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LECTURE # 1
Basic definition, amu, NA & Mole, Moles of atoms and molecules :
Introduction :
There are a large number of objects around us which we can see and feel.
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter.
Ancient Indian and Greek Philosphers beleived that the wide variety of object around us are made from
combination of five basic elements : Earth, Fire, Water, Air and Sky.
Ancient Greek Philosphers also believed that all matter was composed of tiny building blocks which were
hard and indivisible.The Greek philosphere Democritus named these building blocks as atoms, meaning
indivisible.All these people have their philosphical view about matter, they were never put to experimental
tests, nor ever explain any scientific truth.It was John Dalton who firstly developed a theory on the
structure of matter, later on which is known as Daltons atomic theory.
1.
2.
All the atoms of a given element is idenctical in all respect i.e. mass, shape, size, etc.
3.
4.
Page No. # 1
Classification of matter
Liquids
Gases
Pure substances
Element
Mixtures
Compound
On Hydrogen scale :
Relative atomic mass (R.A.M) =
Oxygen scale :
Relative atomic mass (R.A.M) =
II.
1
mass of one C-12 atom
12
~ mass of one neucleon in C-12 atom.
= 1.66 1024 gm or 1.66 1027 kg
1 amu =
one amu is also called one Dalton (Da).TODAY , AMU HAS BEEN REPLACED BY u WHICH IS
KNOWN AS UNIFIED MASS
Page No. # 2
III.
ATOMIC MASS
It is the mass of 1 atom of a substance it is expressed in AMU.
Atomic mass = R.A.M 1 amu
Note : Relative atomic mass is nothing but the number of nucleons present in the atom.
Example :
Find the relative atomic mass of O atom and its atomic mass.
Sol.
The number of neucleons present in O atom is 16.
Find the relative atomic mass, atomic mass of the following elements.
(i) Na (ii) F
(iii) H
(iv) Ca (v) Ag
(i) 23, 23 amu (ii) 19, 19 amu (iii) 1, 1.008 amu (iv) 40, 40.078 amu (v) 108, 107.87 amu
Q.
Ans.
How many neucleons are present in 5 atoms of an element which has atomic mass 14 amu
= 70
IV.
= 12g
= 12 g
1 mole =
V.
1.66 x 10 24
= 6.023 x 1023
Q.
x 1.66 x 10 24 = 16 g
1
x=
1.66 x 10 24
= NA
Page No. # 3
or
It is also defined as mass of 6.02 1023 atoms.
or
It is also defined as the mass of one mole atoms.
Now see the table given below and understand the definition given before.
Element
R.A.M.
(Relative Atomic Mass)
Atomic mass
(mass of one atom)
14
14 amu
14 gm
He
4 amu
4 gm
12
12 amu
12 gm
Example :
What is the weight of 3-g atoms of sulphur R.A.M. of s = 32.
Ans.
96 g
Example :
How many g atoms are present in 144 g of sulphur
Ans.
4.5 g atoms
Example :
The ratio of mass of a silver atom to the mass of a carbon atom is 9 : 1. Find the mass of 1 mole of C atom
if molar mass of Ag is 108.
Ans.
12
Example :
Calculate mass of sodium which contains same number of atoms as are present in 4g of calcium. Atomic
masses of sodium and calcium are 23 and 40 respectively.
Ans. 2.3 g
VI.
MOLECULES :
It is the smallest particle of matter which has free existence. Molecules can be further divided into its
constituents atoms by physical & chemical process.
Number of atoms presents in molecule is called its atomicity.
Element :
H2, O2, O3 etc.
Compound :
KCl, H2SO4, KClO4 etc.
Molecule
KCl
H2SO4
O3
H2
VII.
Atomicity
2
7
3
2
MOLECULAR MASS :
It is the mass of one molecule
Ex.
Molecule
H2
KCl
H2SO4
Molecular mass
2 amu
(39 + 35.5) = 74.50 amo
(2 + 32 + 64) = 98 amu.
Page No. # 4
The molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram is called the gram-molecular mass of the substance.
or
23
It is also defined as mass of 6.02 10 molecules
or
It is also defined as the mass of one mole molecules. (molar mass)
For example for O2 molecule :
Molecular mass of O2 molecule = mass of one O2 molecule
= 2 mass of one O atom
= 2 16 amu
= 32 amu
gram molecular mass = mass of 6.02 1023 O2 molecules = 32 amu 6.02 1023
= 32 1.66 1024 gm 6.02 1023 = 32 gm
294
= 3 moles
98
H
2 atom
2 NA atoms
2 mole
6 mole
S
one atom
1 NA atoms
one mole
3 mole
O
4 atom
4 NA atoms
4 mole
12 mole
Example :
A sample of (C2H6) ethane has the same mass as 107 molecules of methane. How many C2H6 molecules
does the sample contain ?
Ans.
n = 5.34 106
Example :
How many molecules of water are present in 252 mg of (H2C2O4.2H2O)
Page No. # 5
Ans.
2.4 1021
Example :
From 48 g of the He sample ,6.023 x 1023 atoms of He are removed. Find out the moles of He left.Also
Calculate the mass of carbon which contains same number of atoms as left over in this sample.
Ans.
11 mole, 132 g of C.
LECTURE # 2
Laws of chemical combination, Molar volume of ideal gasses at STP, Average
molar mass.
II
1.
2.
Ex.
In water (H2O), Hydrogen and Oxygen combine in 2 : 1 molar ratio, this ratio remains constant whether it
is tap water, river water or sea water or produced by any chemical reaction.
Ex.
1.80 g of a certain metal burnt in oxygen gave 3.0 g of its oxide. 1.50 g of the same metal heated in steam
gave 2.50 g of its oxide. Show that these results illustrate the law of constant proportion.
In the first sample of the oxide,
Wt. of metal = 1.80 g,
Wt. of oxygen = (3.0 1.80) g = 1.2 g
Sol.
wt. of metal
1.80g
1.5
wt. of oxygen
1.2g
wt. of metal
1.50 g
1.5
wt. of oxygen
1g
Thus, in both samples of the oxide the proportions of the weights of the metal and oxygen are fixed. Hence,
Page No. # 6
3.
one elements, which combines with a constant mass of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another.
Note : Simple ratio here means the ratio between small natural numbers, such as 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 1 : 3, later on this
simple ratio becomes the valency and then oxidation state of the element.
Ex.
Carbon and oxygen when combine, can form two oxides viz CO (carbonmonoxide), CO2 (Carbondioxides)
In CO, 12 gm carbon combined with 16 gm of oxygen.
In CO2, 12 gm carbon combined with 32 gm of oxygen.
Thus, we can see the mass of oxygen which combine with a constant mass of carbon (12 gm) bear simple
ratio of 16 : 32 or 1 : 2
Note : See oxidation number of carbon also have same ratio 1 : 2 in both the oxide.
4.
Absolute density =
Page No. # 7
*
Ex.
Ans.
RELATIVE DENSITY :
Ex.
M.W . SO 2
V.D. = M.W . CH
4
V.D =
Ex.
64
=4
16
1 vol
Cl2 (g)
2HCl
1 vol
2 vol
AVOGADROS HYPOTHESIS :
Equal volume of all gases have equal number of molecules (not atoms) at same temperature and
pressure condition.
mathematically, for ideal gases, V n (CONSTANT T & P)
S.T.P. (Standard Temperature and Pressure):
At S.T.P. / N.T.P. condition :
temperature = 0C or 273 K
pressure = 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg
volume of one mole of an ideal gas = 22.4 litres (experimentally determined)
NOTE FOR FACULTY : The gas equation PV = nRT should never be used in this chapter.
Ex.
Sol.
N
A
Mole
mol. wt.
At. wt.
lt
2.4
2
lt
2.4
2
Volume at STP
mol. wt.
At. wt.
Mass
Page No. # 8
Ex.
