Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

The use of the volcanic powders as supplementary cementitious

materials for environmental-friendly durable concrete
Y. Labbaci a, Y. Abdelaziz b,, A. Mekkaoui c, A. Alouani c, B. Labbaci a
a

LMS Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bechar, 08000, Algeria

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bechar, 08000, Algeria
c
FIMAS Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bechar, 08000, Algeria
b

h i g h l i g h t s

The powders of the volcanic rocks tested present a very high pozzolanic activity.

Relationships between SAI index and chemical components were established.

Energy consumption for the production of volcanic powder cements was calculated.

Volcanic powders can be used up to 15% as a partial substitute for Portland cement.

Mortars with the volcanic powder withstand much better chemical attacks.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 17 June 2016
Received in revised form 22 October 2016
Accepted 20 December 2016

Keywords:
Volcanic powders
Cement
Pozzolanic activity
Compressive strengths
Durability

a b s t r a c t
This study is part of a sustainable development policy that is dictated by the growing needs of material
resources and the requirements of environmental protection. It addresses an investigation on the possibility of using volcanic powders as supplementary cementitious materials for environmental-friendly
durable concrete. For this purpose, an experimental investigation was carried out to evaluate the
mechanical resistances and the durability of mortars containing an amount of volcanic powders.
Firstly, the work attempts to characterize several volcanic rocks (basalt, olivine andesite, amphibolebiotite andesite, amphibole andesite, hyodacite and scoria) from the mineral and chemical viewpoint
and evaluate their pozzolanic activity. Relationships between chemical components of volcanic rocks
and strength activity index were established. Secondly, it considers the mechanical strengths of the
Portland cement mortars containing a variable percentage of volcanic powders (10, 15, 20, 25, and
30%). Performance energy for the production of volcanic powder cements was evaluated. At the end,
the effects of aggressive chemical environments were investigated in terms of miscellaneous acidic
attacks (H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 and CH3COOH). Furthermore, a supplementary cementitious material, used
by many cement plants in Algeria, has been included in order to establish a comparative study.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
To lighten the economic and environmental impacts of cement
industry, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), including
limestone powder, fly ash, slag, silica fume, and natural pozzolans,
can be used as partial replacement of cement in concrete [14].
Apart from the immediate reduction consequence of the concrete
manufacturing costs, the partial replacement of cement will make

Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: lyas6974@gmail.com (Y. Labbaci), abdelaziz970@yahoo.fr
(Y. Abdelaziz), Dr.ySr2016@gmail.com (A. Mekkaoui), rdmrdm80@yahoo.fr
(A. Alouani), labonum@yahoo.fr (B. Labbaci).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.088
0950-0618/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

it possible substantially to decrease the gas emissions for purpose

of greenhouse (0.89t CO2/t clinker), minimize the harmful environmental impacts, and reduce the consumption of natural resources
and the energy. Due to the rush towards sustainability, nowadays,
many countries have adopted a sustainable development program
based on the use of the SCMs materials, namely natural pozzolanic
materials. This subject has become of interest to the scientific community; several researchers have focused their research efforts on
using natural pozzolan as an additive or substitute for cement in
concrete mixtures [58]. In fact, natural pozzolan would react with
calcium hydroxide to form more cementitious calcium silicate
hydrate. In addition, mortars which contain pozzolanic materials

Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

would exhibit considerable enhancement in durability properties

[911].
For this purpose, the aim of this investigation is to determine
the validity of volcanic powders used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). This step will make it possible to develop
materials available locally and will contribute to the social development of the area. It is important to note here that the results
of this research are of special importance not only for studied
region but also for other regions with similar geology, such as:
Ougarta, Yetti-Eglab and Edough (Algeria); Massif Central and
Alpes (France); Calabre (Italy); Sierra Nevada (Spain); Anti Atlas,
Ouarzazat, Ougnat and Siroua (Morocco); Harrat Al-Shaam (Syria,
Jordan and Saudi Arabia); Djebel Dokhan (Egypt) etc. The choice
of this kind of materials has been recommended by their interesting mechanical properties, abundance and economic exploitation
with lower environmental impact [1214]. Indeed, from an energy
performance standpoint, the total energy required to produce
cement was evaluated to be in the range 8001200 kW h per ton
of cement, including around 50 kW h/t for the finish grinding of
the clinker. In the case of volcanic powder, the energy needed for
the grinding of this material was evaluated at 75 kWh/t [15]. This
process energy was assumed to be zero kWh/t if the volcanic powder is a by-product.
2. Location and geologic setting
In this investigation, representative samples of volcanic rocks
were shortlisted from natural deposits in the southwest of Algeria
(massif of Boukais). The massif of Boukas is located in the southwest of Algeria, specifically, at 50 km southwest of the Bechar city.
Its latitude and longitude are 31900 32000 N and 2400 2600 W.

