CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION
DEFINITIONS

100.TheArtAndScienceOfNavigation
Marinenavigationblendsbothscienceandart.Agoodnavigatorgathersinformationfromeveryavailable
source,evaluatesthisinformation,determinesafix,andcomparesthatfixwithhispredetermineddead
reckoningposition.Anavigatorconstantlyevaluatestheshipsposition,anticipatesdangeroussituationswell
beforetheyarise,andalwayskeepsaheadofthevessel.Themodernnavigatormustalsounderstandthebasic
conceptsofthemanynavigationsystemsusedtoday,evaluatetheiroutputsaccuracy,andarriveatthebest
possiblenavigationaldecisions.
Navigationmethodsandtechniquesvarywiththetypeofvessel,theconditions,andthenavigatorsexperience.
Navigatingapleasurecraft,forexample,differsfromnavigatingacontainership.Bothdifferfromnavigatinga
navalvessel.Thenavigatorusesthemethodsandtechniquesbestsuitedtothevesselandconditionsathand.
Someimportantelementsofsuccessfulnavigationcannotbeacquiredfromanybookorinstructor.Thescience
ofnavigationcanbetaught,buttheartofnavigationmustbedevelopedfromexperience.
101.TypesOfNavigation
Methodsofnavigationhavechangedthroughhistory.Eachnewmethodhasenhancedthemarinersabilityto
completehisvoyagesafelyandexpeditiously.Oneofthemostimportantjudgmentsthenavigatormustmakein
volveschoosingthebestmethodtouse.Commonlyrecognizedtypesofnavigationarelistedbelow.
Deadreckoning(DR)determinespositionbyadvancingaknownpositionforcoursesanddistances.A
positionsodeterminediscalledadeadreckoning(DR)position.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatonlycourseand
speeddeterminetheDRposition.CorrectingtheDRpositionforleeway,currenteffects,andsteeringerrorresult
inanestimatedposition(EP).AninertialnavigatordevelopsanextremelyaccurateEP.
Pilotinginvolvesnavigatinginrestrictedwaterswithfrequentdeterminationofpositionrelativetogeographic
andhydrographicfeatures.
Celestialnavigationinvolvesreducingcelestialmeasurementstolinesofpositionusingtables,spherical
trigonometry,andalmanacs.Itisusedprimarilyasabackuptosatelliteandotherelectronicsystemsintheopen
ocean.
Radionavigationusesradiowavestodeterminepositionbyeitherradiodirectionfindingsystemsor
hyperbolicsystems.
Radarnavigationusesradartodeterminethedistancefromorbearingofobjectswhosepositionisknown.
Thisprocessisseparatefromradarsuseasacollisionavoidancesystem.

Satellitenavigationusesartificialearthsatellitesfordeterminationofposition.
Electronicintegratedbridgeconceptsaredrivingfuturenavigationsystemplanning.Integratedsystemstake
inputsfromvariousshipsensors,electronicallydisplaypositioninginformation,andprovidecontrolsignals
requiredtomaintainavesselonapresetcourse.Thenavigatorbecomesasystemmanager,choosingsystem
presets,interpretingsystemoutput,andmonitoringvesselresponse.
Inpractice,anavigatorsynthesizesdifferentmethodologiesintoasingleintegratedsystem.Heshouldneverfeel
comfortableutilizingonlyonemethodwhenothersareavailableforbackup.Eachmethodhasadvantagesand
disadvantages.Thenavigatormustchoosemethodsappropriatetoeachparticularsituation.
Withtheadventofautomatedpositionfixingandelectroniccharts,modernnavigationisalmostcompletelyan
electronicprocess.Themarinerisconstantlytemptedtorelysolelyonelectronicsystems.Thiswouldbea
mistake.Electronicnavigationsystemsarealwayssubjecttofailure,andtheprofessionalmarinermustnever
forgetthatthesafetyofhisshipandcrewmaydependonskillsthatdifferlittlefromthosepracticedgenerations
ago.Proficiencyinconventionalpilotingandcelestialnavigationremainsessential.
102.PhasesOfNavigation
Fourdistinctphasesdefinethenavigationprocess.The12 INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION
marinershouldchoosethesystemmixthatmeetstheaccuracyrequirementsofeachphase.

InlandWaterwayPhase:Pilotinginnarrowcanals,channels,rivers,andestuaries.
Harbor/HarborApproachPhase:Navigatingtoaharborentranceandpilotinginharborapproachchannels.
CoastalPhase:Navigatingwithin50milesofthecoastorinshoreofthe200meterdepthcontour.
OceanPhase:Navigatingoutsidethecoastalareaintheopensea.
Thenavigatorspositionaccuracyrequirements,hisfixinterval,andhissystemsrequirementsdifferineach

phase.Thefollowingtablecanbeusedasageneralguideforselectingthepropersystem(s).
Inland Harbor/Harbor
Coastal
OceanWaterway
Approach
DRXXXX
PilotingCelestialRadioRadarXXXSatellite
X*
X
X
X
X
X
XX X
X
X
X
Table102.Therelationshipofthetypesandphasesofnavigation.*DifferentialGPSmaybeusedifavailable.

NAVIGATIONALTERMSANDCONVENTIONS

103.ImportantConventionsAndConcepts
Throughoutthehistoryofnavigation,numeroustermsandconventionshavebeenestablishedwhichenjoy
worldwiderecognition.Theprofessionalnavigator,togainafullunderstandingofhisfield,shouldunderstand
theoriginofcertainterms,techniques,andconventions.Thefollowingsectiondiscussessomeoftheimportant
ones.
Definingaprimemeridianisacomparativelyrecentdevelopment.Untilthebeginningofthe19thcentury,
therewaslittleuniformityamongcartographersastothemeridianfromwhichtomeasurelongitude.Thisdid
notleadtoanyproblembecausetherewasnowidespreadmethodfordetermininglongitudeaccurately.
Ptolemy,inthe2ndcenturyAD,measuredlongitudeeastwardfromareferencemeridian2degreeswestofthe
CanaryIslands.In1493,PopeAlexanderVIestablishedalineintheAtlanticwestoftheAzorestodividethe
territoriesofSpainandPortugal.Formanyyears,cartographersofthesetwocountriesusedthisdividinglineas
theprimemeridian.In1570theDutchcartographerOrteliususedtheeasternmostoftheCapeVerdeIslands.
JohnDavis,inhis1594TheSeamansSecrets,usedtheIsleofFezintheCanariesbecausetherethevariation
waszero.Marinerspaidlittleattentiontotheseconventionsandoftenreckonedtheirlongitudefromseveral
differentcapesandportsduringa
voyage.ThemeridianofLondonwasusedasearlyas1676,and
overtheyearsitspopularitygrewasEnglandsmaritimeinterestsincreased.Thesystemofmeasuringlongitude
botheastandwestthrough180mayhavefirstappearedinthemiddleofthe18thcentury.Towardtheendof
thatcentury,astheGreenwichObservatoryincreasedinprominence,Englishcartographersbeganusingthe
meridianofthatobservatoryasareference.ThepublicationbytheObservatoryofthefirstBritishNautical
Almanacin1767furtherentrenchedGreenwichastheprimemeridian.Anunsuccessfulattemptwasmadein
1810toestablishWashington,D.C.astheprimemeridianforAmericannavigatorsandcartographers.In1884,
themeridianofGreenwichwasofficiallyestablishedastheprimemeridian.Today,allmaritimenationshave
designatedtheGreenwichmeridiantheprimemeridian,exceptinafewcaseswherelocalreferencesareusedfor
certainharborcharts.
Chartsaregraphicrepresentationsofareasoftheearthforuseinmarineorairnavigation.Nauticalchartsdepict
featuresofparticularinteresttothemarinenavigator.Chartshaveprobablyexistedsinceatleast600BC.Stereo
graphicandorthographicprojectionsdatefromthe2ndcenturyBC.In1569GerardusMercatorpublishedachart
usingthemathematicalprinciplewhichnowbearshisname.Some30yearslater,EdwardWrightpublishedcor
INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION 3
rectedmathematicaltablesforthisprojection,enablingcartographerstoproducechartsontheMercator
projection.Thisprojectionisstillwidelyinuse.
Sailingdirectionsorpilotshaveexistedsinceatleastthe6thcenturyBC.Continuousaccumulationofnaviga
tionaldata,alongwithincreasedexplorationandtrade,ledtoincreasedproductionofvolumesthroughthe
MiddleAges.RoutierswereproducedinFranceabout1500;theEnglishreferredtothemasrutters.In1584
LucasWaghenaerpublishedtheSpieghelderZeevaerdt(TheMarinersMirror),whichbecamethemodelfor
suchpublicationsforseveralgenerationsofnavigators.TheywereknownasWaggonersbymostsailors.
Modernpilotsandsailingdirectionsarebasedonextensivedatacollectionandcompilationeffortsbegunby
MatthewFontaineMaurybeginningin1842.
Thecompasswasdevelopedabout1000yearsago.Theoriginofthemagneticcompassisuncertain,butNorse
menuseditinthe11thcentury.Itwasnotuntilthe1870sthatLordKelvindevelopedareliabledrycardmarine
compass.Thefluidfilledcompassbecamestandardin1906.
Variationwasnotunderstooduntilthe18thcentury,whenEdmondHalleyledanexpeditiontomaplinesof
variationintheSouthAtlantic.Deviationwasunderstoodatleastasearlyastheearly1600s,butcorrectionof
compasserrorwasnotpossibleuntilMatthewFlindersdiscoveredthataverticalironbarcouldreduceerrors.
After1840,BritishAstronomerRoyalSirGeorgeAiryandlaterLordKelvindevelopedcombinationsofiron
massesandsmallmagnetstoeliminatemostmagneticcompasserror.

