Engineering

CIV2242: Week 4a

Effective stress and stresses in soils

Prof Ranjith PG
Clayton Campus

Lecture outline
A quick review of last lectures
Influential factors affecting rock mass classifications
Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Geological Strength Index (GSI),
Pells et al. classifications
Introduction to effective stress principle
Total stress, effective stress, pore water pressure
Stress increment in soils under external loading

Do not forget to book your week 5 lab session this week!

Highlights of last class

Intact rock and rock mass

Rock mass strength depends on intact rock and joint/fracture conditions

(weathering, infill, separation etc)
Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Geological Strength Index, Q-System, Pells et al.
RMR: 5 parameter based = UCS, RQD, joint spacing, fracture condition,
ground water (Ratings determined and rock mass classified as Class I to V
with V the worst)
GSI: 2 parameter based = joint surface, blockiness (requires UCS and
material constant to find properties)

Effective stress todays topic

Effective or intergranular stress (s)

Pressure taken by solid particles is known as effective or

intergranular stress. Responsible for change in volume and
strength of soils.

Pore water or neutral stress (u)

s=P/A

Pressure taken by pore water in the void space which is

equal intensity in all direction is known as pore water or
neutral stress

s=Pc/A
u
A

Total stress (s)

Total force applied over unit area (=P/A)

Effective stress theory (Terzaghi, 1925)

s=P/A

s = s + u

s=Pc/A
where,
s = total stress (

u
)

s = effective stress ( )
u = pore water pressure ( )

u
A
A

(contact area is very small)

Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963)

Vc: P=P1(v)+P2(v)+P3(v)+ .

Contact area: Ac=a1+a2+a3+

Total cross-sectional area:
Area taken by water = ( - Ac)
V: P = P + ( -Ac) u
Dividing both sides by area,
P/ =P/ +(1-Ac/ ) u
s = s + (1-a) u

[a=Ac/ ]

Since, a is fraction of x-sectional area

occupied by solid to solid contacts,
it can be neglected.
s = s + u [Terzaghi, 1925]

2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Skempton (1960)

u = pore water
pressure=HAgw

P1(v)

How does it work (static head)?

Effective stress (s) at A??
Water table

Ground level

gsat=18kN/m3
gw=10kN/m3

5m

Pressure at any point = unit weight x height = gh

1. Pore water pressure (u) = gwhw = 5 x 10 = 50 kPa
2. Total pressure (s) at A = gbhs = 5 x 18 = 90 kPa
3. Effective pressure (s) at A = s - u = 90 50 = 40 kPa

Lowering water table (steady state)

How much change of effective stress (s) at A? Effect?

Ground level

gd=16kN/m3
gsat=18kN/m3
gw=10kN/m3

1m

5m

Water table

Pressure at any point = gh

1. Pore water pressure (u) at A = gwhw = 4 x 10 = 40 kPa

2. Total pressure (s) at A = gdhs+gbhs= (1x16)+(4x18) = 88 kPa

3. Effective pressure (s) at A = s - u = 88 40 = 48 kPa
Soil strength increases

Effective stress in layered soils

Total vertical stress at A:

g1

h1

Water table

sv = Sgi hi= g1h1+g2h2

Pore water pressure at A:

u = hw gw

g2, gw
hw

h2

Effective vertical stress at A:

sv = sv - u

Stress distribution with depth

0

50

100

150

kPa

0m

2m

4m

6m

Depth

Total
Stress
pore water
pressure

(5m)

Effective
stress

8m
10

Some comments on effective stress principle

Mostly valid for granular soils, silts and low plasticity clays
For highly plastic clays, there could have some high net attraction force between
particles
This may have some effect on calculated effective stress for highly plastic clays
Regardless of this minor issue, effective stress is still to be considered as total
stress minus pore water pressure (both measureable)
Effective stress change controls the volume change of soils and soil strength
An increase of effective stress results in an increase of strength through reduction
of void volume or more particle-particle contacts

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Effective stress (3 phase system)

Partially saturated soil, load is carried by

Solid (s)
Air (ua) and
water (uw)

s = s u a ( ua u w )
= 0 for dry soil and 1 for saturated soil
Will be discussed in CIV3247

12

Soil/rock as a group of particles

compactions

Solid

Void
13

External pressure on dry soil

14

Effects on soil behaviour

- Closer packing of particles (due to compaction)
- Reduction in void ratio
- Settlement occurs
- Increases contact stresses between particles
- Higher strength

- What will happen if soil is saturated??

