temperature goes above

, the emf generated in the

thermocouple is reduced; at the same time bridge unbalanced voltage is added to it

in order to maintain the overall voltage at the same value.

Fig. 8 Compensation scheme using wheatstone bridge

As referred to Fig.8, the cold junction compensation is normally kept along with the
signal conditioning circuits, away from the measuring point. This may require use of
long thermocouple wires to the compensation circuit. In order to reduce the length
of costly thermocouple wires (platinum in some case) low-cost compensating wires
are normally used in between the thermocouple and the compensation circuit.
These wires are so selected that their temperature emf characteristics match
closely to those of the thermocouple wires around the ambient temperature.
3.4 Thermocouple Selection
Accuracy [5]
Accuracy is defined as the amount of error which exists in a temperature
measurement. It indicates how close measured values are to the true temperature
value. This is also called tolerance or error. A chart called Initial Calibration
Tolerances in Figure 9 tells us what accuracy or tolerance we can expect from a
given thermocouple.
Life [5]
When thermocouple wires are heated and cooled, physical and chemical changes
take place. Physically, the metallurgical structure of the thermocouple metal
changes. Chemically, the thermocouple wires react with oxygen or other
substances. These chemical reactions change the chemical composition of the
thermocouple wire. The chemical reactions are accelerated at higher temperatures.
As these chemical (and physical) changes take place over time, a thermocouples
millivolt signal drifts (Figure 10). The result is that the thermo couple will no
longer measure temperature within its stated accuracy band. Drifting may start
within a few minutes or may take many months - it all depends on how a
thermocouple is used. This is also the reason why tolerances are called initial
calibration tolerances. The tolerances are only valid for the very first use. After the
first use, there is no guarantee that the tolerance will hold.

Fig (9) Initial Calibration Tolerances for Thermocouples

Fig 10 Thermocouple EMF Vs. Time

3.5 Thermocouple Assemblies [5]
There are 3 general types of thermocouple constructions: insulated wire, ceramicbeaded and metal-sheathed thermocouples.
Insulated Wire Thermocouples, The insulation is typically a fibrous, woven
material made of fiber-glass, mica or ceramic fiber. Other insulation types are
plastics (like Teflon) and polyimides (like Kapton). See Figure 11 for examples.

Fig 11 Examples of Fibrous and Plastic Insulated Thermocouple Wire

Ceramic Beaded Thermocouples, These thermocouples are fairly large
diameter wires junctioned and insulated with ceramic insulators or beads. These
7

beads provide electrical insulation between the wires and between the wires and
any protective metal tube used.
These thermocouples (like that in Figure 12) are placed inside of metal or ceramic
protection tubes to protect the thermocouple from contamination. Ceramic-beaded
thermocouples are principally used in ovens and furnaces.

Fig 12 a Ceramic Beaded Thermocouple

Metal Sheathed Thermocouples, A large portion of the thermocouples sold are
metal-sheathed thermocouples. As the name implies, the thermocouple junction
and wires are assembled in small diameter metal tubes. The thermocouple wires are
insulated using either fiber-glass or MgO insulation (see Figure 13).

Fig 13
The sheath protects the thermocouple from contamination and chemical attack. It
also provides mechanical stability. This allows the thermocouple assembly to be
formed, bent and shaped in many ways. Flanges, fittings, etc. can also be mounted
on to the sheath. These options allow metal-sheathed thermocouples to be mounted
into a variety of applications.
3.6 Junction Types [5]
When thermocouples are assembled into metal - sheathed thermocouples, there are
3 ways we can orient the thermocouple junction in the assembly. They are
grounded, ungrounded and exposed.
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Grounded, when assembling the thermocouple into a protective metal sheath, we

can weld the thermocouple junction directly to the inside tip of the sheath figure
(14-a), Attaching the junction to the sheath ensures rapid heat transfer from the
sheath to the junction. Thus, the sheath protects the thermocouple junction while
minimizing any heat transfer delays to it.