Thegyrocompasswasmadenecessarybyironandsteelships.LeonFoucaultdevelopedthebasicgyroscopein
1852.AnAmerican(ElmerSperry)andaGerman(AnshutzKampfe)bothdevelopedelectricalgyrocompassesin
theearlyyearsofthe20thcentury.
Thelogisthemarinersspeedometer.Marinersoriginallymeasuredspeedbyobservingachipofwoodpassing
downthesideofthevessel.Laterdevelopmentsincludedawoodenboardattachedtoareelofline.Mariners
measuredspeedbynotinghowmanyknotsinthelineunreeledastheshipmovedameasuredamountoftime;
hencethetermknot.Mechanicallogsusingeitherasmallpaddlewheelorarotatingspinnerarrivedaboutthe
middleofthe17thcentury.Thetaffraillogstillinlimitedusetodaywasdevelopedin1878.Modernlogsuse
electronicsensorsorspinningdevicesthatinducesmallelectricfieldsproportionaltoavesselsspeed.An
enginerevolutioncounterorshaftlogoftenmeasuresspeedonboardlargeships.Dopplerspeedlogsareused
onsomevesselsforveryaccuratespeedreadings.Inertialandsatellitesystemsalsoprovidehighlyaccurate
speedreadings.
TheMetricConversionActof1975andtheOmnibusTradeandCompetitivenessActof1988establishedthe
metricsystemofweightsandmeasuresintheUnitedStates.Asaresult,thegovernmentisconvertingchartsto
themetricformat.Considerationsofexpense,safetyofnavigation,andlogicalsequencingwillrequirea
conversioneffortspanningmanyyears.Notwithstandingtheconversiontothemetricsystem,thecommon
measureofdistanceatseaisthenauticalmile.
ThecurrentpolicyoftheDefenseMappingAgencyHydrographic/TopographicCenter(DMAHTC)andthe
NationalOceanService(NOS)istoconvertnewcompilationsofnautical,specialpurposecharts,and
publicationstothemetricsystem.ThisconversionbeganonJanuary2,1970.Mostmodernmaritimenations
havealsoadoptedthemeterasthestandardmeasureofdepthsandheights.However,olderchartsstillonissue
andthechartsofsomeforeigncountriesmaynotconformtothisstandard.
Thefathomasaunitoflengthordepthisofobscureorigin.Posidoniusreportedasoundingofmorethan1,000
fathomsinthe2ndcenturyBC.Howoldtheunitwasthenisunknown.Manymodernchartsarestillbasedonthe
fathom,asconversiontothemetricsystemcontinues.
Thesailingsrefertovariousmethodsofmathematicallydeterminingcourse,distance,andposition.Theyhave
ahistoryalmostasoldasmathematicsitself.Thales,Hipparchus,Napier,Wright,andotherscontributedthe
formulasthatpermitcomputationofcourseanddistancebyplane,traverse,parallel,middlelatitude,Mercator,
andgreatcirclesailings.
104.TheEarth
Theearthisanoblatespheroid(asphereflattenedatthepoles).Measurementsofitsdimensionsandtheamount
ofitsflatteningaresubjectsofgeodesy.However,formostnavigationalpurposes,assumingasphericalearth
introducesinsignificanterror.TheearthsaxisofrotationisthelineconnectingtheNorthPoleandtheSouth
Pole.
Agreatcircleisthelineofintersectionofasphereandaplanethroughitscenter.Thisisthelargestcirclethat
canbedrawnonasphere.Theshortestlineonthesurfaceofaspherebetweentwopointsonthesurfaceispart
ofagreatcircle.Onthespheroidalearththeshortestlineiscalledageodesic.Agreatcircleisanearenough
approximationtoageodesicformostproblemsofnavigation.Asmallcircleisthelineofintersectionofa
sphereandaplanewhichdoesnotpassthroughthecenter.SeeFigure104a.
Thetermmeridianisusuallyappliedtotheupperbranchofthehalfcirclefrompoletopolewhichpasses
throughagivenpoint.Theoppositehalfiscalledthelowerbranch.
Aparallelorparalleloflatitudeisacircleonthesurfaceoftheearthparalleltotheplaneoftheequator.It
connectsallpointsofequallatitude.Theequatorisagreatcircleatlatitude0.SeeFigure104b.Thepolesare
singlepointsatlatitude90.Allotherparallelsaresmallcircles.
4
INTRODUCTIONTO
MARINENAVIGATION
Figure104a.Theplanesofthemeridiansmeetatthepolaraxis.
105.Coordinates
Coordinates,termedlatitudeandlongitude,candefineanypositiononearth.Latitude(L,lat.)istheangular
distancefromtheequator,measurednorthwardorsouthwardalongameridianfrom0attheequatorto90at
thepoles.Itisdesignatednorth(N)orsouth(S)toindicatethedirectionofmeasurement.
Thedifferenceoflatitude(l,DLat.)betweentwoplacesistheangularlengthofarcofanymeridianbetween
theirparallels.Itisthenumericaldifferenceofthelatitudesiftheplacesareonthesamesideoftheequator;itis
thesumofthelatitudesiftheplacesareonoppositesidesoftheequator.Itmaybedesignatednorth(N)orsouth

