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MATHEMATICS
MATRICES AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Santhosh Kumar .S,
Venkatesh .S,
Abstract
Engineering Mathematics is applied in daily life all in known and unknown ways. Branch of
engineering mathematics are vector algebra, differential calculus, integration, discrete
mathematics, matrices and determinant, etc. Among various topic, Matrices is generally
interesting. Matrices have a long history of application in solving linear equations. between 300
BC and AD 200, is the first example of the use of matrix methods to solve simultaneous
equations, including the concept of determinants, Early matrix theory emphasized determinants
more strongly than matrices and an independent matrix concept akin to the modern notion
emerged only in 1858, with Cayley's Memoir on the theory of matrices. The term "matrix was
coined by Sylvester, who understood a matrix as an object giving rise to a number of
determinants today called minors, that is to say, determinants of smaller matrices that derive
from the original one by removing columns and rows.
Here in this paper you will be clear about Matrices definition types applications of matrices
graph theory secret writing cryptography types of cryptography conclusion.
Definition:
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of mathematical expressions that can be
simply numbers. For example,
Basic operations:
Addition:
The sum A+B of two m-by-n matrices A and B is just like this example,
Transpose:
The transpose of an m-by-n matrix A is the n-by-m matrix AT (also denoted Atr or tA)
formed by turning rows into columns and vice versa:
(AT)i,j = Aj,i.
Multiplication of two matrices is defined only if the number of columns of the left matrix is the
same as the number of rows of the right matrix. If A is an m-by-n matrix and B is an n-byp matrix, then their matrix product AB is the m-by-p matrix whose entries are given by dot
product of the corresponding row of A and the corresponding column of B:
,
Where 1 i m and 1 j p.[5] For example, the underlined entry 1 in the product is calculated
as (1 1) + (0 1) + (2 0) = 1:
Whereas
The identity matrix In of size n is the n-by-n matrix in which all the elements on the main
diagonal are equal to 1 and all other elements are equal to 0, e.g.
Steganography
Cryptography
Steganography
There are a large number of steganographic methods that most of us are familiar with, ranging
from invisible ink and microdots to secreting a hidden message in the second letter of each word
of a large body of text and spread spectrum radio communication. With computers and networks,
there are many other ways of hiding information, such as:
Null ciphers
Steganography
Today, however, is significantly more sophisticated than the examples above suggest, allowing a
user to hide large amounts of information within image and audio files. These forms of
steganography often are used in conjunction with cryptography so that the information is doubly
protected; first it is encrypted and then hidden so that an adversary has to first find the
information and then decrypt it.
There are a number of uses for steganography besides the mere novelty. One of the most widely
used applications is for so-called digital watermarking. A watermark, historically, is the
replication of an image, logo, or text on paper stock so that the source of the document can be at
least partially authenticated. A digital watermark can accomplish the same function; a graphic
artist, for example, might post sample images on her Web site complete with an embedded
signature so that she can later prove her ownership in case others attempt to portray her work as
their own.
Stego can also be used to allow communication within an underground community. There are
several reports, for example, of persecuted religious minorities using steganography to embed
messages for the group within images that are posted to known Web sites.
STEGANOGRAPHIC METHODS
The following formula provides a very generic description of the pieces of the steganographic
process:
Cover medium + hidden data + Stego key = Stego medium
In this context, the cover medium is the file in which we will hide the hidden data, which may
also be encrypted using the stego_key. The resultant file is the stego medium (which will, of
course. be the same type of file as the cover_medium). The cover medium is typically image or
audio files. In this article, I will focus on image files and will, therefore, refer to the cover
image and stego image.
Before discussing how information is hidden in an image file, it is worth a fast review of how
images are stored in the first place. An image file is merely a binary file containing a binary
representation of the color or light intensity of each picture element (pixel) comprising the
image.
Images typically use either 8-bit or 24-bit color. When using 8-bit color, there is a definition of
up to 256 colors forming a palette for this image, each color denoted by an 8-bit value. A 24-bit
color scheme, as the term suggests, uses 24 bits per pixel and provides a much better set of
colors. In this case, each pix is represented by three bytes, each byte representing the intensity of
the three primary colors red, green, and blue (RGB), respectively. The Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) format for indicating colors in a Web page often uses a 24-bit format
employing six hexadecimal digits, each pair representing the amount of red, blue, and green,
respectively.