469

The dimensions of this volcanic massif are approximately 12 km

long by 6 km wide (Fig. 1).
This massif displays a wide variety of magmatic products, such
as andesitic basalt flows, doleritic dykes and dacitic intrusions
(Fig. 2) [1618]. The reserve of the volcanic rocks is a great potential for the cement industry; it is estimated at more than
150.106 m3 [19,20].
The geological investigation in situ has directed us to choose
five representative samples (Fig. 3) showing separate textural characters (samples A, B, C, D and E). In addition to our investigation,
we also established a comparative study by using supplementary
cementitious material (Sample F). This material is used as pozzolans by local cement factories in the manufacture of composite
Portland cement CPJ. A visual description of these tested samples
is summarized in Table 1.
3. Materials and mix designs
According to ASTM Standard C 311-98 [21], the volcanic rocks
were dried at a temperature of 105 C to eliminate free water
and they were ground in a laboratory ball mill to a particle size
of 100% less than 70 lm. The ordinary Portland cement type CEM
I 42.5 obtained from cement factory of Ain Touta was used as
cementitious material. It had a Blaine specific area of 435 m2/kg
and a specific density of 3100 kg/m3. Standard sand of 2 mm
maximum particle size was employed for the formulation of
mortars. The distilled water was used in all mortar mixtures and
in the curing of all the tests specimens. The mix designs of mortars
used for the experimentation are given in Table 2. After mixing, all
mortars were cast into 4  4  16 cm molds and they were kept in
laboratory conditions for 24 h. Then, the specimens were

Fig. 1. Volcanic massif of Boukas. (A) Geographic location, (B) Panoramic illustration of the oasis of Boukas, (C) 3D illustration of the volcanic massif of Boukas.

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Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

Fig. 2. Geological map of the volcanic massif [18].

demoulded and cured in lime-saturated water at 20 C 2 until the

time of testing.

4. Experimentation
4.1. Methodology
In the first stage, several volcanic rocks were characterized from
the mineral and chemical viewpoint. In order to make the petrographic identification, a number of thin sections of volcanic rocks
were examined under a Nikon Polarized Light Microscope (Eclipse
LV100Pol). The XRD powder pattern was recorded on a Siemens D5000 X-ray diffractometer, with Ka cobalt anticathode
(k = 1.789 ), at a current of 40 mA and voltage of 40 kV. The scans
were performed in the 2h range from 0 to 70 with a scanning
speed of 2/min. The chemical compositions of raw materials were
determined by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) using a Philips PW 1404 X
spectrophotometer.
In the second stage, the evaluation of pozzolanic activity of various volcanic rocks by means of mechanical strength tests was
established. The preparation of the mortars was carried out according to the norm NFP 15-403 [22]. A control mixture was produced
with a constant binder/sand/water proportion of (1/3/0.5). In the
test mixtures, 20% of the mass of Portland cement used in the control mixture was substituted by the same mass of the test supplementary cementitious materials. The strength activity index with

Portland cement as follows: SAI = (rtm /rcm)  100, where rtm is

the average compressive strength of test mixture specimen and
rcm is the average compressive strength of control mixture
specimen.
In the third stage, the effect of using volcanic powder as partial
replacement of cement on compressive strength of mortars was
investigated. For this purpose, a party of ordinary Portland cement
was replaced by supplementary cementitious materials at 10%,
15%, 20%, 25% and 30%. Three samples 4  4  16 cm were tested
under third-point loading and six half-samples obtained were
tested in uniaxial compression on a press controlled by force, in
accordance with the EN 196-1 2005 standard [23]. A calculation
of the energy demand when volcanic powders are used as cement
replacement was presented.
At the end of this investigation, the chemical durability of the
volcanic mixtures for aggressive chemicals was investigated in
terms of miscellaneous acidic attacks, namely: sulfuric acid (5%
H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (5% HCl), nitric acid (5% HNO3) and acetic
acid (5% CH3COOH). The samples 4  4  16 cm were made according to the standard ASTM C 267 2001 [24] and stored in water at
20 C until the 28th day. Thereafter, the samples were weighed
to determine their masses before the chemical attack then they
were immersed in different aggressive mediums of inorganic and
organic acids. After each week the specimens were washed, dried
and weighed. The degree of chemical attack is measured by the following weight loss formula: Mass loss (%) = [(M1  M2)/M1)] 
100, were M1 is the mass of the specimen before immersion and

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Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

Sample A

Sample B

Sample C

Sample D

Sample F

Sample E
Fig. 3. Tested samples.