(S)whenappropriate.Themiddleormidlatitude(Lm)betweentwoplacesonthesamesideoftheequatoris
halfthesumoftheirlatitudes.MidlatitudeislabeledNorStoindicatewhetheritisnorthorsouthofthe
equator.
Theexpressionmayrefertothemidlatitudeoftwoplacesonoppositesidesoftheequator.Inthiscase,itis
equaltohalfthedifferencebetweenthetwolatitudesandtakesthenameoftheplacefarthestfromtheequator.
However,thisusageismisleadingbecauseitlacksthesignificanceusuallyassociatedwiththeexpression.
Whentheplacesareonoppositesidesoftheequator,twomidlatitudesaregenerallyused.Calculatethesetwo
midlatitudesbyaveragingeachlatitudeand0.
Longitude(l,long.)istheangulardistancebetween
Figure104b.Theequatorisagreatcirclemidwaybetweenthepoles.
theprimemeridianandthemeridianofapointontheearth,measuredeastwardorwestwardfromtheprime
meridianthrough180.Itisdesignatedeast(E)orwest(W)toindicatethedirectionofmeasurement.
Thedifferenceoflongitude(DLo)betweentwoplacesistheshorterarcoftheparallelorthesmallerangleat
thepolebetweenthemeridiansofthetwoplaces.Ifbothplacesareonthesameside(eastorwest)ofGreenwich,
DLoisthenumericaldifferenceofthelongitudesofthetwoplaces;ifonoppositesides,DLoisthenumerical
sumunlessthisexceeds180,whenitis360minusthesum.Thedistancebetweentwomeridiansatany
paralleloflatitude,expressedindistanceunits,usuallynauticalmiles,iscalleddeparture(p,Dep.).Itrepresents
distancemadegoodeastorwestasacraftproceedsfromonepointtoanother.Itsnumericalvaluebetweenany
twomeridiansdecreaseswithincreasedlatitude,whileDLoisnumericallythesameatanylatitude.EitherDLo
orpmaybedesignatedeast(E)orwest(W)whenappropriate.
106.DistanceOnTheEarth
Distance,asusedbythenavigator,isthelengthoftherhumblineconnectingtwoplaces.Thisisalinemaking
thesameanglewithallmeridians.Meridiansandparallelswhichalsomaintainconstanttruedirectionsmaybe
consideredspecialcasesoftherhumbline.Anyotherrhumblinespiralstowardthepole,formingaloxodromic
curveor
INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION 5
107.DirectionOnTheEarth
Figure106.Aloxodrome
loxodrome.SeeFigure106.Distancealongthegreatcircleconnectingtwopointsiscustomarilydesignated
greatcircledistance.Formostpurposes,consideringthenauticalmilethelengthofoneminuteoflatitude
introducesnosignificanterror.
Speed(S)israteofmotion,ordistanceperunitoftime.Aknot(kn.),theunitofspeedcommonlyusedin
navigation,isarateof1nauticalmileperhour.Theexpressionspeedofadvance(SOA)isusedtoindicatethe
speedtobemadealongtheintendedtrack.Speedovertheground(SOG)istheactualspeedofthevesselover
thesurfaceoftheearthatanygiventime.Tocalculatespeedmadegood(SMG)betweentwopositions,divide
thedistancebetweenthetwopositionsbythetimeelapsedbetweenthetwopositions.
Directionisthepositionofonepointrelativetoanothers.Navigatorsexpressdirectionastheangulardifference
indegreesfromareferencedirection,usuallynorthortheshipshead.Course(C,Cn)isthehorizontaldirection
inwhichavesselissteeredorintendedtobesteered,expressedasangulardistancefromnorthclockwise
through360.Strictlyused,thetermappliestodirectionthroughthewater,notthedirectionintendedtobemade
goodovertheground.
Thecourseisoftendesignatedastrue,magnetic,compass,orgridaccordingtothereferencedirection.Track
madegood(TMG)isthesingleresultantdirectionfromthepointofdeparturetopointofarrivalatanygiven
time.Courseofadvance(COA)isthedirectionintendedtobemadegoodovertheground,andcourseover
ground(COG)isthedirectionbetweenavesselslastfixandanEP.Acourselineisalinedrawnonachart
extendinginthedirectionofacourse.Itissometimesconvenienttoexpressacourseasananglefromeither
northorsouth,through90or180.Inthiscaseitisdesignatedcourseangle(C)andshouldbeproperlylabeled
toindicatetheorigin(prefix)anddirectionofmeasurement(suffix).Thus,CN35E=Cn035(000+35),C
N155W=Cn205(360155),CS47E=Cn133(18047).ButCn260maybeeitherCN100WorC
S80W,dependingupontheconditionsoftheproblem.
Track(TR)istheintendedhorizontaldirectionoftravelwithrespecttotheearth.Thetermsintendedtrackand
tracklineareusedtoindicatethepathofintendedtravel.SeeFigure107a.Thetrackconsistsofoneoraseries
ofcourselines,fromthepointofdeparturetothedestination,alongwhichitisintendedtoproceed.Agreat
circlewhichavesselintendstofollowiscalledagreatcircletrack,thoughitconsistsofaseriesofstraight

linesapproximatingagreatcircle.
Figure107a.Courseline,track,trackmadegood,andheading.
6
INTRODUCTIONTO
MARINENAVIGATION
Heading(Hdg.,SH)isthedirectioninwhichavesselispointed,expressedasangulardistancefrom000clock
wisethrough360.Donotconfuseheadingandcourse.Headingconstantlychangesasavesselyawsbackand
forthacrossthecourseduetosea,wind,andsteeringerror.
Bearing(B,Brg.)isthedirectionofoneterrestrialpointfromanother,expressedasangulardistancefrom
000(North)clockwisethrough360.Whenmeasuredthrough90or180fromeithernorthorsouth,itiscalled
bearingangle(B).Bearingandazimutharesometimesusedinterchangeably,butthelattermoreaccuratelyrefers
tothehorizontaldirectionofapointonthecelestialspherefrom
apointontheearth.Arelativebearingismeasuredrelativetotheshipsheadingfrom000(deadahead)
clockwisethrough360.However,itissometimesconvenientlymeasuredrightorleftfrom0attheships
headthrough180.ThisisparticularlytruewhenusingthetableforDistanceofanObjectbyTwoBearings.
Toconvertarelativebearingtoatruebearing,addthetrueheading:
TrueBearing=RelativeBearing+TrueHeading.RelativeBearing=TrueBearingTrueHeading.
Figure107b.RelativeBearing.

