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Physics Laboratory Manual I
(Compiled Experiments in Mechanics)
CONTENTS
1
Open Laboratory Guide...
FORM 5.. 9
Significant Figures (Skills Lab 1) ..
11
Experimental Errors (Skills Lab 2).
25
Graphs and Equations (Skills Lab 3).
37
Composition of Concurrent Forces (Required Activity)..
57
Coefficient of Friction (Elective Activity)
68
Uniform Acceleration (Required Activity)..
74
Newtons Second Law (Required Activity) 83
10 Projectile Motion (Elective Activity)
90
11 Centripetal Force (Required Activity)
99
12 Conservation of Energy (Required Activity).
110
13 Conservation of Momentum (Elective Activity)
119
14 Torque and Rotational Equilibrium (Elective Activity).
126
Open Laboratory Guide

(Based on the Physics Departments Open Laboratory Guidelines)
In the open laboratory system, you need not do laboratory activities during
the regular schedule of the laboratory section you are enrolled in. Instead,
sessions for specific laboratory activities will be scheduled, and you are given the
freedom to choose the schedule to perform the activities indicated in your
syllabus.
Along with the freedom to do the laboratory activities on your preferred
session, comes the responsibility for you to see to it that you complete all course
requirements. Contingencies like typhoons, sickness or traffic problems will no
longer be a concern, as you can choose to make up for your missed activity
simply by signing up for another session. You are expected to prepare before
coming to class to optimize the use of laboratory hours.
1.0 Subjects
The following courses will follow the Open Laboratory system:
LBYPH11, LBYPHY1 (PHYLAB1, PYENLA1 and PYCOLA1), LBYPHY12,
LBYPHY2 (PHYLAB2, PYENLA2 and PYCOLA2), LBYPHYA (INTPYLA),
LBYPHYD (BIOPLA1), LBYPHYE (BIOPLA2), PYMATLA, BIOPLAB (LBYPHYC)
Requirements for each course are stated in the course syllabi.
2.0 Activities and Schedule
You will perform around 10 laboratory activities that you may choose from
a set of 12 to 15 activities. Some activities are however compulsory and these
are indicated in your course syllabi. In addition, you will be required to pass the
skill-building activities before you are allowed to proceed with the required
activities and elective activities. Refer to your course syllabus for the list of skillbuilding, required and elective activities.
For simplicity, all open lab sessions will be scheduled on the designated
time and room of classes involved in the open lab system.
3.0 Procedures
3.1. Fill up the Open Laboratory Student Record Form (Form 5).
The Form 5 is included in the Laboratory Manual.
3.2. Sign up for an open laboratory session.
The schedule for each activity will be posted on the bulletin board outside
the Physics Supply room (J409). If you want to perform one of the activities,
you must sign up for a specific session. The sign-up sheets are also
stationed at J409. You have the first priority to register for all the
activities/sessions that are assigned on your original class schedule (i.e. the
schedule indicated in your EAF). However, you must sign up at least 7 days
before the scheduled activity otherwise, your slot will be considered open to
other students. If you wish to attend an activity outside your original class
schedule, the earliest that you may register for an activity is 6 days before
the scheduled activity/session.
The number of activities that you may perform in one week is completely
upon your discretion. You must however complete the minimum
requirement for the course by the end of the 12th week. You will perform the
laboratory activities in groups of two or three and you may choose your own
group mates. If you wish to maintain your group throughout the course, you
and your group mates have to sign up for the same set of sessions.
If you fail to register, or were closed out for a particular session, you may fall
in line before the start of the session and will be considered a walk-in
student. You will be accommodated after the initial grouping if some slots
remain, and upon the discretion of the session faculty.
3.3. Read the write-up for the activity in the Laboratory Manual and answer
the guide questions.
3.4. Show up for the session on time.
You are expected to be punctual. You will be deemed to have forfeited your
slot after the session faculty has assigned the initial groupings. You must
bring the following to class:
Laboratory manual
Photocopy of the guide questions
Calculator, pen and paper
Your Form 5 and student ID
If you come to class unprepared, you will be asked to leave the room and
forfeit your slot.
Failure to attend the specific session is subjected to penalty:
first offense : 5% deduction from the group report
second offense : 10% deduction from the group report
third offense : 20% deduction from the group report
fourth offense : 40% deduction from the group report
fifth offense : will get a score of zero for the activity
3.5. During the session
After setting up the apparatus, you must have the set-up checked by the
session faculty before proceeding.
After performing the experiment, processing the data and answering the
guide questions, the group must submit the worksheet (Data Sheet, graphs,
computation sheets, and answers to guide questions) to the session faculty,
who shall determine the reasonableness of your results.
If your work is unsatisfactory, you will be asked to repeat the activity. The
session faculty will grade only satisfactory worksheets.
A session lasts exactly three hours (including time allotted for assessing
your work). If you are unable to finish the experiment and have your report
checked, you have to sign up for another session (catch-up session) to
complete or repeat the work.
3.6. At the end of your session
Ask the session faculty to fill up the appropriate cells in your Form 5. Keep
the Form 5 until the end of the course.
3.7. If you finish early
And your group feels that you have enough time to perform another activity,
you may enter another session as walk-in students provided that
There are slots available in the other session
At least two of you walk in
The session faculty agrees that there is reasonable time left for you to
complete the activity
You have prepared for activity and brought the necessary documents
4.0 Skills Lab Quizzes
4.1 You must first pass the Skill Building Activity/ies before you will be
allowed to take the Skills Lab quiz.
4.2 Register/sign-up for the quiz session. Sign-up sheets are placed at
J409.
4.3 Bring your Form 5, pen, paper, graphing paper, calculator and ID to
the quiz session.
4.4 After the session faculty finishes checking your paper, ask him/her to
record your score on your Form 5.
5.0 Pre-Laboratory Quizzes
Quiz for laboratory activities may be taken only once. Please refer to your
course syllabus for the list of laboratory activities. Ask your session faculty to
record you score for the pre-lab quiz on your Form 5.
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
College of Science
De La Salle University - Manila
(Adapted from the Physics Department Form 5)

Name:___________________________________________________________
COURSE: ___________________ SECTION: ___________________
ACTIVITY
TITLE
DATE
TEACHERS
EVALUATION*
PRE-LAB
QUIZ
WRITTEN
REPORT
*All erasures should be countersigned by the session faculty
SESSION
FACULTY
SIGNATURE
10
EXPERIMENT NO.
Skills Lab 1
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
OBJECTIVES:
To develop skills in measurement using the vernier caliper and micrometer
caliper.
To apply the rules for significant figures in experimental computations.
To perform simple algebraic operations following the rules of significant
figures.
THEORY:
Measurement of physical quantities is an important aspect one has to deal
with in physics. It is from measurements of quantities where one deduces or
confirms basic physical laws. In fact, this process of deducing or confirming
conclusions from measured quantities is an underlying tenet of all the sciences
physical, behavioral or social. Indeed, measurement is a cornerstone of the
scientific method.
Most physical measurements involve the reading of some scale. However,
the finesse of the graduation of the scale is limited and the width of the lines
marking the boundaries is by no means zero. This leads the observer to estimate
the last digit of the measurement. Thus the numbers resulting from
measurements are to some extent uncertain. The level of uncertainty depends on
the apparatus used; the skill of the observer and the number of experiment
performed. The way the measured number is written or reported implies this level
of uncertainty.
For example in Figure 1 the length of the pencil using ruler B is between
the 10 cm and the 20mm mark. It is certain that the length of the pencil is greater
than 10mm and less than 20 mm. However, a portion of the length of the ruler is
still unaccounted for. Thus, the observer has to estimate the value, say to around
18 mm. the last digit, which is 8, is uncertain. On the other hand, using ruler A,
the reading may be 18.3 mm where the last digit 3 is an estimate. The place
value of the estimate reflects the accuracy of the instrument. Ruler A has an
accuracy of up to the tenth place of a millimeter (mm), whereas ruler B has an
accuracy of just up to the units place of a millimeter (mm).
11
Ruler A (mm)
18.3 mm
Ruler B (mm)
18 mm
Significant Figures
The figures that can be obtained directly the measuring instrument
followed by the first estimated figure of the measurement are called significant
figures. Although an estimate figure is used, this figure is still significant because
it gives meaningful information (although uncertain) about the measured object.
One and only one estimated or doubtful figure is retained and regarded as
significant in reading a physical measurement.
In measurements, each digit in the measured value is defined as
significant or non-significant. Since non-zero numbers give values on the
measurement, all non-zero numbers are significant. Only zeros have the
possibility of being non-significant. As a rule, the number of significant figures in
a measurement depends on the accuracy of the instrument used, but it is
incorrect to think that the number of significant figures determines the accuracy
of the measurement. It is the place value of the last significant figure to the right
of the decimal point, which will determine the accuracy of the instrument used in
the measurement.
Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures:
1. Values which are either exact numbers or numbers with perfect certainty
contain an infinite number of significant figures.
Numbers by definition often appear in calculations. Examples are the
numbers two (2) and in the expression for the circumference of a circle (i.e.,
c = 2 r). These numbers are assumed to have an unlimited number of
significant figures.
Exact numbers that appear in simple counting operations such as the
number of trials, number of vibrations, number of dots, and defined numbers
such as 100 cm in one meter, 60 seconds in one minute, 7 days a week, 12
months a year, are also assumed to have an unlimited number of significant
figures. Numbers measured with perfect certainty such as 7 pencils, 10
12
books, 50 students, etc. also can contain an infinite number of significant

figures.
2. Non-zero digits are significant.
Examples:
3.5 m
24.7 kg
9,186
(2) significant figures

3. Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant.