Ans.
Ex.
Ans.
Ex.
Ex.
14 g of Nitrogen gas and 22 g of CO2 gas are mixed together. Find the volume of gaseous mixture at STP.
Ans.
22.4 Ltr.
Ex.
Ans.
672 ml of ozonized oxygen (mix of O2 and O3) at N.T.P. were found to weight one gram. Calculate the
volume of ozone in the ozonized oxygen.
56 ml
6.
a1x 1 a 2 x 2 ..... an x n
100
Ex.
Naturally occuring chlorine is 75% Cl35 which has an atomic mass of 35 amu and 25% Cl37 which has a
mass of 37 amu. Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine (A) 35.5 amu
(B) 36.5 amu
(C) 71 amu
(D) 72 amu
Sol.
= 35.5 amu
Note : (a) In all calculations we use this mass.
(b) In periodic table we report this mass only.
n M
j
Sol.
Mavg =
j1
jn
j1
Page No. # 9
j n
Here
= 100
j1
Mavg =
16 x 32 80 x 28 44 x 3 64 x 1
2948
512 2240 132 64
=
=
= 29.48 Ans.
100
100
100
LECTURE#3
Empirical formula, % Composition of a given component by mass, % By mole,
Minimum molecular mass determination.
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA :
We have just seen that knowing the molecular formula of the compound we can calculate percentage
composition of the elements. Conversely if we know the percentage composition of the elements initially,
we can calculate the relative number of atoms of each element in the molecules of the compound. This
gives us the empirical formula of the compound. Further if the molecular mass is known then the molecular
formula can easily be determined.
Thus, the empirical formula of a compound is a chemical formula showing the relative number of atoms in
the simplest ratio, the molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
The molecular formula is generally an integral multiple of the empirical formula.
i.e.
molecular formula = empirical formula n
where
Ex.
Sol.
Acetylene and benzene both have the empirical formula CH. The molecular masses of acetylene and
benzene are 26 and 78 respectively. Deduce their molecular formulae.
Empirical Formula is CH
Step-1
The empirical formula of the compound is CH
Ex.
Sol.
Element
Symbol
Carbon
40.687
12
Hydrogen
5.085
Oxygen
54.228
16
Simplest
atomic ratio
Simplest whole
no. atomic ratio
40.687
= 3.390
12
5.085
= 5.085
1
3.390
3.389
=1
5.085
3.389
=1.5
54.228
= 3.389
16
3.389
3.389
=1
Empirical Formula is C2 H3 O2
Step-2
To calculate the empirical formula mass.
The empirical formula of the compound is C2 H3 O2 .
Ans.
Ex.
% PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION :
Here we are going to find out the percentage of each element in the compound by knowing the molecular
formula of compound.
We know that according to law of definite proportions any sample of a pure compound always possess
Page No. # 11
Every molecule of ammonia always has formula NH3 irrespective of method of preparation or sources. i.e.
1 mole of ammonia always contains 1 mol of N and 3 mole of H. In other wards 17 gm of NH3 always
contains 14 gm of N and 3 gm of H. Now find out % of each element in the compound.
Mass % of N in NH3 =
Ex.
Ans.
Ex.
Ans.
A compound of sodium contains 11.5% sodium then find the minimum molar mass of the compound.
200 gm/mole.
LECTURE # 4
Stoichiometry Law of conservation of mass (LOCM) ,Equation based calculations
(Elementary Level Single Equation or 2).
CHEMICAL REACTION :
It is the process in which two or more than two substances interact with each other where old bonds are
broken and new bonds are formed.
VI CHEMICAL EQUATION :
All chemical reaction are represented by chemical equations by using chemical formule of reactants and
products. Qualitatively a chemical equation simply describes what the reactants and products are. However,
a balanced chemical equation gives us a lot of quantitative information mainly the molar ratio in which
reactants combine and the molar ratio in which products are formed.
Example :
When potassium chlorate (KClO3) is heated it gives potassium chloride (KCl) and oxygen (O2).
KClO3
KCl + O2 (unbalanced chemical equation )
2KClO3
2 KCl + 3 O2 (balanced chemical equation)
Attributes of a balanced chemical equation: (From NCERT PAGE - 17)
(a) It contains an equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of equation.(POAC)
(b) It should follow law of charge conservation on either side.
(c) Physical states of all the reagents should be included in brackets.
(d) All reagents should be written in their standard molecular forms (not as atoms )
(e) The coefficients give the relative molar ratios of each reagent.
Balancing a chemical equation
According to the law of conservation of mass, a balanced chemical equation has the same number of
atoms of each element on both sides of the equation. Many chemical equations can be balanced by
Page No. # 12
trial and error. Let us take the reactions of a few metals and non-metals with oxygen to give oxides
4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(S)
(a) balanced equation
2 Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(S)
(b) balanced equation
P4(s) + O2(g) P4O10(S)
(c) unbalanced equation
Equations (a) and (b) are balanced since there are same number of metal and oxygen atoms on each
side of equations. However equation (c) is not balanced. In this equation. phosphorus atoms are
balanced but not the oxygen atoms. To balance it, we must place the coefficient 5 on the left of oxygen
on the left side of the equation to balance the oxygen atoms appearing on the right side of the equation.
P4(S) + 5O2(g) P4O10(S)
balanced equation
Now let us take combustion of propane, C3H8, This equation can be balanced in steps.
Step 1. Write down the correct formulas of reactants and products. Here propane and oxygen are reactants, and
carbon dioxide and water are products.
C3H8(g) + O2(g) CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
unbalanced equation
Step 2. Balance the number of C atoms : Since 3 carbon atoms are in the reactant, therefore, three CO2
molecules are required on the right side.
C3H8(g) + O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Step 3. Balance the number of H atoms : on the left there are 8 hydrogen atoms in the reactants however, each
molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms , so four molecules of water will be required for eight
hydrogen atoms on the right side.
C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
Step 4. Balance the number of O atoms : There are ten oxygen on the right side (3 2 = 6 in CO2 and 4 1 =
4 in water). Therefore, five O2 molecules are needed to supply to supply the required ten oxygen atoms.
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
Step 5. Verify that the number of atoms of each element is balanced in the final equation.
Always remember that subscripts in formula of reactants and products cannot be changed to balance
an equation.
Mole-mole analysis :
This analysis is very much important for quantitative analysis point of view. Students are advised to
clearly understand this analysis.
Now consider again the decomposition of KClO3 .
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
In very first step of mole-mole analysis you should read the balanced chemical equation like
2 moles KClO3 on decomposition gives you 2 moles KCl and 3 moles O2. and from the stoichiometry
of reaction we can write
Moles of O 2
Moles of KClO 3
Moles of KCl
=
=
3
2
2
Now for any general balance chemical equation like
a A + b B c C + d D
you can write.
Mole of A reacted
moles of B reacted
moles of C reacted
moles of D reacted
=
=
=
a
b
c
d
Ex.
Sol.
3 moles (367.5 gm) of KClO3 when heated how many moles KCl and O2 is produced.
The reaction is
Page No. # 13
Moles of O 2
Moles of KClO 3
=
3
2
33
= 4.5 moles
2
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O (from NCERT Page - 18)
following conclusions can be drawn from above reaction by observing its stoichiometry
mole of O2 produced =
Ex.
One mole of CH4 (g) reacts with two moles of O2 (g) to give one mole of CO2 (g) and two moles of H2O (g)
One molecule of CH4 (g) reacts with 2 molecues of O2 (g) to give one molecule of CO2 (g) and 2 molecules
of H2O (g)
22.4 L of CH4 (g) reacts with 44.8 L of O2 (g) to give 22.4L of CO2 (g) and 44.8 L of H2O (g)
16 g CH4 (g) reacts with 232 g of O2 (g) to give 44 g of CO2 (g) and 2 18 g of H2O (g).