DEVELOPMENTOFNAVIGATION
108.LatitudeAndLongitudeDetermination
Navigatorshavemadelatitudeobservationsforthousandsofyears.Accuratesundeclinationtableshavebeen
publishedforcenturies,enablingexperiencedseamentocomputelatitudetowithin1or2degrees.Marinersstill
usemeridianobservationsofthesunandhighlyrefinedexmeridiantechniques.Thosewhotodaydetermine
theirlatitudebymeasuringthealtitudeofPolarisareusingamethodwellknownto15thcenturynavigators.
Amethodoffindinglongitudeeludedmarinersforcenturies.Severalsolutionsindependentoftimeprovedtoo
cumbersome.Thelunardistancemethod,whichdeterminesGMTbyobservingthemoonspositionamongthe
stars,becamepopularinthe1800s.However,themathematicsrequiredbymostoftheseprocesseswerefar
abovethe
abilitiesoftheaverageseaman.Itwasapparentthatthesolutionlayinkeepingaccuratetimeatsea.
In1714,theBritishBoardofLongitudewasformed,offeringasmallfortuneinrewardtoanyonewhocouldpro
videasolutiontotheproblem.
AnEnglishman,JohnHarrison,respondedtothechallenge,developingfourchronometersbetween1735and
1760.Themostaccurateofthesetimepieceslostonly15secondsona156dayroundtripbetweenLondonand
Barbados.TheBoard,however,paidhimonlyhalfthepromisedreward.TheKingfinallyintervenedonHarri
sonsbehalf,andHarrisonreceivedhisfullrewardof20,000attheadvancedageof80.
Rapidchronometerdevelopmentledtotheproblemofdeterminingchronometererroraboardship.Timeballs,
largeblackspheresmountedinportinprominentlocations,
INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION 7
weredroppedatthestrokeofnoon,enablinganyshipinharborwhichcouldseetheballtodetermine
chronometererror.BytheendoftheU.S.CivilWar,telegraphsignalswerebeingusedtokeytimeballs.Useof
radiosignalstosendtimetickstoshipswelloffshorebeganin1904,andsoonworldwidesignalswereavailable.
109.TheNavigationalTriangle
Moderncelestialnavigatorsreducetheircelestialobservationsbysolvinganavigationaltrianglewhosepoints
aretheelevatedpole,thecelestialbody,andthezenithoftheobserver.Thesidesofthistrianglearethepolar
distanceofthebody(codeclination),itszenithdistance(coaltitude),andthepolardistanceofthezenith
(colatitudeoftheobserver).
Asphericaltrianglewasfirstusedatseainsolvinglunardistanceproblems.Simultaneousobservationswere
madeofthealtitudesofthemoonandthesunorastarneartheeclipticandtheangulardistancebetweenthe
moonandtheotherbody.Thezenithoftheobserverandthetwocelestialbodiesformedtheverticesofatriangle
whosesideswerethetwocoaltitudesandtheangulardistancebetweenthebodies.Usingamathematical
calculationthenavigatorclearedthisdistanceoftheeffectsofrefractionandparallaxapplicabletoeach
altitude.Thiscorrectedvaluewasthenusedasanargumentforenteringthealmanac.Thealmanacgavethetrue
lunardistancefromthesunandseveralstarsat3hourintervals.Previously,thenavigatorhadsethiswatchor
checkeditserrorandratewiththelocalmeantimedeterminedbycelestialobservations.Thelocalmeantimeof
thewatch,properlycorrected,appliedtotheGreenwichmeantimeobtainedfromthelunardistance
observation,gavethelongitude.

Thecalculationsinvolvedweretedious.FewmarinerscouldsolvethetriangleuntilNathanielBowditch
publishedhissimplifiedmethodin1802inTheNewAmericanPracticalNavigator.
Reliablechronometerswereavailablein1802,buttheirhighcostprecludedtheirgeneraluseaboardmostships.
However,mostnavigatorscoulddeterminetheirlongitudeusingBowditchsmethod.Thiseliminatedtheneed
forparallelsailingandthelosttimeassociatedwithit.Tablesforthelunardistancesolutionwerecarriedinthe
Americannauticalalmanacuntiltheseconddecadeofthe20thcentury.
110.TheTimeSight
Thetheoryofthetimesighthadbeenknowntomathematicianssincethedevelopmentofspherical
trigonometry,butnotuntilthechronometerwasdevelopedcoulditbeusedbymariners.
Thetimesightusedthemodernnavigationaltriangle.Thecodeclination,orpolardistance,ofthebodycouldbe
determinedfromthealmanac.Thezenithdistance(coaltitude)wasdeterminedbyobservation.Ifthecolatitude
wereknown,three
sidesofthetrianglewereavailable.Fromthesethemeridiananglewascomputed.Thecomparisonofthiswith
theGreenwichhouranglefromthealmanacyieldedthelongitude.
Thetimesightwasmathematicallysound,butthenavigatorwasnotalwaysawarethatthelongitudedetermined
wasonlyasaccurateasthelatitude,andtogethertheymerelyformedapointonwhatisknowntodayasalineof
position.Iftheobservedbodywasontheprimevertical,thelineofpositionrannorthandsouthandasmall
errorinlatitudegenerallyhadlittleeffectonthelongitude.Butwhenthebodywasclosetothemeridian,asmall
errorinlatitudeproducedalargeerrorinlongitude.
Thelineofpositionbycelestialobservationwasunknownuntildiscoveredin1837by30yearoldCaptain
ThomasH.Sumner,aHarvardgraduateandsonofaUnitedStatescongressmanfromMassachusetts.The
discoveryoftheSumnerline,asitissometimescalled,wasconsideredbyMaurythecommencementofa
newerainpracticalnavigation.Thiswastheturningpointinthedevelopmentofmoderncelestialnavigation
technique.InSumnersownwords,thediscoverytookplaceinthismanner:
HavingsailedfromCharleston,S.C.,25thNovember,1837,boundtoGreenock,aseriesofheavygalesfromthe
Westwardpromisedaquickpassage;afterpassingtheAzores,thewindprevailedfromtheSouthward,withthick
weather;afterpassingLongitude21W,noobservationwashaduntilneartheland;butsoundingswerehadnot
far,aswassupposed,fromtheedgeoftheBank.Theweatherwasnowmoreboisterous,andverythick;andthe
windstillSoutherly;arrivingaboutmidnight,17thDecember,within40miles,bydeadreckoning,ofTusker
light;thewindhauledSE,true,makingtheIrishcoastaleeshore;theshipwasthenkeptclosetothewind,and
severaltacksmadetopreserveherpositionasnearlyaspossibleuntildaylight;whennothingbeinginsight,she
waskeptonENEundershortsail,withheavygales;atabout10AManaltitudeofthesunwasobserved,andthe
Chronometertimenoted;but,havingrunsofarwithoutanyobservation,itwasplaintheLatitudebydead
reckoningwasliabletoerror,andcouldnotbeentirelyreliedon.Using,however,thisLatitude,infindingthe
LongitudebyChronometer,itwasfoundtoputtheship15'ofLongitudeEfromherpositionbydeadreckoning;
whichinLatitude52Nis9nauticalmiles;thisseemedtoagreetolerablywellwiththedeadreckoning;but
feelingdoubtfuloftheLatitude,theobservationwastriedwithaLatitude10'furtherN,findingthisplacedthe
shipENE27nauticalmiles,oftheformerposition,itwastriedagainwithaLatitude20'Nofthedead
reckoning;thisalsoplacedtheshipstillfurtherENE,andstill27nauticalmilesfurther;thesethreepositions
werethenseentolieinthedirectionofSmallslight.
Itthenatonceappearedthattheobservedaltitudemusthavehappenedatallthethreepoints,andatSmalls
light,andattheship,atthesameinstantoftime;
8
INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION
Figure110.Thefirstcelestiallineofposition,obtainedbyCaptainThomasSumnerin1837.
anditfollowed,thatSmallslightmustbearENE,iftheChronometerwasright.Havingbeenconvincedofthis
truth,theshipwaskeptonhercourse,ENE,thewindbeingstillSE.,andinlessthananhour,Smallslightwas
madebearingENE1/2E,andcloseaboard.
In1843Sumnerpublishedabook,ANewandAccurateMethodofFindingaShipsPositionatSeaby
ProjectiononMercatorsChart.Heproposedsolvingasingletimesighttwice,usinglatitudessomewhatgreater
andsomewhatlessthanthatarrivedatbydeadreckoning,andjoiningthetwopositionsobtainedtoformtheline
ofposition.
TheSumnermethodrequiredthesolutionoftwotimesightstoobtaineachlineofposition.Manyolder
navigatorspreferrednottodrawthelinesontheircharts,buttofixtheirpositionmathematicallybyamethod
whichSumnerhadalsodevisedandincludedinhisbook.Thiswasatediousbutpopularprocedure.

