DIAMOND MINING - INDIAN TECHNOLOGY

AND LABOUR RESOURCES

DIAMOND MINING
INDIAN TEXHNOLOGY
AND LABOUR RESOURCES
As demand for certain goods began to grow due to an increase in tastes for

luxuries both in India and overseas, capitalist entrepreneurs started coming

forward to recruit large number of workers hegarding caste and class

a-

tions, unlike in the previous centuries. This vast army of workers was able to
enlarge and deepen the mines at a much greater pace than ever before with more
advanced methods and tools that were beyond the reach of the ordinary craffsnan
working alone on individual basis. The organisation of the labour resources and
the methods used to maintain a high level of production deserve a carell study
to realise the forces at work that brought about an upheaval in the caste based
professional set up now armed with a new technology ushering in fiesh methods
geared towards large scale production. The technology put to use, the role of
those with capital the organisation of the labour force, and the components of
the society involved m the production become issues demandmg a detailed mdy.
We shall address ourselves to some of these issues m the following pages.
Efforts need not be made to search for technology of the modem type m the
mining enterprise of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries. Nevertheless,
every activity in the field even m the previous centuries is to be viewed as
technology, not only man's most strenuous endeavours but also his patient and
monotonous efforts to make a mark on the external world.' Normally rapid
changes immediately y h ~for themselves labels as revolutions but the slow
improvements in processes and tools and those innumerable actions whose

immediate innovating si-dcance remains insipiiicant should not be overlooled

or ignored but revered as fruit lefl in the form of rich legacy by generations of
technicians as their accumulated knowledge.
Among the various processes of mining, one consisted merely in digging out
the rolled pebbles and gravel.' This mixrwe used to be camed to small square
resen:oirs that were constructed on elevated mounds.' The bottoms of these
resewoirs were paved with stones and in these. the pebbles and gravel were
subjected to rigorous washing.' At the foot of the mound was prepared a clear
space surrounded by heaps of refuse and the nashed gravel was again carellly
spread out and minutely examined in the presence of the diamond contractors'
The diamonds due to their peculiar lustre were easily visible inspite of the sticky
and moist state of the gravel. These mines \&ere let out by the government to
native contractor^.^
In the mines the workers used to pick out a seam of about six or eight
inches in thickness, occuning with thicker and harder beds of sand stones uhicll
for their method was required as a diamond layer to be worked upon hnher.'
This rock when brought to light used to turn out to be an easily broken up.
damp, clayey conglomerate and panly brecciated of small rounded fragments and
pebbles of black, red, green and pale colowed shales and chens with large and
small grains of duty and pellucid quanz. This was one of the important rocks
extracted in most of the mines that were being w o r k e d . W e mixture was
pounded up, washed, sifted and laid out to d n on floors specially designed. The
residue of clean sand was carellly examined a the hand by the women and
children of the workkg parties to sift out the precious stones.'
During dry season in smaller mines a \\ark force of around 500 persons Has
deployed.1 The wet season created a peat man! hazards and operations had to
be suspended o v h g to the pits, becoming 111 with water and baling out uarer
73

being extremely impossible due to incessant rains and lack of warm sunshine. The
contractors were granted the mines by the Nawab for an annual payment." Tnese
were later sub-let to other parties of operators. These mines were deeper and
more extensive and the process followed was similar to rest of the mines. As
usual the labourers, since they were in want of work, received only a value of
three and half pence and a meal of rice per day."
Mines h a t e d m a particuiar region witnessed identical methods and use of
implements in the emction. BUI it was not the case when the mines were far-hug
and the work force, contractors and topography of the region were different. Means
of transport and communication being h a t they were in the wenteenth and the
eighteenth centuries, the transfer of technology, the how-how and the application of
it was less rapid. So use of identical technology and implements experienced better

possiiilities in mines situated not hr from each other and in sucb cases there emerged
a uniform methodology of work that was suppoaed with appropriate technology
d i c h g ~ a d u a bdeveloped mto a more d o r m system through routine practice. The
distances between one mine to another contributed to this, for workers &er
exhausdng a mine would abandon it for some time because of greater depths and
hardships and follow the contractors to a neighbouring site. TIk periodical shiftkg set
up a chain of mines whhin a shon distance fYom the previous ones." It is interesting
to note the regularity m proximity of minjng activities undertaken during the period
of our study"
Golkonda to Alamaspmde
Alamaspmde to Kaper
Kaper to Montecour
Montecour to Nagebar
Nagelpar to Eligada
Eligada to Salvaran
Sarvaran to Mellaseron
Mellaseron to Ponocour

3.5
2
2.5
2
1.5
1

kos.
kos.
kos.
kos.
kos.
kos.
1 kos.
1.5 kos.

From Ponocour crossing the river to Coulour measured one and a half kos.

