Chapter 1-Psychology As A Science

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior

and mental processes.
Topic of interests:
Intelligence
Language
Thought
Growth and Development
Personality

Topic of interests:
Nervous System
Sensation and Perception
Learning and Memory
Intelligence

Behavior includes all of our outward or overt
actions such as talking, facial expressions, and
movement.
OVERT
observable
BEHAVIOR
COVERT known
to person
performing the
behavior.

OVERT observable
BEHAVIOR
COVERT known to
person performing
the behavior.
Mental processes refers to all internal, covert
activity of our minds such as thinking, feeling
and remembering.

Goals of Psychology:
1. Description (Describe)
It involves observing a behaviour and noting
everything about it.
What is happening? Where it happens? To

whom it happens? And to what
circumstances it seems to happen.

Goals of Psychology:
2. Explanation (Explain)
Tentative explanation.
1. Prediction (Predict)
2. Control (Control)

Research in Psychology:
Pure Research has no immediate

application to personal or social problems
and therefore has been characterized as
research for its own.
Applied Research designed to find
solution to specific personal or social
problems.

Fields in Psychology:
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychologists help people with

psychological disorder to adjust to the
demands of life.
Ph. D. holder.
Interviews
Psychological tests.
Counseling Psychology
Counseling psychologists help people with
adjustment problems.
School Psychology
School psychologists help the school system
identify and assist students who have
problems that interfere with learning.
They help schools make decisions about
placing students in special classes.

Educational Psychology
Educational psychologists researches on
theoretical issues related to learning,
measurement, and child development.
They study how learning is affected by

psychological factors such as motivation and
intelligence, sociocultural factors such as
poverty and acculturation.

Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychologists study the
changes physical, cognitive, social and
emotional that occur across the life span.
It concerns with how people become who
they are from conception to death.
Concentrates on biological and environmental
factors
that
contribute
to
human
development.

Personality Psychology
Personality
psychologist
identify
and
measure human traits and determine the
influences on human thought processes,
feelings, and behavior.
They tend to look within the person for

explanations of behavior.
Concerns with issues such as anxiety,
aggression, and gender roles.

Social Psychology
Social psychologists are concerned with the
nature and causes of individuals thought,
feelings, and behavior in social situations.
Environmental Psychology
Environmental psychologists study the ways
in which people and environment the
natural environment and the human-made
environment influence one another.

Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychologists specialize in basic
processes such as nervous system, sensation
and perception, learning and memory,
thought, motivation, and emotion.
They use people and animals to study

learning.

Industrial Psychology
Industrial psychologists focus on
relationships between people and work.
the
Also referred as personnel psychology.

It concerns are personnel and human
resource management.

Organizational Psychology
Organizational psychologists study behavior
of people in organizations such as businesses.
Examines the social and group influences of
the organization.
Human Factors Psychology
Human factors psychologists make technical

systems such as automobile dashboards and
computer keyboards more user-friendly.

Health Psychology
Health psychologists examine the ways in
which behavior and attitudes are related to
health.
They study the effects of stress on health

problems such as headaches, cardiovascular
disease, and cancer.

Sports Psychology
Sports
psychologists
help
athletes
concentrate on their performance and not in
the crowd.
Uses cognitive strategies such as positive
visualization.
Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychologists apply psychology to

the criminal justice system.

Abnormal Psychology
Studies the usual pattern of behavior, emotion

and thoughts which may or may not be
understood as precipitating mental disorder.
Psychiatry
A branch of medicine practiced by physician
with a doctor of medicine (M.D.)
Psychiatrist prescribes drugs.

Cognitive Psychology
Examines
attention,
consciousness,
information processing and memory.
Also interested in cognitive skills and
abilities .

IMPORTANT DATES IN PSYCHOLOGY
B.C.E.
470 - 399
Socrates Know thyself

Suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection.
400
Democritus suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a

mind.
Was one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice.
Human minds is composed by atoms. Atoms enter through our sense organs
360
Plato wrote the Theaetetus examining theories of perception, knowledge and

truth.
The soul is composed of three parts head (reason), heart (responsible for
noble responses), and diaphragm (seat of our passion).
384 - 322
Aristotle argued that human behavior, like the movements of the stars and the
seas, is subject to rules and laws.
Topics: personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and
motives, feelings and emotion, and memory.
Wrote a book in Psychology, Peri Psyches.
Wrote De Anima about the relationship of the soul to the body.
Three functions of the soul: the vegetative, concerned with basic maintenance
of life; the appetitive, concerned with motives and desires, and rational the
governing function.