Examples:
90,057 m
200.063 g
84,000.05 mm

4. Zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are
significant.
Examples:
7.0 km
3.00 x 108 m
145.0900 g

5. Zeroes to the left of an expressed decimal point and to the right of a non-zero
digit are significant.
Examples:
70,000.0 s
6,500.0 g
800.0 cm

6. Zeroes to the right of the decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are
not significant (for values without non-zero digits to the left of a decimal point).
The zeros are just used to show the place-value of the non-zero digits.
Examples:
0.00097 m
0.000456 kg
0.0281 s

7. Zeroes to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal
point are not significant.
Examples:
538,000 cm
720,000 g
150 s

Rules 6 and 7 can be easily addressed if the number is expressed in

scientific notation, using only significant figures in the number placed in the
13
argument (before the power of 10). To illustrate, the examples in rule 6 and rule 7
are presented below in scientific notation, with the number of significant figures
indicated.
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Significant Figures and Algebraic Operations

Some physical quantities are usually obtained, not by direct measurement,
but by using a mathematical formula. For example, the volume of a cylinder is
obtained by using the formula r2h. The radius (r) and the height (h) of the
cylinder are the quantities directly measured. The final digit in the reading of
these two quantities is an estimated value. In the computation of the volume, the
level of accuracy of the measurement must still be reflected in the final answer.
The digits which are not significant must be dropped out continually; the answer
must be rounded off to keep only the correct number of significant figures. The
following rules may be used for the retention of significant figures in a
computation.
1. Rounding off numbers
The process of rounding off numbers to a certain number of significant
figures is done so as to preserve the level of accuracy of the original
measurements involved in a mathematical operation. In rounding off numbers
to a certain number of significant figures, retain the number of digits specified
starting from the leftmost side. If the digit next to the last retained digit is
greater than 4, add 1 to the last retained digit. Otherwise, simply maintain the
value of the last retained digit.
Examples: Round off the following numbers to three significant figures.
a. 350,892
b. 86,524
c. 7.514
351,000
86,500
7.51
14
2. Additions and Subtractions

When adding or subtracting measured values, the final answer should be
rounded off to the accuracy of the least accurate measurement.
Examples:
a.
5.852 m
+ 3.25 m
+ 38.6 m _
47.702 m
)
*
+
47.7 m
)
b.
809 kg
+ 273.2 kg
+ 75.699 kg
1157.899 kg
*
,
+
,
1160 kg
3. Multiplication and Division

In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the final
product or quotient equals the least number of significant figures in any of the
original factors.
Examples:
a. 10.340 cm x 1.51 cm
(5 sf)
(3 sf)
15.6154cm2
b. 2 x (53.70 mm)2
(4 sf)
18120 mm2
(4 sf)
15.6 cm2
(3 sf)
The number 2 and both contain an infinite number of significant figures

whereas the second term 53.70 has four. Thus the least number of significant
figures among the factors involved is four. In this case the number 2 and
should be rounded off to one more significant figure than the least. The
constant should be rounded off to 3.1416 since the true value of , to ten
digits is 3.141592654. This gives (2.0000)(3.1416)(2884) = 18120.7488 =
18120 mm2. The final answer is rounded off to the same number as the least
number of significant figures.
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(5 sf) (3 sf) (2 sf)
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15
4. Square Roots and Trigonometric Functions

Round off the final answer such that it has the same number of significant
figures as the measure value
Examples:
a. sin (37.5o) = 0.608761429
final answer: sin (37.5o) = 0.609
____
b. 76.5 = 8.746427842
final answer rounded off to = 8.75
The Micrometer Caliper

The micrometer caliper is an instrument used for very precise
measurements of external dimensions. The object to be measured is placed
between the anvil and the spindle. The thimble is then rotated to advance the
spindle until the object is gripped gently between the two jaws of the caliper. The
ratchet is used to tighten up the grip by the same amount each time and thus
avoid using too much force.
The caliper consists of a
fixed main scale on the sleeve
and a movable auxiliary scale on
the thimble. The auxiliary scale is
circular and has 50 divisions. One
revolution of the thimble moves
the spindle by half a millimeter.
This implies that the distance
between adjacent lines on the
thimble corresponds to 0.01 mm.
Anvil
Spindle
Sleeve
Thimble
Reading Line
Ratchet
The main scale has 25 main divisions etched on the sleeve or barrel,
which is located along the trunk of the micrometer caliper. The distance between
the lines is 1.0 mm. thus the maximum reading possible is 25 mm. The lines just
below the main divisions divide the upper lines such that the distance between
an upper line and an adjacent lower line is 0.5 mm.
How to use the micrometer caliper:
1. Check the zero position of the caliper. A properly calibrated micrometer
caliper must have the main and auxiliary scales simultaneously giving a zero
reading when the jaws (the anvil and the spindle) of the caliper are completely
closed. In case of error, add the correction (may be either positive or
negative) to every reading.
16
2. Place the body to be measured between the anvil and spindle. Rotate the
thimble until the object is gripped gently between the two jaws of the caliper.
Turn the ratchet slowly until it clicks several times. This prevents an error due
to varying degrees of tightness of the jaws.
3. Read the main scale and the circular scale. Refer to the examples below.
Example #1:
Main scale reading:
7.00 mm
Circular scale reading: + 0.435 mm
_______________________________
7.435 mm
Converted to cm:
0.7435 cm
Example #2:
Main scale reading:
6.50 mm
_______________________________
6.703 mm
Converted to cm:
0.6703 cm
Example #3:
Main scale reading:
7.00 mm
_______________________________
7.224 mm
Converted to cm:
(+
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0.7224 cm
1''
17
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' 2
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4 5
The Vernier Caliper

Inside calipers
Main scale
Depth gauge
vernier scale
Outside calipers
The vernier caliper consists of a fixed part with a main engraved scale and
a movable jaw with an engraved vernier scale. The main scale is calibrated in
inches on the upper part and millimeters on the lower part. The lower calibration
has a maximum of 200 divisions with each division equal to one mm. The vernier
scale usually has 10 major divisions. The least count of the caliper is the smallest
value that can be read directly from a vernier scale. For example if the least
count indicated on the caliper is 0.05 mm and its vernier scale has 20 divisions,
each division corresponds to a 0.05 mm. This means that the vernier scale
divides one division on the main scale into 20 subdivisions. When the jaws are
closed the zero line or index of the vernier scale coincides with the zero line on
the main scale. When the jaws are opened, the fraction of the main scale division
that the vernier scale has moved is determined by noting which vernier divisions
coincides with a main scale division.
How to use the vernier caliper:
The vernier caliper measures lengths, outer and inner diameters, and
internal depths with the use of its outside jaws or calipers, inner calipers, and
depth gauge respectively. To measure the width of a small rectangular block,
open the movable jaw and place between the outside jaws the block to be
measured. Close the jaws on the object and do the following steps to get the
reading:
1. Observe where the zero line or index of the vernier scale falls on the main
scale. For example, Fig. 4 shows the zero line of vernier scale just after the
21 mm mark of the main scale. Thus the main scale reading is 21mm.
2. Note the line on the vernier scale that coincides on the main scale. In Fig.4,
the vernier division marked 1 coincides exactly with a line on the main scale.
18
This division is the second from the zero line. If the least count of the vernier
is 0.05 mm, this means that two divisions correspond to 0.05 mm x 2, which is
equal to 0.1 mm. So the scale marked 1 in the vernier coinciding with the
main scale corresponds to a 0.1 mm reading.
3. Obtain the final reading by adding the main scale reading obtained in number
1 and vernier scale reading in number 2. That is:
Main scale reading:
21.0 mm
_______________________________
21.1 mm
or 2.11 cm
Main scale (mm)
Vernier scale
REFERENCES
1. Physics Laboratory Experiments 4th Edition, Jerry D. Wilson @ 1994 D.C.
Heath and Company; Lexington, Massachusetts
2. Laboratory Manual In Conceptual Physics 2nd Edition, Bill W. Tillery @
1995 Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc. Dubuque, IA
3. Laboratory Experiments in College Physics 7th Edition, Cicero H. Bernard,
Chirold D. Epp @ 1995, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York
4. Experiments in Physics 2nd Edition, Peter J. Nolan, and Raymond E.
Bigliani @ 1995 Wm. C. Brown Publishers; Dubuque, IA
5. The Art of Experimental Physics, Daryl W. Preston and Eric R. Dietz @
1991 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York
6. http://www.scas.bcit.bc.ca/scas/physics/labman/m1-civ1.htm
APPARATUS/MATERIALS:
Rectangular Block, 25 centavo coin, DLSU ID Card, Ruler, Vernier
Caliper, Micrometer Caliper
PROCEDURE
A. Volume of a Rectangular Block
1. Measure the length (L), width (W), and thickness (T) of the rectangular block
sing a ruler.
2. Calculate the volume (V) of the block by multiplying the length, width and
height using the rules of significant figures for multiplication. (Volume of a
rectangular block = L x W x H)
3. Repeat steps 1 & 2 using a vernier caliper. Tabulate the results.
19
B. Volume and Surface Area of a Coin

1. Measure the diameter (D), and the thickness or height (H) of a coin using a
ruler.
2. Calculate the volume (V) and the area (A) of the coin using the rules of
significant figures for multiplication. (Surface area (A) = r2; Volume of a
cylinder = r2 H where r is the radius of the cylinder.)
3. Repeat steps 1 & 2 using a vernier caliper and a micrometer caliper. Tabulate
the results.
C. Perimeter and Thickness of a DLSU ID Card
1. Measure the thickness (T) of three identical DLSU ID cards using a vernier
caliper. Divide the reading by three to get the thickness of one ID card.
2. Repeat the above procedure using a micrometer caliper. Tabulate the results.
3. Measure the length (L), and width (W) of an ID card using a ruler.
4. Calculate the perimeter of the card by adding twice the length and twice the
width using the rules of significant figures for multiplication (Perimeter of a
rectangular ID card = 2L + 2W)
20
21
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__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
DATA SHEET:
A. Volume of a Rectangular Block
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B. Surface Area & Volume of a Coin (25 centavo coin)

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C. Perimeter and Thickness of a DLSU ID Card

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SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
22
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QUESTIONS:
1. Indicate the number of significant figures in the following:
______a. 50 students
______d. 7.80 m
______b. 24 hours/day
______e. 100,480 cm
______c. 230 kg
______f. 0.0025 cm3
2. Perform the indicated operations for the following measured values:
a. 4.0659 cm x 3.81 cm =
b. 378.2 m 56 m =
c. 0.005 mm + 8.25 mm + 127.3 mm =
d. 9.70 x 108 m/s 1.5 s =
3. Solve the following problems:
a. A rectangular paperboard measures 8.7 cm long, 4.3 cm wide and 1.75
mm thick. Find the volume of the paperboard.
b. What is the volume of a cylinder whose radius measures 10.29 mm and

has a height of 6.28 cm?
4. Specify the measuring instrument (meter stick, vernier caliper, and

micrometer caliper) that is appropriate in measuring the following:
__________a. radius of an ordinary ring
__________b. depth of a small can
__________c. thickness of a credit card
__________d. diameter of a small spherical metal ball
__________e. height of a table
23
24
EXPERIMENT NO.
Skills Lab 2
EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS
OBJECTIVES:
Identify the types of experimental errors and its sources, and explain how
these errors can be reduced.
Interpret data with the use of statistical methods of dealing with errors.
THEORY:
Measurements of physical quantities are almost always affected by factors
giving rise to variations in reading. There will always be some degree of
uncertainty in the results. These variations in measurements, calculations or
observations of a quantity from the true or standard value are called errors. An
error that tends to make an observation too high is called a positive error and one
that makes it too low a negative error. Experimental errors are generally
classified as systematic and random errors.
1. Systematic Errors
A systematic error is one that always produces an error of the same sign,
e.g., one that would make all observations too low. Systematic errors may be due
to personal, instrumental or external factors.
(a) Personal Errors
Personal errors may arise from a personal bias of the observer in reading
an instrument, in recording an observation, or his particular method of taking
data, as well as mistakes in mathematical calculations. Some specific examples
include: (1) Having a bias for a particular measurement. (e.g. favoring the first
measurement obtained, being prejudiced in favor of the smartest member of the
group or consciously taking the lowest reading, trying to fit the measurements to
some preconceived idea.) (2) Taking incorrect readings form measuring
instruments caused by not looking at the scale markers at a perpendicular angle.
This is also called a parallax error. For instance, the position of the water level in
a graduated cylinder may appear different if viewed from above or below a line of
sight perpendicular to the scale. (3) Not following the rules on significant figures.
(4) Human reaction time when instantaneous measurements are necessary.
Personal errors may be eliminated by observing proper caution and
disregarding personal biases in taking measurements.
25
(b) External Errors