a-grounded junction

b-Ungrounded junction
junction
Fig (14)

c-Exposed

The ungrounded junction is similar to the grounded junction, except it is isolated

(insulated) from the metal sheath (Figure 14-b), Insulating the thermocouple
junction electrically isolates it from the sheath metal. This is done to prevent stray
voltages on a machine from inducing a measuring error in the thermocouple.
Ungrounded junctions are also more shock resistant and better survive under rapid
temperature change conditions.
Exposed, this type of junction protrudes from the end of the sheath, but is
insulated from it (Figure 14-c). Because the junction is directly exposed to the
material being heated, the junction responds very quickly to temperature changes.
There is no sheath or insulation to slow down heat transfer. The disadvantage,
though, is that an exposed junction is not protected from mechanical damage and
chemical attack. If the junction is damaged or chemically attacked, a measuring
error will result.

4. Resistance Thermometers
It is well known that resistance of metallic conductors increases with temperature,
while that of semiconductors generally decreases with temperature. Resistance
thermometers employing metallic conductors for temperature measurement are
called Resistance
Temperature
Detector
(RTD), and
those
employing
semiconductors are termed as Thermistors. RTDs are more rugged and have more
or less linear characteristics over a wide temperature range. On the other hand
Thermistors have high temperature sensitivity, but nonlinear characteristics [1].

4.1 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

RTDs are precision temperature sensors. They are used in industrial applications as
well as laboratories. RTD elements are typically more accurate than thermo-couple
elements and maintain that accuracy over a longer period of time. They are
generally used up to 1200F (650C) [1].

The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally modeled in the

form:
(2)
Where

and

are the resistance values at t C and

C respectively; , , etc.

are constants that depends on the metal. For a small range of temperature, the
expression can be approximated as:
For Copper,

Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly used as RTD materials. The range of
temperature measurement is decided by the region, where the resistancetemperature characteristics are approximately linear. The resistance versus
temperature characteristics of these materials is shown in fig.15, with to as 0 C.
Platinum has a linear range of operation up to 650 C, while the useful range for
Copper and Nickel are 120 C and 300 C respectively [1].

Fig. 15 Resistance-temperature characteristics of metals

4.1.1 RTD Standards [5]
A RTD uses a base resistance value. For example, most platinum RTDs have a
base value of 100 ohms at 0C (32F). Some platinum RTDs, however, have a base
resistance of 500 or even 1000 ohms at 0C. Other metals use other base
resistance values (Figure 10). Regardless of the base value, all RTDs follow a very
linear resistance versus temperature relationship.

10

Fig (10) Base Resistance Values of Various RTD Elements

We will focus on platinum element RTDs since they are used in almost every
industry. There are two industrial standards for platinum RTDs: the DIN and JIS
standards. DIN uses a resistance vs. temperature curve (TCR) of 0.003850
ohms/ohm/C. JIS uses a resistance vs. temperature curve (TCR) of 0.003916
ohms/ohm/C.
4.1.2 Construction
For industrial use, bare metal wires cannot be used for temperature measurement.
They must be protected from mechanical hazards such as material decomposition,
tearing and other physical damages. The salient features of construction of an
industrial RTD are as follows [1]:

The resistance wire is often put in a stainless steel well for protection against
mechanical hazards. This is also useful from the point of view of
maintenance, since a defective sensor can be replaced by a good one while
the plant is in operation.
Heat conducting but electrical insulating materials like mica is placed in
between the well and the resistance material.
The resistance wire should be carefully wound over mica sheet so that no
strain is developed due to length expansion of the wire.

Fig. 16 shows the cut away view of an industrial RTD.