The total distance the workers and traders had to travel fiom the first mine to
the final on the same sector came to fifteen kos or f$

five French leagues.'!

The diamond mines of Kokrah in Chota Nagpur in the Bihar region yielded
diamonds when the level of the river water decreased and hollows (tumuli)were
found on the river bed. Experience had taught the diamond diggers that those

tumuli contained diamonds over which insects like prams hovered. The locals
called these creatures jhinga.I6 A simple technology was put to use where the
diamond searchers used to pile up stones on all sides of the tumuli and then cut
into them with hatchets and chisels and collect the diamonds fiom among the
stones and sand. The value of some of these diamonds could wen exceed the
value of a lakh of rupees each." The revenue district and the diamond mines
were under the control of the zamindar Dujan Sal. The governors of Bihar used
to frequently send detachments into Chota Nagpur but since the jungles were
impenetrable. the governors were satisfied with a tribute of two or three
diamonds.18 The Kokrah mine was known at the Moghul court for its diamonds
and this prompted the generals of Emperor Akbar and Jahangir to invade the
district. A reference in Akbar Namah mentions that Chota Nagpur was ruled over
in 1585 by Madhu Singh who in that year became tributary to Akbar.lg In Tuzuki-Jahangii,20 Emperor Jahangir says that in 1616 it was reported to him that
Ibrahim Khan, the governor of Bihar had captured Kokrah and taken possession
of its diamond washings. The district belonged to the subah of Bihar and the
river that flowed through it was the river Sunk. It is believed that diamonds were
available here upto to the end of the eighteenth century"

A traditional method for testing diamonds has also found references in the
work of Jahangkn The Emperor says that the diamonds Ibrahim Khan had
brought &om Kokrah were given to the grinders to bring the stones to their

proper resplendent state. After treating the stones through their usual method,
they were submitted to the Emperor and among them was one that looked like
a sapphire. The Emperor remarked that he had never seen a diamond of such a
colour." It weighed several r a t P and the royal lapidaries iixed its value at three
thousand rupees thougb they would have given twenty thousand rupees for it. if
it were quite white and withstood a special test." The test consisted of 6xing the
diamond stones to the horns of fighting rams. During the fight which was mostly
conducted m blight sunshine, the glow on the diamond or lack of it was a proof
that the diamond in question was pure or had flaws. Though this method many
stones that apparently looked like pure diamonds were eliminated fiom the quality
of the supreme ones.lb Major buyers of diamonds regularly resorted to this testing
procedure in the presence of sellers and other prospective buyers. The rams were
especially trained and provided with suflicient care and protection since their
s e ~ c ewas vital m the diamond transactions.
At cenain times when mines were under water the almost naked miners
entered the pit by an inclined plane and worked b e e deep in water." The stones
and mud gathered through digging was filled in small baskets and drawn up by
hand. The Persian wheel turned by four bullocks was used but was insu5cient in
power to thoroughly drain the place?' Earthen vessels were used to lift the water
out. The mixture on reaching the swface was spread on stone slabs and \\.as
minutely searched and while this operation was on, alert guards supervised and
kept a watchful eye on the searchers as weU as on the miners. The hances of
the Maharaja of Panna were principally derived fiom the diamond mines.29In
granting licences to natives the Rsja had a rule to restrict the claim to diamonds
below six ratis in weight on which a percentage of twenty five rupees or upward
was charged. The party was then permitted to conduct a search on any spot

*thin the territory which was not already earmarked for certain noble causes.jO
76

Since h i t s of advanced technology were slow in their march towards

meeting the demands and requirements of the rapidly progressiig Indian industrial
scenario in the period of our study, mining could not be conducted below fifty
feet at which depth the water rose and the tuadars or masters of the mines were
compelled to suspend work at this limit for lack of a method to pump the mines

dry." The chiia and superficial mines were to be found all over the diamond track
and manual labour being cheap the poorer sections of the population of the state
willingly offered their energies in return for paltry gains so as to be able to keep
their body and soul together."
From the commencement of the rains to the ushering in of the cold season
the mining activities were carried out on full scale." The easy availability of a
good supply of water all around encouraged the search. Water played an
important role as it helped in the washing of the dry matrix which used to be
placed in small quantities in a trench to &ee it from the clay that adhered to it.y
A spot on the surface of the ground was made smooth with the hand and on it

the gravel was spread and a diligent search made for the diamonds."
The gravel or soil from river or alluvial deposits had merely to be washed

in a sieve or trough while primary dry ore had to be crushed. Such methods were
profitable when a large mass of the ore was attacked and not in smaller ones for
processing methods were still in a developing stage. In such undertakings losses
were si@cant