External errors are usually caused by external conditions such as
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, and humidity. Temperature changes
may result to expansion or contraction of measuring scales. The presence of
vibration may also affect the result of sensitive experiments.
Steps or corrections should be taken to reduce the effect of the above
mentioned factors giving rise to systematic errors in the experiment. These errors
may be reduced by improving experimental techniques, using calibrated and
more accurate measuring instruments, and including correction factors in the
computation when necessary.
2. Random Errors
A random error is one in which positive and negative errors are equally
probably. Random or erratic errors appear as variations due to a large number of
unpredictable conditions and other unknown factors each of which contributes to
a total error. These unknown factors or unpredictable variations in experimental
situations are usually beyond the control of the observer. The unpredictable
fluctuations in temperature or line voltage, and the mechanical vibrations of the
experimental set-up are examples of these contributing factors.
Random errors may be minimized by taking a large number of observations.
One may then apply the descriptive measures of statistics to arrive at certain
definite conclusions about the magnitude of the errors.
There are two major classes of descriptive measures. One class measures
the central tendency or location, and the other class measures the dispersion or
variability among the observed values.
Central tendency or location is a value around which the observations tend to
cluster and which typifies their magnitude. The arithmetic mean or average,
median and mode are descriptive measured under this class.
Dispersion or variability is the scattering of the values of a set of observations
from the average value. Two sets of data may have the same average but
different variability. A small variability implies a more homogeneous data. A high
variability is not desirable since this implies a lesser probability of achieving the
desired outcome. Some of the statistical tools that measure the dispersion or
variability among the observed values are the following: deviation, average
deviation, variance, and standard deviation.
26
Definition of terms
1. Arithmetic Mean (x)
The arithmetic mean or average is the sum of all the observed
values (xi) divided by the number of observations (N) taken. It represents
the best value obtained from a series of measurements. The arithmetic
mean is expressed mathematically as:
2. Deviation (d)
The deviation (di) of any observation (xi) of a set of observations
from the mean value (x) of the set is.
d i = xi x
3. Mean Absolute Deviation or Average Deviation (d)
The mean absolute deviation (commonly called as mean deviation
or average deviation) is the sum of the absolute values of the deviation
divided by the number of observations. It can be thought of as the average
scattering of measured values from the mean value. The average
deviation is a measure of the dispersion of the experimental
measurements about the mean (i.e., it is a measure of precision). The
average deviation d is written as:
The absolute value of the deviation di which is equal to di = xi

= x is just the value of di without taking into account its algebraic sign.
4. Variance (2)
The variance (2) of a set of observations is the average of the
squares of the deviations. This is a technique to avoid the problem of
negative deviations and absolute values. It is given as:
27
5. Standard Deviation ()
The positive square root of the variance is called the standard
deviation (). It is also called the root-mean-square deviation or simply the
root-mean-square. The standard deviation is used to describe the
precision of the mean of a set of measurements.
The experimental value Ex of a quantity is usually expressed as: Ex = x

. This value gives us the best estimate of the quantity measured. For a
normal distribution of random errors, it is found that the probability that an
individual measurement will fall within one standard deviation of the mean,
x , which is assumed to be the true value, is 68%; for x 2, it is
95.5%; and for x 3, it is 99.7%. This justifies our discarding any
measurement off by more than 3 from the arithmetic mean as a mistake
(not properly) measured). They are not within the range of normal errors.
6. Numerical Error
Numerical error is the difference between the experimental value
and the standard value.
7. Percentage Error
Percentage error is defined as the difference between the
experimental value and the standard value, divided by the standard value,
multiplied by 100 percent. It refers to fractional part in 100 (number of
parts out of each 100) that a measured value differs from the true value.
The true value is often called the standard value or the theoretical value.
In symbol,
Percentage Error = Experimental Value Standard Value x 100%
Standard Value
8. Percentage Difference
The percentage difference is used when neither of the quantities
may be taken as a standard value. In such cases, their average or mean
value (x) may be used in place of a standard value. In symbols,
Percentage Difference = xi x x 100%
-x
28
If there are only two observations (e.g., x1 and x2) to compare, the
percentage difference is given as:
Percentage Difference = x1 x2 x 100%
x1 + x2
2
>/ 5 4
-; 4
MATERIALS:
Curve-track as shown in Figure 1, metal ball, carbon paper, bond paper,
meter stick with cursor.
PROCEDURE:
1. Place a bulls eye level on the lip of the ramp-down and level the ramp.
Drop a plumb line from the lip of the ramp down to the floor, and mark the
position where the tip of the plumb line touches the floor as O. This is the
reference point for all horizontal distance measurements.
2. Place the metal ball at the highest position and release from rest. Observe
where it will land and mark this as C. This gives you an idea of the
approximate range of the metal ball. Tape a piece of bond paper on the
approximate range on the table and place a carbon paper face down on
top of the paper.
3. Measure the height h, the vertical distance y, and the horizontal distance x
as shown in Figure 1.
4. Starting from rest at the highest position, release the metal ball ten times.
29
5. Measure the distances (xn) of each of the markings made by the meal ball
as it drops on the carbon paper and bond paper from the starting point
marked in #1. Record these distances as x1, x2, x3, x10.
6. Repeats steps 4 & 5 for another 10 trials using a new bond paper, and still
another for another 10 trials.
7. Compute for the individual deviations, average deviation, standard
deviation and the arithmetic mean.
__
8. Compute the theoretical range which is given as x = 2 xy. Compare
this with the arithmetic mean by getting the percentage error.
Derivation of the Theoretical Value of x in Experimental Errors
Consider the ball shown in the diagram. If the ball is released from rest at
point A, its potential energy (U) is converted to kinetic energy (K). The potential
energy can be transformed to kinetic energy and vice versa but in the process of
transformation the total mechanical energy (ME) of the system remains constant
(neglecting friction). It can be stated that the sum of the initial potential energy
and initial kinetic energy is equal to the sum of the final potential energy and final
kinetic energy. In equation form:
(Equation 1)
ME = (U + K)initial = (U + K)final = constant
The ball is initially at rest at point A. The kinetic energy is zero (KA = 0)
since it is at rest and the potential energy is UA = mgh where m is the mass of the
ball, g is acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2), and h is the height of the ball
relative to the reference level (point B). At point B, the potential energy is zero
30
(UB = 0) and the kinetic energy is KB = mv2 where K is the kinetic energy of the
bob, m is the mass of the bob, and v is the speed of the bob at point B.
Applying the law of conservation of mechanical energy, the total amount of
mechanical energy at the initial point (point A) is equal to the total amount of
mechanical energy at the final point (point B). In symbols,
MEinitial = MEfinal
UA + KA = UB + KB
(Equation 2)
mgh + 0 = 0 + 1 mv2
2
___
v = 2gh
Once the ball is at point B, it now moves with a velocity, which is almost
horizontal. From point B to point C, the motion of the bob is now similar to that of
a projectile. At point B, the velocity has zero vertical components and its
horizontal component is given by:
(Equation 3)
x = vt
v=x
t
where x is the horizontal distance and t is the time of fall from point B to point C.
To find the time t, consider the vertical component of the motion. Let y be the
height of the bob from point O to point B.
(Equation 4)
y = 1 gt2
2
Substituting equations (2) and (4) to equation (3) gives:

___
x = 2hy
(Equation 5)
If the rotational motion of the ball is to be considered, include the rotational

kinetic energy in equation 2. The rotational kinetic energy (Krot) of a solid sphere
with its axis through the center is Krot = I2 where I is the amount of inertia of
the solid sphere and is the angular speed. The moment of inertia (I) of a solid
sphere with the axis passing through the center is given as I = 2/5mR2 where m
is the mass of the solid sphere, and r is the radius. On the other hand, the
angular speed () is equal to v/R.
31
With the additional rotation term for kinetic energy, equation (2) becomes:
mgh + 0 = 0 + 1mv2 + 1I2
2
2
mgh = 1 mv2 + 1 2 mR2
2
2 5
v
R
mgh = 1mv2 + 1mv2

2
5
(Equation 6)
Substituting equations (6) and (4) to equation (3) gives:
(Equation 7)
REFERENCES
5. The Art of Experimental Physics, Daryl W. Preston and Eric R. Dietz @
1991 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York
32
33
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__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
DATA SHEET
8 5
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= ________
34
= ________
= ________
_____%
x = ______________cm
QUESTIONS:
1. Classify the following as to whether they are personal, instrumental, or
external errors.
____________________a. incorrect calibration of scale
____________________b. bias of observer
____________________c. expansion of scale due to temperature changes
____________________d. parallax
____________________e. pointer friction
____________________f. estimation of fractional parts of scale division
____________________g. displaced zero of scale
2. Discuss the significant of the term x in the experiment.
3. An experiment was carried out to determine the specific heat of water under
standard conditions. If the experiment arrived at a value of 1.1 cal/gCo and
the standard value under normal conditions is 1.0 cal/gCo, what expression
should be used to compare the two, percentage error or percentage
difference? Show the computation.
4. Which of the following is considered as a measure of central tendency and

which is considered a measure of dispersion or variability among a given set
of observations?
a. arithmetic mean
b. average deviation
c. standard deviation
________________
________________
________________
35
36
EXPERIMENT NO.
Skills Lab 3
GRAPHS & EQUATIONS