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Fig. 16 Construction of an industrial RTD

A RTD can take many forms. The most often used RTD elements are shown below.
Figure 14a shows a fine platinum element wire coiled around a very small diameter
ceramic cylinder. Platinum resistance elements are most often used, but nickel,
copper and nickel-iron are also used. Small lead wires are welded on to the
resistance element. The assembly is then encapsulated in glass to seal it and
prevent contamination [5].
The RTD in Figure 9b is formed by depositing a thin film of platinum or other metal
on to a ceramic substrate (platelet). Leads are again attached and the substrate
coated with glass or epoxy for protection. Figure 9c shows a platinum wire laid out
between two layers of Kapton material. This design has the advantage of being
flexible [5].

Fig 14 Various RTD Element Styles

4.1.3 Signal conditioning [1]
The resistance variation of the RTD can be measured by a bridge, or directly by voltampere method. But the major constraint is the contribution of the lead wires in the
overall resistance measured. Since the length of the lead wire may vary, this may
give a false reading in the temperature to be measured. There must be some
method for compensation so that the effect of lead wires is resistance measured is
eliminated. This can be achieved by using either a three wire RTD, or a four wire
12

RTD. Both the schemes of measurement are shown in fig. 15. In three wire method
one additional dummy wire taken from the resistance element and connected in a
bridge (fig. 15(a)) so that the two lead wires are connected to two adjacent arms of
the bridge, thus canceling each others effect. In fig. 15(b) the four wire method of
measurement is shown. It is similar to a four terminal resistance and two terminals
are used for injecting current, while two others are for measuring voltage.

(a) Three wire RTD

(b) Four wire RTD

Fig. 15

4.1.4 RTD Assemblies [5]

In lower temperature versions (up to 500F or 260C), the RTD element is welded or
otherwise attached to copper or nickel lead wires. This sub-assembly is placed in a
closed-end tube. A powder, cement or thermal grease is used to fill the tube. An
epoxy seal seals out moisture and anchors the RTD element and leads in the tube
(Figure 16a).
In higher temperature versions (up to 1200F or 650C), the RTD is fitted into a
cavity dug into the end of a piece of mineral insulated (MgO) metal-sheathed cable.
The wires buried in the cable are welded to the RTD element. A cap is filled with
MgO and placed over the element end and mounted (Figure 16b).

Fig 16
13

4.2. Thermistor
Thermistors are semiconductor type resistance thermometers. They have very high
sensitivity but highly nonlinear characteristics. This can be understood from the fact
that for a typical 2000 the resistance change at 25oC is 80/oC, whereas for a
2000 platinum RTD the change in resistance at 25oC is 7/oC. Thermistors can be
of two types: (a) Negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) thermistors and (b)
Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors. Their resistance-temperature
characteristics are shown in fig. 16(a) and 16(b) respectively [1].

(a) Characteristics of a NTC thermistor

(b) Characteristics of a PTC

thermistor
Fig (16)
The NTC thermistors, whose characteristics are shown in fig. 4(a) is more common.
Essentially, it is manufactured from a mixture of metal oxides pressed into a bead,
wafer or other shape. The bead is heated under pressure at high temperatures and
then encapsulated with epoxy or glass (Figure 17). Beads can be very small, less
than 1 mm in some cases. Their characteristics can be expressed as [1]:

(5)
where,

is the resistance at temperature T (K)

is the resistance at temperature

(K)

is the reference temperature, normally 25oC

is a constant, its value is decided by the characteristics of the material, the

nominal value is taken as 4000.

14

It is clear from the above expression that the negative sign of T indicates the
negative resistance-temperature characteristics of the NTC thermistor. Useful range
of thermistors is normally -100 to +300oC