as not all diamonds could be gathered easily in the &st anempt.J6

Occasionaky the work site was granted a rest period d w k g which operations
were suspended for a duration. Natural erosion was entrusted with the responsibihy to do the rest and complete the brealdng down of the ore. Diamond pieces
large and not so large congregated together when debris was washed away."
As soon as the plot where mining operations to be conducted was agreed

upon, a small spot was selected where dig,~g received priority. Here the earth
was dug and a platform was erected with a one and half metre high fence around
it." On the platform a small four feet high temple was constructed that housed
a block of stone in the form of a pyramid. The first ritual consisted in smearmg
the block of stone with sa5on. Then followed a brutal slaughter of a series of
innocent goats accompanied by desperate bleatings from the harmless crearures
and solemn chanting of prayers by the human participants. Dnun beatings and
trumpet blasts put an end to the ritual of oblation and work of dig-bg
commenced with iron instrument^.^^ Bamboo baskets were used to transport mud
the diggers provided to the women load caniers who made a hillock of it as high
as a man. Thereafter they spread the moist mud over the platform for drying and
to hasten the process they worked the mud d t h their feet like a farmer using the
plough in his field. As soon as the mud showed d c i e n t dryness seven or eight
men went to sit on the platform, each one armed with a square hard stone as

big as the palm of a hand with which they hammered the mud in the hope that
the loose mud would be separated from the stones and the pebbles would fall
out. Therealter the mud was canied in baskets to the edge of the platform from
where it was allowed to fall down on the ground. The strong continuous wind
blew away the dry powdery mud and only the stones remained at the bottom In

this way the entire mound of earth which was as high as a man was gradually
reduced to the height of pebbles of half a metre. Then the eight experts searched
for diamonds and kept them to one side of the platform4 In general more mall
precious stones were found than bigger ones. There were times when for months
no quality stones found at all.
At one particular mine the deep mine digging activities centred in a gallery
which was so vast that it contained over a thousand workmen some working \+ith

iron implements and others holding their lamps high." Between the s e a m of the
ro;ks where held the diamonds. As one proceeded deeper in the mine, greater
the heat one experienced. The water fountains m the rocks gave rise to
humidity and moisture on the ground. The stones from &ere the diamonds were
emacted had the colour of iron. Veins were noticed with white, r e 4 and black
colour. Every one who returned from the pit came out fully soaked with water,
weat and mud.J2
Diamond mining with primit~eimplements m the seventeenth and eighteenth
cenruries remained a gamble and the Indian diamond miner deprived of all
to gamble with his physical energy m the
entertainment due to poverty, prefe~~ed
hope of deriving some thrill and monetary benefits at finding diamonds after much
dig_@~g.~'In these mines the workers dug a plough or two deep, till the plough
reached the mineral and found big and small stones. They found layers of red
eanh that were five or four yards deep. The layers were separated and big and
small stones were sorted out. In some places the stones were found at a deeper
le\ el than at other places."
The workers brought out the diamonds with mud and other debris, the
diamond stones being surrounded by wet mud that required to be washed and
dried. The mixture was released in water and thoroughly washed. It was a
di5cult procedure for the worker had to cany the water by pots often &om a
diaance of over half a mi1e.l' The mixed water was allowed to pass through a
water canal Certain places due to their vastness had four, five, or six canals
ubich were primarily used for washing.' The washing had to be carried on till
there remained no clay or mud on the mineral and it became thoroughly sparkling
bright. The washed material was transferred to another place that was specially
prepared with smooth earthen floor where the stones were spread for dqing. In

general dry weather was selected to c a w on operations to avoid the inconvenience and expenses of draining.
In some places the diamond gathering exercise was conducted in the early
part of the year when men brought oxen whom they drove to the top of the hill
and having cut them into pieces cast the warm and bleeding fragments upon the
summit of the opposite mountain by means of machines which they constructed
for the p~rpose.~'Vultures and eagles flew to that spot and seizing the meat for
their food flew away with it to places where they could be safe fiom the
serpents. The diamond gatherers would come to these places and collect the
diamonds which had fallen from the flesh."
At the opening of a new mine and also when the supply of diamonds ran
short sacrifices were made to placate the gods.'" It is possible that innocent
foreign travellers ignorant of Indian customs and traditions, at the very out- set,
if they wimessed such a preliminary sacrificial ritual they imagined anythmg and

believed that the oblation was an essential part in the search for diamonds. The
bamboo scaffolding in all probability represented the machines mentioned by
earlier writers.'"
Mining in India was not camed underground and supported with timber, but
dug right down in square large pits without giving a thought to whether the earth
thus dug up would be really profitable or not." In Europe mining followed the
veins which eliminated unnecessary digging. Indians did not employ pulleys and
such like devices for bailing out water and bringing up the earth; instead a large
number of people, sat one above the other, and took up water or earth passed
on fiom one person to another. Methwold m 1622, pointed out two features that
diskingushed the r@bg practices m India from those in Europe." A possibility
of change could have been expected had Europeans like Indian merchants taken