OBJECTIVES:
To apply the rules in plotting the numerical results of an experiment.
To linearize parabolic and hyperbolic graphs which will verify the actual
relationship between two physical quantities.
To interpret the graphs and determine the relationship between two physical
quantities.
Formulate an equation relating two or three quantities based on the data and
the graphs.
THEORY:
A graphical presentation is often used as an effective tool to show
explicitly how one variable varies with another. By plotting the numerical results
of an experiment and observing the shape of the resulting graph, a relationship
between two quantities can be established. The shape of the graph gives us a
clue of the relationship of the variable involved. Some of the common ones are
the following:
A straight-line graph indicates linear or direct relationship between two
quantities.
A hyperbolic graph indicates an inverse relationship.
A parabolic graph tells us of a specific kind of linear or direct
relationship.
The specific equation relating the two variables of the graph can only be
formulated when the graph is linearized. We will see how this can be done in the
succeeding discussion.
A. Straight Line Graphs
A.1 Linear Relationship
Figure 1 shows a straight-line graph that does not pass through the origin.
This is a linear graph. it shows a linear relationship between the two variables. It
means that there is a first-degree relationship between the Celsius readings and
the Fahrenheit readings. The general equation for a linear graph is
(Equation 1)
y = mx + b
37
where m and b are constants; m is the slope of the lien and b is the y-intercept.
The y-intercept of the line is the value of y when x is zero. If we take y = 68o, x =
20o, and b = 32o in graph #1, the slope can be obtained using Eq. (1):
(Equation 2)
68o = m(20o) + 32o
m = 1.8 or 9/5
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Farenheit Reading vs. Celcius Reading
Fahrenheit
(oF)
32
68
104
140
176
Celsius
(oC)
0
20
40
60
80
Celcius Reading (C)
&
5 /
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Substituting the value of the slope obtained in Eq. (2) to Eq. (1) and considering
that the y-axis is oF and the x-axis is oC, the equation relating Fahrenheit reading
and Celsius reading is therefore:
o
F = (9/5)oC + 32o
(Equation 3)
We can also extrapolate values from the graph. If we extend the line downward
until the temperature is 0oF, we get the corresponding value in Celsius which is
17.8 oC. By interpolation, we get values within the line such as 50oC for the
corresponding Fahrenheit reading of 122oF.
A.2 Direct Proportionality
Figure #2 shows a straight line passing through the origin. The zero
values for both variables simultaneously occur. When time is doubled the
distance is also doubled. In this case, we say that the distance is directly
proportional to time. In general, when two variables x and y are directly
proportional to each other, the equation relating them is:
(Equation 4)
y x
y = kx
38
or
k=y
x
where k is the constant of proportionality. This equation shows that the quotient
of the two variables is always equal to a constant.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Distance vs. Time
Distance
(m)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time
(s)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Time (s)
&
8
5 )
?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In graph #2, the physical slope represents the constant k:
(Equation 5)
slope = y = y2 y1
x x2 x1
d
t
The physical slope is always our concern in graphical analysis. The value is
independent of the choice of scales and it expresses a significant fact about the
relationship between the plotted variables. For example, the slope of the distance
vs. time graph represents the average speed of the object.
On the other hand, the geometrical slope which is defined to be tan ,
(where is the angle between the straight line connecting the points and the xaxis) depends on the inclination of the line and hence, on the choice of scales.
B. Parabolic Graphs
In general, a parabolic graph passing through the origin can be obtained
for the quantities x and y obeying the following equations:
(Equation 6)
y = kx2, y = kx3, y = kx4,., y = kxn
The relationship between x and y can be expressed as y xn. Rewriting Eq. (6),
39
y = k(constant)
xn
the ratio of y and xn is a constant. To verify the actual relationship, one has to
linearize the graph, i.e., plot y vs. xn, where n = 2,3,4
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------@
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Height (y) vs. time (t)
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Time (s)
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Graph #3 shows a parabolic graph. From Eq. (6), the value of n

determines the specific equation relating x and y. By inspection, squaring the
time in the data yields a direct square relationship between height and time. Thus
we say, height is directly proportionally to the square of time. To verify this
relationship, plot height vs. square of time. The result is shown in Graph #4.
40
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Height (y) vs. Square of Time (t2)
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Time Squared (s2)
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In general, if one quantity (y) varies directly with the square of another quantity
(x2) we write, y x2. In this case n = 2. Thus the equation that correctly
expresses the relationship of height (h) and time (t) in the data is:
h = kt2
h = k(constant)
t2
where the constant k represents the slope of height vs. time squared graph.
C. Hyperbolic Graphs
Hyperbolic graphs can be obtained for quantities obeying the following
equations:
(Equation 7)
y = k/x, y = k/x2, y = k/x3,., y = kxn
A hyperbolic graph indicates an inverse relationship between two quantities i.e., y

1/xn. The specific equation can be verified by determining the value of n. For n
= 1, the equation is y = k/x
41
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------y vs. x
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C.1 Inverse Proportionality

Graph #5 shows a hyperbolic graph. To linearize it, try n = 1 such that y =
1/x. Plotting y vs. 1/x yields a straight-line graph as shown in Graph #6. Hence y
is directly proportionally to 1/x or y is inversely proportional to x. In equation form
y1
x
(Equation 8)
y=k
x
or
k = xy
where k is a constant which is equal to the slope of y vs. 1/x graph.
y vs 1/x
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42
C.2 Inverse Square Proportionality

Sometimes, plotting y vs. 1/x will not yield a straight line but plotting y vs.
1/x will yield one. This kind of relationship is called inverse square
proportionality. The variable (y) is inversely proportional to the square of x. Graph
#7 illustrates such a case.
2
y vs x
3
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The linearized graph is shown in Graph #8. This can only be obtained if n
= 2 such that y = k
x2
y vs x2
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43
D. Method of Least Squares

The method of least squares is a statistical way of determining the bestfitting curve for a given set of data. If the set of data given does not yield any of
the given relationships above, then the best way to plot the results would be
through the application of the method of least squares.
The method of least squares usually yields a straight line whose slope and
whose y-intercept can be solved by applying the following equations:
The slope (m) is:
__ _ _
xy x y
= ____________
__
_2
2
x x
__ _
_ __
x2 y x xy
= ____________
__
_2
2
x x
(Equation 9)
The y-intercept is:
(Equation 10)
where n represents the number of samples. After determining the slope (m) and
the y-intercept, the equation for the best line is determined by:
y = mx + b
It is important that experimental data be plotted correctly for accurate
graphical interpretation. To achieve this, the rules enumerated below can be of
help. For Microsoft Excel users, the software provides almost all the necessary
tools. All you need to do is enter the values needed and select the appropriate
command.
44
Rules for Drawing Graphs on Rectangular Coordinate Paper
1. Determination of Coordinates
Determine which of the quantities to be graphed the dependent variable is
and which one is the independent variable. The independent variable is the
quantity, which controls or causes a change in the other quantity (dependent
variable) whenever it is increased or decreased. By convention, plot the
independent variable along the x-axis and dependent variable on the y-axis.
2. Labeling the axes
Label each axis with the name of the quantity being plotted and its
corresponding unit. Abbreviate all units in standard form.
3. Choosing the scale
Choose scales that are easy to plot and read. In general, choose scales
for the coordinate axes so that the curve extends over most of the graph sheet.
The same scale need not be used for both axes. In many cases it is not
necessary that the intersection of the two axes represent the zero values of both
variables. The number should increase from left to right and from bottom to top.
In cases where the values to be plotted are exceptionally large or small, rewrite
the numbers in scientific notation. Place the coefficients on the coordinate scale
and the multiplying factor beside the unit used.
4. Location of Points
Encircle each point plotted on the graph to indicate that the value lies
anywhere close to that point. Draw the curve up to the circle on one side. If
several curves appear on the same sheet and the points might interfere, use
squares and triangles to surround the dots of the second and third curves,
respectively.
5. Drawing the curve
When the points are plotted, draw a smooth line connecting the points;
ignore any points that are obviously erratic. Smooth suggests that the line does
not have to pass exactly through each point but connects the general areas of
significance. If there is a clue that the quantities are linear, then a straight line
representing an average value should be used. There should be more or less
equal number of points above and below the line. For nonlinear curves, points
should be connected with a smooth curve so that the points average around the
line. For Microsoft Excel users, this procedure is automatically done by a specific
command.
6. Title of the Graph
At an open space near the top of the paper, state the title of the graph in
the form of the dependent variable (y) vs. the independent variable (x).
45
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Graphing paper, pencil and pen, ruler, Computer with Microsoft Excel
EXERCISES:
1. The following data were obtained in an experiment relating time (t) (the
independent variable) to the speed (v) of an accelerating object.
t(s)
v(m/s)
0.5
10
1.0
15
1.5
20
2.0
25
2.5
30
3.0
35
Plot these data on rectangular coordinate paper. For those with computers,
use Microsoft Excel.
(a) Determine the slope of the graph
(b) What physical quantity does the slope represent?
(c) Determine the y-intercept of the graph. What does it represent?
(d) What is the equation of the curve?
2. The heating effect of an electric in a rheostat is found to vary directly with the
square of the current. What type of graph is obtained when the heat is plotted
as a function of current? How could the variables be adjusted so that a linear
relation would be obtained?
3. The current in a variable resistor to which a given voltage is applied is found

to vary inversely with the resistance. What is the shape of the current
resistance curve? How could these variables be changed in order for a
straight-line graph to be obtained?
46
Do the following for exercises #4 to #8

(a) Plot the given values (y vs. x). select proper coordinate scales, label
plot points, draw a smooth curve through points.
(b) Linearize the graph. If necessary, compute different powers of
variables and plot until you get a straight line.
(c) Determine the equation of the line obtained. Indicate the value of n, k,
and other constants or intercepts present in the graph.
4. The data below shows how the electric field (E) due to a point charge varies
with distance (r).
8
C
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5. The following values represent a particle with an x-coordinate that varies in

time.
)
8
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6. The following values represent the motion of a particle with a y-coordinate

that varies in time.
)
8
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7. Potential energy (Us) as a function of x-coordinate for the mass-spring

system.
4
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8. The values below are unknown variables x and y with a characteristic

behavior.
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9. Determine the equation, which will represent the best line for the following set
of data and plot the graph of the equation.
47
Method of Least Squares

X
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
y
4.6
7.1
9.5
11.5
13.7
15.9
18.6
20.9
23.5
25.4
xx
0
1
4
9
16
25
36
49
64
81
xy
0
7.1
19.1
34.5
54.8
79.8
111.6
146.3
188.0
228.6
n = _____ (number of samples)

_
x=
_
y=
= _____
n
= ______
n
__
x2 =
= _____
n
__
xy =
= _____
n
The slope (m) is:

__ _ _
xy x y
m = __________ = ___________ = ______
__
_2
2
x x
The y-intercept is:
__ _
_ __
2
x y x xy
b = ____________ = __________ = _____
__
_2
x2 x
The equation of the best line for the data is:
48
y = mx + b = _____ x + _____
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
EXPERIMENT NO.
COMPOSITION OF CONCURRENT FORCES