B.C.E.
430
130 - 200
Hippocrates proposes that mental illness are caused by an imbalance of the

four major fluids in the body.
Galen humors or virtual juices of the body: sanguine (cheerful), phlegmatic
(sluggish), melancholic (sad) and choleric (irascible).
C.E.
1649
Descartes published The Passion of the Soul, outlining the pineal gland as
the seat of the soul.
1848
Phineas Gage suffered from brain damage and provides a famous case of the
effects of the brain damage.
1859
Charles Darwin publishes the theory of natural selection, which influence the
field of evolutionary psychology.
1801 - 1887
Gustav Theodor Fechner published his landmark book Elements of

Psychophysics, which showed how physical events (lights and sounds) are
related to psychological sensation and perception.
Credited with performing the first scientific experiments that would form the
basis for experimentation in psychology.

C.E.
1861
Brocas Area and its role in speech reproduction were discovered.
1874
Wernikes Area and its role in language comprehension was

discovered.
1879
Wilhelm Wundt used scientific methods to investigate what were

previously philosophical questions in his laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany.
1884
James Lange theory of emotions was proposed.
1890
William James published his book Principles of Psychology.
1892
Structuralism was first discovered by Wundt and Titchener
1894
Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in

Psychology.
1900
Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams.
1904
Spearman proposed a general factor of intelligence.

C.E.
1905
Mary Whiton Calkins became the first president of the American

Psychological Association.
Freud proposed his psychosexual theory of personality development.
The first IQ test, the Simon-Binet was created.
1906
Ivan Pavlov published his findings on Classical Conditioning.

Ramon y Cajal discovered that the nervous system is composed of
individual cells.
1908
Yerkes-Dodson law proposed to explain the relationship between

performance and arousal.
1911
Thorndike discovered the Law of Effect.
1912
Gestalt psychology was first developed by Max Wertheimer.

The intelligence quotient was discovered by William Stern.
1913
Carl Jung developed his theory of collective conscious.
1915
Freud proposed the concept of Defense Mechansims.

C.E.
1920
Francis Summer became the first African American to receive a Ph.D.

in psychology at Clark University.
Watson and Rayner published the Little Albert experiment.
1921
The Rorschach inkblot test was discovered.

Allport propposed a trait theory of personality.
1930
Jean Piaget proposed the four stages of cognitive development.
1933
Sigmund Freud proposed the concepts of id, ego and superego.
1934
Lev Vygotsky proposed the concept of the zone of proximal

development.
1942
Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy.
1943
Hull proposed the drive reduction theory of motivation.
1948
Alfred Kinsey began a survey research on sexual behavior.
1950
Erikson proposed his psychosocial stages on development.

C.E.
1952
The first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorder was published.
1953
The American Psychological Association published the first edition of

Ethical Standards in Psychology.
1954
Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs.
1955
Albert Ellis proposed rational emotive behavioral therapy.
1961
Carl Rogers created the concepts of the ideal self, real self,
conditional positive regard, and unconditional positive regard.
1962
Cognitive arousal theory of emotion was proposed by Schachter and

Singer.
1963
Albert Banduras bo-bo doll study was conducted.

Lawrence Kohlberg created his theory of moral development.
1966
Masters and Johnson introduced the four stages of sexual response

cycle.

C.E.
1967
Holmes and Rahe created the Social Readjustment Rating Scale.
1968
Roger Sperry demonstrated hemispheric specialization with splitbrain patients.
1973
Flora Rita Schreiber published the book Sybil, detailing the life of a
woman with dissociative identity personality.
1977
The stress-vulnerability model of schizophrenia was proposed by

Zubin and Spring.
Thomas and Chess conducted studies of different types of infant
temperament.
1979
Mary Ainsworth used the Strange Situation experiment to study

infant attachment styles.
1981
David Wechsler began to device IQ tests for specific age groups.
1983
Gardner first proposed his theory of multiple intelligences.

C.E.
1985
Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence.
1989
Albert Bandura proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism.
1994
Hernstein and Murray published The Bell Curve.
1995
Goleman proposed the idea of emotional intelligence.
1996
McCrae and Costa proposed the Big Five Personality dimensions
1997
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross outlined the stages of death and dying from

studies of terminally ill patients.
2000
The DSM-IV-TR was published.
2002
New Mexico was the first state to allow licensed psychologists to

prescribe drug treatments for psychological disorder.
2004
Alexander Storch presented the possibility of obtaining stem cells

from adults to repair damaged neutral tissues.