Table 1
Visual description of tested samples.

M2 is the mass of the specimen after immersion in chemical

solution.

Rock

Color

Special characteristics

A
B

Dark
Reddish

C
D
E
F

Gray
Gray
Greenish gray
Dark

Small crystals of plagioclase

Iron-rich matrix
Small crystals of plagioclase

Large crystals of plagioclase

Striations due to flow structures
Very light weight due to numerous vesicles

4.2. Results and discussion

4.2.1. Mineralogical and petrographical evaluations
The thin sections were analyzed to identify and quantify primary minerals and alteration mineral assemblages, textures and
structures (Fig. 4).

Table 2
Mortar proportions of mortars of the experimentation.

CM
VP10
VP15
VP20
VP25
VP30

Portland cement [g]

Volcanic powder [g]

Graded standard sand [g]

Water [ml]

450
405
382.5
360
337.5
315

45
67.5
90
112.5
135

1350
1350
1350
1350
1350
1350

225
225
225
225
225
225

CM: Control mortar, VP: mortar using volcanic powder.

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Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

A : Basalt

D : Rhyodacite

B : Olivine andesite

E : Amphibole andesite

C : Amphibole- biotite andesite

F : Scoria

Fig. 4. Microscopic observations under polarized light.LPA.25x. Pl: plagioclase, Ol: olivine, Cpx: clinopyroxene, Opx: orthopyroxene, Op: opaque Amp: amphibole, Bio: biotite,
Qz: quartz.

By means of the X-ray diffraction patterns, the constituents of

raw materials were identified (Figs. 510). The mineralogical identification by X-ray diffraction is summarized in Table 3.
The mineralogical and petrographic evaluation of samples
shows a wide range of igneous rock compositions. It can be noted
that the tested volcanic rocks could be generally described as
material with porphyritic microstructure texture, except the sample E which has a hyalo-microlitic texture. The main mineral constituents of these rocks are plagioclase and alkali-feldspar,
clinopyroxene and oxide minerals (magnetite and ilmenite).
According their microstructure and modal composition, the tested
volcanic rocks can be subdivided into five kinds:

The sample A corresponds to a basalt. It is black to gray in color.
It has a microlitic porphyritic texture. Plagioclase is abundant in
microphenocrysts and microlites. The clinopyroxene occur as
large twinned crystals. Plagioclase occurs in smaller crystals.
Opaque are ferrotitanium oxides.

The sample B is an olivine andesite. It is reddish in color.
It has small crystals of plagioclase and an iron-rich matrix.
Much disseminated, dustlike red iron oxide gives the rock a

reddish-brown color. In thin section, the sample shows a microlitic porphyritic texture. It contains mainly phenocrysts of fresh
augite, sericitized andesine and minor amounts of altered
olivine and orthopyroxene.

The sample C corresponds to an amphibole-biotite andesite
small crystals of feldspars. Under the microscope, it shows a
microlitic porphyritic texture porphyritic microstructure in
which sericitized andesine phenocrysts are zoned, together
with orthoclase, and including biotite, amphibole and apatite.

The sample D corresponds to a rhyodacite. It is light gray in
color. In thin section, the sample shows a hyalo-microlitic texture. It contains some porphyritic feldspar, quartz and mafic.
It is composed of calcium feldspar porphyritic compounds, ferromagnesian pyroxene, amphibole and biotite. Quartz is automorphe embedded in a matrix hyalo-microlitic. Feldspars are
partially or completely replaced by secondary minerals group
phyllosilicates (sericite and chlorite) and calcite. Ferromagnesian are partially replaced by oxides and chlorite.

The sample E represents an amphibole andesite with large crystals of plagioclase. It has a greenish gray color. Under the microscope this andesite shows microlitic porphyritic texture. It

Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

473

Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction data of basalt (Sample A).