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this experiment is to use the force table to experimentally
determine the force which balances two other forces. This result is checked by adding the
two forces by using their components and by graphically adding the forces.
Assembly
Figure 1 Force Table Assembly
There are two ways to attach the strings to the table: The first way uses the
conventional ring in the center of the table and the second way uses an anchor string
through the hole in the center of the table. The advantage of the anchor string is that a
higher precision can be achieved because a single knot is being centered instead of the
massive ring. The anchor string keeps the masses from falling to one side when the
system is not in equilibrium.
NOTE: In both methods it is important to adjust the pulleys so that the strings are
parallel to the top surface of the Force Table, and as close to the top surface as possible.
When adjusting the pulleys, don't let the ring rest on the top surface.
57
Figure 2 Ring Method of Stringing Force Table
Ring Method
See Figure 2. To use this method, screw the center post up until it stops so that it
sticks up above the table. Place the ring over the post and tie one 30 cm long string to the
ring for each pulley. The strings must be long enough to reach over the pulleys. Place
each string over a pulley and tie a mass hanger to it.
NOTE: A string can be attached to the PASCO mass hanger by wrapping the string
several times (4 or 5) around the notch at the top of each mass hanger.
Figure 3 Anchor Method of Stringing Force Table
Anchor String Method

See Figure 3. Cut two 60cm lengths of string and tie them together at their centers
(to form an "X"). Three of the ends will reach from the center of the table over a pulley;
the fourth will be threaded down through the hole in the center post to act as the anchor
58
string. Screw the center post down so it is flush with the top surface of the table. Thread
the anchor string down through the hole in the center post and tie that end to one of the
legs. Put each of the other strings over a pulley and tie a mass hanger on the end of each
string.
NOTE: A string can be attached to the PASCO mass hanger by wrapping the string
several times (4 or 5) around the notch at the top of each mass hanger.
Theory
This experiment finds the resultant of adding two vectors by three methods:
experimentally, by components, and graphically.
NOTE: In all cases, the force caused by the mass hanging over the pulley is found by
multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity.
Experimental Method
Two forces are applied on the force table by hanging masses over pulleys
positioned at certain angles. Then the angle and mass hung over a third pulley are
adjusted until it balances the other two forces. This third force is called the equilibrant
(FE ) since it is the force which establishes equilibrium. The equilibrant is not the same as
the resultant (FR ). The resultant is the addition of the two forces. While the equilibrant is
equal in magnitude to the resultant, it is in the opposite direction because it balances the
resultant (see Figure 4). So the equilibrant is the negative of the resultant:
F E = FR = FA + FB
Figure 4 The Equilibrant Balances the Resultant
59
Figure 5 Components
Component Method
Two forces are added together by adding the x- and y-components of the forces.
First the two forces are broken into their x- and y-components using trigonometry:
FA = Ax x + Ay y and Bx x + By y
where Ax is the x-component of vector FA and x is the unit vector in the xdirection. See Figure 5. To determine the sum of FA and FB , the components are added to
get the components of the resultant FR :
FR = (Ax + Bx) x + (Ay + By) y = Rx x + Ry y
To complete the analysis, the resultant force must be in the form of a magnitude
and a direction (angle). So the components of the resultant (Rx and Ry ) must be
combined using the Pythagorean Theorem since the components are at right angles to
each other:
FR = R x + R y
2
And using trigonometry gives the angle:

tan =
Ry
Rx
Graphical Method
Two forces are added together by drawing them to scale using a ruler and
protractor. The second force (FB ) is drawn with its tail to the head of the first force (FA ).
The resultant (FR ) is drawn from the tail of FA to the head of FB . See Figure 6. Then the
magnitude of the resultant can be measured directly from the diagram and converted to
60
the proper force using the chosen scale. The angle can also be measured using the
protractor.
Figure 6 Adding Vectors Head to Tail
MATERIALS NEEDED:
ME-9447 Force Table, 3 pulleys and pulley clamps, 3 mass hangers, mass set,
string, metric ruler, protractor, 2 sheets of paper
Setup
1.
Assemble the force table as shown in the Assembly section. Use three pulleys
(two for the forces that will be added and one for the force that balances the sum
of the two forces).
2.
If you are using the Ring Method, screw the center post up so that it will hold the
ring in place when the masses are suspended from the two pulleys. If you are
using the Anchor String Method, leave the center post so that it is flush with the
top surface of the force table. Make sure the anchor string is tied to one of the legs
of the force table so the anchor string will hold the strings that are attached to the
masses that will be suspended from the two pulleys.
3.
Hang the following masses on two of the pulleys and clamp the pulleys at the
given angles:
Force A = 50 g at 30
Force B = 100 g at 120
Procedure (Experimental Method)

By trial and error, find the angle for the third pulley and the mass which must be
suspended from it that will balance the forces exerted on the strings by the other two
masses. The third force is called the equilibrant (FE ) since it is the force which
establishes equilibrium. The equilibrant is the negative of the resultant:
F E = FR = FA + FB
61
Record the mass and angle required for the third pulley to put the system into
equilibrium in Table 1.
To determine whether the system is in equilibrium, use the following criteria.
Ring Method of Finding Equilibrium
The ring should be centered over the post when the system is in equilibrium.
Screw the center post down so that it is flush with the top surface of the force table and
no longer able to hold the ring in position. Pull the ring slightly to one side and let it go.
Check to see that the ring returns to the center. If not, adjust the mass and/or angle of the
pulley until the ring always returns to the center when pulled slightly to one side.
Anchor String Method of Finding Equilibrium
The knot should be centered over the hole in the middle of the center post when
the system is in equilibrium. The anchor string should be slack. Adjust the pulleys
downward until the strings are close to the top surface of the force table. Pull the knot
slightly to one side and let it go. Check to see that the knot returns to the center. If not,
adjust the mass and/or angle of the third pulley until the knot always returns to the center
when pulled slightly to one side.
REFERENCES
Analysis
To determine theoretically what mass should be suspended from the third pulley,
and at what angle, calculate the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant (FE ) by the
component method and the graphical method.
Component Method
On a separate piece of paper, add the vector components of Force A and Force B
to determine the magnitude of the equilibrant. Use trigonometry to find the direction
(remember, the equilibrant is exactly opposite in direction to the resultant). Record the
results in Table 1.
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__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
Graphical Method
On a separate piece of paper, construct a tail-to-head diagram of the vectors of Force A
and Force B. Use a metric rule and protractor to measure the magnitude and direction of
the resultant. Record the results in Table 1. Remember to record the direction of the
equilibrant, which is opposite in direction to the resultant.
1. How do the theoretical values for the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant
compare to the actual magnitude and direction?
Table 1 Results of the Three Methods of Vector Addition
63
64
65
66
67
EXPERIMENT NO.
Elective Activity
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
OBJECTIVES
In this lab, the Dynamics Cart will be launched over the floor using the on-board spring
launcher. The cart will decelerate over the floor under the combined action of rolling friction
and the average floor slope. To determine both the coefficient of rolling friction r and , the
small angle at which the floor is inclined, two separate experiments must be done. (Recall that to
determine the value of two unknowns, you must have two equations.)
Figure 5.1
Theory
The cart will be launched several times in one direction, and then it will be launched
several times along the same course, but in the opposite direction. For example, if the first few
runs are toward the east, then the next few runs will be toward the west (See Figure 5.1). In the
direction which is slightly down-slope, the acceleration of the cart is given by:
And the acceleration in the direction that is slightly up-slope will be:
a1 = + g sin r g
EQN-1 (since cos = 1)
Numerical values for these accelerations can be determined by measuring both the
distance d that the cart rolls before stopping and the corresponding time t. Given these values, the
acceleration can be determined from:
a 2 = g sin r g
EQN-2
Having obtained numerical values for a1 and a 2 , EQN-1 and EQN-2 can be solved
simultaneously for r and
a=
2d
t2
EQN-3
Having obtained numerical values for a1 and a 2 , EQN-1 and EQN-2 can be solved
simultaneously for r and .

MATERIALS NEEDED:
Dynamics Cart
Metric tape
Stopwatch
68
Procedure
1. Place the cart in its starting position and then launch it. To cock the spring plunger, push
the plunger in, and then push the plunger upward slightly to allow one of the notches on
the plunger bar to catch on the edge of the small metal bar at the top of the hole. Using
a stopwatch and metric tape, determine the range d and the total time spent rolling t.
Record these in Table 5.1.
2. Repeat step 1 six times for each direction and enter your results in Table 5.1.
3. Using EQN-3, compute the accelerations corresponding to your data and an average
acceleration for each of the two directions.
4. Using the results of step 3, determine r and by solving for the two unknowns
algebraically.
REFERENCES
5. College Physics 5th Edition, John D. Cutnell and Kenneth W. Johnson @
2001 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York
6. Physics for Scientists and Engineers (with Modern Physics) 5th Edition by
Raymond A. Serway & Robert J. Beichner @2000 Saunders College
Publishing, Philadelphia
7. General Physics with Bioscience Essays, Jerry B. Marion @ 1979 John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
69
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77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
Table 5.1
Average Acceleration = ______ cm/s2
71
Average Acceleration = ______ cm/s2
Data Analysis
Coefficient of rolling friction = ________________ Floor Angle = ________________
Questions
1.
Can you think of another way to determine the acceleration of the cart?
2. How large is the effect of floor slope compared to that of rolling friction?
72
73
EXPERIMENT NO.
Required Activity
UNIFORM ACCELERATION
Objectives
In this experiment, you will investigate how the acceleration of a cart rolling down an
inclined track depends on the angle of incline. From you data, you will calculate the
acceleration of an object in free-fall.
Theory
A cart of mass m on an incline will roll down the incline as it is pulled by gravity.
The force of gravity (mg ) is straight down as shown in Figure 6.1. The component of that
is parallel to the inclined surface is mg sin .
Figure 6.1
To determine the acceleration, you will release the cart from rest and measure the
1
time (t) for it to travel a certain distance (d ) . Since d = at 2 , the acceleration can be
2
2d
calculated as a = 2 .
t
A plot of a versus sin will be a straight line with a slope equal to the
acceleration of an object in free-fall, g.
Materials Needed
Track with End Stop
Cart
Pivot Clamp
74
Other Required Equipment