111.NavigationalTables
Sphericaltrigonometryisthebasisforsolvingeverynavigationaltriangle,anduntilabout80yearsagothenav
igatorhadnochoicebuttosolveeachtrianglebytedious,manualcomputations.
LordKelvin,generallyconsideredthefatherofmodernnavigationalmethods,expressedinterestinabookof
tableswithwhichanavigatorcouldavoidtedioustrigonometricsolutions.However,solvingthemanythousands
oftrianglesinvolvedwouldhavemadetheprojecttoocostly.Computersfinallyprovidedapracticalmeansof
preparingtables.In1936thefirstvolumeofPub.No.214wasmadeavailable;later,Pub.No.249wasprovided
forairnavigators.Pub.No.229,SightReductionTablesforMarineNavigation,hasreplacedPub.No.214.
Moderncalculatorsaregraduallyreplacingthetables.Scientificcalculatorswithtrigonometricfunctionscan
easilysolvethenavigationaltriangle.Navigationalcalculatorsreadilysolvecelestialsightsandperforma
varietyofvoyageplanningfunctions.Usingacalculatorgenerallygivesmoreaccuratelinesofpositionbecause
iteliminatestheroundingerrorsinherentintabularinspectionandinterpolation.
112.ElectronicsAndNavigation
Perhapsthefirstapplicationofelectronicstonavigationinvolvedsendingtelegraphictimesignalsin1865to
INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION 9
checkchronometererror.Transmittingradiotimesignalsforatseachronometerchecksdatesto1904.
Radiobroadcastsprovidingnavigationalwarnings,begunin1907bytheU.S.NavyHydrographicOffice,
helpedincreasethesafetyofnavigationatsea.
BythelatterpartofWorldWarIthedirectionalpropertiesofaloopantennaweresuccessfullyusedintheradio
directionfinder.Thefirstradiobeaconwasinstalledin1921.Early20thcenturyexperimentsbyBehmandLan
gevinledtotheU.S.Navysdevelopmentofthefirstpracticalechosounderin1922.
Today,electronicstouchesalmosteveryaspectofnavigation.Hyperbolicsystems,satellitesystems,and
electronicchartsallrequireanincreasinglysophisticatedelectronicssuite.Thesesystemsaccuracyandeaseof
usemaketheminvaluableassetstothenavigator.Indeed,itisnoexaggerationtostatethat,withtheadventof
theelectronicchartanddifferentialGPS,themarinerwillsoonbeabletonavigatefromporttoportusing
electronicnavigationequipmentalone.
113.DevelopmentOfRadar
Asearlyas1904,Germanengineerswereexperimentingwithreflectedradiowaves.In1922twoAmerican
scientists,Dr.A.HoytTaylorandLeoC.Young,testingacommunicationsystemattheNavalAircraftRadio
Laboratory,notedfluctuationsinthesignalswhenshipspassedbetweenstationsonoppositesidesofthe
PotomacRiver.In1935theBritishbeganworkonradar.In1937theUSSLearytestedthefirstseagoing
radar.In1940UnitedStatesandBritishscientistscombinedtheirefforts.WhentheBritishrevealedthe
principleofthemulticavitymagnetrondevelopedbyJ.T.RandallandH.A.H.BootattheUniversityof
Birminghamin1939,microwaveradarbecamepractical.In1945,atthecloseofWorldWarII,radarbecame
availableforcommercialuse.
114.DevelopmentOfHyperbolicRadioAids
Various
hyperbolic
systems
were developed
fromWorldWarII,includingLoranA.This
wasreplacedbythemoreaccurateLoranCsysteminusetoday.Usingverylowfrequencies,theOmega
navigationsystemprovidesworldwide,thoughlessaccurate,coverageforavarietyofapplicationsincluding
marinenavigation.Variousshortrangeandregionalhyperbolicsystemshavebeendevelopedbyprivate
industryforhydrographicsurveying,offshorefacilitiespositioning,andgeneralnavigation.
115.OtherElectronicSystems
TheNavyNavigationSatelliteSystem(NAVSAT)fulfilledarequirementestablishedbytheChiefofNaval
Operationsforanaccurateworldwidenavigationsystemforallnavalsurfacevessels,aircraft,andsubmarines.
ThesystemwasconceivedanddevelopedbytheAppliedPhysicsLaboratoryofTheJohnsHopkinsUniversity.
Theunderlyingconceptthatledtodevelopmentofsatellitenavigationdatesto1957andthefirstlaunchofan
artificialsatelliteintoorbit.NAVSAThasbeenreplacedbythefarmoreaccurateandwidelyavailableGlobal
PositioningSystem(GPS).
Thefirstinertialnavigationsystemwasdevelopedin1942foruseintheV2missilebythePeenemundegroup
undertheleadershipofDr.WernhervonBraun.Thissystemusedtwo2degreeoffreedomgyroscopesandan
integratingaccelerometertodeterminethemissilevelocity.BytheendofWorldWarII,thePeenemundegroup
haddevelopedastableplatformwiththreesingledegreeoffreedomgyroscopesandanintegrating
accelerometer.In1958aninertialnavigationsystemwasusedtonavigatetheUSSNautilusundertheicetothe
NorthPole.