Note : In fact mass-mass and mass-vol analysis are also interpreted in terms of mole-mole analysis you can use
following chart also.
Mass
Mole-mole
relationship
of equation
Mole
Mole
t.
.w
/At
.
t
w
ol.
m
22.4 lt
Mass
Ex.
Sol.
Volume at STP
367.5 gm
KClO3
122.5 gm
Mole of O2
Mole of KClO3
=
3
2
3 mole
KClO3
(a) 144 gm
(b) 100.8 lt
Ex.
32
g
(mol. m
wt.)
9/2 mole of O2
lt
22.4 at STP)
me
lu
o
v
(
Iron in the form of fine wire burns in oxygen to form iron (III) oxide
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
How many moles of O2 are needed to produce 5 mol Fe2O3 ?
Page No. # 14
Ans.
7.5 mol O2
Ex.
Ans.
Nitric acid, HNO3, is manufactured by the Ostwald process, in which nitrogen dioxide, NO2, reacts with
water.
3NO2(g) + H2O(l ) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
How many grams of nitrogen dioxide are required in this reaction to produced 6.3 g HNO3 ?
6.9g NO2
Ex.
Ans.
20. gm
Ex.
Ans.
How many litre O2 at N.T.P. is required for complete combustion of 1 mole C5 H10.
168 lt.
Ex.
Calculate the weight of residue obtained when CaCO3 is strongly heated and 5.6 litre CO2 is produced at
N.T.P.
14 gm
Ans.
Ex.
When sodium bicarbonate is heated 1.806 x 1024 molecules of water is obtained. Then find the volume of
CO2(g) obtained at STP and amount of NaHCO3 needed for this reaction.
Sol.
Problem 1.3
Solution :
Problem 1.4
Solution:
1molCO 2 (g)
= 22g CO2 (g) 44gCO (g)
2
LECTURE # 5
Limiting Reagent , % Excess , % Yield / Efficiency
LIMITING REAGENT :
The reactant which is consumed first and limits the amount of product formed into the reaction, and is
Page No. # 15
given moles
given mole ratio
Stoichiometric coefficient ratio
3 mol
1
:
1
:
6 mol
2
2
See here given moles of reactant are in stoichiometric coefficient ratio therefore none reactant left over.
Now use Mole-mole analysis to calculate volume of CO2 prdouced at STP
Moles of Na 2 CO3
Mole of CO 2 Pr oduced
=
1
1
Moles of CO2 produced = 3
volume of CO2 produced at STP = 3 22.4 L = 67.2 L
Example :
6 moles of Na2 CO3 is reacted with 4 moles of HCl solution. Find the volume of CO2 gas produced at STP.
The reaction is
Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Sol.
6
3
1
:
:
:
4
2
2
See here given number of moles of reactants are not in stoichiometric coefficient ratio. Therefore there
should be one reactant which consumed first and becomes limiting reagent.
But the question is how to find which reactant is limiting, it is not very difficult you can easily find it
according to the following method.
Page No. # 16
6
=6
1
4
= 2 (division is minimum)
2
Moles of CO 2 produced
Mole of HCl
=
2
1
mole of CO2 produced = 2 moles
volume of CO2 produced at S.T.P. = 2 22.4 = 44.8 lt.
Ex.
Ex.
The reaction 2C + O2 2CO is carried out by taking 24g of carbon and 96g O2, find out :
(a)
Which reactant is left in excess ?
(b)
How much of it is left ?
(c)
How many mole of CO are formed ?
For the reaction 2P + Q R, 8 mol of P and 5 mol of Q will produce
(A) 8 mol of R
(B) 5 mol of R
(C*) 4 mol of R
(D) 13 mol of R
Ans.
X + Y X3 Y4
Above reaction is carried out by taking 6 moles each of X and Y respectively then
(A) X is the limiting reagent
(B) 1.5 moles of X3 Y4 is formed
(C) 1.5 moles of excess reagent is left behind
(D) 75% of excess reagent reacted
X + Y X3 Y4
B, C, D
Sol.
3X
4Y
6 mole 6 mole
6 4.5 0
1.5 mole
left
Ex.
X3 Y4
1.5 mole
formed
A + B A3B2 (unbalanced)
A3B2 + C A3B2C2 (unbalanced)
Above two reactions are carried out by taking 3 moles each of A and B and one mole of C. Then
(A) 1 mole of A3B2C2 is formed
Ans.
Sol.
B, C, D
3A
+
2B A3 B2
3 mole
3 mole
1 mole formed
A3B2
+
2C
A3 B2 C2
1 mole
1 mole
0.5 mole
0
0.5 mole
Ex.
CS2 and Cl2 in the weight ratio 1 : 2 are allowed to react according to equation, find the fraction of excess
reagent left behind.
CS2 + 3Cl2 CCl4 + S2Cl2
mole
w
76
2w
71
w
76
2w
71 3
remaining =
L.R. = Cl2 .
Moles of CS2 =
2w
71 3
w
2w
76 213 x 100
fraction of Cl2 left =
w
76
w
2w
76
213
= 28.6%.
Page No. # 17
Ex.
Ans.
Ex.
Ans.
Ex.
Ans.
moles of N2
= 50.0 kg
moles of H2
= 10.00 kg H2
1000 g N2
1 mol H2
1kg N2 28.0 g N2
1000 g H2
1 mol H2
1kg H2
2.016 g H2
According to the above equation, 1 mol N2 (g) requires 3 mol H2 (g), for the reaction, Hence, for 17.86
102 mol of N2, the moles of H2 (g) required would be
3 mol H2 (g)
17.86 102 mol N2 1molN (g)
2
But we have only 4.96103 mol H2. Hence, dihydrogen is the limiting reagent in this case. So NH3 (g)
would be formed only from that amount of available digydrogen i.e., 4.96 103 mol
Since 3 mol H2 (g) gives 2 mol NH3 (g)
= 56.1 kg NH3
When 3.90 gm Al(OH)3 is reacted with excess of HCl, 6.50 gm AlCl3 is formed. Determine the percentage
yield of product. (Al = 27).
Sol.
1 mole
1 mole
= 78 gm
= 133.5 gm
78 gm Al(OH)3 produce 133.5 gm AlCl3
133 .5
3.90 = 6.675 gm AlCl3.
78
But the amnount formed is only 6.50 gm. Hence, the percentage yield is
6.50
100 = 97.38%.
6.675
LECTURE # 6
POAC, Reactions in sequence, Reactions in parallel , Mixture analysis , % Purity
PRINCIPLE OF ATOM CONSERVATION (POAC) :
POAC is based on law of mass conservation if atoms are conserved, moles of atoms shall also be
conserved hence mass of atoms is also conserved.
This principle is fruitful for the students when they dont get the idea of balanced chemical equation in the
problem. This principle can be under stand by the following example.
Consider the decomposition of KClO3 (s) KCl (s) + O2 (g) (unbalanced chemical reaction)
Apply the principle of atom conservation (POAC) for K atoms.
Moles of K atoms in reactant = moles of K atoms in products
or moles of K atoms in KClO3 = moles of K atoms in KCl.
Now, since 1 molecule of KClO3 contains 1 atom of K
or 1 mole of KClO3 contains 1 mole of K, similarly,1 mole of KCl contains 1 mole of K.
Thus, moles of K atoms in KClO3 = 1 moles of KClO3
and moles of K atoms in KCl = 1 moles of KCl.
The above equation gives the mass-mass relationship between KClO3 and KCl which is important in
stoichiometric calculations.
Again, applying the principle of atom conservation for O atoms,
moles of O in KClO3 = 3 moles of KClO3
moles of O in O2 = 2 moles of O2
Q.
wt. of KClO3 in g
wt. of KCl in g
=
mol. wt. of KCl
mol. wt. of KClO3
wt. of KClO 3
vol. of O 2 at NTP
3 mol. wt. of KClO = 2 s tan dard molar vol. (22.4 lt.)