Base and support rod
Stopwatch
Graph paper
Procedure
1. Set up the track as shown in Figure 6.2 with a pivot clamp and support stand.
Elevate the end of the track by about 10 cm.
Figure 6.2 Figure 7.1 Equipment Set Up
2. Set the cart on the track against the end stop and record this final position in Table
8.1. (Use the non-magnetic end of the cart so it touches the end stop.)
3. Pull the cart up to the top of the track and record the initial position where the cart
will be released from rest.
4. Release the cart from rest and use the stopwatch to time how long it takes the cart
to reach the end stop. The person who releases the cart should also operate the
stopwatch. Repeat this measurement 10 times (with different people doing the
timing). Record all the values in Table 6.1.
5. Lower the end of the track by 1 cm and repeat step 4. Use the same release
position.
6. Repeat step 4 for a total of 7 angles, lowering the end of the track by 1 cm for
each new angle.
75
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Table 6.1: Data
Initial Release position
Final Position
Distance traveled (d)
Height on Track
Time
15 cm
14 cm
13 cm
12 cm
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
Trial 6
Trial 7
Trial 8
Trial 9
Trial 10
Average
Time
77
11 cm
10 cm
9 cm
Data Analysis
1.
2.
3.
Calculate the average time for each angle and record it in Table 6.1.
Calculate the distance traveled, d, from the initial to the final position.
Use the distance traveled and average time to calculate the acceleration for each
angle and record it in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Analysis
Acceleration
Height
sin
15 cm
14 cm
13 cm
12 cm
11 cm
10 cm
9 cm
4.
Measure the hypotenuse of the triangle formed by the track and use this to
calculate sin for each angle.
Hypotenuse
5.
Plot acceleration versus sin Draw the best-fit straight line and calculate its slope.
Calculate the percent difference between the slope and g = 9.8 m/s2.
Slope
% Difference
78
Questions
1. Does your reaction time in operating the stopwatch cause a greater percentage
error at higher or lower track angles?
2. How will doubling the mass of the cart affect the results? Try it.
REFERENCES
79
80
81
82
EXPERIMENT NO.
Required Activity
NEWTONS SECOND LAW

Objectives
The purpose is to verify Newtons Second Law, F = ma.
Theory
According to Newtons Second Law, F = ma. F is the net force acting on the object of
mass m and a is the resulting acceleration of the object.
For a cart of mass m1 on a horizontal track with a string attached over a pulley to a mass
m2 (see Figure 7.1), the net force F on the entire system (cart and hanging mass) is the weight of
hanging mass, F = m 2 g , assuming that friction is negligible.
According to Newtons Second Law, this net force should be equal to ma, where m is the
total mass that is being accelerated, which in this case is m1 + m 2 . This experiment will check to
see if m1 g is equal to (m1 + m 2 )a when friction is ignored.
To obtain the acceleration, the cart will be started from rest and the time (t) it takes for it
to travel a certain distance (d) will be measured. Then since d =
calculated using a =
1 2
at , the acceleration can be
2
2d
(assuming a = constant)
t2
MATERIALS NEEDED:
Dynamics Cart (ME-9430)

Super Pulley with clamp
String
Stopwatch
Mass balance
Dynamics Cart Track

Base and Support rod
Mass hanger and mass set
Wooden or metal stopping block
(See Procedure Step 3)
Procedure
1.
Level the track by setting the cart on the track to see which way it rolls. Adjust the
leveling feet to raise or lower the ends until the cart placed at rest on the track will not
move.
2.
Use the balance to find the mass of the cart and record in Table 7.1.
3.
Attach the pulley to the end of the track as shown in Figure 7.1. Place the dynamics cart
on the track and attach a string to the hole in the end of the cart and tie a mass hanger on
the other end of the string. The string must be just long enough so the cart hits the
stopping block before the mass hanger reaches the floor.
83
4.
Pull the cart back until the mass hanger reaches the pulley. Record this position at the top
of Table 7.1. This will be the release position for all the trials. Make a test run to
determine how much mass is required on the mass hanger so that the cart takes about 2
seconds to complete the run. Because of reaction time, too short of a total time will cause
too much error. However, if the cart moves too slowly, friction causes too much error.
Record the hanging mass in Table 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Equipment Set Up

5.
Place the cart against the adjustable end stop on the pulley end of the track and record the
final position of the cart in Table 7.1.
6.
Measure the time at least 5 times and record these values in Table 7.1.
REFERENCES
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
84
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Table 7.1
Initial Release Position
Final Position
Total distance (d)
Cart Mass
7.
Hanging
Mass
Trial 1
Time
Trial 2
Time
Trial 3
Time
Trial 4
Time
Trial 5
Time
Average
Time
Increase the mass of the cart and repeat the procedure.
Data Analysis
1.
Calculate the average times and record in Table 7.1.
2.
Calculate the total distance traveled by taking the difference between the initial and final
positions of the cart as given in Table 7.1.
3.
Calculate the accelerations and record in Table 7.2.
4.
For each case, calculate the total mass multiplied by the acceleration and record in Table
7.2.
5.
For each case, calculate the net force acting on the system and record in Table 7.2.
6.
Calculate the percent difference between FNET and (m1 + m 2 )a and record in Table 7.2.
86
Table 7.2
Cart Mass
Acceleration
(m1 + m2 )a
FNET = m2g
% Difference
Questions
1.
Did the results of this experiment verify that F = ma?
2.
Considering frictional forces, which force would you expect to be greater: the hanging
weight or the resulting total mass times acceleration? Did the results of this experiment
consistently show that one was larger than the other?
3.
Why is the mass in F = ma not just equal to the mass of the cart?
4.
When calculating the force on the cart using mass times gravity, why isnt the mass of
cart included?
87
88
EXPERIMENT NO.
Elective Activity
PROJECTILE MOTION
OBJECTIVES:
To study the variation of vertical displacement with horizontal displacement of
a projectile.
THEORY:
Any object that is given an initial velocity and subsequently follows a path
determined by the effect of the gravitational force acting on it and by the frictional
resistance of the atmosphere is called a projectile. The path followed by a
projectile is called its trajectory. The instantaneous velocity (v) of a projectile can
be resolved into its vertical (vy) and horizontal (vx) components.
(Equation 1)
_______
v = vx2 + vy2
Consider a metal ball at the highest point of a ramp similar to Figure 1. At

the instant the ball leaves the ramp, its subsequent motion is determined only by
gravity (neglecting air friction). Assuming the ball leaves the ramp horizontally,
the initial velocity of the ball as a projectile is simply vox since it has zero vertical
component (voy = 0). Using Equation 1.
(Equation 2)
_______
vinitial = vox2 + 02 = vox
There are no horizontal forces acting on the ball. This suggests that the
horizontal acceleration is zero (ax = 0). Therefore, the horizontal velocity remains
the same or is constant. In equation form,
(Equation 3)
(Equation 4)
vx = x
t
ax = vx
t
ax = 0
On the other hand, there is only one force acting on the ball along the
vertical and that is the force due to gravity. The force due to gravity for small
distances is approximately constant. A constant vertical force results to a
constant vertical acceleration (ay = constant). This vertical acceleration is the
acceleration due to gravity (g) near the earths surface, the magnitude of which is
89
equal to 9.8 m/s2. Since the vertical acceleration ay is constant, it may be

expressed as:
ay = vy
t
(Equation 5)
Therefore, the motion of a projectile is a horizontal motion with constant velocity

and a vertical motion with constant acceleration.
In this experiment, you will observe the motion of a metal ball released
from a ramp-down by recording its position at equal time intervals. From these
data, you will see how a projectile behaves and observe the horizontal and
vertical motions of the projectile. The trajectory may be obtained with the use of
two pieces of board, the impact board and the plotting board, which are situated
perpendicular to each other as shown in Figure 1. A graphing paper is attached
to the face of each board. When a metal ball is released form the ramp it hits the
impact board and this is recorded in the plotting board. After marking the
positions of the projectile at different intervals, the points are connected to
produce the trajectory of the projectile.
Iron stand, plotting and impact boards, curve track (ramp-down), meter
stick, carbon paper, graphing paper
Plotting board
Carbon paper
Ramp down
Impact board
Iron stand
Graphing paper
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the curved track before starting. See to it that the portion where the
metal ball will eventually leave the ramp is horizontal or level. To level that
portion of the ramp-down, place a bulls eye on the lip of the ramp-down and
90
adjust the screws located on the legs of the iron stand. (This step is
necessary to ensure that the projectile leaves the ramp horizontally).
2. Tape a piece of graphing paper on the impact board. Place a piece of carbon
paper over the graphing paper such that the darker side of the carbon paper
is facing the graphing paper.
3. Get another piece of graphing paper and this time tape it to the plotting board
with the left-hand edge of the graphing paper in line with the lip of the rampdown. It is preferable that the grids on the graphing paper of the plotting
board coincide with those of the impact board. This will facilitate the transfer
of the marks on the impact board to the plotting board.
4. Divide the graphing paper on the plotting board into several grids. Starting
from the first upper horizontal line of the graphing paper, divide the grids such
that there are five square grids per subdivision. Mark each subdivision. This
will serve as a timing device, the unit of time being ter, with one subdivision
or one interval equal to one ter. One ter is the time it takes the ball to travel
a distance of five square grids horizontally.
5. Set the impact board on the plotting board so that the metal ball released
from the ramp will hit the impact board. The impact board must be facing the
lip of the ramp-down.
6. Lift the carbon paper for trial test. Release the metal ball from various points
on the ramp. Find the height wherein the ball hits the impact board even up to
the last interval as you move it from one interval to the next. (For the last
interval, the ball should fall close to the bottom right-hand corner of the
graphing paper.) Take note of the height that gives this result. This serves as
starting position for the ball all throughout the experiment. *When releasing
the metal ball, be sure that it stars from rest.
7. Position the impact board at the beginning of the first interval with the carbon
paper in place.
8. Release the ball from the starting point marked in step 6. Check that the
impact board does not move too much when the metal ball hits it. Repeat to
obtain two more dots on the impact board (for the same interval) and get the
average coordinate of these three points.
9. Transfer the average point on the impact board to the plotting board. Do this
by extending a horizontal line from the average point to the plotting board.
10. Move the impact board backward to the start of the next subdivision
previously marked in step 4, and repeat steps 8 and 9.
11. Repeat procedure 10 until the ball no longer hits the impact board. Release
from the same starting position previously defined in step 6.
12. Remove the impact board without changing the orientation of the ramp-down
and the plotting board with respect to each other. Release the ball once more
from the starting position and observe the path followed by the metal ball. It
should move along the points marked on the plotting board.
13. Trace the path taken by the metal ball on the plotting board by connecting the
points. This is the trajectory of the projectile.
14. Detach the graphing paper from the plotting board. With the leftmost solid line
and the uppermost solid line as your +y and +x-axes, respectively. Measure
91
the distance traveled by the metal ball both horizontally and vertically after
each ter. Measuring the perpendicular distance of each point from your +x
and +y-axes does this. Record the values in the data table.
15. Determine the velocity and acceleration for each interval.
16. Plot y (cm) vs. t (ter)
17. Repeat the experiment. This time, place the ramp at a different height relative
to the impact board but release the ball from the same starting point.
REFERENCES
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#
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%
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
DATA SHEETS:
Trial I. Original height of the lip of the ramp, h = ________mm
@ B
@ B
6
3
)
% &
%
&
@ B
>
' &
'
6
6
)
% &
&
"
"
Average ax = ______mm/ter2
&
6
3
>
3
' &
Average ay = ______ mm/ter2
93
'
&
Trial II. New height of the lip of the ramp, h = ________mm