NAVIGATIONORGANIZATIONS
7

116.GovernmentalRoles
Navigationonlyagenerationagowasanindependentprocess,carriedoutbythemarinerwithoutoutsideassis
tance.Withcompassandcharts,sextantandchronometer,hecouldindependentlytravelanywhereintheworld.
Theincreasinguseofelectronicnavigationsystemshasmadethenavigatordependentonmanyfactorsoutside
hiscontrol.Governmentorganizationsfund,operate,andregulatesatellites,Loran,andotherelectronic
systems.Governmentsareincreasinglyinvolvedinregulationofvesselmovementsthroughtrafficcontrol
systemsandregulatedareas.Understandingthegovernmentalroleinsupportingandregulatingnavigationis
vitallyimportanttothemariner.IntheUnitedStates,thereareanumberofofficialorganizationswhichsupport
theinterestsofnavigators.Somehaveapolicymakingrole;othersbuildandoperate
navigationsystems.Manymaritimenationshavesimilarorganizationsperformingsimilarfunctions.
Internationalorganizationsalsoplayasignificantrole.
117.TheCoastAndGeodeticSurvey
TheU.S.CoastandGeodeticSurveywasfoundedin1807whenCongresspassedaresolutionauthorizinga
surveyofthecoast,harbors,outlyingislands,andfishingbanksoftheUnitedStates.PresidentThomas
JeffersonappointedFerdinandHassler,aSwissimmigrantandprofessorofmathematicsatWestPoint,thefirst
DirectoroftheSurveyoftheCoast.ThesurveybecametheCoastSurveyin1836.
TheapproachestoNewYorkwerethefirstsectionsofthecoastcharted,andfromtheretheworkspread
northwardandsouthwardalongtheeasternseaboard.In1844thework
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INTRODUCTIONTO
MARINENAVIGATION
wasexpandedandarrangementsmadetochartsimultaneouslythegulfandeastcoasts.Investigationoftidal
conditionsbegan,andin1855thefirsttablesoftidepredictionswerepublished.TheCaliforniagoldrush
necessitatedasurveyofthewestcoast.Thissurveybeganin1850,theyearCaliforniabecameastate.Coast
Pilots,orSailingDirections,fortheAtlanticcoastoftheUnitedStateswereprivatelypublishedinthefirsthalf
ofthe19thcentury.In1850theSurveybeganaccumulatingdatathatledtofederallyproducedCoastPilots.The
1889PacificCoastPilotwasanoutstandingcontributiontothesafetyofwestcoastshipping.
In1878thesurveywasrenamedCoastandGeodeticSurvey.In1970thesurveybecametheNationalOcean
Survey,andin1983itbecametheNationalOceanService.TheOfficeofChartingandGeodeticServices
accomplishedallchartingandgeodeticfunctions.In1991thenamewaschangedbacktotheoriginalCoastand
GeodeticSurvey,organizedundertheNationalOceanServicealongwithseveralotherenvironmentaloffices.
TodayitprovidesthemarinerwiththechartsandcoastpilotsofallwatersoftheUnitedStatesandits
possessions,andtideandtidalcurrenttablesformuchoftheworld.ItsadministrativeorderrequirestheCoast
andGeodeticSurveytoplananddirectprogramstoproducechartsandrelatedinformationforsafenavigationof
theNationswaterways,territorialseas,andnationalairspace.Thisworkincludesallactivitiesrelatedtothe
NationalGeodeticReferenceSystem;surveying,charting,anddatacollection;productionanddistributionof
charts;andresearchanddevelopmentofnewtechnologiestoenhancethesemissions.
118.TheDefenseMappingAgency
InthefirstyearsofthenewlyformedUnitedStatesofAmerica,chartsandinstrumentsusedbytheNavyand
merchantmarinerswereleftoverfromcolonialdaysorwereobtainedfromEuropeansources.In1830theU.S.
NavyestablishedaDepotofChartsandInstrumentsinWashington,D.C.Itwasastorehousefromwhich
availablecharts,sailingdirections,andnavigationalinstrumentswereissuedtoNavalships.LieutenantL.M.
Goldsboroughandoneassistant,PassedMidshipmanR.B.Hitchcock,constitutedtheentirestaff.
ThefirstchartpublishedbytheDepotwasproducedfromdataobtainedinasurveymadebyLieutenantCharles
Wilkes,whohadsucceededGoldsboroughin1834.WilkeslaterearnedfameastheleaderofaUnitedStates
expeditiontoAntarctica.From1842until1861LieutenantMatthewFontaineMauryservedasOfficerinCharge.
UnderhiscommandtheDepotrosetointernationalprominence.Maurydecideduponanambitiousplanto
increasethemarinersknowledgeofexistingwinds,weather,andcurrents.Hebeganbymakingadetailed
recordofpertinentmatterincludedinoldlogbooksstoredattheDepot.Hetheninauguratedahydrographic
reportingprogramamongshipmasters,andthethousandsofreportsreceived,along
withthelogbookdata,werecompiledintotheWindandCurrentChartoftheNorthAtlanticin1847.Thisis
theancestoroftodaysPilotChart.TheUnitedStatesinstigatedaninternationalconferencein1853tointerest
othernationsinasystemofexchangingnauticalinformation.Theplan,whichwasMaurys,wasenthusiastically
adoptedbyothermaritimenations.In1854theDepotwasredesignatedtheU.S.NavalObservatoryand
HydrographicalOffice.In1861,Maury,anativeofVirginia,resignedfromtheU.S.Navyandaccepteda
commissionintheConfederateNavyatthebeginningoftheCivilWar.Thiseffectivelyendedhiscareerasa
navigator,author,andoceanographer.Atwarsend,hefledthecountry.Maurysreputationsufferedfromhis

embracingtheConfederatecause.In1867,whileMaurywasstillabsentfromthecountrytoavoidarrestfor
treason,GeorgeW.Blunt,aneditorofhydrographicpublications,wrote:
Inmentioningwhatourgovernmenthasdonetowardsnauticalknowledge,Idonotalludetotheworksof
LieutenantMaury,becauseIdeemthemworthless....Theyhavebeensuppressedsincetherebellionbyorderof
theproperauthorities,Maurysloyaltyandhydrographybeingalikeinquality.
AfterMaurysreturntotheUnitedStatesin1868,heservedasaninstructorattheVirginiaMilitaryInstitute.He
continuedatthispositionuntilhisdeathin1873.Sincehisdeath,hisreputationasoneofAmericasgreatest
hydrographershasbeenrestored.
In1866CongressseparatedtheObservatoryandtheHydrographicOffice,broadlyincreasingthefunctionsofthe
latter.TheHydrographicOfficewasauthorizedtocarryoutsurveys,collectinformation,andprinteverykindof
nauticalchartandpublicationforthebenefitanduseofnavigatorsgenerally.
TheHydrographicOfficepurchasedthecopyrightofTheNewAmericanPracticalNavigatorin1867.Thefirst
NoticetoMarinersappearedin1869.Dailybroadcastofnavigationalwarningswasinauguratedin1907.In
1912,followingthesinkingoftheTitanic,theInternationalIcePatrolwasestablished.
In1962theU.S.NavyHydrographicOfficewasredesignatedtheU.S.NavalOceanographicOffice.In1972
certainhydrographicfunctionsofthelatterofficeweretransferredtotheDefenseMappingAgency
HydrographicCenter.In1978theDefenseMappingAgencyHydrographic/TopographicCenter
(DMAHTC)assumedhydrographicandtopographicchartproductionfunctions.DMAHTCprovidessupportto
theU.S.DepartmentofDefenseandotherfederalagenciesonmattersconcerningmapping,charting,and
geodesy.ItcontinuestofulfilltheoldHydrographicOfficesresponsibilitiestonavigatorsgenerally.
INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION 11
119.TheUnitedStatesCoastGuard
AlexanderHamiltonestablishedtheU.S.CoastGuardastheRevenueMarine,latertheRevenueCutterService,
onAugust4,1790.Itwaschargedwithenforcingthecustomslawsofthenewnation.Arevenuecutter,the
HarrietLane,firedthefirstshotfromanavalunitintheCivilWaratFortSumter.TheRevenueCutterService
becametheU.S.CoastGuardwhencombinedwiththeLifesavingServicein1915.TheLighthouseServicewas
addedin1939,andtheBureauofMarineInspectionandNavigationwasaddedin1942.TheCoastGuardwas
transferredfromtheTreasuryDepartmenttotheDepartmentofTransportationin1967.
TheprimaryfunctionsoftheCoastGuardincludemaritimesearchandrescue,lawenforcement,andoperation
ofthenationsaidstonavigationsystem.Inaddition,theCoastGuardisresponsibleforportsafetyandsecurity,
merchantmarineinspection,andmarinepollutioncontrol.TheCoastGuardoperatesalargeandvariedfleetof
ships,boats,andaircraftinperformingitswidelyrangingduties.
NavigationsystemsoperatedbytheCoastGuardincludethesystemofsome40,000lightedandunlighted
beacons,buoys,andrangesinU.S.waters;theU.S.stationsoftheLoranCsystem;theOmeganavigation
system;radiobeaconsandracons;differentialGPS(DGPS)servicesintheU.S.;andVesselTrafficServices
(VTS)inmajorportsandharborsoftheU.S.
120.TheUnitedStatesNavy
TheU.S.Navywasofficiallyestablishedin1798.Itsroleinthedevelopmentofnavigationaltechnologyhas
beensingular.FromthefoundingoftheNavalObservatorytothedevelopmentofthemostadvancedelectronics,
theU.S.Navyhasbeenaleaderindevelopingdevicesandtechniquesdesignedtomakethenavigatorsjobsafer
andeasier.
ThedevelopmentofalmosteverydeviceknowntonavigationsciencehasbeendeeplyinfluencedbyNaval
policy.SomesystemsaredirectoutgrowthsofspecificNavalneeds;somearetheresultoftechnologicalim
provementssharedwithotherservicesandwithcommercialmaritimeindustry.
121.TheUnitedStatesNavalObservatory
OneofthefirstobservatoriesintheUnitedStateswasbuiltin18311832atChapelHill,N.C.TheDepotof
ChartsandInstruments,establishedin1830,wastheagencyfromwhichtheU.S.NavyHydrographicOfficeand
theU.S.NavalObservatoryevolved36yearslater.UnderLieutenantCharlesWilkes,thesecondOfficerin
Charge,theDepotabout1835installedasmalltransitinstrumentforratingchronometers.
TheMalloryActof1842providedfortheestablishmentofapermanentobservatory.Thedirectorwas
authorizedtopurchaseeverythingnecessarytocontinueastronomicalstudy.Theobservatorywascompletedin
1844andtheresultsofitsfirstobservationswerepublishedtwoyearslater.CongressestablishedtheNaval
Observatoryasaseparateagencyin1866.In1873arefractingtelescopewitha26inchaperture,thentheworlds
largest,wasinstalled.Theobservatory,locatedinWashington,D.C.,hasoccupieditspresentsitesince1893.
122.TheRoyalGreenwichObservatory