3
The above equations thus gives the mass-volume relationship of reactants and products.
Write POAC equation for all the atoms in the following reaction.
(i) N2O + P4 P4O10 + N2
(ii) P4 + HNO3 H3PO4 + NO2 + H2O
Example :
Page No. # 19
Sol.
27.6 g K2CO3 was treated by a series of reagents so as to convert all of its carbon to K2 Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2.
Calculate the weight of the product.
[mol. wt. of K2CO3 = 138 and mol. wt. of K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2 = 698]
Here we have not knowledge about series of chemical reactions
but we know about initial reactant and final product accordingly
Several
K2CO3 K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2
Steps
= 11.6 g
138
12
0.32 mole of LiAlH4 in ether solution was placed in a flask and 74 g (1 moles) of t-butyl alcohol was added.
The product is LiAlHC12H27O3 . Find the weight of the product if lithium atoms are conserved.
[Li = 7, Al = 27, H = 1, C = 12, O = 16]
81.28 g
Ans.
REACTIONS IN SUCCESSION :
In such problems, the amount of any one of the reaction component belonging from a reaction is to be
determined from the given amount of some other reaciton component belonging from some other reaction
with the help of some common components.
Ex.
How many gram of ethylene can be burnt completely by the oxygen gas produced from complete
decomposition of 49 gm KClO3.
Sol.
2KClO3 2KCl
+ 3O2
28
49 = 5.6 gm.
2 122 .5
When 4 gm of a mixture of NaHCO3 and NaCl is heated strongly, 0.66 gm CO2 gas is evolved. Determine
the percentage composition of hte original mixture.
CO2 gas will come out only from NaHCO3 according to the reaction :
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
2mole
1mole
= 2 84gm
= 44 gm
44 gm CO2 is evolved from 2 84 gm NaHCO3
Page No. # 20
2 84
0.66 = 2.52 gm NaHCO3.
44
2.52
100 = 63%
4
2 gm of a mixture of CaCO3 and MgCO3 requires 2 gm of H2SO4 for complete reaction. Determine the
percentage composition of the original mixture.
Let the mixture contains x gm CaCO3. Then the weight of MgCO3 should be (2 x) gm.
CaCO3 + H2SO4
1mole
1mole
= 100 gm =98 gm
100 gm CaCO3 requires 98 gm H2SO4.
x gm CaCO3 will react with
MgCO3
98
gm H2SO4
100
H2SO4
MgSO4
CO2
H2 O
1mole
1mole
= 84 gm
= 98 gm
84 gm MgCO3 requires 98 gm H2SO4
(2 x) gm MgCO3 will react with
98
(2 x) gm H2SO4
84
98
98
x+
(2 x) gm = 2 gm (from question).
100
84
x = 1.78 gm
Hence, the percentage composition of the mixture is
CaCO3 =
x
100 = 89%.
2
MgCO3 =
2x
100 = 11%.
2
When 1.25 gm of a sample of chalk is strongly heated, 0.44 gm CO2 gas in produce. Determine the
percentage of pure CaCO3 in the chalk sample.
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
1mole
1mole
=100 gm
= 44 gm
44 gm CO2 is produced from 100 gm CaCO3
0.44 gm CO2 should be produced from
100
0.44 = 1.0 gm CaCO3
44
Page No. # 21
1.0
100 = 80%.
1.25
Calculate the amount of 80% pure NaOH sample required to react completely with 21.3 gm chlroine in hot
condition.
6NaOH +
6mole
3mole
=640 gm =371gm
3 71 gm Cl2 requires 6 40 gm pure NaOH
21.3 gm Cl2 will react with
6 40
21.3 = 24 gm pure NaOH.
3 71
100
= 30 gm.
80
LECTURE # 7
Basics of oxidation number.
CONCEPT OF OXIDATION NUMBER :
Real or imaginary charge present on an element when it goes from its elemental free state to
combined state.
Fluorine atom :
Fluorine is most electronegative atom yet known and it has always oxidation number equal to 1 in any
compound
2.
Oxygen atom :
In general and in the case of its oxide oxygen atom has oxidation number equal to 2. In case of peroxide
(e.g. H2O2, , Na2O2 ) it is 1, In case of super oxide (e.g KO2) and ozonide (KO3) it is 1/2 and 1/3 , In case
of oxygendiflouride OF2 it is + 2 & in dioxygendiflouride O2F2 it is +1
3.
Hydrogen atom :
In general H atom has oxidation number equal to +1 in all its compounds but in case of metallic hydride
e.g. NaH, KH it is 1
4.
Halogen atom :
In general all halogen atom (Cl,Br ,I) has oxidation number equal to 1 But if halogen atom is attached with
an atom which is more electronegative than halogen atom then it will show positive oxidation number e.g.
Page No. # 22
Metals :
(a) Alkali metal (Li , Na, K, Rb, .......) always have oxidation number +1 in all its compound.
(b) Alkaline earth metal (Be , Mg , Ca .......) always have oxidation number +2 in all its compound.
Note :- Metal may have negative or zero oxidation number
6.
e.g. O , S , P , O
2
8
4
3
7.
8.
9.
from 3 to +5 ( N H ,NO , N 2 O , N O , N 2 O )
3
2
5
3
2.
If there is a bond between similar type of atom and each atom has same type of hybridisation then bonded
pair electrons are equally shared by each element
Ex.
Structure :
Page No. # 23
2.
Ex.
Note : Electron of H-atom is now counted with Cl-atom, because Cl-atom is more E.N. than H-atom
H : number of electrons in the valence shell = 1
number of electrons left after bonding = 0
oxidation number = 1 0 = + 1
Cl : Number of electrons in the valence shell = 7
Number of electrons left after bonding = 8
Oxidation number = 7 8 = 1
Ex.
Calculate individual oxidation number of each s -atom in Na2S2O3 (sodium thio sulphate) with the help of its
structure .
Sol.
Structure :
1.
Calculate individual oxidation number of each s -atom in Na2S4O6 (sodium tetrathionate) with the
help of its structure .
Page No. # 24
Miscellaneous Examples :
In order to determine the exact or individual oxidation number we need to take help from
the structures of the molecules. Some special cases are discussed as follows:
Cr
||
O
O
O
From the structure it is evident that in CrO5 there are two peroxide linkages and one double bond.
The contribution of each peroxide linkage is 2. Let the O.N. of Cr is x.
x + (2)2 + (2) = 0 or x = 6
O.N. of Cr = +6
From the structure, it is evident that in H2SO5. there are one peroxide linkage, two sulphur-oxygen double
bond and one OH group. Let the O.N. of S = x.
+1 2 + x + (2) 2+ (2) + 1 = 0
or x + 2 8 = 0
or x 6 = 0
or x = 6
O.N. of S in H2SO5 is + 6.
O C C* C O
Structure of C3O2
(Carbon suboxide)
Likewise in Br3O8, each of the two terminal bromine atoms are present in +6 oxidation state and
the middle bromine is present in +4 oxidation state. Once again the average, that is different from reality is
16/3.
O
+6
O = Br
+4 ||
O
+6
Br* Br = O
||
O
O
O
Structure of Br3O8 (tribromooctaoxide)
In the same fashion, in the species S4O62, is 2.5, whereas the reality being +5,0,0 and +5
oxidation number respectively for each sulphur.
Page No. # 25
O
O
|| +5 0
||
0
O S S* S* S O
||
||
O
O
Structure of S4 O62- (tetrathionate ion)
In general, conclude that the idea of fractional oxidation state should be taken with care and the
reality is revealed by the structures only.
1.
Find the average and individual oxidation number of Fe3O4, Mn3O4, Pb3O4 , which are mixed oxides.
2.