diamond bearing land on lease from Indian rulers and prospected under their
personal mpelvision. Europeans do nor appear to have discussed the techniques

aith Indians." It is believed that the diamond mines never extended below the
water table. Methwold suggests that d i ~ went
g down to ten or eleven fathoms
deep.% Careri says that mining at Kollur extended to a depth of twelve to
fourteen spans, below which there was no hope of finding any diamonds." Mining
at the top of a flat bill was only three feet deep, but in the valleys it was mucb
deeper, ten to twelve feet.16
Credit for discovering the an of diamond cutting belonged to the Indian
diamond artisans centuries before the Europeans discovered the an." But to the
Europeans belonged the discovery of qmmetrical design in diamond cutting with
which they were able to bring out some degree of the brilliancy and beauty which
the diamond is capable of displaqing." The diamond cutters of India learned the
an of diamond clea~ingand the fact that diamond powder was the only material
that could cut and polish another diamond. They were also able to drill a hole
through a diamond so as to be able to string it around the neck.'9 Tavernier
reported that during his stay in India a large number of diamond cutters were
using the method of cutting facets or faces on diamond with diamond powder or
a metal disc." The faces were not in any symmetrical design. They were also able
to do e n g r a h g on diamond." Since the diamond can be cut and polished only
by the use of diamond powder, the procedure in the cutting of a diamond brilliant
\+as different kom the cutting and polishing of other stones. There were h e
asps to bring the rough diamond cnnal to the finished brilliant form 'They
consisted of planning, cleaving or sa~ring, bmting or rounding, lapping or
blocking, and brillianteering.62
The planner was the diamond expen who carefully studied each none and

decided whether it was to be sawed and &here, and if it was a large stone,
nhether it should be cleaved. He also decided what style of cuts should be made
fiom the crystal. M e r the p l m e r made his decision, he marked the stone where
it was to be cleaved or sawed and sent it to the next man for the job.

If the

stone was to be cleaved, the cleaver scratched a groove along the mark made by
the planner. He inserted a metal wedge in the groove and struck it with club-like
hammer. This split the diamond along the 'grain' or cleavage plane.63
In sawing the diamond, the stone was attached to the end of a metal top
by the use of a sofl metal. The top was then placed on a weighted arm against
a revolving saw blade made of bronze. The blade was charged initially with a
mixture of diamond dust and olive oil by a metal roller. As the cutting proceeded,
the blade was charged fiom the diamond it was cutting. Sawing a two carat stone
took between h e to eight hours. M e r sawing, the diamond went to the bruter
who took the sawed crystal and rounded or preformed it to circular form The
bruter rounded it down with another diamond secured to the end of a stick. Next
the diamond was passed to the blocker who cut and polished the table. The stone
then went to the brillianteer who cut the smaller facets and imparted h k b k g
touches to the stone. The cutting and polishing of the diamond facets were done
with diamond dua and olive oil on a firmly grained cast iron lap."

Fryer observed that the diamonds cut by the Indians fell short of the
'Firingies in fancy' and that was why they were sold mostly in I ~ d i a . ~To' Europe
the diamonds were exported uncut and cut to more advantage. According to
Tavernier 'the Indians are unable to give the stones so lively a polish as we give
~ gives reasons, for the inability of Indians to impart a
them m E u r ~ p e " . He
pol&, comparable to diamonds polished in Europe, ''this is due to the fact that
the wheel of the Indians does not run mootidy like that of the Europeans. For

being made of steel in order to file it on the emery, of wbich it has need every
hventy four hours. it has to be taken off the tree, and it cannot be replaced so
as to run, as evenly as it should. Lf they possessed the iron wheel as we do. for
wbicb one does not require emery but the fle, it not being necessary to remove
it, from the tree in order to file it, they could give the stones a better polish. then
they do; it is desirable that it should be done every twelve hours if the workman
is not l q . ' "
Tbe wooden wheel which caused the steel one to revolve, did not run as
fast as theirs in Europe, because its motion was slowed down first, by incessantly
anointing it with oil and sprinkling it with powder and the wooden wheel was not
more than three feet in diameter while the European one was much biggerd8All
these factors prevented the diamond cut in India to have flaws.69 Tavemier
appreciates the skill of Indians in cutting the knots in a stone. The diamond
cutters of Europe, he says would experience great di5iculty in similar situations
and they would be unwilling to undenake such a task.'O
The Indian miners struck blows at the diamond bearing rocks with heavy
iron crow bars which sometimes fractured the diamonds, but this damage was
rectified by cleaving the stones along the fracture line in a way better performed
than was the case in Europe." Thevrmot saw Iadians cut sapphires with a bow
of wire; while one workman handled the bow, another poured continuously upon
the stone a very liquid solution of the powder of white emery stone mixed in

Having seen the role of technology in the extraction of diamonds and

precious stones, it would be appropriate to study the part played by the capitalists

and the labour force that participated in the diamond mining during the period
under consideration.

