Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Amongst the main applications can be found: home electrification, water pumping
systems and irrigation, outdoor lighting, radio and TV repeaters, etc...
5 - Is photovoltaic energy cost effective?
The answer to this question will depend on the location of the proposed installation. A large
proportion of humanity, particularly in those countries which are undergoing a process of
development, does not have access to electricity due to the lack of basic electrical infrastructures.
In these countries solar photovoltaic energy can be the most cost effective solution for the
production of electricity, and indeed in many places, the only solution.
6 - Can we use photovoltaic energy for heating homes or heating the water of a domestic
swimming-pool?
Even though this is technically possible, from an economical point of view it loses all sense.
To heat water the best option is to use a solar thermal system, these systems use thermal
collectors that absorb heat and transfer it to water or to another suitable fluid. To heat homes, the
best option for the application of solar energy is to use a thermal system with a radiant floor
installation.
7 - What is the effective life of a photovoltaic module?
If we consider that a photovoltaic module does not have mobile parts and that the cells and
contacts are encapsulated in a robust resin, high reliability and a long life are achieved, the
efective life of most modules being about 30 years or more. Also, if one of the cells fails, this
does not affect to the operation of the others, and the current and voltage produced can be easily
adjusted,
thereby
increasing
or
decreasing
the
number
of
cells.
8 - Can the PV modules be broken easily?
The external surface of a photovoltaic module is protected with glass which is able to
withstand very severe meteorological conditions such as ice, abrasion, sharp changes in
temperature, or even impacts produced by hailstones. One of the standard qualification tests is an
ice ball impact test, in which ice balls of a defined size and consistency are fired at various points
of
the
glass
using
a
pneumatic
gun.
9 - What are the maintenance requirements of a photovoltaic system?
A photovoltaic installation requires minimal and very easy maintenance which can be
reduced to the following procedures:
PV modules
Charge controller
Batteries
the sun, the efficiency of the PV modules decreases in proportion to this value.
15 - What factors affect the efficiency of a PV module?
Basically the luminous radiation intensity and the cell temperature.
16 - Does the use of a tracking system improve the photovoltaic collection efficiency?
This will depend on the climate and the type of application. At best the efficiency of the
system can be improved by 40%, but the higher cost that the use of trackers supposes does not
compensate the efficiency increase obtained. The applications are generally limited to those
cases where the efficiency increase occurs at the same time as the increase in energy demand
(such as in the case of water pumping systems for livestock in very dry regions).
17 - What is the function of the diodes in a photovoltaic installation?
Diodes are electronic components that allow the flux of current in one direction only. In
photovoltaic systems they are generally used in two ways: as blocking diodes and as bypass
diodes.
16 MARKS
1. Explain about the direct and diffuse radiation.(8m)
2.Estimate the solar insolation data.
3.Explain about the extraterrestrial and terrestrial radiation falling on horizontal
surface.
4.Estimate the global and diffuse components.
5.Estimate radiation falling on tilted surface.
6.Briefly explain the bond and band model.(8m)
7.How is light absorbed in a semiconductor? Also write notes on recombination of
e-h pairs. (8m)
8.How a pn junction is formed? And explain its characteristics (8m)
9.What is the effect of light,temperature and parasitic resistance on a solar cell?
10.Briefly explain the spectral response of solar cell. (8m)
11.Explain about the optical and recombination losses.
12.Explain the hot-spot heating
UNIT II
The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earths surface an
The large area required to collect the energy at a useful rate.
A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfers the energy to a
fluid passing in contact with it. There are two types of collectors:
16 mark
1. What is the use of blocking diode?
2. Why regulator is needed in a PV system?
3. What is regulator set point?
4. What are the requirements for inverters used in stand-alone PV systems?
5. What materials are used in mounting structures?
6. Define system availability.
7. What is meant by hybrid system?
8. What parameters are required to determine the load?
9. What is sizing?
10. Write the requirements for battery to be used for long term.
11. What is columbic or charge efficiency?
12. What is voltage efficiency?
13. What is energy efficiency?
14. Define power rating of battery.
15. Define battery capacity.
16. What is depth-of-discharge?
17. What are super capacitors?
18. Draw the block diagram of standalone PV system.
19. What are the reasons for encapsulated cell have lower efficiency?
20. What is earthling or grounding?
UNIT III
GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
1. What is an inverter?
An inverter takes DC power (from a battery or solar panel, for example) and converts it
into alternating current (AC) "household" power for running electronic equipment and
appliances.
2. How is an inverter different than a UPS?
A UPS typically includes the inverter, battery and battery charger in one standalone unit.
However, there are UPSs that use external batteries, and Power Stream has
made inverters with battery chargers, so the differences blur as features proliferate. PSs
also can have communication with the equipment that it is powering, which lets the
equipment know that it is operating on standby, giving it shutdown warning, or
communicating with the human in the loop. Inverters typically don't have this
communication.