The size of an image file, then, is directly related to the number of pixels and the granularity of
the color definition. A typical 640x480 pix image using a palette of 256 colors would require a
file about 307 KB in size (640 480 bytes), whereas a 1024x768 pix high-resolution 24-bit color
image would result in a 2.36 MB file (1024 768 3 bytes).
To avoid sending files of this enormous size, a number of compression schemes have been
developed over time, notably Bitmap (BMP), Graphic Interchange Format (GIF), and Joint
Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) file types. Not all are equally suited to steganography,
however.
GIF and 8-bit BMP files employ what is known as lossless compression, a scheme that allows
the software to exactly reconstruct the original image. JPEG, on the other hand,
uses lossy compression, which means that the expanded image is very nearly the same as the
original but not an exact duplicate. While both methods allow computers to save storage space,
lossless compression is much better suited to applications where the integrity of the original
information must be maintained, such as steganography. While JPEG can be used for stego
applications, it is more common to embed data in GIF or BMP files.
The simplest approach to hiding data within an image file is called least significant bit (LSB)
insertion. In this method, we can take the binary representation of the hidden data and overwrite
the LSB of each byte within the cover image. If we are using 24-bit color, the amount of change
will be minimal and indiscernible to the human eye. As an example, suppose that we have three
adjacent pixels (nine bytes) with the following RGB encoding:
10010101 00001101 11001001
Let's say you're sending an e-mail. After you hit the Send button, the packets travel easily
through the network, from router to router, to the recipient's in-box. Once these packets reach the
recipient, they are reconstituted into the full e-mail.
The important thing is that the packets don't need to reach their destination in any particular
order. IP is a "connectionless protocol," which means that one node is free to send packets to
another without setting up a prior connection, or circuit. This is a departure from previous
methods, such as making a phone call in a public switched telephone network, which first
requires synchronization between the two communicating nodes to set up a dedicated and
exclusive circuit. Within reason, it doesn't matter when packets arrive or whether they arrive in
order.
As you can imagine, this method works better for order-insensitive data like e-mail and static
Web pages than it does for voice and video data. Whereas the quality of an e-mail message is
immune to traffic obstructions, a network delay of even 20 milliseconds can very much degrade
a second or two of video.
To cope with this challenge, network specialists came up with the Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP). It governs the way voice data is broken up for transmission the same way IP manages
messages that are less time sensitive. VoIP enables data packets representing a voice call to be
split up and routed over the Internet.
The connection of a VoIP call consists of two phases: the signaling phase, followed by the voicetransport phase. The first phase establishes how the call will be encoded between the sending and
receiving computers. During the second phase, data are sent in both directions in streams of
packets. Each packet, which covers about 20 milliseconds of conversation, usually contains 20 to
160 bytes of voice data. The connection typically conveys between 20 and 50 such packets per
second.
Telephone calls must occur in real time, and significant data delays would make for an awkward
conversation. So to ferry a telephone call over the Internet, which was not originally intended for
voice communications, VoIP makes use of two more communications protocols, which had to be
layered on top of IP: The Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) and the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP). The RTP gets time-sensitive video and audio data to its destination fast and so has been
heavily adopted in much of streaming media, such as telephony, video teleconference
applications, and Web-based push-to-talk features. To do that, it relies in turn on the UDP.
Because voice traffic is so time critical, UDP does not bother to check whether the data are
reliable, intact, or even in order. So in a VoIP call, packets are sometimes stuck in out of
sequence. But that's not a big deal because the occasional misplaced packet won't significantly
affect the quality of the phone call. The upshot of UDP is that the protocol opens a direct
connection between computers with no mediation, harking back to the era of circuit switching:
Applications can send data packets to other computers on a connection without previously
setting up any special transmission channels or data paths. That means it's completely private.
Cryptography includes techniques such as merging words with images, and other
ways to hide information in storage or transit.