The capitalists offered loan facilities in advance and during the following
month the miners were to surrender the diamonds they could find." Certain grain
merchants also sold their grains at reduced prices in return for the diamonds they
would bring." At times there used to be competitions between traders, cloth
merchants and well to do farmers, who vied with each other to sponsor the
activities of the miners in return for the diamonds they would bring. Diamond
being a rare commodity even at the time when the mines were very active, there
were occasions when the miners were living in gudt for they were not able to
get sufficient diamonds to repay the cost and the loans received fiom the
sponsors." If they were unable to pay they continued the accounts in the
following months till the debts were paid.76 L i g with enormous difficulties
many died during work rarely complaining of tiredness, weahess or wen ill
health. No matter how many goats they offered to the deities they never became
rich nor could they enjoy what they found with their toil and sweat.'? The o w e r
of the mines was the recipient of half a pagoda every month from each mine
worker whether he unearthed diamonds or not.78 On payment of their monthly
half pagoda, every person could freely dig for diamonds."

In the north almost seventy h e percent of the population of Panna and the
inhabitants of the neighbouring villages earned their living by working independently or as hired labourers for other capitalists in the diamond f i e l d s . ' ~ o s e
working on their o m account frequently met with set backs and for long periods
were not able to gather any diamonds. They were h o w to complain of bad luck
for months. This was due to their use of more primitive methods and crude
implements and also as individuals or s d e r groups they could try their luck on
a limited area in terms of length, breadth and depth.$' It is interesting to have an
idea of the expenses incurred by the contractor at the mines for a limited number
of workers for a period of one month.'
84

20 sets of labourers at Rs.2 per month

..

Rs. 40.00

15 water women

..

Rs. 30.00

4 sepoys with Rs.3 per head

..

Rs. 12.00

Rent of implements for digging

..

Rs. 40.00

TOTAL

Rs. 122.00

Role of foreign entrepreneurs in the diamond mining enterprise can also be

studied from archival sources." In 1604 Jacques de Coutre left for Ramanacotta
mines and took a keen interest in the mining activities there." With an Armenian
interpreter as companion," Jacques proceeded &om Goa via Ponda and Belgaum
before he came' to BijapurM The authorities at various places knew him as a
powerful diamond dealer and hence Jacques was expected to grease their palms
&h substantial gifts so as to be able to proceed without any delays. S&

Malik

the vassal of the Adil Shah delayed him for twenty days at Ponda and wanted
Jacques to sell him his two horses. Finally he could go ahead only afier offering
the vassal a damask wonh fifty reals of eight." Such courtesies were required to
be practised lavishly so as to vin a smooth entry on return. Leaving Ponda and
crossing the ghats he reached Belgaum fiom where he proceeded to meet the
king of Bijapur at Navaspur.'' The laner having moved his residence 6om Bijapur
was keen in contacting Jacques who was h o w to have in possession a large
emerald and three other diamonds weighing 300, 200 and 100 carats respectively.
The three were sold to the king for 2000 golden pagodas and to prince Fateh

Khan, the son of Adil Shah, he sold the two Arabian horses for 500 pagoda^.^

In 1605 Jacques again visited Bijapur and sold to prince Fateh W a n some jewels
he had brought along.w

In 1611, two years afler his retum fiom Spain, Jacques had less means of
livelihood and was forced to go to the diamond mines and chose the one of

-cons

once again.91 The mine was so named for it was discovered by a

person named Rama.n Whenever Jacques experienced financial constraints be tried

to remedy the situation by visiting the diamond mines &here, in quick time he
would re*

his financial position." Two Gujarati diamond merchants who had

heard about Jacques and his dealings in diamonds had come in search of him"
They decided to take Jacques to Ramancotta in their palanquin where he was to
meet one Fernio Jorge, a Portuguese who a a s permanently stationed at the
mines.9J The Portuguese entrepreneur was knoan to make heavy investments in
diamonds and despatch them to Goa with his brother Francisco de S i e i r a who
was to accompany Jacques to the Ramancotta mines." Siiveira remained in
Chandragiri and Jacques anived at the mine on April 1, 1611 to be warmly
welcomed by Fernio Jorge who immediately sent an escort to Chandragiri to
accompany his brother to the mine.97Jacques uitnessed from close quarters, the
digging operations at the mines and admired the Indian mine workers ability and
tenacity to keep on working at the site where the topography was partly hard
rock and partly soft earth.Y'
Revenue from the mines was the chief source of income and when diamonds
were found the natne tuadars could not escape the heavy taxes they had to pay
for their success." The tricky system and the blanket rule that all diamonds above

six ratis became the property of the Maharaja prompted the people to find out
novel ways and means to side track the system and even to cheat. Petty bankers
used to adopt the tuadars and supply all the necessities of life to the members
of his family on the understanding that every diamond found by the tuadar or the
m

y members would be sold to the banker.!= The Mahajans used tuadars of

lower ranks as i n m e n t s to rob the Maharaja.lol They hoarded wealth, but

through the tuadars in order to escape suspicion pleaded poverty and distress at

the same time carrying on a clandestine trade of diamonds between Mirzapur.