3. What is meant by Energy Conservation?
Energy Conservation means reduction in energy consumption but without making any
sacrifice in the quality or quantity of production. In other words, it means increasing the
production from a given amount of energy input by reducing losses/wastage and maximizing
the efficiency.
4. State three incentives in Energy Conservation.
The three major incentives in energy conservation are:
Decreasing the energy requirement
Conserving the limited conventional assets of energy
Saving the environment
5. .List the general principles of Energy Conservation
The general principles of Energy Conservation are:
Recycling of waste
Modernization of technology
Waste heat utilization
Proper house keeping
Judicial use of proper types of energy
Judicial use of proper type of fuel
Training of manpower
Adopting daylight saving time
Proper operation and maintenance
Cogeneration
6. List the necessity of energy storage.
7.
8.
9.
The effective utilization of intermittent and variable energy source such as sunlight, wind,
etc., often requires energy storage
Storing the energy and transporting it economically to a load centre.
The vehicle must carry its energy supply, the storage system must be readily transportable
nergy storage is also required for load leveling in an electric utility to reduce the overall
cost of generating electrical power.
Define Energy Utility Factor.
The relation between useful thermal energy and the available chemical energy in the fuel
is expressed by means of the energy utility factor. Energy Utility Factor= Useful Thermal
Energy/ Available Energy in Fuel
What are the needs of energy conservation?
Energy conservation is necessary to reduce the wastage of energy.
It helps to keep the domestic change payment constant even when the production cost of
electricity increase.
It helps to maintain the profit in industries uniform even if the electricity change
increases.
What are the different types of renewable energy sources?
Solar energy Wind energy Hydro power Geo thermal Biomass Tidal & Wave energy
Wind energy available is dilute and fluctuating in nature. Because of the dilute form,
conversion machines have to e necessarily large.
Wind energy systems are noisy in operation a large unit can be heard many kilometers
away.
Large areas are needed to install wind forms for electrical power generation
16 MARKS
1.Write notes on onsite storage .(8m)
State
Density Volts/cell Volts/battery Freezing point
Charged
1,265 2,12
12,70
-57C
Charged 75% 1,225 2,10
12,60
-38C
Charged 50% 1,190 2,08
12,45
-25C
Charged 25% 1,155 2,03
12,20
-16C
Discharged 1,120 1,95
11,70
-10C
State of charge, density, voltage and freezing point for a lead-acid battery
5 - What are the effects upon the capacity and the voltage of serial or parallel connected
batteries?
The batteries can be connected in series in order to increase the voltage, or in parallel to
increase the capacity, in Amp hours, of the battery system.
When connecting a group of batteries in series and parallel, both voltage and capacity are
increased.
6 - What is the effect of the fast discharge of a battery?
Firstly, not all the energy that a battery can supply is obtained. For example, a battery which
discharges in 72 hours can supply about twice the energy that it would supply if discharged in
only 8 hours.
Also, fast discharge of a battery produces deformation and premature disintegration of the
cell plates, which disintegrate, giving rise to a sediment in the bottom of the battery containers.
This sediment can cause a short circuit between the plates, thus destroying the battery.
The primary function of a charge controller in a photovoltaic system is to protect the battery
form overcharges or over discharges. Almost all installations require a charge controller. Systems
without charge controllers will reduce the battery life and the load availability.
Systems with small, predictable and continuous loads can be designed to operate without
charge controller. If the system has an over-sized battery and the discharge regimen will never go
below the critical depth of discharge of the battery, the charge controller can be avoided.
14 - What is the difference between the different kind of inverters? What is the most
suitable inverter for each application?
Inverters transform DC current into AC current. DC current has a current flux which only
flows in one direction, while AC current changes the current flux very fast from one direction to
the other. The frequency of AC current in Spain is usually 50 cycles per second (Hertzs). Each
cycle involves the movement of current in one direction and then in the other. This means that
the direction of the current changes 100 times every second.
16 Marks
1. Explain in detail about the solar thermal energy storage.
2. Explain in detail about the battery energy storage.
3. Explain in detail about the pumped hydroelectric energy storage.
4. Write notes on impact of intermittent generation.
5. Explain in detail about sensible heat storage.
6. Explain in detail about latent heat storage.
UNIT V
APPLICATIONS
Concentration ratio is the ratio between the aperture area and receiver / absorber area of the
collector.
16. List the five advantages of solar energy
16 MARKS
1.Explain how a photovoltaic system is used for telecommunication.
2. Explain in detail about solar cars.
3.Explain in detail about direct-drive applications.
4.Explain how PV cell is used in space.
5.Explain in detail about solar water pumping.
6.Explain in detail about the battery chargers