Fig. 6. X-ray diffraction data of olivine andesite (Sample B).

consists essentially of plagioclase in phyric and microliters and

rare amphibole crystals. Cavities filled with secondary quartz
are also observed.

The sample F represents a scoria. It has a black color. It consists

of amorphous glassy ground mass, vesicles, plagioclase and olivine [11].

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Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

Fig. 7. X-ray diffraction data of amphibole- biotite andesite (Sample C).

Fig. 8. X-ray diffraction data of rhyodacite (Sample D).

4.2.2. Chemical composition

The Table 4 gives the results of chemical composition of cement,
volcanic powders [18]. They were compared with the ASTM C61800 requirements [25] in Table 5. As seen from Tables 4 and 5, the
chemical composition of all volcanic powders conforms well to

the requirements of stipulated by the ASTM C 618 standard. The

tested volcanic powders (basalt, olivine andesite, amphibolebiotite andesite, rhyodacite, amphibole andesite and scoria) have
a sum of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 equal to 76.67, 81.68, 77, 82.13, 81.15
and 76.05%, respectively. These values are greater than chemical

Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

475

Fig. 9. X-ray diffraction data of amphibole andesite (Sample E).

Fig. 10. X-ray diffraction data of scoria (Sample F).

requirements according to ASTM C618 [25] (summary of SiO2 and

Al2O3 and Fe2O3 higher than 70%). MgO, SO3 and loss on ignition
content are lower than the requirement percentage (5%, 4% and
10% respectively). It can also be seen that the difference between
SiO2 and CaO is equal to 42.49, 54.34, 45.76, 61.49, 51.25 and

36.37% which are beyond chemical requirements (34%). All tested

volcanic powders show a strong acidic character, having a (SiO2 +
Al2O3) content ranging around 66.0680.74% of the total. The
importance of this content is emphasized by the fact that the active
vitreous phases generally are richer in silica and alumina content.

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Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

Table 3
Mineralogical identification by X-ray diffraction of raw materials.

Strength acvity index [%]

Sample
code

Rock name

Minerals

Basalt

B
C

Olivine andesite
Amphibole-biotite
andesite
Rhyodacite

Chlorite, calcite, labradroite, augite,

hematite, quartz
Chlorite, calcite, labradroite, augite, hematite
Quartz, hematite, chlorite, kaolinite, illite,
labradroite, augite
Calcite, augite, chlorite, quartz, illite,
hematite, kaolinite, labradroite
Chlorite, hematite, quartz, labradroite,
kaolinite, augite, illite, calcite
Labradorite, augite, montmorillonite,
kaolinite, hematite, analcime

D
E
F

Amphibole
andesite
Scoria

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Reference

28 days

Fig. 11. Pozzolanic reactivity of the additions at 28 days.

91.90% and 84.15%, respectively). Among these samples, rhyodacite powder gives the most reactive pozzolan (91.90%).
In order to make the test results interpretation easier, relationships between strength activity index and chemical components
were evaluated. From the correlation graph it is clear that there
is a significant correlation between the chemical components and
the strength activity index (Fig. 12). Test results revealed that the
pozzolanic activities of volcanic rocks are directly proportional
with the increase of the sum of (SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3). It also
appears from the results that the pozzolanic activity increases with
the increase in silicon dioxide rate (SiO2). It can be noted that
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), LOI, and Magnesium oxide (MgO) decrease the pozzolanic activity.

From the chemical point of view, all the tested volcanic powders
(basalt, olivine andesite, amphibole-biotite andesite, amphibole
andesite, hyodacite and scoria) are suitable for use as supplementary cementitious materials.

4.2.3. Evaluation of strength activity index

According to ASTM C595-08 [26], a pozzolan is defined as a
siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials which in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
temperature to form compounds possessing cementious properties. It is known that its pozzolanic activity depends on a number
of factors, the most significant of which seem to be the mineralogical and chemical composition of the additive, extent of the amorphous phase, specific surface area, content of Ca(OH)2 in the
cement paste, mixing conditions and water/cement [2729].
The test results of the strength activity index at 28 days are
given in Fig. 11. According to ASTM C618-00 [25], for natural pozzolan at a cement replacement of 20%, it requires a strength activity index greater than 75% at 28 days. The study of pozzolanic
activity provides that tested specimens (basalt, olivine andesite,
amphibole-biotite andesite, amphibole andesite and rhyodacite)
were all highly pozzolanic at 28 days (79.17%, 89.32%, 89.79%,