15

Drained/undrained concept-1D spring analogy

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Time Effect Granular soil

For saturated granular soils (e.g. SAND):
- Voids are totally water filled

- Reduction of total volume requires reduction of void volume

- Pores between grains are open
- Water can freely drain between grains (large void sizes)
- Settlement effects are IMMEDIATE (Drained behaviour)
Short or long time- always granular soil behaviour is DRAINED

17

Time Effect Fine grained soils

For saturated fine grained soils (eg. CLAY):
- Voids are totally water filled
- Reduction of total volume requires reduction of void volume
- Water is bonded (more or less strongly) to particles

- Drainage of water is restricted (small void sizes)

- Settlement effects are DELAYED as water escapes slowly
- Short term behaviour is Undrained
- Long term behaviour is Drained

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Excess pore water pressure (Du)-1D concept (clay)

s
Du=Ds at t=0

++++
+ Ds
+ ++ +

hydrostatic

Du=0 at t=
What will happen at t = ? Du=?
19

Change of effective stress under drained/ undrained conditions

(1D)
Undrained: Ds = Ds Du = 0
Clay: Ds = 0 (immediate) [Du=Ds, t=0]
No change in effective stress means no change in soil strength
Drained: Ds= Ds Du
Sand: Ds= Ds (immediate) [Du=0, t=0] [Du=0, t=]
Clay: Ds= Ds (long time) [Du=0, t=]
Soil strength increases with time as excess water pressure
dissipates

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Example-Effective stress
Find s, s, u at A for

Ground surface
4.5m

eo=0.7, SR=0.85

(i) Current condition (static)

(ii) Water table at ground surface

w=28%

5m

(steady state)

(iii) Water table 2m above ground

2m below its previous position

(v) Further 4.5m drop of water

void

eSR

solid

2.65

2.65+eSR

For eo=0.7, SR=0.85, Gs=2.65

rbulk= (2.65+0.85*0.7)/(1+0.7)=1.91 g/cm3

gbulk=1.91*9.81=18.73 kN/m3

table (short-term & long-term

For w=28%

effect)

Mw/Ms=0.28; Mw=0.28*2.65=0.742gm

rbulk= (2.65+0.742)/(1+0.7)=2.0 g/cm3

gbulk=2*9.81=19.62 kN/m3

Assume Gs=2.65 for clay soil

1+e

surface (steady state)

(iv) Sudden drop of water table to

21

Strategy to solve
GL

g1
g2
(i)

Current condition (static

head)

g2
(ii) Water @ ground level
(Steady state)

gw
g2
(iii) Water @ 2m above
ground level (Steady state)

g2
(iv) Water @ 2m below
previous water level

g2
(v) Water @ 4.5m below
previous level (t=0)
(undrained)

g1
g2
(v) Water @ 4.5m below previous
level (t=) drained
22

Solution
(i)

Current condition (static head):

sA=4.5*18.73+5*19.62=182.38kPa

uA=5*9.81=49.05kPa

sA=182.38-49.05=133.33kPa

(ii) Water table @ GL (Steady state)

sA=(4.5+5)*19.62=186.39kPa

uA=9.5*9.81=93.2kPa

sA=186.39-93.2=93.2kPa

(iii) Water table @ 2m above GL (S.S)

sA= 2*9.81+ 9.5*19.62 =206.01kPa

uA=11.5*9.81=112.82kPa

sA=206.01-112.82=93.2kPa

Ds=Du= 2*9.81= 9.62kPa

Ground surface
4.5m

5m

eo=0.7, SR=0.85
w=28%

A
(iv) Water table quickly drops to 2m below previous level.
Note ONLY water head change (1-phase, no time
effect)
Ds=Du=-2*9.81=-19.62kPa (short & long)
sA=206.01-2*9.81=186.39kPa ()
uA=112.82-2*9.81=93.2kPa ()
sA=186.39-93.2=93.2 kPa (No change)
DsA=0 (No change of effective stress)