(d) Na2S2O3
(h) HNC
(l) Fe3O4
Reduction
1. Removal of oxygen
e.g. CuO + C Cu + CO
2. Removal of Hydrogen
e.g. H2S + Cl2 2HCl + S
2. Addition of Hydrogen
e.g. S + H2 H2S
5. Removal of electron
e.g. Sn2+ Sn4+ + 2e
5. Addition of electron
e.g. Fe3+ + e Fe2+
Oxidation and reduction always take place simultaneously. Such overall reactions which involves
simultaneous oxidation and reduction are called Redox Reaction.
( 5 )
2 HNO 3
O.A.
( 2 )
( 2)
3 H2 S
2 NO
(0)
3S + 4H2O
R.A.
Page No. # 26
1 1
1 2
Ex. H 2 O 2 H2 O 2 2 H 2 O O 2
Note : (i)
(ii)
If an element is in its lowest possible oxidation state in a compound, it can function as a reducing
agent.
Ex. H2S, H2C2O4, FeSO4, Na2S2O3, SnCl2 etc.
(iii)
Combination reactions :
A combination reaction may be denoted in the manner:
A + B C
Either A and B or both A and B must be in the elemental form for such a reaction to be a redox reaction. All
combustion reactions, which make use of elemental dioxygen, as well as other reactions involving elements
other than dioxygen, are redox reactions. Some important examples of this category are:
0
4 2
2 3
4 2
1 2
Decomposition reactions : Decomposition reactions are the opposite of combination reactions. Precisely,
a decomposition reaction leads to the breakdown of a compound into two or more components at least one
of which must be in the elemental state. Examples of this class of reactions are:
1 2
2H2 O( )
2H2 (g) O 2 (g)
1 1
1 1
Page No. # 27
(a)
X + YZ XZ + Y
Displacement reactions fit into two categories: metal displacement and non-metal displacement.
Metal displacement: A metal in a compound can be displaced by another metal in the uncombined
state. Metal displacement reactions find many applications in metallurgical processes in which pure
metals are obtained from their compounds in ores. A few such examples are:
2 6 2
2 6 2
2 2
4 1
2 1
3 2
Non-metal displacement: The non-metal displacement redox reactions include hydrogen displacement
and a rarely occurring reaction involving oxygen displacement.
All alkali metals and some alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr, and Ba) which are very good reductants, will
displace hydrogen from cold water.
0
1 2
1 2 1
1 2
2 2 1
Less active metals such as magnesium and iron react with steam to produce dihydrogen gas.
0
1 2
2 2 1
1 2
3 2
2Fe(s) 3H2 O( )
Fe 2 O 3 (s) 3H2 (g)
Many metals, including those which do not react with cold water, are capable of displacing hydrogen
from acids. Dihydrogen from acids may even be produced by such metals which do not react with
steam. Cadmium and tin are the examples of such metals. A few examples for the displacement of
hydrogen from acids are :
0
1 1
2 1
1 1
2 1
1 1
2 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
Above two reactions form the basis of identifying Br and I in the laboratory through the test popularly
known as Laye! Test. It may not be out of place to mention here that bromine likewise can displace
iodide ion in solution:
0
The halogen displacement reactions have a direct industrial application. The recovery of halogens from
their halides requires an oxidation process, which is represented by:
2X X2 + 2e
here X denotes a halogen element. Whereas chemical means are available to oxidise Cl , Br and I , as
fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent; there is no way to convert F ions to F2 by chemical means.
The only way to achieve F2 from F is to oxidise electrolytically, the details of which you will study at a
later stage.
4.
Disproportionation reactions :
Disproportionation reactions are a special type of redox reactions. In a disproportionation reaction an
element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidised and reduced. One of the reacting substances
in a disproportionation reaction always contains an element that can exist in at least three oxidation
states. The element in the form of reacting substance is in the intermediate oxidation state; and both
higher and lower oxidation states of that element are formed in the reaction. The decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide is a familiar example of the reaction, where oxygen experiences disproportionation.
1 1
1 2
The last reaction describes the formation of household bleaching agents. The hypochlorite ion (CIO-)
formed in the reaction oxidises the colour-bearing stains of the substances to colourless compounds.
It is of interest to mention here that whereas bromine and iodine follow the same trend as exhibited by
chlorine in the last reaction, fluorine shows deviation from this behaviour when it reacts with alkali. The
reaction that takes place in the case of fluorine is as follows:
2F2(g) + 2OH(aq) 2F (aq) + OF2(g) + H2O()
(It is to be noted with care that fluorine in reaction above will undoubtedly attack water to produce some
oxygen also). This departure shown by fluorine is not surprising for us as we know the limitation of
Page No. # 29
fluorine that, being the most electronegative element, it cannot exhibit any positive oxidation state. This
means that among halogens, fluorine does not show a disproportionation tendency.
5.
For Ex.
Ex.
Sol.
I + IO3 + H I2 + H2O.
Which of the following species, do not show disproportionation reaction and why?
CIO, CIO2, CIO3 and ClO4
Also write reaction for each of the species that disproportionates.
Among the oxoanions of chlorine listed above, CIO4 does not disproportionate because in this oxoanion
chlorine is present in its highest oxidation state that is, +7. The disproportionation reactions for the other
three oxoanions of chlorine are as follows:
1
h
6ClO 2
4ClO 3 2Cl
5
4ClO 3 Cl 3ClO 4
Ex.
1
O (g)
2 2
In reaction (a), the compound nitric oxide is formed by the combination of the elemental substances,
nitrogen and oxygen ; therefore, this is an example of combination redox reaction. The reaction (b) involves
the breaking down of lead nitrate into three components ; therefore, this is categorised under decomposition
redox reaction. In reaction (c), hydrogen of water has been displaced by hydride ion into dihydrogen gas.
Therefore, this may be called as displacement redox reaction. The reaction (d) involves disproportionation
Ex.
Sol.
and
Pb3O4 + 4HNO3 2Pb(NO3)2 + PbO2 + 2H2O
Pb3O4 is actually a stoichiometric mixture of 2 mol of PbO and 1 mol of PbO2. In PbO2, lead is present in
+4 oxidation state. Whereas the stable oxidation state of lead in PbO is +2. PbO2 thus can act as an
oxidant (oxidising agent) and, therefore, can oxidise Cl ion of HCI into chlorine. We may also keep in mind
that PbO is a basic oxide. Therefore, the reaction
Pb3O4 + 8HCl 3PbCl2 + Cl2 + 4H2O
can be splitted into two reactions namely:
2PbO + 4HCl 2PbCl2 + 2H2O (acid-base reaction)
4
LECTURE # 8
Steps for balancing redox reactions & Practice of balancing redox
reactions.
Balancing of redox reactions :
1.
2.
Charge balance :
That is the sums of actual charges on both sides of the equation must be equal
Two methods are used to balance chemical equations for redox processes. One of these methods is
based on the change in the oxidation number of reducing agent and the oxidising agent and the other
method is based on splitting the redox reaction into two half reactions - one involving oxidation and the
other involving reduction. Both these methods are in use and the choice of their use rests with the individual
using them.
(a)
Oxidation Number Method : In writing equations for oxidation-reduction reactions, just as for other
reactions, the compositions and formulas must be known for the substances that react and for the
products that are formed. The oxidation number method is now best illustrated in the following steps:
Step 1: Write the correct formula for each reactant and product.
Step 2: Identify atoms which undergo change in oxidation number in the reaction by assigning the oxidation
number to all elements in the reaction.
Step 3: Calculate the increase or decrease in the oxidation number per atom and for the entire molecule/ion in
which it occurs. If these are not equal then multiply by suitable coefficients so that these become equal.
(If you realise that two substances are reduced and nothing is oxidised or vice-versa, something is
wrong. Either the formulas of reactants or products are wrong or the oxidation numbers have not been
assigned properly).