Cryptography involves encrypting data so that a third party cannot intercept and read the data.
In the early days of satellite television, the video signals weren't encrypted and anyone with a
satellite dish could watch whatever was being shown. Well, this didn't work because all of the
networks using satellites didn't want the satellite dish owners to be able to receive their satellite
feed for no cost while cable subscribers had to pay for the channel, they were losing money. So,
they started encrypting the video signal with a system called Videocipher.
What the Videocipher encryption system did was to convert the signal into digital form, encrypt
it, and send the data over the satellite. If the satellite dish owner had a Videocipher box, and paid
for the channel, then the box would descramble (unencrypted) the signal and return it to its
original, useful form.
This was done by using a key that was invertible. It was very important that they key be
invertible, or there would be no way to return the encrypted data to its original form.
The same thing can be done using matrices.
Encryption Process
1. Convert the text of the message into a stream of numerical values.
2. Place the data into a matrix.
3. Multiply the data by the encoding matrix.
4. Convert the matrix into a stream of numerical values that contains the encrypted message.
Example
Consider the message "Red Rum"
A message is converted into numeric form according to some scheme. The easiest scheme is to
let space=0, A=1, B=2, ..., Y=25, and Z=26. For example, the message "Red Rum" would
become 18, 5, 4, 0, 18, 21, 13.
This data was placed into matrix form. The size of the matrix depends on the size of the
encryption key. Let's say that our encryption matrix (encoding matrix) is a 2x2 matrix. Since I
have seven pieces of data, I would place that into a 4x2 matrix and fill the last spot with a space
to make the matrix complete. Let's call the original, unencrypted data matrix A.
18
A=
18
21
13
There is an invertible matrix which is called the encryption matrix or the encoding matrix. We'll
call it matrix B. Since this matrix needs to be invertible, it must be square.
This could really be anything; it's up to the person encrypting the matrix. I'll use this matrix.
B=
4
-1
-2
3
The unencrypted data is then multiplied by our encoding matrix. The result of this multiplication
is the matrix containing the encrypted data. We'll call it matrix X.
67
X = AB =
-21
16
-8
51
27
52
-26
The message that you would pass on to the other person is the the stream of numbers 67, -21, 16,
-8, 51, 27, 52, -26.
Decryption Process
1. Place the encrypted stream of numbers that represents an encrypted message into a
matrix.
2. Multiply by the decoding matrix. The decoding matrix is the inverse of the encoding
matrix.
3. Convert the matrix into a stream of numbers.
4. Convert the numbers into the text of the original message.
Example
The message you need to decipher is in the encrypted data stream 67, -21, 16, -8, 51, 27, 52, -26.
The encryption matrix is not transmitted. It is known by the receiving party so that they can
decrypt the message. Other times, the inverse is known by the receiving party. The encryption
matrix cannot be sent with the data, otherwise anyone could grab the data and decode the
information. Also, by not having the decoding matrix, someone intercepting the message doesn't
know what size of matrix to use.
The receiving end gets the encrypted message and places it into matrix form.
67
X=
16
-21
-8
51
27
52
-26
The receiver must calculate the inverse of the encryption matrix. This would be the decryption
matrix or the decoding matrix.
B-1 =
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.4
The receiver then multiplies the encrypted data by the inverse of the encryption matrix. The
result is the original unencrypted matrix.
18
A = X B-1 =
18
21
13
The receiver then takes the matrix and breaks it apart into values 18, 5, 4, 0, 18, 21, 13, 0 and
converts each of those into a character according to the numbering scheme. 18=R, 5=E, 4=D,
0=space, 18=R, 21=U, 13=M, 0=space.
Trailing spaces will be discarded and the message is received as intended: "RED RUM"
Applications of cryptography
Secrecy in Transmission:
Most current secrecy systems for transmission use a private key system for transforming
transmitted information because it is the fastest method that operates with reasonable assurance
and low overhead. If the number of communicating parties is small, key distribution is done
periodically with a courier service and key maintenance is based on physical security of the keys
over the period of use and destruction after new keys are distributed.