SCHOOL OF THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY:
Structuralism
Founded by Wilhelm Wundt.
Set up the first psychology laboratory.

Structuralism attempted to break down
conscious experiences into objective sensation,
such as sight or taste, and subjective feelings
such as emotional responses, will, and mental
images like memories and dreams.

Structuralism
The school of psychology that argues that the
mind consists of three basic elements -
SENSATIONS
FEELINGS
IMAGES
EXPERIENCE

Structuralism
It focuses on the basic elements (building
blocks) that constitute the foundation of
perception, consciousness, thinking emotions
and other kinds of mental states and activities.
Structuralism uses introspection deliberate

looking into ones own cognitive processes to
examine ones thoughts and feelings.

Functionalism
John Dewey, William James, James Rowland
Angell, and Harvey A. Carr of the University of
Chicago were the chief exponents of this school
of thoughts.
The function of the organisms behavior and
consciousness in his adaptation to his
environment.

Functionalism
Functionalist tend to ask, How do behavior
and mental processes help people adapt to the
requirements of their lives?

Functionalism
William James was influence by Charles
Darwins theory of evolution. Functionalist
adopted Darwins Theory and proposed that
behavior patterns are learned and maintained.
Adaptive behaviors tend to be repeated and
become habits.
Mental experiences are best understood in
terms of the functions or purposes it serves.

Behaviorism
A. Founded by John Broadus Watson Father of
American Behaviorism.
Watson believed that if psychology was to be a
natural science, like physics or chemistry, it
must limit itself to observable, measurable
events that is behavior alone.

Behaviorism
A. Founded by John Broadus Watson Father of
American Behaviorism.
Behaviorism is the school of psychology that
focuses on learning observable behavior. It
focuses on how stimulus-response would
produce a behavior.

Behaviorism
B. B.F. Skinner
He also contributed to behaviorism.
He believed that organisms learn to behave in
certain ways because they have been
reinforced for doing so.

Gestalt Psychology
It was founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt
Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler.
The German word Gestalt translates as
pattern or organized whole.
Perceptions are more than the sum of their
parts.
The school of psychology that studies the ways
in which the brain organizes and structure our
perception of the world.

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychologists believed that learning
could be active and purposeful.
Learning especially in problem solving is
accomplished by insight.
Kohler suggest that people, too, often
manipulate the elements of problems until we
group them in such a way that we believe we
will be able to reach a goal.

Psychoanalysis
Was name of the theory of personality and of
the method of therapy developed by Sigmund
Freud.
Psychoanalysis was based on the idea that
much of our lives is governed by unconscious
ideas and impulses that originate in childhood
conflicts.
It also emphasis on the influence of sexual and
aggressive impulses on the way people think,
feel and behave.

Psychoanalysis
Early relationship with parents are the main
forces that shape an individuals personality.
Psychoanalytic theory proposes that most of
the mind is unconscious a seething cauldron
of conflicting impulses, urges, and wishes.

MODERN APPROACHES OR SCHOOL OF
THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY:
Biological and Evolutionary Perspective
Psychologist are interested in the roles of
heredity and evolution in behavior and mental
processes such as psychological disorders,
criminal behavior and thinking.

Our heredity provides a broad range of
behavioral and mental possibilities while
environmental factors interact with inherited
factors to determine specific behavior and
mental processes.

Biological perspective seeks the links between
the activity of the brain, the activity of the
hormones, and heredity on the one hand, and
behavior and mental processes on the other
hand.

Evolutionary perspective focuses on the
evolution of behavior and mental processes.
Evolutionary psychologists believe that
inherited tendencies also move us in certain
directions.

Cognitive Perspective
Cognitive perspective venture into realm of
mental processes to understand human nature.
It investigate the ways in which we perceive
and mentally represent the world, how we
learn, remember the past, plan the future,
solve problems, form judgments, make
decisions and use language.

Cognitive Perspective
Cognitive psychology rooted back in
structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt
psychology.
Latin word cognitio which means knowledge.