Step 4: Ascertain the involvement of ions if the reaction is taking place in water, add H+ or OH ions to the
expression on the appropriate side so that the total ionic charges of reactants and products are equal. If
the reaction is carried out in acidic solution, use H+ ions in the equation; if in basic solution, use OH
ions.
Step 5: Make the numbers of hydrogen atoms in the expression on the two sides equal by adding water (H2O)
molecules to the reactants or products. Now, also check the number of oxygen atoms. If there are the
same number of oxygen atoms in reactants and products. The equation then represents the
balanced redox reaction.
Let us now explain the steps involved in this method with the help of a few problems given below:
Ex.
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of potassium dichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7 with sodium sulphite
(Na2SO3) in an acid solution to give chromium(III) ion and the sulphate ion.
4 2
6 2
This indicates that the dichromate ion is the oxidant and the sulphite ion is the reductant.
Step 3: Calculate the increase and decrease of oxidation number, and make them equal:
Page No. # 31
6 2
4 2
6 2
Step 4: As the reaction occurs in the acidic medium, and further the ionic charges are not equal on both the sides,
add 8H+ on the left to make ionic charges equal
Cr2O72(aq) + 3SO32(aq) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42(aq) + 4H2O()
Step 5: Finally, count the hydrogen atoms, and add appropriate number of water molecules (i.e., 4H2O) on the
right to achieve balanced redox change.
Cr2O72(aq) + 3SO32(aq) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42(aq) + 4H2O()
Ex.
Permanganate ion reacts with bromide ion in basic medium to give manganese dioxide and bromate ion.
Write the balanced ionic equation for the reaction.
Step 3: Calculate the increase and decrease of oxidation number, and make the increase equal to the decrease.
7
Step 4: As the reaction occurs in the basic medium, and the ionic charges are not equal on both sides, add 2
OH- ions on the right to make ionic charges equal.
2MnO4(aq) + Br (aq) 2MnO2(s) + BrO3(aq) + 2OH(aq)
Step 5: Finally, count the hydrogen atoms and add appropriate number of water molecules (I.e. one H2O
molecule) on the left side to achieve balanced redox change.
Cr O (aq) 2Cr3+(aq)
2
Step 4: For reactions occurring in acidic medium, add H2O to balance O atoms and H to balance H atoms.
Thus, we get:
Page No. # 32
Permanganate (VII) ion. MnO4 in basic solution oxidises iodide ion, I to produce molecular iodine (I2) and
manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2). Write a balanced ionic equation to represent this redox reaction.
2I(aq) I2(s) + 2e
Page No. # 33
Sol.
Step 1: Assign the oxidation No. to each elements present in the reaction.
2 6 2
1 7 2
1 6 2
6 2
2 6 2
1 2
Fe S O 4 + K MnO 4 + H 2 S O 4 Fe 2 (S O 4 )3 + Mn S O 4 + H 2 O
Step 2: Now convert the reaction in ionic form by eleminating the elements or species which are not going either
oxidation or reduction
7
Step 4: Spilt the ionic reaction in two half one for oxidation and other for reduction
oxidation
Fe2+ Fe3+
Re duction
MnO 4
Mn 2
Step 5: Balance the atom other than oxygen and hydrogen atom in both half reactions
Fe2+
Fe3+
MnO4 Mn2+
.................(i)
................(ii)
Step 7: Now see equation (i) & (ii) is balanced atomwise. Now balance both equations chargewise To balance the
charge add electrons to the electrically positive side .
oxidation
Fe2+
............(1)
Fe3+ + e
duction
Mn2+ + 4H2O ............(2)
5e + 8H+ + MnO4 Re
Step 8: The number of electrons gained and lost in each half -reaction are equalised by multiplying suitable factor
Page No. # 34
in both the half reaction and finaly the half reactions are added to give the over all balanced reaction
Here we multiply equation (1) by 5 and (2) by one
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
..........(1) 5
5e 8H MnO 4 Mn 2 4H2O
.........( 2) 1
Step 9: Now convert the Ionic reaction into molecular form by adding the elements or species which are removed
in step (2). Now by some manipulation you will get
5
Re duction
Cl O
Cl
Oxidation
Cr O 2
Cr O 24
Now since we are doing balancing in basic medium therefore add as many as OH on both side of equation
as there are H+ ions in the equation
2OH + 2H+ + ClO Cl + H2O +2OH
4OH + 2H2O + CrO2 CrO42 + 4H+ + 4OH
Finally you will get
Finally you will get
Ex.
LECTURE # 9
Page No. # 35
CONCENTRATION TERMS :
The following concentration terms are used to express the concentration of a solution. These are :
1.
strength of solution
2.
Molarity (M)
3.
Molality (m)
4.
Mole fraction (x)
5.
% calculation
6.
Normality (N)
7.
ppm
Remember that all of these concentration terms are related to one another. By knowing one concentration
term you can also find the other concentration terms. Let us discuss all of them one by one.
1.
STRENGTH OF SOLUTION :
The concentration of solution in gram/litre is said to be strength of solution.
(a)
(b)
For concentrated acids, like 98% H2SO4, 65% HNO3 etc, if anything is not specified than percentage by
mass/volume is usually considered.
(c)
For the calculation of strength (% w/w, %w/v etc) the solute must be completely dissolved into the solution,
otherwise, the given terminologies will be invalid. For example, the specific gravity of gold = 19.3 gm/cm3,
if we add 193 gm gol powder in 1 litre of water, its % w/w =
193
x 100 = 16.17 is appears to be
1000 193
correct, but gold is not dissolvable in water, its % w/w in water cannot be calculated.
2.
MOLARITY (M) :
The number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 L (1000 ml) of the solution is known as the
molarity of the solution.
i.e., Molarity of solution =
number of moles
volume of solution in litre
V ml water have
w
M
w
mole of solute
M
w 1000
Page No. # 36
w 1000
4 g / 40 g
0.250L
= 0.4 mol L1
0.1mol
0.250 L
= 0.4 M
Note that molarity of a solution depends upon temperature because volume of a solution is temperature
dependent.
Some other relations may also useful.
Number of millimoles
mass of solute
1000 = (Molarity of solution V )
inml
(Mol. wt. of solute)
Molarity is an unit that depends upon temperature .it varies inversely with temperature .
mathematically : molarity decreases as temperature increases.
Molarity
1
1
temperature
volume
Ex.
Sol.
149 gm of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in 10 Lt of an aqueous solution. Determine the molarity of
the solution (K = 39, Cl = 35.5)
Molecular mass of KCl = 39 + 35.5 = 74.5 gm
149 gm
Moles of KCl = 74 .5 gm = 2
2
= 0.2 M
10
Q.
Ans.
117 gm NaCl is dissolved in 500 ml aqueous solution. Find the molarity of the solution.
0.4 M
Ex.
Ex.
[ 2M ]
[0.5M ]
[0.2 M ]
Mass = 1000 gm
mole =
1000
18
Molarity of water =
1000
= 55.55 M
18
Ex.
Find the minimum volume of 0.2 M HCl solution for the complete neutralisation of 0.4 M, 40 ml of NaOH
solution.
Ex.
CaCO3 reacts with aq. HCl to give CaCl2 and CO2 according to reaction
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
How much mass of CaCO3 is required to react completly with 100 ml of 0.5 m HCl
Sol.
millimole of HCl
100 0.5 = 50
2 mole of HCl reacts 1 moles CaCO3
1
1 mole of HCl reacts
2
1
50 mmole of HCl reacts
50 = 25 mmole of CaCO3
2
mole of CaCO3 =
mass of CaCO3 =
Ex.
Sol.
25
1000
25
100 = 2.5 gm.
1000
10.6
1000 = 100 m mole
106
moles of NaCl =
(c)
volume of CO2
=
50
= 0.05
1000
25
22.4 = 0.556 L
1000
Page No. # 38
[Na+] =
[Cl] =
50 150 200
=2M
100
100
50
= 0.5 M
100
(CO32] =
75
= 0.75 M.