Banaras, Mahabad and Jabalpur." Repeatedly due to the general suspicion
created by them regarding their i n t e r n , they were getting caught for fraudulent
methods. One Mahajan was caught for defrauding the state for Rs.43,000. He
earned severe punishment, imprisonment and had to refund the amount after
acknowledging that he had embezzled.'"
The miners had to gather all stones that weighed one pagoda or nine
mangeiy and bring these to the place of the governor and following the old rule
these stones were the sole property of the king whereas the rest belonged to the

adventurer^.^" If any one fiom the mine workers was caught stealing, he with his
whole f h i l y and slaves was made a slave himseKlo5It was necessary to keep a
stria eye on labourers during the hours of their work as they not only pilfered

and concealed stones fiom the very mines they were working, but in cases of
emergency, swallowed them. Delinquents of this type had suffered deaths without
confessing that they had stolen gems which were later on discovered in the ashes
of their remains.lo6 The buyer and seller were caught and punished for the
forbidden act. The diggers were not authorised to sell any diamonds to foreigners
and the latter were taken to task if they indulged in clandestine actiVities.lo7Only
the sponsors and traders supplqing provisions in abundance enjoyed the monopoly
of buying the diamonds openly.10' It was said that the offenders considered
themseives lucky, if they were killed, for the greatest type of slavery awaited
them at the mines.lDpAnd if there were no d c i e n t contractors to employ all
these mine workers, these poor people could not afford to sit still but had to dig
for the king, for they had no other means of livelihood.110
The mining enterprise was organised in a strict manner and no one was
allowed to trample the rights of the Idng.IlLIn every transaction be it bu$ng or

selling of diamonds, the king was entitled to two percent duty and that went to
explain why there were large retinues of lease holders and watchmen."' The
foreigners could buy whatever diamonds they desired from the traders and as
mentioned earlier not directly from the diggers. Once a well known European
diamond dealer bought a diamond from one of the diggers weighing thirty carats
for 700 pagodas and the king got a wind of it."' The European was called and
reprimanded in strong terms. Had he not been a Frangue the bug said he would
have commanded to cany away all the possessions of the culprit and burnt his
house for purchasing a diamond from the digger when he h e w that a diamond
of such a weight belonged to the king alone.'14 The accused was asked to idennfy
the digger but Wre most Europeans he could not, for he found all Indians looking
alike. For his offence, the foreigner begged to be pardoned and promised that he
would get hack the diamond which he had already sent to Goa 11' Immediately a
runner was sent to Goa to bring the diamond before it could be sold. When the
stone arrived it was offered to the King who felt greatly honoured on receiving
it. The 700 pagodas which were paid to the digger were returned to the rightful
owner. As a punishment for the illegal act the digger was mercilessly flogged till
he lay almost dead on the ground. The public flogging was also meant as an
example to fellow diggers to dissuade them following the footsteps of the
unfortunate captive.'I6
There was necessarily a need for a considerable amount of individual
handwork Except under a system of slavery the diamond mines could not be
worked in India."' The actual operations were bound hand and foot to the

h e r s of the mines, their outlay too was very mall

~ no heavy expenditure

of capital being involved. For those content with a slowly paqiug occupation and
a hard life invoh.ing close personal supervision of the workers, it would pay

provided such persons possessed capital suflicient to Ian them for some years.Il8
Digging was not always easy and safe. The dizgers occasionally faced
massive disasters due to climatic and topographical uncertainties. Once when the
miners were busy digging, a shallow space occurred underneath and more than
one hundred and 6fty people who were working were buried alive.llg It was a
day marked by heavy incessant rain. Tne following day the d a g e r s were terrified
at the mishap and the entire a g e moaned at the sight of the eanh going upside
down.120More than thirty women of the deceased workmen burnt themseives
alive following the age old tradition that the wives should follow their husbands
in the next world.ll' Assessing the sacrifices and the work done by the Indian

workmen to unearth diamonds, some European diamond traders obselved that the
price of the diamonds should have been much higher than h a t they paid.ln
Inspite of the heavy loss of lives and hard work, it was d
l possible to pay less
and procure the diamonds because the mines were situated in India and not in the
western world."' It was felt that if diamond mining was anempted in Spain, then
a diamond of one carat would cost in the excess of 500 escudos, for an hour's
work in Spain as well as other costs were much higher than in 1ndia.l" The
standard of living and the cost of essential services and commodities was much
lower in India than in the west. A siigle mine worker for a day's maintenance
could manage with eigbt marevadis and live well which he would not be able to
do in Spain with six reals.12'