@ B
@ B
6
3
)
% &
%
&
@ B
>
' &
'
6
6
)
% &
&
"
"
Average ax = ______mm/ter2
&
6
3
3
' &
>
Average ay = ______ mm/ter2
94
'
&
95
96
97
98
EXPERIMENT NO.
Required Activity
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Objectives
The purpose of this experiment is to study the effects of varying the mass of the object,
the radius of the circle, and the centripetal force on an object rotating in a circular path.
Theory
When an object of mass m, attached to a string of length r, is rotated in a horizontal
circle, the centripetal force on the mass is given by:
F=
mv 2
= mrw 2
r
where v is the tangential velocity and is the angular speed (v = r ). To measure the
velocity, the time for one rotation (the period, T) is measured. Then:
v=
2r
T
and the centripetal force is given by:
F=
4 2 mr
T2
MATERIALS NEEDED
- Centripetal Force Accessory (ME-8952)

- stopwatch
- graph paper (2 sheets)
- string
- Rotating Platform (ME-8951)

- balance
- mass and hanger set
REFERENCES
2. Laboratory Manual In Conceptual Physics 2nd Edition, Bill W. Tilley @
5. Pasco Scientific Manual (1998)
99
Procedure
Part I: Vary Radius (constant force and mass)
1.
The centripetal force and the mass of the hanging object will be held constant for this part
of the experiment. Weigh the object and record its mass in Table 9.1. Hang the object
from the side post and connect the string from the spring to the object. The string must
pass under the pulley on the center post. See Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1 Centripetal Force Apparatus

2.
Attach the clamp-on pulley to the end of the track nearer to the hanging object. Attach a
string to the hanging object and hang a known mass over the clamp-on pulley. Record
this mass in Table 9.1. This establishes the constant centripetal force.
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__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
Table 9.1 Varying the Radius
Radius
Period (T)
T2
Mass of the object
Mass hanging over the pulley
Slope from graph
3.
Select a radius by aligning the line on the side post with any desired position on the
measuring tape. While pressing down on the side post to assure that it is vertical, tighten
the thumb screw on the side post to secure its position. Record this radius in Table 9.1.
4.
The object on the side bracket must hang vertically: On the center post, adjust the spring
bracket vertically until the string from which the object hangs on the side post is aligned
with the vertical line on the side post.
5.
Align the indicator bracket on the center post with the orange indicator.
6.
Remove the mass that is hanging over the pulley and remove the pulley.
7.
Rotate the apparatus, increasing the speed until the orange indicator is centered in the
indicator bracket on the center post. This indicates that the string supporting the hanging
object is once again vertical and thus the hanging object is at the desired radius.
101
8.
Maintaining this speed, use a stopwatch to time ten revolutions. Divide the time by ten
and record the period in Table 9.1.
9.
Move the side post to a new radius and repeat the procedure. Do this for a total of five
radii.
Analysis
1. The weight of the mass hanging over the pulley is equal to the centripetal force applied
by the spring. Calculate this force by multiplying the mass hung over the pulley by g
and record this force at the top of Table 9.2.
Table 9.2 Results (Varying Radius)
Centripetal Force
Centripetal Slope from slope
Percentage Difference
2. Calculate the square of the period for each trial and record this in Table 9.1.
3. Plot the radius versus the square of the period. This will give a straight line since:
r=
F
4 2 m
T2
4. Draw the best-fit line through the data points and measure the slope of the line. Record
the slope in Table 9.1.
5. Calculate the centripetal force from the slope and record in Table 9.2.
6. Calculate the percent difference between the two values found for the centripetal force
and record in Table 9.2.
102
Part II: Vary Force (constant radius and mass)

The radius of rotation and the mass of the hanging object will be held constant for this part of the
experiment.
1. Weigh the object and record its mass in Table 9.3. Hang the object from the side post and
connect the string from the spring to the object. The string must pass under the pulley on
the center post.
2. Attach the clamp-on pulley to the end of the track nearer to the hanging object. Attach a
string to the hanging object and hang a known mass over the clamp-on pulley. Record
this mass in Table 9.3. This determines the centripetal force.
3. Select a radius by aligning the line on the side post with any desired position on the
measuring tape. While pressing down on the side post to assure that it is vertical, tighten
the thumb screw on the side post to secure its position. Record this radius in Table 9.3.
4. The object on the side bracket must hang vertically: On the center post, adjust the spring
bracket vertically until the string from which the object hangs on the side post is aligned
with the vertical line on the side post.
5. Align the indicator bracket on the center post with the orange indicator.
6. Remove the mass that is hanging over the pulley and remove the pulley.
7. Rotate the apparatus, increasing the speed until the orange indicator is centered in the
indicator bracket on the center post. This indicates that the string supporting the hanging
object is once again vertical and thus the hanging object is at the desired radius.
8. Maintaining this speed, use a stopwatch to time ten revolutions. Divide the time by ten
and record the period in Table 9.3.
9. To vary the centripetal force, clamp the pulley to the track again and hang a different
mass over the pulley. Keep the radius constant and repeat the procedure from Step #4. Do
this for a total of five different forces.
103
Table 9.3 Varying the centripetal Force
Mass of the object
Radius
Slope from Graph
Mass over pulley
Centripetal Force = mg
Period (T)
1
T2
Analysis
1.
The weight of the mass hanging over the pulley is equal to the centripetal force applied
by the spring. Calculate this force for each trial by multiplying the mass hung over the
pulley by g and record the results in Table 9.3.
2.
Calculate the inverse of the square of the period for each trial and record this in Table
9.3.
3.
Plot the centripetal force versus the inverse square of the period. This will give a straight
line since:
F=
4 2 mr
T2
4.
Draw the best-fit line through the data points and measure the slope of the line. Record
the slope in Table 9.3.
5.
Calculate the mass of the object from the slope and record in Table 9.4.
104
Table 9.4 Results (varying the centripetal force)
Mass of object (from scale)
Mass of object (from slope)
Percentage Difference
6.
Calculate the percent difference between the two values found for the mass of the object
and record in Table 9.4.
105
106
107
108
109
EXPERIMENT NO.
Required Activity
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Purpose
The purpose is to examine spring potential energy and gravitational potential energy and
to show how energy is conserved.
Theory
The potential energy of a spring compressed a distance x from equilibrium is given by
PE =
1 2
kx , where k is the spring constant. According to Hookes Law, the force exerted by the
2
spring is proportional to the distance the spring is compressed or stretched, F = kx, where k is the
proportionality constant. Thus the spring constant can be experimentally determined by applying
different forces to stretch or compress the spring different distances. When the force is plotted
versus distance, the slope of the resulting straight line is equal to k.
The gravitational potential energy gained by a cart as it climbs an incline is given by
potential energy = mgh, where m is the mass of the cart, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and
h is the vertical height the cart is raised. In terms of the distance, d, along the incline, the height is
given by h = d sin. If energy is conserved, the potential energy in the compressed spring will be
completely converted into gravitational potential energy.
MATERIALS NEEDED:
Dynamics Cart with Mass (ME-9430)

Super Pulley with clamp
Base and Support rod (ME-9355)
String
Mass balance
Dynamics Cart Track

Meter stick
Mass hanger and mass set
(several kilograms)
Graph paper
Procedure
1. Level the track by setting the cart on the track to see which way it rolls. Adjust the
leveling feet to raise or lower the ends until the cart placed at rest on the track will not
move.
2. Use the balance to find the mass of the cart. Record this value in Table 9.2.
Determining the Spring Constant

3. Set the cart on the track with the spring plunger against the stopping block as shown in
Figure 9.1. Attach a string to the cart and attach the other end to a mass hanger, passing
the string over the pulley.
4. Record the carts position in Table 9.1.
110
5. Add mass to the mass hanger and record the new position. Repeat this for a total of 5
different masses.
Figure 9.1 Equipment Set Up
REFERENCES
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111
112
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77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
#
$ #
%
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
Table 9.1
Added Mass
Position
Displacement from
Equilibrium
Force (mg)
Potential Energy
6. Remove the leveling feet.
7. Remove the string from the cart and cock the spring plunger to its maximum compression
position. Place the cart against the end stop. Measure the distance the spring plunger is
compressed and record this value in Table 9.2.
8. Incline the track and measure its height and hypotenuse (see Figure 9.2) to determine the
angle of the track.
angle = arcsin
height
hypotenuse
Record the angle in Table 9.2.
113
9. Record the initial position of the cart in Table 9.2

10. Release the plunger by tapping it with a stick and record the distance the cart goes up the
track. Repeat this five times. Record the maximum distance the cart went in Table 9.2.
11. Change the angle of inclination and repeat the measurements.
12. Add mass to the cart and repeat the measurements.
Table 9.2
Distance traveled by the cart (d)
Angle
Mass
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Distance spring is compressed (x)
Initial Position of the cart
114
Trial 4
Trial 5
Max
h=
dsin
Data Analysis
1. Using the data in Table 9.1, plot force versus displacement. Draw the best-fit straight line
through the data points and determine the slope of the line. The slope is equal to the
effective spring constant, k.
k = ____________
2. Calculate the spring potential energy and record in Table 9.3.
3. Calculate the gravitational potential energy for each case and record in Table 9.3.
4. Calculate the percent difference between the spring potential energy and the gravitational
potential energy.
Table 9.3
Angle /Mass
Spring PE
Gravitational PE
(mgh)
1 2
kx
2
% Difference
Questions
1. Which of the potential energies was larger? Where did this lost energy go?
2. When the mass of the cart was doubled, why did the gravitational potential energy remain
about the same?
115
116
117
118
EXPERIMENT NO.
Elective Activity
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Experiment 11.1: Conservation of Momentum in Explosions
Objectives
The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate conservation of momentum with two carts
pushing away from each other.
Theory
When two carts push away from each other (and there is no net force on the system), the total
momentum is conserved. If the system is initially at rest, the final momentum of the two carts must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to each other so the resulting total momentum of the system is
zero:
p = m1v1 + m2 v 2 = 0
Therefore, the ratio of the final speeds of the carts is equal to the ratio of the masses of the carts.
v1 m1
=
v2 m2
To simplify this experiment, the starting point for the carts at rest is chosen so that the two carts
will reach the ends of the track simultaneously. The speed, which is the distance divided by the time, can be
determined by measuring the distance traveled since the time traveled by each cart is the same.
x1
v1
x
= t = 1
v 2 x 2 x 2
t
Thus the ratio of the distances is equal to the ratio of the masses:
x1 m1
=
x 2 m2
MATERIALS NEEDED:
Track with Feet and End Stops
Collision Cart
Plunger Cart
Cart Masses
Mass set
119
Procedure
1.
Install the feet on the track and level it. Install one end stop at each end with the magnetic sides
facing away from the carts.
Figure 11.1
2.
For each of the cases in Table 1.1, place the two carts against each other with the plunger of one
cart pushed completely in and latched in its maximum position (see Figure 11.1).
3.
Tap the plunger release button with a short stick and watch the two carts move to the ends of the
track. Experiment with different starting positions until the two carts reach the ends of the track at
the same time. Measure the masses of the carts. Record the masses and the starting position in
Table 11.1.
REFERENCES
120
121
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%
__ ___________________________________
__ ___________________________________
Table 11.1: Results
Additional
Mass on
Cart 1
Additional
Mass on
Cart 2
500 g
1000 g
500 g
250 g
m1
m2
Starting
Position
x1
x2
x1
x2
m2
m1
Data Analysis
1.
For each of the cases, calculate the distances traveled from the starting position to the end of the
track. Record the result in Table 11.1.
2.
Calculate the ratio of the distances traveled and record in the table.
3.
Calculate the ratio of the masses and record in the table.
Questions
1.
Does the ratio of the distances equal the ratio of the masses in each of the cases? In other words, is
momentum conserved?
2.
When carts of unequal masses push away from each other, which cart has more momentum?
3.
When the carts of unequal masses push away from each other, which cart has more kinetic
energy?
4.
Is the starting position dependent on which cart has the plunger? Why?
122
Experiment 11.2: Conservation of Momentum in Collisions