100
mass of A
10 6 = mass fraction 106
Total mass of solution
LECTURE # 10
Dilution, Practice & Mixing of two liquids.
(i)
(ii)
If a solution having volume V1 and molarity M1 is mixed with another solution of same solute having
volume V2 mL & molarity M2
then
M1V1 + M2V2 = MR (V1 + V2)
MR = Resultant molarity
=
M1V1 M2 V2
V1 V2
Ex.
Ex.
Calculate the molarity of H+ ion in the resulting solution when 200 ml 1M HCl is mixed with 200 ml 1M
H2SO4
For
HCl
M1 = 1 M
V1 = 200 mL
Sol.
For
H2SO4
M2 = 1
V2 = 200 mL
HCl H+ + Cl
nH = 0.2 2
(from H2SO4)
Ex.
nH
Vsolution
0 .6
= 1.5 Ans.
0 .4
What are the final concentration of all the ion when following are mixed
50 ml of 0.12 M Fe(NO3)3 + 100 ml of 0.1 M FeCl3 + 100 ml of 0.26 M Mg(NO3)2
[NO3] =
18 52
70
= 0.28
250
250
[Cl] = 0.12 M
[Mg++] = 0.104 M
[Fe3+] = 0.064 M
MOLALITY (m) :
The number of moles of solute dissolved in1000 gm (1 kg) of a solvent is known as the molality of
the solution.
i.e.,
molality =
number of moles of solute
1000
mass of solvent in gram
Let y gm of a solute is dissolved in x gm of a solvent. The molecular mass of the solute is m. Then Y/m
mole of the solute are dissolved in x gm of the solvent. Hence
Y
1000
Molality =
m x
Ex.
Sol.
225 gm of an aqueous solution contains 5 gm of urea. What is the concentration of the solution in terms of
molality. (Mol. wt. of urea = 60)
Mass of urea = 5 gm
Molecular mass of urea = 60
Number of moles of urea =
5
= 0.083
60
Page No. # 40
3 mol
= 1.0745 kg
= 2.79 m
518 gm of an aqueous solution contains 18 gm of glucose (mol.wt. = 180). What is the molality of the
solution.
0.2 m
Q.
4.
5.
The ratio of number of moles of the solute or solvent present in the solution and the total number
of moles present in the solution is known as the mole fraction of substances concerned.
Let number of moles of solute in solution = n
Number of moles of solvent in solution = N
n
% CALCULATION :
The concentration of a solution may also expressed in terms of percentage in the following way.
(i) % weight by weight (w/w) : It is given as mass of solute present in per 100 gm of solution.
i.e.
mass of solute in gm
% w/w = mass of solution in gm 100
(ii) % weight by volume (w/v) : It is given as mass of solute present in per 100 ml of solution.
i.e.,
% w/v =
mass of solute in gm
100
mass of solution in ml
(iii) % volume by volume (V/V) : It is given as volume of solute present in per 100 ml solution.
i.e.,
% V/V =
Volume of solute in ml
100
Volume of solution
Example
0.5 g of a substance is dissolved in 25 g of a solvent. Calculate the percentage amount of the substance in
the solution.
Solution.
Mass of substance = 0.5 g
Mass of solvent = 25 g
Page No. # 41
0 .5
100 = 1.96
0.5 25
Mass of A
100
Mass of solution
2g
2gofA 18gofwater 100
2g
100 = 10 %
20g
Example
20 cm3 of an alcohol is dissolved in80 cm3 of water. Calculate the percentage of alcohol in solution.
Solution
Volume of alcohol = 20 cm3
Volume of water = 80 cm3
percentage of alcohol =
20
100 = 20.
20 80
x 2 1000
Mole fraction of solute into molarity of solution M = x M M x
1 1
2 2
Mole fraction into molarity M
mole fraction of solvent and solute are X1 and X2
so X1 + X2 = 1
supposs total mole of solution is = 1
mole of solute and solute and solvent is X2, X1
weight of solute = X2M2 , weight of solvent = X1M1
total wt of solution = X1M1 + X2M2
volume of solution =
volume in L =
X1M1 X 2M2
ml
X1M1 X2M2
1000
X2 1000
molarity (M) = X M X M
1 1
2 2
MM1
2.
Sol.
Page No. # 42
1000 MM2
M1
MM1
Hence x2 = MM 1000 MM
1
2
x 2 1000
x1M1
3.
Sol.
n2
molality = n M x 1000
1 1
x2
= x M x 1000
1 1
4.
Sol.
n2 x 2
x1
n1
mM1
Molality into mole fraction x2 = 1000 mM
1
Moalrity into mole fraction
molality = moles of solute in 1000 gm of solute = m
1000
mole of solvent = M
1
mM
m
mole fraction X2 = 1000
= 1000 mM
1
m
M1
5.
Sol.
m 1000
Molality into molarity M = 1000 mM
2
Molality in molarity
molality = moles of solute in 1000 gm of solvent
mole of solute = m
wt. of solute = mM2
wt. of solution = 1000 + mM2
volume of solution =
volume in (L) =
1000 mM2
1000 mM2
1000
Page No. # 43
m 1000
molarity = 1000 mM
2
6.
Sol.
M 1000
Molarity into Molality m = 1000 MM
2
M1 and M2 are molar masses of solvent and solute. is density of solution (gm/mL)
M = Molarity (mole/lit.), m = Molality (mole/kg), x1 = Mole fraction of solvent, x2 = Mole fraction of solute
Molarity (M) into molality (m)
molarity = mole of solute in 1000 ml of solution
moles of solute = M
wt. of solute = MM2
wt. of solution = 1000
mass of solvent = 1000 MM2
molality =
moles of solute
wt of solvent x 1000
M 1000
m = 1000 MM
2
LECTURE # 11
HARDNESS OF WATER :
Hard water does not give lather with soap.
A water is said to be soft water if it gives enough lather with the soap .
The water sample is said to be hard if it forms a insoluble scum and gives very little lather with soap.
Generally , all salts ( except the salts of alkali metals Viz Na,K, Li etc) containing Mg2+, Ca2+,Al3+ etc
makes water hard.
Hardness can be grouped primarily under two heads:
I) Temporary hardness
II) Permanent Hardness
I) Temporary Hardness : It is due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
It is easily removed by boiling which decomposes bicarbonates readily and the insoluble
carbonates settle down.So its named as temporary hardness.
II) Permanent hardness : It is due to chlorides or sulphates of Ca , Mg, Al, Fe etc.
Its permanent hardness because this cannot be removed just by boiling the sample. Although special
methods can be employed to remove the hardness .
There are some method by which we can Softening the water
(a)
by boiling
:
2HCO3 H2O + CO2 + CO32
or, Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
(b)
by slaked lime
(c)
By Washing Soda
(d)
(e)
(R = resin)
Page No. # 44
Degree of hardness :
The degree of hardness of water is defined as the number of parts of calcium carbonate or equivalent to
various calcium and magnesium salts present in a million parts of water. ( ppm in terms of CaCO3)
A sample labeled as Hardness 180 ppm in terms of MgSO4 .
It means that the sample contains 180 g of MgSO4 in a 106 g of given water sample.
If this is expressed in terms of CaCO3 ( which is the normal practice ) , we can convert it as follows,
Equiv.mass of CaCO3 = 100/2 = 50
Equiv.mass of MgSO4 = 120/2 = 60
50 g of CaCO3 = 60 g of MgSO4
if any sample that contain 150 ppm of MgSO4 ,then in terms of CaCO3 ,
degree of hardness = 50/60 X180 = 150 ppm
So hardness of water is expressed in terms of ppm of CaCO3 although hard water does not contain CaCO3
.
So we can say that
1 mole CaCl2 1 mole CaCO3
1 mole MgCl2 1 mole CaCO3
1 mole CaSO4 1 mole CaCO3
mass of CaCO3
Hardness in ppm =
Ex.