4.2.4. Influence of replacement level

At this stage, an experimental investigation was carried out to
evaluate the mechanical resistances of mortars containing a variable percentage of volcanic powders (10, 15, 20, 25 and 30%).
Two kinds of volcanic powders were studied: amphibole andesite
and scoria. The choice of this first type of volcanic powders has
been recommended by its abundance and high pozzolanic activity.
Furthermore, a supplementary cementitious material scoria,
used as pozzolans by local cement factories, has been included in
order to establish a comparative study.

Table 4
Chemical composition of raw materials.

SiO2 (%)
Al2O3 (%)
Fe2O3 (%)
MnO (%)
MgO (%)
CaO (%)
Na2O (%)
K2O (%)
SO3 (%)
TiO2 (%)
P2O5 (%)
LOI (%)

Cement

21.04
5.34
4.07

1.14
64.94
0.17
0.88
0.75

1.67

49.97
16.64
10.06
0.12
4.14
7.48
3.52
2.37

1.81
0.36
2.54

56.26
14.15
11.27
0.12
3.26
1.92
4.87
2.71

2.23
0.37
1.97

51.88
16.31
8.81
0.14
3.98
6.12
3.93
3.09

1.62
0.34
2.38

67.21
13.53
5.96
0.05
1.05
0.57
3.48
5.44

0.42
0.08
1.4

57.15
16.28
7.72
0.10
3.75
5.9
3.81
0.99

1.08
0.23
2.89

47.21
18.85
9.99

4.38
10.84
0.81
0.20
0.50

3.91

Table 5
Comparison between supplementary cementitious materials properties and ASTM C618-00 requirements.
Chemical composition

Requirement

Common NP (%)

SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3

MgO
SO3
Loss on ignition
SiO2-CaO

Minimum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Minimum

70
5
3
10
34

76.67
4.14

2.54
42.49

81.68
3.26

1.97
54.34

77
3.98

2.38
45.76

82.13
2.06

1.4
61.49

81.15
3.75

2.89
51.25

76.05
4.38
0.50
3.91
36.37

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Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

120
100
80

10%

60

15%
20%

40

25%

20
0

30%
2 days

7 days

28 days

56 days

90 days

Relave compressive strengths (%)

Relave compressive strengths (%)

Fig. 12. Relationships between chemical components and strength activity index.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
2 days

7 days

28 days

56 days

90 days

Age (days)

Age (days)

Fig. 13. Compressive strength development of different mortars using amphibole

andesite as supplementary cementitious materials.

Fig. 14. Compressive strength development of different mortars using scoria as

supplementary cementitious materials.

Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

40
30

CM
20

Andesite
Scoria

10
0

1 day
-10

7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Immersion time (days)

Fig. 17. Loss of mass of mortars at different ages of immersion in sulfuric acid (5%
H2SO4).

50
45
40
35
30
25

CM

20

Andesite

15

Scoria

10
5
0

1 days 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Immersion time (days)

Fig. 18. Loss of mass of mortars at different ages of immersion in hydrochloric acid
(5% HCl).

1000
950

50

900

45

850
800

Volcanic Powder

750

Cement

700
650

10

20

30

40

Volcanic powder content (%)

40

Mass loss (%)

Energy consumption (kWh/t)

50

Mass loss (%)

The relative compressive strengths development of different

batches at a different age is graphically illustrated in Figs. 13 and
14. The results reported are the average of six compression tests
at 2, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days.
According the results given by Figs. 13 and 14, as expected, all
mortars, with and without volcanic powder show an increase in
strength with curing time. This ascertainment may be attributed
to hydration of cement which generates changes in the compactness. Also, it is seen that as the volcanic powder replacement level
increases as the compressive strength of volcanic powder-based
cement mortars decreases for all curing times. Specially, we noted
that, at an earlier age, the compressive strength decreases significantly with increasing percentage of volcanic powder. This reduction in the compressive strength is attributed mainly to slower
pozzolanic activity at room temperature of the supplementary
cementitious materials [30,31]. This ascertainment is explained
by the interaction between the reactive silica which is in the glassy
portion of the addition and the Ca (OH)2 released by the hydration
of the cement. However after a few weeks, the compressive
strengths were increased. Indeed, at 28 days, a compressive
strength comparable to that of the control mortar was observed
for mortars containing 10% of andesite-based cement. At 56 days,
an increase in compressive strengths was observed for mortars
containing 15% and 20% andesite-based cement. The volcanic powder improves compressive strength so long as it gives rise to a second CSH. During the hydration of cement, the reaction between
Ca (OH)2 liberated and volcanic powder led to a refinement of the
pore structure resulting in a highly impermeable matrix. Consequently, the mortars containing volcanic powders are of compressive strengths comparable with those of the control mortar starting
from 56 days on.
In the case of mortars containing scoria-based cement, it is possible to note that, at all levels of replacement at all ages, scoria