Englandhadnoearlyprivatelysupportedobservatoriessuchasthoseonthecontinent.Theneedfornavigational
advancementwasignoredbyHenryVIIIandElizabethI,butin1675CharlesII,attheurgingofJohnFlamsteed,
JonasMoore,LeSieurdeSaintPierre,andChristopherWren,establishedtheGreenwichRoyalObservatory.
Charleslimitedconstructioncoststo500,andappointedFlamsteedthefirstAstronomerRoyal,atanannual
salaryof100.Theequipmentavailableintheearlyyearsoftheobservatoryconsistedoftwoclocks,a
sextantof7footradius,aquadrantof3footradius,twotelescopes,andthestarcatalogpublishedalmosta
centurybeforebyTychoBrahe.ThirteenyearspassedbeforeFlamsteedhadaninstrumentwithwhichhecould
determinehislatitudeaccurately.
In1690atransitinstrumentequippedwithatelescopeandvernierwasinventedbyRomer;helateraddeda
verticalcircletothedevice.Thisenabledtheastronomertodeterminedeclinationandrightascensionatthe
sametime.OneoftheseinstrumentswasaddedtotheequipmentatGreenwichin1721,replacingthehuge
quadrantpreviouslyused.Thedevelopmentandperfectionofthechronometerinthenexthundredyearsaddedto
theaccuracyofobservations.
Othernationalobservatorieswereconstructedintheyearsthatfollowed:atBerlinin1705,St.Petersburgin
1725,Palermoin1790,CapeofGoodHopein1820,ParramattainNewSouthWalesin1822,andSydneyin
1855.
123.TheInternationalHydrographicOrganization
TheInternationalHydrographicOrganization(IHO)wasoriginallyestablishedin1921astheInternational
HydrographicBureau(IHB).Thepresentnamewasadoptedin1970asaresultofarevisedinternationalagree
mentamongmembernations.However,theformername,InternationalHydrographicBureau,wasretainedfor
theIHOsadministrativebodyofthreeDirectorsandasmallstaffattheorganizationsheadquartersinMonaco.
TheIHOsetsforthhydrographicstandardstobeagreeduponbythemembernations.Allmemberstatesare
urgedandencouragedtofollowthesestandardsintheirsurveys,nauticalcharts,andpublications.Asthese
standardsareuniformlyadopted,theproductsoftheworldshydrographicandoceanographicofficesbecome
moreuniform.Muchhasbeendoneinthefieldofstandardizationsincethe
12
INTRODUCTIONTO
MARINENAVIGATION
Bureauwasfounded.TheprincipalworkundertakenbytheIHOis:
Tobringaboutacloseandpermanentassociationbetweennationalhydrographicoffices.
Tostudymattersrelatingtohydrographyandalliedsciencesandtechniques.
Tofurthertheexchangeofnauticalchartsanddocumentsbetweenhydrographicofficesofmembergovernments.
Tocirculatetheappropriatedocuments.Totenderguidanceandadviceuponrequest,inparticulartocountries
engagedinsettingupor
expandingtheirhydrographicservice.Toencouragecoordinationofhydrographicsurveys
withrelevantoceanographicactivities.Toextendandfacilitatetheapplicationofoceano
graphicknowledgeforthebenefitofnavigators.Tocooperatewithinternationalorganizationsandscientific
institutionswhichhaverelatedobjectives.
Duringthe19thcentury,manymaritimenationsestablishedhydrographicofficestoprovidemeansfor
improvingthenavigationofnavalandmerchantvesselsbyprovidingnauticalpublications,nauticalcharts,and
othernavigationalservices.Thereweresubstantialdifferencesinhydrographicprocedures,charts,and
publications.In1889,anInternationalMarineConferencewasheldatWashington,D.C.,anditwasproposed
toestablishapermanentinternationalcommission.Similarproposalsweremadeatthesessionsofthe
InternationalCongressofNavigationheldatSt.Petersburgin1908andagainin1912.
In1919thehydrographersofGreatBritainandFrancecooperatedintakingthenecessarystepstoconveneanin
ternationalconferenceofhydrographers.Londonwasselectedasthemostsuitableplaceforthisconference,and
onJuly24,1919,theFirstInternationalConferenceopened,attendedbythehydrographersof24nations.The
objectoftheconferencewasToconsidertheadvisabilityofallmaritimenationsadoptingsimilarmethodsin
thepreparation,construction,andproductionoftheirchartsandallhydrographicpublications;ofrenderingthe
resultsinthemostconvenientformtoenablethemtobereadilyused;ofinstitutingapromptsystemofmutual
exchangeofhydrographicinformationbetweenallcountries;andofprovidinganopportunitytoconsultations
anddiscussionstobecarriedoutonhydrographicsubjectsgenerallybythehydrographicexpertsoftheworld.
ThisisstillthemajorpurposeoftheInternationalHydrographicOrganization.
Asaresultoftheconference,apermanentorganizationwasformedandstatutesforitsoperationswereprepared.
TheInternationalHydrographicBureau,nowtheInternationalHydrographicOrganization,beganitsactivities
in1921with18nationsasmembers.ThePrincipalityofMonacowasselectedbecauseofitseasy
communicationwiththerestoftheworldandalsobecauseofthegenerousofferofPrinceAlbertIof