Sol.
10 6
0.00012% MgSO4 and 0.000111% CaCl2 is present in water. What is the measured hardness of water
and millimoles of washing soda requires to purify water 1000 lt water.
Basis of calculation = 100 g hard water
0.00012
Mole
120
MgSO4 = 0.00012g =
CaCl2 = 0.000111g =
0.000111
mole
111
0.00012
0.000111
mole
111
0.00012 0.000111
100 = 2 104 g
111
120
mass of CaCO3 =
2 10 4
10 6 = 2 ppm
100
0.00012 0.000111
mole
120
111
= 2 106 mole
Required NaCO3 for 1000 litre water =
2 10 6
2
10 6
mole
100
100
=
Ex.
( d = 1g/ml)
20
mole = 20 m mole
1000
Calculate the weight of CaO required to remove the hardness of 1m3 of water containing 1.62 g of calcium
bicarbonate per liter.
Page No. # 45
162
56
Sol.
CaO
Ca(HCO3 )2 CaCO + H O
3
2
56
1.62 10 3 g
162
1.62 103g
= 560 g.
Ex.
A sample of hard water contains 96 ppm of SO42 and 183 ppm of HCO3 with Ca2+ as the only cation. How
many mole of CaO will be required to remove HCO3 from 1000 kg of this water ? If 1000 kg of this water
is treated with the amount of CaO calculated above, what will be the concentration ( in ppm ) of residual
Ca2+ ions (Assume CaCO3 to be completely insoluble in water) ? If the Ca2+ ions in one litre of the treated
water are completely exchanged with hydrogen ions, what will be its pH.
Sol.
2
Sample of hard water contains 96 ppm SO42 and 40 ppm Ca as CaSO4. Also it contains 183 ppm HCO3
40 10 3
10 6
40 10 3 g
40 10 3
10 3
40
If these Ca2+ are exchanged with H+ then [H+] in solution = 2 103
or
[Ca 2 ]
STRENGTH OF OLEUM :
Oleum is SO3 dissolved in 100% H2SO4. Sometimes, oleum is reported as more than 100% by weight, say
y% (where y > 100). This means that (y 100) grams of water, when added to 100 g of given oleum
sample, will combine with all the free SO3 in the oleum to give 100% sulphuric acid.
80
SO3
80
(y 100)
18
18
H2 O
H2SO4
(y 100)
Sol.
% of free SO3 =
80
18 = 80%.
18
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H 2O 2 ) :
H2O2 can behave both like oxidising and reducing agents in both the medium (acidic and basic).
1.
Page No. # 46
2.
Reducing agent : (H 2 O 2 O 2 )
(a) Acidic medium :
H2O2 O2 + 2H+ + 2e
(b) Basic medium :
2OH + H2O2 O2 + 2H2O + 2e
20V H2O2 means one litre of this sample of H2O2 on decomposition gives 20 litre of O2 gas at S.T.P.
Decomposition of H2O2 is given as
H2O2 H2O +
1 mole
= 34g
1
O
2 2
1
22.4 lt O2 at S.T.P
2
= 11.2 lt O2 at S.T.P.
To obtain 11.2 litre O2 at S.T.P. at least 34 gm H2O2 must be decomposed.
34
for 20 lt O2 , we should decompose atleast
20 gm H2O2
11.2
1 lt solution of H2O2 contains
34
20 gm H2O2
11.2
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The uncertainty in the experimental or the calculated values is indicated by mentioning the number of
significant figures. Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known with certainty. The
uncertainty is indicated by writing the certain digits and the last uncertain digit. Thus, if we write a
result as 11.2 mL, we say the 11 is certain and 2 is uncertain and the uncertainty would be 1 in the
last digit. Unless otherwise stated, an uncertainty of 1 in the last digit is always understood.
There are certain rules for determining the number of significant figures. These are stated below :
(1)
All non-zero digits are significant. For example in 285 cm, there are three significant figures and in
0.25 mL, there are two significant figures.
(2)
Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant. Such zero indicates the position of decimal
point.
Thus, 0.03 has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant figures.
(3)
Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four significant figures.
(4)
Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant provided they are on the right side of the decimal
point. For example, 0.200 g has three significant figures.
But, if otherwise, the terminal zeros are not significant if there is no decimal point. For example, 100
has only one significant figure, but 100. has three significant figures and 100.0 has four significant
figures. Such number are better represented in scientific notation. We can express the number 100
as 1 102 for one significant figures and 1.00 102 for three significant figures.
(5)
Counting numbers of objects, for example, 2 balls or 20 eggs, have infinite significant figures as
these are exact numbers and can be represented by writing infinite number of zeros after placing a
decimal i.e. 2 = 2.000000 or 20 = 20.000000
In numbers written in scientific notation, all digits are significant e.g., 4.01 102 has three significant
figures, and 8.256 103 has four significant figures.
Page No. # 47
1.
If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than 5, the preceding number is increased by one, for
example, 1.386 if we have to remove 6, we have to round it to 1.39.
2.
If the rightmost digit to be removed is less than 5, the preceding number is not changed. For example,
4.334 if 4 is to be removed, then the reuslt is rounded upto 4.33.
3.
If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5, then the prceding number is not changed if it is an even
number but it is increased by one if it is an odd number. For example, if 6.35 is to be rounded by
removing 5, we have to increase 3 to 4 giving 6.4 as the result. However, if 6.25 is to be rounded off it
is rounded of to 6.2.
NCERT PROBLEMS
How many significant figures are present in the following ?
(i) 0.0025
(ii) 208
(iii) 5005
(iv) 126,000
(i) 2
(ii) 3
(iii) 4
(iv) 3
1.
Ans.
2.
(v) 500.0
(v) 4
(vi) 2.0034
(vi) 5
Ans.
3.
How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the following calculations ?
(i)
(ii) 5 5.364
Ans.
(i) 3
EXAMPLES
Find significant figures in the following observations (i) 0.007 gm
(ii) 2.64 x 1024 kg
(iii) 0.2370 gm/cm3
(v) 6.032 N/m2
(vi) 0.0006032 K1
(i) 1 (ii) 3 (iii) 4 (iv) 4 (v) 4 (vi) 4.
Round off the following numbers within three significant figures (i) 0.03927 kg
(ii) 4.085 x 108 sec
(iii) 5.2354 m
(i) 0.0393 kg (ii) 4.08 x 108 sec (iii) 5.24 m (iv) 4.74 x 106 kg
(D) 44.00 kg
1.
Ans.
2.
Ans.
3.
Ans.
(ii) 4
Page No. # 48
1.
Ans.
Sol.
2.
Ans.
A student performs a titration with different burettes and finds titre values of 25.2 mL, 25.25 mL, and 25.0
mL. The number of significant figures in the average titre value is :
[JEE -2010]
3
Sol.
25 .2 25.25 25.0
75.45
=
= 25.15 = 25.2 mL
3
3
Ans.
Sol.
The respective number of significant figures for the numbers 23.023, 0.0003 and 2.1 103 are
[AIEEE-2010, 4/144, 1]
(A) 5, 1, 2
(B) 5, 1, 5
(C) 5, 5, 2
(D) 4, 4, 2
(A)
Rule : I. We know all non zero digits are significant.
Rule : II. If zero is between two non-zero digits this is also significant.
Rule : III. If zero left to the non-zero digit they are non-significant.
Significant figures for number 23.023 is 5. Using I & II.
Significant figures for number 0.0003 is 1. Using I, II & III.
Significant figures for number 2.1 103 is 2. Using I.
Mole concept for IIT-JEE (Includes Equivalent Concept and Titration) : Shishir Mittal.
(TMH-2011 Edition)
2.
Text Book of Physical Chemistry (Includes complete General Chemistry) : Shishir Mittal.
(Disha Publication, 6th Edition)
3.
4.
Page No. # 49