23

Solution
(v) Water table quickly drops to 4.5m below previous level (time effect)

At short-term (t=0):
sA=9.5*19.62=186.39kPa

uA=9.5*9.81=93.2kPa (No change)

sA=186.39-93.2=93.2 kPa (No change)
DsA=0
At long-term (t=)
sA=4.5*18.73+5*19.62=182.38 kPa
uA=5*9.81=49.05 kPa (Du=0; ie., full dissipation)
sA=182.38-49.05=133.33 kPa () ie. soil will undergo compression to see an

increase of effective stress (stronger)

DsA >0 (increase)
24

How does soil stress change?

Generally by construction activities eg.
Loading (foundations of buildings, bridges etc)
Unloading (ie. excavation)

Excavation (reduces stress, heave)

Foundation (increases stress, settlement)

25

How to find stresses due to gravity within

soil?
Ko 1 sinf
Ko = Coefficeint of earth pressure at
rest, f=friction angle

Ko=sh/sv

sv = z * gs
sh = Ko x sv

Effective soil unit weight = gs

26

Total and effective stresses acting on a soil element (3D)

s zz

s xx

= s xx u w ; s yz

= s yz

s yy

= s yy u w ; s zx

= s zx

s zy s zz

= s zz u w ; s xy

= s xy

s yz

s xz

s zx

s yy
s yx

Effective and total shear

stresses are the same as
water cannot take any
shear stress

s xy

s xx

y
x
27

Engineering

CIV2242: Week 4b
Effective stress and stresses in soils

Prof Ranjith PG
Clayton Campus

Lecture outline
A quick review of last lecture
Total, pore water pressure, effective stress
Significance of drained and undrained conditions
Excess pore water pressure
Stress increment in soils under external loading
How to determine incremental stress
Worked out problems

Book your week 5 lab session this week!

29
29

Highlights of last class

Effective stress, total stress and pore water pressure
Effective stress law: s = s + u

Effective stress cannot be measured, only can be calculated

Drained and undrained behaviour of soils
Sand: always drained-no excess pore water pressure
Clay: Undrained-excess pore water pressure develops (shortterm); Drained-no excess pore water pressure (long-term)
Excess pore water pressure and its variations with time for clay and
sand
What causes stress increment in soils?
Foundation (loading, settlement)
Excavation (unloading, heaving)

30

Excess pore water pressure (Du) concept (clay)

++++
+ Ds
+ ++ +

hydrostatic

Du=0 at t=
What will happen if unloaded: at t = 0, Du=-Ds; at t= , Du=0
31

Some comments on effective stress principle

Change in effective stress is associated with change of soil strength
An increase of effective stress increases soil strength and soil
undergoes compression
A decrease of effective stress decreases soil strength and soil
undergoes heaving
No change in effective stress, no change in soil strength
Now question is how to determine total stress increment in soil which
is linked with pore water pressure and effective stress changes of
soils

32

How to find total stress increment in soils?

Stress increment below a foundation depends on:

1. Shape (square, circular) and size (length, width, dia) of loaded area
2. Depth (D)
3. Stress under the footing is uniform (flexible type)
4. Soil is isotropic, semi infinite, elastic medium
5. We are interested in vertical stress increment only due to its
application in 1D settlement (consolidation) analysis

How do you find stresses at different depths below a loaded area?

Remember these stresses are all total stresses!