In the Golconda region, the Gotoal mine was said to be the richest one in
the east.126It was under Nail; Landial but a serious feud was going on between
Landial and his brother Mallappa to take possession of the mine.1" The feud
turned into a

111 scale war. The workers went on stril;e and many fled away

before disaster could strike them12aThe mine of Gotoal had a long and rich

h&ory of providing large and superior diamonds consistently and getting it under
total control was the moot point benveen the two brothers that led to the war
and the eventual suspension of mining operations. There being no diamonds on
sale for the time being, potential buyers with contracts for distribution overseas
and elsewhere wishing to meet their commitments before the deadline, proceeded
to another mine called Marmur that belonged to Tma Naik.129
Mobility of Coromandel diamond miners was a feature the Europeans could
not fail to notice. It was not an enduring characteristic of the south Indian
craftsmen like weavers, smiths and dyers, since it was obvious kom the evidence
of the earlier centuries that they moved only in times of acute distress or as a
mark of protest against enhanced taxation.13%e

mobility of the mine worker in

the seventeenth century would seem to indicate unsettled conditions.'" The

tendency towards migration may have been the result of invasions or political
oppression', Famine, plagues and scarcit) also led to the migration of the miners.
Pieter de Lange note^'^' that the Gohonda mines covered twenty square miles
and had fourteen villages wherein there were four chief villages mainly inhabited
by the banya merchants. The mine workers lived in the ten lesser villages. In the
four main villages lived around four thousand banya Bmilies, who due to the
yanny of one Siammal Beg bad fled away and only a small section of the
community had remained back.'33 The h g of Golkonda had put Mir J u d a in
charge of the mine and the latter had been able to invite the refogees who had
gone to the brahmin Bimrnasie.lY W~ththeir return new mines were being opened.
Regarding social composition of the work force it was believed that majority
of the miners were belonging to the aboriginal m%es and in the south they were
mostly from Dravidian backgrounds.'" The profession had become hereditary in
these groups. Earliest operations do not show any connection with Aryan

vestiges. The Sambalpur localities were controlled by the Saborae work force j3"
The Gonds and Kols were the chief workers at the Panna mines."- In southern
bdia low caste hindus previously &om various sections of labour classes formed
the bulk of the mining work force.13' Since children too were roped in for minor
jobs at the sites, gradually they too entered the shoes of their parents, and in
course of t i e the profession assumed a hereditary status. Altbough the mining
and washing was predominantly in the hands of the tribal groups, there were
instances in certain localities where members belonging to the Aryan stock held
paramount powers m the hard menial works."9
The operations at the Mahanadi were conducted by the jhuas or washers at
the village of fiunan.'" In the centre of the Mahanadi near hunan there was an
island called Hira Khund about four miles long.lJ1 Every year around the
beginning of March, a period of less work in those days, when water level used
to approach its lowest, and agicultural activities minimum. a large number of
people exceeding even 5,000 used to assemble and raise an embankment across
the mouth of the nonhem channel deflecting its share of running water into the
southern channel. The stagnant pools of water lefl in the northern channel were
su5cient to enable the washers to wash the gravel accumulated between the
rocks. For this they used their crude wooden trays and cradles. Women were the
prime actors manniDg the chief burden of the actual washing, while the men
collected and supplied the material for the women to do the needfd.'"
The implements employed and the method of washing were similar to those
commonly adopted in gold washing except that the h e r gravel was not t h r o w
away until it had been thoroughly searched for diamonds.'" Whatever stone was

found became the property of the washer. Those wbo were lucky to h d a
valuable none were rewarded by being given a village. The washers generally

held their d a g e s and lands rent bee. This was mainly the case with washers who
were in the profession for generations but all new comers engaged in the washing
did not enjoy the privilege of the rent ffee status.'* The workers did not regard
their enforced services as involving any great hardships, on the contrary they
enjoyed the diversion and glad& welcomed the annual search on the old terms."'
In fact the condition of the jhiras used to take a low turn during the years when
the appropriate authorities would skip the annual search for diamonds.16 The
gambling element whicb was ever present in the enterprise of the above nature
stimulated the native mind providing thrilling entertainment and sport in their
search for the hidden trophies. The washers in this region belonged to an
aboriginal tnie probabiy the O~aons.'~'
The above places were annually yielding 100,000 to 150,000 pagodas in the
king's treasury.'" Private diggers who did mining on their o m account had to do
one day's digging at the end of the week for the