Humanistic Existential Perspective
Humanism stresses the human capacity for
self-fulfillment and the central roles of
consciousness, self-awareness and decisionmaking.
Existentialism views people as free to choose
and as being responsible for choosing ethical
conduct.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Psychodynamic Perspective / Neo-Freudians
Karen Horney and Erik Erikson
They focus less on the unconscious and more
on conscious choice and self-direction.
Bio-psychosocial Perspective
Theorized by George Engel
Hormones, heredity, and diseases are
considered to be some of the biological causes
of behavior.

Sociocultural Perspective
Addresses many of the ways in which people
differ from one another.
It studies the influence of ethnicity, gender,
culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior,
and mental processes.

Sociocultural Perspective
A. Ethnicity members of ethnic group share
their cultural heritage, race, language, or
history.
B. Gender refers to the culturally defined
concepts of masculinity and femininity.

CRITICAL THINKING
Psychologists, like other scientist, use careful
means to observe and measure behavior and
the factors that influence behavior.
Critical thinking refers to a process of
thoughtfully analyzing and probing the
questions, statements, and arguments of
others.
Critical thinking is a life tool as well as pathway
toward scientific knowledge.
CRITICAL THINKING
Principles of Critical Thinking:
1. Be skeptical Keep an open mind. Accept
nothing as the truth until you examined the
evidence.
2. Insist on evidence.
3. Examine definitions of terms Some
statements are true when a term is defined in
one way but not when it is defined in another
way.
4. Examine the assumptions or premises from
evidence .

Principles of Critical Thinking:
6. Consider alternative interpretations of research
evidence .
7. Do not oversimplify.
8. Do not overgeneralized.
9. Apply critical thinking to all areas of life.

Scientific Method:
Is an organized way of using experience and
testing ideas in an effort to expand and refine
knowledge.
It is not defined by what it investigates but
how it investigates. The way a phenomenon is
studied is what determines whether the
approach is scientific.

Scientific Method:
Four Attitudes in Scientific Approach:
1. Curiosity notices things
2. Skepticism question things
3. Objectivity trying to see things as they are
4. Willingness to think critically question and
test others says fact.
THE FIVE STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD:

1. Observing Some Phenomenon / Formulating
Research Questions
Our daily experiences, psychological theory,
even folklore all help us to generate questions
in research.
Inquiry from observing.
2. Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions
Hypothesis is an idea that arrived logically
from a theory.
Is a statement about behavior or mental
processes that is tested through research.

3. Testing through Empirical Research / Test the
Hypotheses
This refers to collecting and analyzing data.
It can be done through a controlled methods
as the experiment.
4. Drawing Conclusions
After the data have been analyzed, scientists
draw a conclusion.

5. Evaluating Conclusions / Refinement
Conclusions undergoes rigorous review.
Modify the theory or research findings often
suggest refinement.

EVALUATING CONCLUSIONS
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
TESTING THROUGH EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS & PREDICTIONS
OBSERVING SOME PHENOMENON

Psychological theory
Daily experiences
Commonly held beliefs
2
Research questions
Hypotheses
3
Examining the research questions
Hypotheses testing
Evidence (Observations)
Drawing conclusions
5 Theory construction or modification
New research questions or hypotheses

Samples and Population
A sample is a segment of a population.
The subset of the population chosen by the
investigator for the study.
The entire group which the investigator wants
to draw conclusions is the population.

Samples and Population
OLFU STUDENTS (N=5000)
PHARMACY, 700, 14%
NURSING, 1000, 20%
PSYCHOLOGY, 800, 16%
TM, 1500, 30%

IT, 1000, 20%

Random and Stratified Sampling
Random sampling - each member of a
population has an equal chance of being asked
to participate.
Stratified Sampling - subgroups in the
population are represented proportionately in
the sample. A sample drawn so that identified
subgroups in the population are represented
proportionately in the sample.

Types of Research
A. Descriptive Research
It describes data and characteristics of a
phenomena being studied.
A.1. Observation
The researcher simply observes the
phenomenon and records his observation as it
is.
There are three (3) methods of observation.

Types of Research
A.1.1. Case Study
Collect information about individuals and
small group.
Detailed descriptions of a persons problems.
A carefully drawn biography that may be
obtained through interviews, questionnaires
and psychological tests.

Types of Research
A.1.1. Case Study
An in-depth look at a single individual .
It provides information about a persons
goals, hopes, fantasies, fears, traumatic
experiences, family relationships or other
aspects of the persons life.

Types of Research
A.1.1. Case Study
Interview a process of gathering information
by asking it from the participants.
Psychological tests / Standardized tests this
is a series of written or oral questions or
sometimes both that the participants answer.