Figure 17 [5]
Thermistors exhibit a very large resistance change for a small temperature change.
This can be as large as 3 to 5% per C (versus 0.4% per C for RTDs). This makes
them very sensitive to small temperature changes. They can detect temperature
changes as low as 0.1C or smaller.
4.2.1Thermistor Standards [5]
There are presently no industrial or worldwide standards for thermistors (as with the
RTD). The base resistance of thermistors vary anywhere from 1000 to one mil-lion
ohms! The resistance vs. temperature curves (TCRs) vary a lot as well. Each
manufacturer and country uses different standards. Therefore, you must be careful
not to use the wrong thermistor type.
4.2.2Measuring [3]
A typical thermistor circuit is shown to the right a simple voltage divider, where Vs
is the supply voltage and Rs is a fixed (supply) resistor. Rs and Vs can be adjusted
to obtain a desired range of output voltage Vout for a given range of temperature. If
the proper value of Rs is used, the output voltage is nearly (but not exactly) linear
with temperature.
4.2.3Limitations [1]
The nonlinear negative temperature characteristics also give rise to error due to
self-heating effect. When current is flowing through the thermistor, the heat
generated due to the loss may increase the temperature of the resistance element,
which may further decrease the resistance and increase the current further. This
effect, if not tackled properly, may damage the thermistor permanently. Essentially,
the current flowing should be restricted below the specified
value to prevent this damage. Alternatively, the thermistor
may be excited by a constant current source.
The nonlinear characteristics of thermistors often creates
problem for temperature measurement, and it is often desired
to linearize the thermistor characteristics. This can be done by adding one fixed
15

resistance parallel to the thermistor. The resistance temperature characteristics of

the equivalent resistance would be more linear, but at the cost of sensitivity.

5. Infrared Sensor
I have explored contact temperature sensors. That is, the sensor must physically
touch a material before it can sense that materials temperature. What happens if
this physical contact is not possible? We should use a non-contact sensor. As the
name implies, non-contact sensors measure an objects temperature with-out
actually touching it, for example Infrared or IR sensors that can sense temperatures
up to about 1000F (540C) [4].
Every form of matter with a temperature (T) above absolute zero emits infrared
radiation according to its temperature. This is called characteristic radiation. The
cause of this is the internal mechanical movement of molecules. The intensity of
this movement depends on the temperature of the object. Since the molecule
movement represents charge displacement, electromagnetic radiation (photon
particles) is emitted. These photons move at the speed of light and behave
according to the known optical principles. They can be deflected, focused with a
lens, or reflected from reflective surfaces. The spectrum of this radiation ranges
from 0.7 to 1000 m wavelength. For this reason, this radiation cannot normally be
seen with the naked eye. This area lies within the red area of visible light and has
therefore been called "infra"-red after the Latin. (See Fig. 18) [4]

Fig. 18: The electromagnetic spectrum, with range from around 0.7 to 14 m useful
for measuring purposes
Fig. 19 shows the typical radiation of a body at different temperatures. As indicated,
bodies at high temperatures still emit a small amount of visible radiation. This is
why everyone can see objects at very high temperatures (above 600C) glowing
somewhere from red to white. Experienced steelworkers can even estimate
temperature quite accurately from the color. The classic disappearing filament
pyrometer was used in the steel and iron industries from 1930 on. The invisible part
of the spectrum, however, contains up to 100,000 times more energy. Infrared
measuring technology builds on this. It can likewise be seen in Fig. 19 that the
16

radiation maximum move toward ever-shorter wavelengths as the target

temperature rises, and that the curves of a body do not overlap at different
temperatures. The radiant energy in the entire wavelength range (area beneath
each curve) increases to the power of 4 of the temperature. These relationships
were recognized by Stefan and Boltzmann in 1879.
Stefan-Boltzmann equation,

(6)

Where

E is the emissive power radiated per unit area (units of W/m2).

is the emissivity, defined as the fraction of blackbody radiation emitted by
an actual surface. Emissivity lies between 0 and 1, and is dimensionless. Its
value depends greatly on the type of surface. A blackbody has an emissivity
of exactly 1.

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

T is the absolute temperature of the surface of the object (units of K).

This illustrate that an unambiguous temperature can be measured from the

radiation signal. 1, 3, 4, 5

Fig. 19: Radiation characteristics of a blackbody in relation to its temperature [4].

5.1 The Infrared Measuring System [4]

17

The infrared waves are focused through a lens (or optical system) on to an infrared
detector. The detector absorbs the radiation striking it and converts this into an
electric output signal see fig (20).