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to qualitatively explore conservation of momentum for elastic
and inelastic collisions.
Theory
When two carts collide with each other, the total momentum of both carts is conserved regardless
of the type of collision.
An elastic collision is one in which the carts bounce off each other with no loss of kinetic energy.
In this experiment, magnetic bumpers are used to minimize the energy losses due to friction during the
collision. In reality, this elastic collision is slightly inelastic.
A completely inelastic collision is one in which the carts hit and stick to each other. In this
experiment, this is accomplished with the hook-and-loop bumpers on the carts.
MATERIALS NEEDED:
Track with Feet
Plunger Cart
Collision Cart
Paper (for drawing diagrams)
Part I: Elastic Collisions
Figure 11.2
1.
Install the feet on the track and level it.
2.
Orient the two carts on the track so their magnetic bumpers are toward each other.
3.
Test cases A1 through A3 and B1 through B3 described below. Draw two diagrams (one for
before the collision and one for after the collision) for each case.
In every diagram, show a velocity vector for each cart with a length that approximately represents
the relative speed of the cart.
A. Carts with Equal Mass

Case A1: Place one cart at rest in the middle of the track. Give the other cart an initial velocity toward the
cart at rest.
Case A2: Start the carts with one at each end of the track. Give each cart approximately the same velocity
toward each other.
Case A3: Start both carts at one end of the track. Give the first cart a slow velocity and the second cart a
faster velocity so that the second cart catches the first cart.
123
B. Carts with Unequal Mass

Put two mass bars in one of the carts so that the mass of one cart is approximately three times the mass
(3M) of the other cart (1M).
Case B1: Place the 3M cart at rest in the middle of the track. Give the other cart an initial velocity toward
the cart at rest.
Case B2: Place the 1M cart at rest in the middle of the track. Give the 3M cart an initial velocity toward the
cart at rest.
Case B3: Start the carts with one at each end of the track. Give each cart approximately the same velocity
toward each other.
Case B4: Start both carts at one end of the track. Give the first cart a slow velocity and the second cart a
faster velocity so that the second cart catches the first cart. Do this for both cases: with the 1M cart first and
then for the 3M cart first.
Part II: Completely Inelastic Collisions

1.
Orient the two carts so their hook-and-loop bumpers are toward each other. Push the plunger in all
the way so it will not interfere with the collision.
2. Repeat test cases A1 through A3 and B1 through B3 and draw diagrams for each case.
Questions
1.
When two carts having the same mass and the same speed collide and stick together, they stop. Is
momentum conserved?
2. When two carts having the same mass and the same speed collide and bounce off of each other
elastically, what is the final total momentum of the carts?
124
125
EXPERIMENT NO.
Elective Activity
TORQUE & ROTATION

OBJECTIVES:
To determine the condition that must be satisfied for a body to be in rotational
equilibrium.
To find out the factors affecting torque.
THEORY:
Consider the plank shown in Figure 1. The fulcrum is exactly at the center.
The blocks on the plank have the same weight (F1 = F2) and are placed at the
same distance r (r1 = r2) away from the fulcrum. The length of the perpendicular
drawn form the fulcrum (or pivot or axis of rotation) to the line of the force is
called the lever arm. (This is also often called the moment arm). The cross
product of the moment arm (r) and the force (F) is defined as torque (). In
equation form, torque is defined as:
=rxF
(Equation 1)
= rF sin
>
A 2
For simplicity, the direction of torque in this experiment will just be limited
to two directions. A torque that results to a counterclockwise rotation will be
assigned a negative (-) sign and for clockwise rotation, a positive (+) sign.
Applying the definition of torque to the three forces present in Figure 1. yields the
following:
Force (F)
Moment arm (r)
sin
Torque ()
F1
r1
sin 90o
-r1F1
F2
r2
sin 90o
+r2F2
F3
126
For an object to be in complete equilibrium, it must satisfy two conditions.

The first condition of equilibrium is that the net force acting on the object must be
equal to zero. The second condition of equilibrium (also called rotational
equilibrium) is that the net torque about an arbitrary axis of rotation must be
equal to zero.
The plank in Figure 1 is in complete equilibrium. It is in a condition of static
equilibrium. Since it remains at rest, the net force acting on it is equal to zero.
(Equation 2)
Fy = F3 F1 F2 = 0
The plank is also in a condition of rotational equilibrium. Since r1 = r2 and F1 = F2,

the clockwise torque (r2F2) is equal to the counterclockwise torque (r2F2).
=
(Equation 3)
(Equation 4)
clockwise
counterlockwise = r2F2 r1F1 = 0
clockwise =
counterlockwise
- 3
Moving the left block near the fulcrum as in Figure 2(a) would tend to
rotate (or tilt) the plank in a clockwise manner even though the forces acting on
the plank remain the same. The clockwise torque is not equal to the
counterclockwise torque since the moment arm on the left is now less than the
moment arm on the right side.
Adding another block on the right side of the fulcrum as in Figure 2(b)
would also tend to rotated (or tilt) the plank in a clockwise manner even through
the moment arm on the left is equal to the moment arm on the right. The
clockwise torque is not equal to the counterclockwise torque since the left force
(weight) is now less than the force (weight) on the right side.
MATERIALS:
Weights, weight holder, clamp, iron stand, meter stick, weighing scale
127
Figure 3. The meter stick with the other accessories
REFERENCES
PROCEDURE:
A. Center of Gravity
Locate the center of gravity of the meter stick by placing it in the clamp as
shown in Figure 3. Adjust the meter stick (without weights) until it is in
equilibrium.
B. Rotational Equilibrium of Balanced Forces
On the balanced meter stick, place an equal amount of loads (about 200 g)
on both sides of the meter stick at a distance of about 25 cm from the fulcrum.
(Include the weight of the clamp and weight holder in all of the forces in this
exercise.) Adjust slightly the position of the loads to maintain equilibrium. Record
the forces and their moment arms. Calculate and record the clockwise torque
and the counterclockwise torque. How do they compare? Record the percentage
difference between them.
Repeat the above procedure for two more trials, adding 50 g each time to the
original loads.
128
C. Rotational Equilibrium of Unbalanced Forces

On the balanced meter stick, place two unequal amounts of loads (about 100
g and 250 g) on both sides of the meter stick at a distance of about 25 cm from
the fulcrum. (Include the weight of the clam and weight holder in all of the forces
in this exercise.) Adjust the position of the loads to maintain equilibrium. Record
the forces and their moment arms. Calculate and record the clockwise torque
and the counterclockwise torque. How do they compare? Record the percentage
difference between them.
Repeat the above procedure for two more trials, adding 50 g each time to the
lesser load.
129
130
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DATA SHEET:
A. Center of Gravity of the meter stick system: ________cm mark
B. Rotational Equilibrium of Balanced Forces

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Physics Laboratory Manual I

(Compiled Experiments in Mechanics)

Open Laboratory Guide...

Significant Figures (Skills Lab 1) ..

Experimental Errors (Skills Lab 2).

Graphs and Equations (Skills Lab 3).

Composition of Concurrent Forces (Required Activity)..

Coefficient of Friction (Elective Activity)

Uniform Acceleration (Required Activity)..

Newtons Second Law (Required Activity) 83

10 Projectile Motion (Elective Activity)

11 Centripetal Force (Required Activity)

12 Conservation of Energy (Required Activity).

13 Conservation of Momentum (Elective Activity)

14 Torque and Rotational Equilibrium (Elective Activity).

Open Laboratory Guide

(Adapted from the Physics Department Form 5)

*All erasures should be countersigned by the session faculty

books, 50 students, etc. also can contain an infinite number of significant

(2) significant figures

3. Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant.

(5) significant figures

(2) significant figures

(6) significant figures

(2) significant figures

(3) significant figures

Rules 6 and 7 can be easily addressed if the number is expressed in

Significant Figures and Algebraic Operations

2. Additions and Subtractions

3. Multiplication and Division

The number 2 and both contain an infinite number of significant figures

4. Square Roots and Trigonometric Functions

The Micrometer Caliper

The Vernier Caliper

Main scale (mm)

B. Volume and Surface Area of a Coin

B. Surface Area & Volume of a Coin (25 centavo coin)

C. Perimeter and Thickness of a DLSU ID Card

b. What is the volume of a cylinder whose radius measures 10.29 mm and

4. Specify the measuring instrument (meter stick, vernier caliper, and

(b) External Errors

The absolute value of the deviation di which is equal to di = xi

The experimental value Ex of a quantity is usually expressed as: Ex = x

ME = (U + K)initial = (U + K)final = constant

Substituting equations (2) and (4) to equation (3) gives:

If the rotational motion of the ball is to be considered, include the rotational

mgh = 1mv2 + 1mv2

4. Which of the following is considered as a measure of central tendency and

GRAPHS & EQUATIONS

68o = m(20o) + 32o

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Farenheit Reading vs. Celcius Reading

y = kx2, y = kx3, y = kx4,., y = kxn

Graph #3 shows a parabolic graph. From Eq. (6), the value of n

Height (y) vs. Square of Time (t2)

y = k/x, y = k/x2, y = k/x3,., y = kxn

A hyperbolic graph indicates an inverse relationship between two quantities i.e., y

& ' > @3

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------C.1 Inverse Proportionality

where k is a constant which is equal to the slope of y vs. 1/x graph.

C.2 Inverse Square Proportionality

D. Method of Least Squares

The y-intercept is:

Rules for Drawing Graphs on Rectangular Coordinate Paper