Types of Research
A.1.2. Survey
Surveys may employ questionnaires and
interviews or examine public records.
A method of scientific investigation in which a
large sample of people answer questions about
their attitudes or behavior.
A standard set of questions is used to obtain
peoples self-reported attitudes or belief.
A.1.3. Naturalistic Observation
Observe people in their natural habitats.

Types of Research
B. Correlation
It investigates whether an observed behavior
or a measured trait is related to, or correlated
with another.
Refers to studies that are concerned with
identifying the relationships between two or
more variables.

Types of Research
B. Correlation
Correlation coefficient is a number between
+1.00 and -1.00 that expresses the strength and
direction (positive or negative) of the
relationship between two variables.

Types of Research
B. Correlation
A positive correlation indicates that the
relationship of two variables change together.
A negative correlation indicates an increase in
one variable will lead to the decrease in
another.

Types of Research
B. Correlation
POSITIVE
CORRELATION
NEGATIVE
CORRELATION

Types of Research
B. Experimental Method
A scientific method that seeks to confirm
cause-and-effect relationships by
introducing independent variables and
observing their effects on the dependent
variables.
It is a method that allows us to make causal
statements.
Independent variable is manipulated by the
experimenter. It is the potential cause.

Types of Research
Dependent variable is the outcome of the
experiment. It is the factor that can change in
an experiment or the assume effect.
Experimental group obtain the treatment.
Group whose experienced is manipulated.
Control group serves as a baseline against
which the effects of the manipulated
condition can be compared.

Types of Research
The Effects of Aircon to the Test Performance of
OLFU Antipolo Students
CONTROL
GROUP:
OLFU
Q.C.
STUDENTS
NO AIRCON
EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP.:
OLFU
ANTIPOLO STUDENTS
Independent
Variable (IV): Aircon
Dependent
Variable:
Test
Performance

Types of Research
B. Experimental
Placebo is a bogus treatment that has the
appearance of being genuine.
Blind is an experimental terminology, unaware
of whether or not one has received a
treatment.
Double-blind is a study in which neither the
subjects nor the observers know who has
received the treatment.

Ethics in Research with Humans
1. Informed Consent
A general overview of the research and the
opportunity to choose or not to participate.
Apparently give potential participants a sense
of control and decreases stress.
2. Debriefing
The purpose and methods of the research are
explained afterwards.

Ethics in Research with Animals
The ethical guidelines of the American
Psychological Association, animals may be
harmed only when there is no alternative and
when the research believe that the benefits of
the research justify the harm.

REFERENCES:
Psychology Second Edition by Spencer A.
Rathus
Workbook in Psychology
Psychology Towards A New Millenium by Alicia
Hernandez Kahayon and Ma. Rita Teresa
Villacarlos - Berba

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GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

What is happening? Where it happens? To

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Pure Research has no immediate

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Clinical psychologists help people with

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

They study how learning is affected by

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

They tend to look within the person for

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

They use people and animals to study

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Also referred as personnel psychology.

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Human factors psychologists make technical

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

They study the effects of stress on health

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Forensic psychologists apply psychology to

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Studies the usual pattern of behavior, emotion

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Socrates Know thyself

Democritus suggested that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a

Plato wrote the Theaetetus examining theories of perception, knowledge and

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Hippocrates proposes that mental illness are caused by an imbalance of the

Gustav Theodor Fechner published his landmark book Elements of

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Brocas Area and its role in speech reproduction were discovered.

Wernikes Area and its role in language comprehension was

Wilhelm Wundt used scientific methods to investigate what were

James Lange theory of emotions was proposed.

William James published his book Principles of Psychology.

Structuralism was first discovered by Wundt and Titchener

Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in

Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams.

Spearman proposed a general factor of intelligence.

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Mary Whiton Calkins became the first president of the American

Ivan Pavlov published his findings on Classical Conditioning.

Yerkes-Dodson law proposed to explain the relationship between

Thorndike discovered the Law of Effect.

Gestalt psychology was first developed by Max Wertheimer.

Carl Jung developed his theory of collective conscious.

Freud proposed the concept of Defense Mechansims.

GEN. PSYCH. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Francis Summer became the first African American to receive a Ph.D.

The Rorschach inkblot test was discovered.

Jean Piaget proposed the four stages of cognitive development.

Sigmund Freud proposed the concepts of id, ego and superego.