Mass loss (%)

478

35
30
25

CM

20

Andesite

15

Scoria

10

Fig. 15. Energy consumption for the production of one ton of mortar.

5
0
1 days 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Immersion time (days)

Energy consumpon (kWh/MPa)

24
23

Fig. 19. Loss of mass of mortars at different ages of immersion in nitric acid (5%
HNO3).

22
21
20
19

Volcanic Powder

18

Cement

17
16
15

10

20

30

40

Volcanic powder content (%)

Fig. 16. Performance energy for the production of one ton of mortar.

induced compressive strength reductions in mortars. These

obtained results are in perfect agreement with those already found
by Senhadji [32]. The authors noted that the mortars containing
the scoria exhibit compressive strengths comparable to those of
the control mortar starting from the period of 90 days.
4.2.5. Calculation of the energy consumption
On the basis of data reported in the literature [3335], a simple
calculation of the energy demand when volcanic rocks are used as

Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

50
45

Mass loss (%)

40
35
30
25

CM

20

Andesite

15

Scoria

10
5
0

1 days 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days

Immersion time (days)

Fig. 20. Loss of mass of mortars at different ages of immersion in acetic acid (5%
CH3COOH).

cement replacement can be evaluated. The energy consumption for

the production of one ton of mortar is evaluated by using the following relation [15]:

E Cc Ec Cvp Evr
where: E is the energy consumption for the production of one ton of
mortar, Cc and Cvp are the proportions of cement and volcanic powder in the mortar, Ec is the energy consumption of the cement manufacturing process (950 kWh/t) and the finish grinding of the
cement (50 kWh/t), Evr is the energy consumption for the grinding
of the volcanic rocks (75 kWh/t).
The performance energy can be calculated by dividing the
required energy by the compressive strength of the mortar.

479

The Figs. 15 and 16 give the calculation results of the energy

consumption and the performance energy, respectively. It can be
seen that the energy consumption for the production of one ton
of volcanic powder cements was smaller than to that of cement
alone for miscellaneous volcanic powder contents (10, 15, 20, 25
and 30%). From an energy performance viewpoint, volcanic powder
can be qualified as environmentally acceptable in the case of 15% of
volcanic powder. This content led to a better result than the reference in terms of energy consumption relative to the performance
of the mortars.
4.2.6. Durability of mortars against acidic attacks
The test results of mass loss versus time for mortar samples
exposed to miscellaneous chemical attacks (5% H2SO4, 5% HCl, 5%
HNO3 and 5% CH3COOH) are shown in Figs. 1720.
Compared to sample kept in water, the state of samples after
28 days of immersion in miscellaneous chemical solutions (5%
H2SO4, 5% HCl, 5% HNO3 and 5% CH3COOH) is given in Fig. 21.
The Figs. 22 and 23 give the gain in mass of mortars with additions (andesite and scoria) compared to control mortar after
28 days of immersion in acidic solutions (sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and acetic acid).
Through these tests of chemical attacks, it is possible to highlight the following key findings:

All the mortars immersed in the aggressive solutions present a
permanent loss of the mass as a function of the immersion period. However, the speed of the mass losses differs from one case
to another following the mortar composition, the chemical solution nature and the immersion time. All these attacks on mortars are associated with erosion and softening due to leaching
of Ca and decalcification of CSH [36].

Fig. 21. State of the samples after 28 days of immersion in acidic solutions compared to sample kept in water.

480

Y. Labbaci et al. / Construction and Building Materials 133 (2017) 468481

100

5. Conclusion

90
80

On the basis of this experimental investigation, it is possible to

put forward the following principal conclusions:

64.58

70

54.38

60
50
40
30
10
0

19.9

19.68

20
0

Control mortar sulfuric acid

hydrochloric

nitric acid

acec acid

acid
Fig. 22. Gain in mass of mortars containing andesite-based cement compared to
control mortar after 28 days of immersion in acidic solutions.