33

Vertical stress under rectangular loaded area

Newmarks solution:

Only under corner of a uniformly loaded

flexible rectangular area

Define m = B/z and n = L/z

Solution by charts or numerically
sz = q.Is
Is=Stress influence factor

z
sz

34

Find Is

0.26
Is
0.24
0.22
0.20

Area covered
with uniform
normal load,
q

nz
mz

0.18

m = 3.0 m = oc
m = 2.5
m = 2.0
m = 1.8
m = 1.6
m = 1.2
m = 1.4

m = 1.0
m = 0.9

sz = q.I
ss
q.I

m = 0.8

m = 0.7

0.16
0.14

m = 0.6

Note: m and n are interchangeable

m = 0.5

0.12

m = 0.4

0.10
m = 0.3

0.08
m = 0.2

0.06
0.04

m = 0.1

0.02
0
0.01 2 3 4 5

m = 0.0

0.1

2 345

1.0

2 3 45

VERTICAL STRESS BELOW A CORNER

OF A UNIFORMLY LOADED FLEXIBLE
RECTANGULAR AREA.

(after Fadum, 1948)

10

35

How to find stress increment at the centre of a rectangular loaded

area?

Vertical stress at centre = stress at corner for single block x 4

36

Example-Rectangular loaded area

For A, divide the area into 2-halves (ie. 3x1.5) to get the
corner with point A.

660kN

Depth 3.0m

Ds(A)=qIs=(660/3x3)x0.12 [From Fadum chart for m=1,

n=0.5]-only for 1 part of this loaded area
= 8.8 kPa
Ds(A) total=8.8x 2 [For 2 halves] = 17.6kPa

B
3m

For B: Divide the area in to 4 parts with each having corner with
point B.
Ds(B)=qIs=(660/3x3)x0.092 [From Fadum chart for m=0.5,
n=0.5]-only for 1 part of this loaded area

= 6.75 kPa
Ds(B) total=6.75x 4 [For 4 loaded areas] = 27kPa

3m
What are the vertical stress
increments at points A, B
which are 3m below the
ground?

37

Vertical stress under point load

x

Example-power pole
Boussinesq (1883) solution

Dsz = Q Is
z2
Is is stress influence factor

Is = 3
1
2p [1+(r/z)2]5/2

Dsz
r

r = (x y )
2

Dsy

Dsx
38

Point load example

4.5kN

X=1m

Find: Dsz
r = (x2+y2)0.5 = 1.8m

Y=1.5m
Z=4m

A
y
1m

Q
4.5
I
=
0.301 = 0.085kPa
2 s
2
z
4
3
1
Is =
= 0.301
5
2p
r 2 2
1
z

Ds z =

39

Vertical stress under uniformly loaded circular area

pressure, q

Example:
Water/oil tank

Dsz = q [1-

1
[1+(a/z)2]3/2

] = q.Is

Dsz
40

Vertical stress below arbitrary shaped area

Newmark (1942)
Uniformly distributed
loaded area of any shape
Area of each segment
represents an equal
proportions of applied
stress at a depth z
Dsz=qs.IN.Ns

41

How to use Newmark chart?

Plot the arbitrary area on the Newmark chart using the scale as shown on the
chart equal to the depth (z) at which vertical stress is to be determined for a
given applied surface load (qs)
Count the number of segments that the arbitrary area covering on the chart
(Ns), if not full segment, take an approximate fraction
Find Dsz=qs.IN.Ns
Note each chart has a different influence factor (IN) depending on the scale

42

Example (arbitrary shaped loaded area)

Find Ds at z=4m below the
centroid for qs=200kPa
Step 1: Locate centroid (x=4.26m,
y=1m)
Use chart shown depth scale to
draw the area on the chart with
centroid on the centre of chart
Count the number of segments
(Ns)=61
Dsz=qs.IN.Ns
=200x0.005x61= 61 kPa

43

Review questions
Define total, effective and pore pressures

Who was the first to introduce effective stress principle?

Can effective stress be measured?
What is neutral stress? Why is it named so?
What is the other name of effective stress?
What is the pore water pressure at ocean bed?
What is the total stress at ocean bed?
What is the effective stress (s) at ocean bed?
What is the soil condition at ocean floor? Dense or loose?
What is the type of stress change responsible for volume change and
strength of soils?

44

Summary
Effective stress, total stress and pore water pressure were defined
Drained/undrained concept with 1D spring analog was discussed
Effect of drainage on soil behaviour was discussed

Effect of external load on stress increment and pore pressure development

was discussed
How to determine vertical stress increment under external loading on soils
was discussed

45