10

MonacotoprovidesuitableaccommodationsfortheBureauinthePrincipality.Therearecurrently59member
governments.TechnicalassistancewithhydrographicmattersisavailablethroughtheIHOtomemberstates
requiringit.
ManyIHOpublicationsareavailabletothegeneralpublic,suchastheInternationalHydrographicReview,In
ternationalHydrographicBulletin,ChartSpecificationsoftheIHO,HydrographicDictionary,andothers.
InquiriesshouldbemadetotheInternationalHydrographicBureau,7AvenuePresidentJ.F.Kennedy,B.P.445,
MC98011,Monaco,CEDEX.
124.TheInternationalMaritimeOrganization
TheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO)wasestablishedbyUnitedNationsConventionin1948.The
Conventionactuallyenteredintoforcein1959,althoughaninternationalconventiononmarinepollutionwas
adoptedin1954.(Until1982theofficialnameoftheorganizationwastheInterGovernmentalMaritime
ConsultativeOrganization.)ItistheonlypermanentbodyoftheU.N.devotedtomaritimematters,andthe
onlyspecialU.N.agencytohaveitsheadquartersintheUK.
ThegoverningbodyoftheIMOistheAssemblyof137memberstates,whichmeetseverytwoyears.Between
AssemblysessionsaCouncil,consistingof32membergovernmentselectedbytheAssembly,governsthe
organization.Itsworkiscarriedoutbythefollowingcommittees:
MaritimeSafetyCommittee,withsubcommitteesfor:
SafetyofNavigationRadiocommunicationsLifesavingSearchandRescueTrainingandWatchkeeping
CarriageofDangerousGoodsShipDesignandEquipmentFireProtectionStabilityandLoadLines/Fishing
VesselSafetyContainersandCargoesBulkChemicalsMarineEnvironmentProtectionCommittee
LegalCommitteeTechnicalCooperationCommitteeFacilitationCommittee
IMOisheadedbytheSecretaryGeneral,appointedbythecouncilandapprovedbytheAssembly.Heisassisted
bysome300civilservants.
Toachieveitsobjectivesofcoordinatinginternationalpolicyonmarinematters,theIMOhasadoptedsome30
conventionsandprotocols,andadoptedover700codesandrecommendations.Anissuetobeadoptedfirstis
broughtbeforeacommitteeorsubcommittee,whichsubmitsadrafttoaconference.Whentheconference
adoptsthefinaltext,itissubmitted
INTRODUCTIONTOMARINENAVIGATION 13
tomembergovernmentsforratification.Ratificationbyaspecifiednumberofcountriesisnecessaryfor
adoption;themoreimportanttheissue,themorecountriesmustratify.Adoptedconventionsarebindingon
membergovernments.
Codesandrecommendationsarenotbinding,butinmostcasesaresupportedbydomesticlegislationbythe
governmentsinvolved.
ThefirstandmostfarreachingconventionadoptedbytheIMOwastheConventionofSafetyofLifeatSea
(SOLAS)in1960.Thisconventionactuallycameintoforcein1965,replacingaversionfirstadoptedin1948.
Becauseofthedifficultprocessofbringingamendmentsintoforceinternationally,noneofsubsequent
amendmentsbecamebinding.Toremedythissituation,anewconventionwasadoptedin1974,andbecame
bindingin1980.AmongtheregulationsisV20,requiringthecarriageofuptodatechartsandpublications
sufficientfortheintendedvoyage.
Otherconventionsandamendmentswerealsoadopted,suchastheInternationalConventiononLoadLines
(adopted1966,cameintoforce1968),aconventiononthetonnagemeasurementofships(adopted1969,came
intoforce1982),TheInternationalConventiononSafeContainers(adopted1972,cameintoforce1977),andthe
conventiononInternationalRegulationsforPreventingCollisionsatSea(COLREGS)(adopted1972,
cameintoforce1977).
The1972COLREGSconventioncontained,amongotherprovisions,asectiondevotedtoTrafficSeparation
Schemes,whichbecamebindingonmemberstatesafterhavingbeenadoptedasrecommendationsinprioryears.
OneofthemostimportantconventionsistheInternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfrom
Ships(MARPOL73/78),whichwasfirstadoptedin1973,amendedbyProtocolin1978,andbecamebindingin
1983.Thisconventionbuiltonaseriesofpriorconventionsandagreementsdatingfrom1954,highlightedby
severalseverepollutiondisastersinvolvingoiltankers.TheMARPOLconventionreducestheamountofoil
dischargedintotheseabyships,andbansdischargescompletelyincertainareas.Arelatedconventionknown
astheLondonDumpingConventionregulatesdumpingofhazardouschemicalsandotherdebrisintothesea.
IMOalsodevelopsminimumperformancestandardsforawiderangeofequipmentrelevanttosafetyatsea.
AmongsuchstandardsisonefortheElectronicChartDisplayandInformationSystem(ECDIS),thedigital
displaydeemedtheoperationalandlegalequivalentoftheconventionalpaperchart.

11

Textsofthevariousconventionsandrecommendations,aswellasacatalogandpublicationsonothersubjects,
areavailablefromthePublicationsSectionoftheIMOat4AlbertEmbankment,LondonSE17SR,United
Kingdom.
125.TheInternationalAssociationOfLighthouseAuthorities
TheInternationalAssociationofLighthouseAuthorities(IALA)bringstogetherrepresentativesoftheaids
tonavigationservicesofmorethan80membercountriesfortechnicalcoordination,informationsharing,and
coordinationofimprovementstovisualaidstonavigationthroughouttheworld.Itwasestablishedin1957to
provideapermanentorganizationtosupportthegoalsoftheTechnicalLighthouseConferences,whichhad
beenconveningsince1929.TheGeneralAssemblyofIALAmeetsaboutevery4years.TheCouncilof20
membersmeetstwiceayeartooverseetheongoingprograms.
Fivetechnicalcommitteesmaintainthepermanentprograms:

TheMarineMarkingCommitteeTheRadionavigationSystemsCommitteeTheVesselTraffic
Services(VTS)CommitteeTheReliabilityCommittee TheDocumentationCommittee
IALAcommitteesprovideimportantdocumentationtotheIHOandotherinternationalorganizations,whilethe
IALASecretariatactsasaclearinghousefortheexchangeoftechnicalinformation,andorganizesseminarsand
technicalsupportfordevelopingcountries.
Itsprincipleworksince1973hasbeentheimplementationoftheIALAMaritimeBuoyageSystem,described
inChapter5,VisualAidstoNavigation.Thissystemreplacedsome30dissimilarbuoyagesystemsinuse
throughouttheworldwith2majorsystems.
IALAisbasednearParis,FranceinSaintGermaineenLaye.
126.TheRadioTechnicalCommissionforMaritimeServices
TheRadioTechnicalCommissionforMaritimeServicesisanonprofitorganizationwhichservesasafocal
pointfortheexchangeofinformationandthedevelopmentofrecommendationsandstandardsrelatedtoall
aspectsofmaritimetelecommunications.
Specifically,RTCM:
Promotesideasandexchangesinformationonmaritimetelecommunications.
Facilitatesthedevelopmentandexchangeofviewsamonggovernment,business,andthepublic.
Conductsstudiesandpreparesreportsonmaritimetelecommunicationsissuestoimproveefficiencyand
capabilities.
Suggestsminimumessentialrulesandregulationsforeffectivetelecommunications.
Makesrecommendationsonimportantissues.Pursuesotheractivitiesaspermittedbyitsbylaws
andmembership.
Bothgovernmentandnongovernmentorganizationsaremembers,includingmanyfromforeignnations.Theor
14
INTRODUCTIONTO
MARINENAVIGATION
ganizationconsistsofaBoardofDirectors,theAssemblyconsistingofallMembers,Officers,staff,technical
advisors,andstandingandspecialcommittees.
WorkingcommitteesareformedasneededtodevelopofficialRTCMrecommendationsregardingtechnical
standardsandpoliciesinthemaritimefield.Currentlycommitteesexistformaritimesafetyinformation,
electroniccharts,emergencypositionindicating radiobeacons (EPIRBs) and
personal
locator
beacons,survivalcrafttelecommunications,differentialGPS,andGLONASS.Adhoccommitteesaddressshort
termconcernssuchasregulatoryproposals.
RTCMheadquartersisinWashingtonD.C.
127.TheNationalMarineElectronicAssociation
TheNationalMarineElectronicAssociation(NMEA)isaprofessionaltradeassociationfoundedin
1957whosepurposeistocoordinatetheeffortsofmarineelectronicsmanufacturers,technicians,government
agencies,shipandboatbuilders,andotherinterestedgroups.Inadditiontocertifyingmarineelectronics
techniciansandprofessionallyrecognizingoutstandingachievementsbycorporateandindividualmembers,the
NMEAsetsstandardsfortheexchangeofdigitaldatabyallmanufacturersofmarineelectronicequipment.
Thisallowstheconfigurationofintegratednavigationsystemusingequipmentfromdifferentmanufacturers.
NMEAworkscloselywithRTCMandotherprivateorganizationsandwithgovernmentagenciestomonitorthe
statusoflawsandregulationsaffectingthemarineelectronicsindustry.
Italsosponsorsconferencesandseminars,andpublishesanumberofguidesandperiodicalsformembersand
thegeneralpublic.

12