100
90
80
65.96

70

54.15

60
50
40

24.29

30
14.5

20
10
0

0
Control mortar sulfuric acid

hydrochloric

nitric acid

acec acid

acid
Fig. 23. Gain in mass of mortars containing scoria-based cement compared to
control mortar after 28 days of immersion in acidic solutions.

There is a positive effect when inserting the mineral additions

on the improvement of the chemical resistance of mortars
andesite and scoria with respect to the attacks of acids. This
positive effect can be attributed to the creation calcium aluminate hydrates; which are chemically more stable than the calcium silicate hydrates in very acidic environments [37].

In the case of a chemical attack by sulfuric acid, a weight gain
was observed in the first days. This gain is due to the formation
of calcium sulfate following the reaction of the calcium hydroxide with the sulfuric acid Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 ? CaSO4 + 2H2O.
Deposited gypsum forms a thick white layer on the surface of
the mortars. While the chemical attack continues, the gypsum
layer (calcium sulfate) precipitated is easily leached, resulting
in a considerable mass loss. In addition, the calcium sulfate
formed in the initial operation reacts with the calcium
aluminate phase in cement to form the hydrated sulfoaluminate calcium (Ca6 Al2(SO4)3(OH)1226H2O) ettringite. The
hydrated sulfoaluminate calcium is an expansive element
which creates cracks, loss of cohesion and strength and changes
in porosity.

According to above results, it is found that the mortars containing andesite-based cement exhibit better resistivity relative to
the reference mortar. It is noted, mainly, that after 28 days of
immersion, that the addition of volcanic powders reduces the
mass loss, compared to the reference mortar, 19.68% in sulfuric
acid, 64.58% in hydrochloric acid, 54.38% in nitric acid, and
19.9% in acetic acid. These results are considered to be comparable to the results of the mortars containing scoria-based
cement.

The mineralogical and petrographic evaluation of samples

shows a wide range of igneous rock compositions. According
their microstructure and modal composition, the tested volcanic rocks can be subdivided into five kinds: basalt, olivine
andesite, amphibole-biotite andesite, amphibole andesite and
rhyodacite.

The conformity of the chemical composition of the volcanic
powders tested with the regulations required by standard ASTM
C618-00. It was found that the total silicon, aluminium and iron
oxide content is higher than the minimum requirement. Sulfur
trioxide, alkalis and loss on ignition are much lower than the
upper limit of the ASTM C618-00.

The powders tested present a very high pozzolanic activity in
perfect compliance with standard ASTM C618-98. The strength
activity index with portland cement ranging from 82.11% to
91.91% at 28 days old, which is over 75% as specified by ASTM
standard C 618-98.

Among the five analyzed volcanic powders, rhyo-dacite rock
presents the highest pozzolanic activity. It have been noted also
that the pozzolanic activity of the volcanic powders (olivine
andesite, amphibole-biotite andesite, amphibole andesite and
rhyodacite) is higher than that of BSs pozzolan (scoria) used
by many local cement factories.

Relationships between strength activity index and chemical
components of volcanic rocks were established. Correlation
results revealed that the pozzolanic activities of volcanic rocks
are directly proportional with the increase in silicon dioxide
rate (SiO2). Conversely, an increase in Al2O3, Fe2O3 and MgO
content of volcanic rocks adversely affected the pozzolanic
activity.

Mortars containing andesite-based cement withstand much
better acidic attacks compared to the control mortars. This
resistance is considered to be comparable to the results of mortars containing scoria-based cement.

Based on the compressive mechanical and chemical results
obtained, it is suggested that volcanic powders can be used up
to 15% as a partial substitute for Portland cement. This content
led to a better result than the reference in terms of energy consumption relative to the mechanical performance and longterm durability of the mortars.
According to the results of this research, it can be concluded
that volcanic powders can be used as effective pozzolanic materials
to replace portion of Portland cement. They allow a high compressive strength and good resistance to various chemical attacks.
Moreover, the use of this material in its natural state, without calcination, will allow an economic exploitation with lower environmental impact. At the end, this study can be regarded as a first step
in the valuation of the volcanic powders. However, much effort
must be made to achieve this goal.
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