If the number of parties is large, electronic key distribution is usually used. Historically, key
Electronic Signatures:
Electronic signatures, like their physical counterparts, are a means of providing a legally binding
transaction between two or more parties. To be as useful as a physical signature, electronic
signatures must be at least as hard to forge, at least as easy to use, and accepted in a court of law
as binding upon all parties to the transaction.
Electronic Cash:
There are patents under force throughout the world today to allow electronic information to
replace cash money for financial transactions between individuals. Such a system involves using
cryptography to keep the assets of nations in electronic form. Clearly the ability to forge such a
system would allow national economies to be destroyed in an instant. The pressure for integrity
in such a system is staggering.
Graph theory
Although a pictorial representation of a graph is very convenient for a visual study, other
representations are better for computer processing. A matrix is a convenient and useful way of
representing a graph to a computer. Matrices lend themselves easily to mechanical
manipulations. Besides, many known results of matrix algebra can be readily applied to study the
structural properties of graphs from an algebraic point of view. In many applications of graph
theory, such as in electrical network analysis and operations research matrices also turn out to be
the natural way of expressing the problem.
THEOREM 1
Two graphs G and G are isomorphic if and only if their incidence matrices
A (G) and A (G) differ only by permutations of rows and columns.
THEOREM 2
If A (G) is an incidence matrix of a connected graph
G with n vertices the rank of A (G) is n-1.
COROLLARY
The reduced incidence matrix of tree is nonsingular.
A graph with n vertices and n-1 edges that is not a tree is disconnected. The rank of the incidence
matrix of such a graph will be less than n-1.Therefore the (n-1) by (n-1) reduced incidence
matrix of such a graph will not be nonsingular. In other words, the reduced incidence matrix of a
graph is nonsingular if and only if the graph is tree.
THEOREM 3
Let A (G) be an incidence matrix of a connected graph G with n vertices. An (n-1)by (n-1) sub
matrix of A(G) is nonsingular if and only if the n-1 edges corresponding to the n-1 columns of
this matrix constitute a spanning tree in G.
THEOREM 4
Let A and B be, respectively, the circuit matrix and the incidence matrix (of a self loop free
graph) whose columns are arranged using the same order of edges. Then every row of B is
orthogonal to every row A;
That is, A.BT = B.AT = 0
CIRCUIT MATRIX
Let the number of different circuits in a graph G be q and the number of edges in G be e. Then a
circuit matrix x B= [b] of jG is a q e, (0,1) matrix defined as follows.
b=1, if ith circuit includes jth edges and
=0 otherwise.
To emphasize the fact that B is a circuit matrix of graph the circuit matrix may also be written as
B(G)
The graph in has four different circuits, {a,b},{c,e,g},{d,f,g} and {c,d f,e}.Therefore, its circuits
matrix is a 4 by (0,1) matrix an shown.
[ ]
11000000
0 0 10 1 0 10
0 0 0 10 1 10
0 0 11 11 0 0
The following observation can be made about a circuit matrix B(G) of a graph G:
1. A column of all zeros corresponds to noncircuit edges.
2. Each row of B(G) is a circuit vector.
3. Unlike the incidence matrix a circuit matrix is capable of representing a self-loop the
corresponding row will have a single1.
4. The number of 1s in a row is equal to the number of edges in the corresponding circuit.
5. If graph G is separable and consists of two blocks g1, g2, the matrix B(G) can be written
in a block diagonal form as
B( g 1)
0
B (G) =
0
B( g 2) ,
Where B (g1) and B(g2) are the circuit matrices of g1and g2.This observation results from the
fact that circuits in g1, have no edges belonging to g2, and vice versa.
6. Permutation of any two rows or columns in a circuit matrix simply corresponds to
relabeling the circuits and edges.
Conclusion
Applications of Matrices are not only Graph theory, Stenography, cryptography. There are also
many ideas applied in this field secret in banking, communication in military administration,
confidential message transduction, computerized lockers, etc are other. Our scholars are still
working in this field to develop a World Wide secured Communication for all people. Coding
and Encoding a lot of message is ease when it combines with Software Development regarding.
Hence Matrices is applied in many useful purposes in our World.