Fig (20) Infrared measuring system

The electric output signal is proportional to the amount of radiation striking it. So, as
more infrared energy strikes the detector, more electrical energy is produced. This
output signal is then amplified and conditioned by support electronics (and/or
temperature controller) and converted into a temperature value.
5.2 Emissivity Effects [4]
A further reason for having devices for different wavelength ranges are the
emissivity pattern of some materials known as non-gray bodies (glass, metals, and
plastic films). Fig. 19 shows the ideal the so-called "blackbody". Many bodies,
however, emit less radiation at the same temperature. The relation between the
real emissive power and that of a blackbody is known as emissivity (epsilon) and
can be a maximum of 1 (body corresponds to the ideal blackbody) and a minimum
of 0. Bodies with emissivity less than 1 are called gray bodies. Bodies where
emissivity is also dependent on temperature and wavelength are called non-gray
bodies.
Furthermore, the sum of emission is composed of absorption (A), reflection (R) and
transmission (T) and is equal to one. (See Equation 7 and Fig. 21)
A+R+T=1

18

(7)

Fig. 21: In addition to the radiation emitted from the target, the sensor also receives
reflected radiation and can also let radiation through.
Solid bodies have no transmission in the infrared range (T = 0). In accordance with
Kirchhofs Law, it is assumed that all the radiation absorbed by a body, and which
has led to an increase in temperature, is then also emitted by this body. The result,
then, for absorption and emission is:
A
E = 1 R , t ideal blackbody also has no reflectance (R = 0), so that E = 1 IR
thermometers compensate for this by offering variable options for setting the
emissivity factor.
5.3 Determining Emissivity [4]

First, you can find the emissivity of many frequently used materials in a
tables.
Heat up a sample of the material to a known temperature that you can
determine very accurately using a contact thermometer (e.g. thermocouple).
Then measure the target temperature with the IR thermometer. Change the
emissivity until the temperature corresponds to that of the contact
thermometer. Now keep this emissivity for all future measurements of targets
on this material.
Create a blackbody using a sample body from the material to be measured.
Bore a hole into the object. The depth of the borehole should be at least five
times its diameter. The diameter must correspond to the size of the spot to
be measured with your measuring device. If the emissivity of the inner walls
is greater than 0.5, the emissivity of the cavity body is now around 1, and the
temperature measured in the hole is the correct temperature of the target4If
you now direct the IR thermometer to the surface of the target, change the
19

emissivity until the temperature display corresponds with the value given
previously from the blackbody. The emissivity found by this method can be
used for all measurements on the same material.

5.4 Distance and Spot Size

As shown in Figure 22, an infrared sensor has a cone-shaped field of view. All
infrared radiation in this field of view will be detected by the sensor.

Fig (22) Example of an IR Sensor's Field of View [5]

As a rule, the target size should be at least 1.5 to 2 times the spot size. The spot
size is the diameter of the circular view that the IR sensor has of the object. For
example, if an object measures 8 by 4.5 inches wide (200 x 115 mm), the maximum
spot size should be 3 inches (75 mm) in diameter show fig (23).

Fig (23): Proper Sensor Placement [4]

20

Background radiation can also enter an IR sensor when it is used to measure thinfilm plastics (Figure 23). These materials are very transmissive. That is the sensor
looks through the thin material and senses the temperature of objects behind the
film. IR sensors should not be used in these types of applications. Background
radiation can also enter an IR sensors lens by reflecting off of the tar-get (Figure
24). This reflected radiant energy will alter the IR sensors temperature
measurement and cause errors [5].

Figure 23

Figure 24

To reduce this problem, an IR sensor should always be set at a right angle with
respect to the target (Figure 25). However, if space limitations exist, the IR sensor
can be mounted up to a maximum of 45 (per Figure 25).

Figure 25
5.5 Ambient Temperature [5]
The sensing head is designed for measurements in ambient temperatures between
0C and 70C (32 to 160F). In ambient conditions above 70C (160F), a water or
air cooled housing is available to extend the operating range to 120C (250F) with
air cooling and to 175C (350F) with water cooling. When using the water cooled
housing, it is strongly recommended to use the supplied air purge collar to avoid
condensation on the lens. In ambient conditions up to 315C (600F), the Thermo
Jacket housing should be used. What happens though if the ambient air temperature
changes? This causes the IR sensor to get hotter or colder as well. Is this a problem?
21

It does cause temporary problems. Temperature changes in the infrared detector

induce measuring errors. As soon as the IR sensor temperature stabilizes, however,
it again measures accurately. Thus, many IR sensors are insulated to prevent or at
least slow the effects of changing ambient temperatures.

5.6 Operating Environment [5]

Smoke, dust, and fog block your eyes ability to see objects. Infrared sensors have
the same problem! Smoke, dust, and vapors from manufacturing processes absorb
or reflect infrared radiation before it gets to the sensor lens (Figure 26).

Figure 29
The IR sensor only can measure what it sees. If it sees smoke and dust (as well
as the target object), it measures some average of the target, smoke and dust
temperatures. This, of course, causes the controller to maintain the target (work
load) at the wrong temperature! Therefore, it is important to have a clean
environment for infrared sensors to "look through".
6. Applications [2]:
Measuring cutting temperature:
6.1. Moving thermocouple technique
This simple method, schematically shown in Fig. 30, enables measure the gradual
variation in the temperature of the flowing chip before, during and immediately
after its formation. A bead of standard thermocouple like chrome-alumel is brazed
on the side surface of the layer to be removed from the work surface and the
temperature is attained in terms of mV.

22

Fig (30) Moving thermocouple technique

6.2. Embedded thermocouple technique

In operations like milling, grinding etc. where the previous methods are not
applicable, embedded thermocouple can serve the purpose. Fig. 31 shows the
principle. The standard thermocouple monitors the job temperature at a certain
depth, hi from the cutting zone. The temperature recorded in oscilloscope or strip
chart recorder becomes maximum when the thermocouple bead comes nearest
(slightly offset) to the grinding zone. With the progress of grinding the depth, hi
gradually decreases after each grinding pass and the value of temperature, m also
rises as has been indicated in Fig. 2.7.6. For getting the temperature exactly at the
surface i.e., grinding zone, hi has to be zero, which isnt possible. So the m vs hi
curve has to be extrapolated up to hi= 0 to get the actual grinding zone
temperature. Log log plot helps such extrapolation more easily and accurately.

Fig. 31 Embedded thermocouple technique

23

Conclusion:

Temperature is the most important process variable that requires continuous

measurement and monitoring in a process industry.
Among the different types of temperature transducers, the most commonly
used ones are RTDs and thermocouples. Their popularity is mainly due to
their ruggedness, repeatability and wide range of operation.
The signal conditioning circuits should be properly designed, so as to avoid
the errors due to lead wires in RTDs and variation of cold junction
temperatures in thermocouples.
Thermistors exhibit a very large resistance changes for a small temperature
change. This makes them very sensitive to small temperature changes. They
can detect temperature changes as low as 0.1C or smaller.
IR sensors are the most used one for none contact measurements.

References:
[1] NPTEL (national programmed technology enhanced learning),Temperature
Measurement, Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur.
[2] Manufacturing processes II, NPTEL, National program on Technology Enhanced Learning,
Version 2 ME IIT, Kharagpur, Prof. S. Paul, Prof. A.B. Chattopadhyay, Prof. A.K. Chattopadhyay.
[3] Temperature Measurement, Author: John M. Cimbala, Penn State University Latest revision:
01 April 2013.
[4] Principles of Non-Contact
GrunerKGruner@Raytek.de.

Temperature

Measurement,

[5] Temperature Sensors, The Watlow Educational Series Book Four.

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Author:

Klaus-Dieter

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