Each mine digger was

paid two pagodas and the custom officers canied away everything except their
clothes and the little food they were entitled to."O In each mine worked around
three hundred persons, women and children included."l In most cases the entire
family was found at the mining site except children below the age of ten who
were looked after by the grand parents.lJa Every group of ten persons earned
around seven pagodas from which the king took away two pagodas. The
remaining five pagodas were given to the ten persons who had to manage their
living fiom that amount.1J3The workers received nothing more than the minimum
cost to remain alive, so that they could work ail1 more to enrich the ones already
made rich by their labour. Due to the poor payment some old mine workers used
to hide a few stones with good or had success, but this was oniy occasional and
not permanent.lY

The native labourers proiided a grim picture of poverry and the poorest
among them were mine workers men, women and children who had barely to
eat.1'' The men k e d with their wives, children and implements in tents of straw
~,hich were three feet high and three feet broad. Abject poverty coupled with
ememe heat forced the workers to an existence which evoked lot of sympathy
fiom the wealthy foreign diamond dealers.IJ6 The workers went about bare except
for a piece of cloth around the waists. In the late hours of the evening they
returned home 6om the mines dirty and tired. Lack of proper lights and water
in the night denied them the luxury of a good rekeshing bath. They could neither
afford beds nor was there mflicient place in their huts, since till they laid down
for rest, they needed the space in their huts for their movements. At the end of
a heavy day, afier their night meals they would spread their mats and go to sleep.
The bachelors and those who had no families near the work site, due to theiu
poverty could not bear the costs of maintenance and so they got together in small
groups, pooled their money together to run their own common kitchen.'" Certain
capitalists supported the miners by providing them food, implements and goats."'
The animals were required to be slaughtered at the mines, so as to placate the
deities who were supposed to be the guardians of the particular 10calities."~
When science was still in its elementary stage and technology the

hit

of it

in its infancy, soothsayers, magicians and such breed promoting mystery and
superstition played their role to the hilt. Even at the mining centres the magician's
role attained proportions of importance and pre-eminence. The Europeans found
them every where and to them every Indian was a madcian A native diamond
dealer was 6equentiy visited by the European traders to make their p ~ r c h a s e s . ' ~
A group of them once saw four elderly men dressed in female costumes who
immediately on seeing the kisitors began plaling their cymbals fiuiousl!' and took

to a violent dance accompanied by loud singing. They made a circle in the middle
of which they placed a betel leaf and an areca nut and continued dancing around
it for a full day and night u h t e m p t e d . During their dance they made mysterious
gestures and chanted mantrams which the European diamond dealers failed to
comprehend. The impact the dancers created on the minds of the onlookers was
$0

overwhelming that even unbelievers began to witness and experience the

excinement of devils in the men and women of the house. According to the
European eye witnesses the evil spirits continued their presence in these people
so long as the magicians willed.'61

In earlier times large diamonds were found frequentiy but subsequent to

British ascendency, which according to certain superstitions prevailing among the
natives, was by no means pleasing to the tutelary deities of the mines, such large
diamonds were hard to come by.''= It may have been that they were not intensely
searched for. Whenever the English o5cers paid their usual visits to the mines,
they observed that the natives objected to their approaching them on horseback,

as it would they said, initate Amma Varu or Lakshmi, the sanguinary goddess of
riches, who was the patroness of the mines.163Animal blood was regularly offered
to propitiate her.lW
Diamonds being rare and unequalled in hardness diverse beliefs mushroomed,

all rooted in the mysterious and inaccessiile orient and its dauling product.
Superstitious India during its early centuries of less scientific outlook appreciated
the supreme hardness of the diamond and regarded it as a t a l b capable of
keeping away bad luck and danger. This notion of extraordinary power was a
great attraction to all craving for invincibility and immortality. The belief in its
protective abilities caused it to be highly valued as a symbol of power, an
ornament suitable for military leaders. Diamond being a symbol of courage and

virility, wearing it was the exclusive privilege of the doubly blessed.'" Or& those
who had the means to acquire diamonds began to invest in them advancing them
to the rank of the most precious stones. The magical belie& connected with the
item were slowly given up by the higher echelons of society whereas at the lower
levels of society these beliefs persisted and generated extraordina~~peculations.'~~
Common man's inability to possess this rare stone, made him confer on it
supernatural abilities. Those pretending to be astrologers considered the protective
and magical abilities of the diamond when they made their calc~lations.~"The
influence of the diamond was felt in the fact that the people were deriving help
against sinister forces and events, defeating spectres and demons.16'
Since not all could possess the diamond the exercise of crediting it with
extra ordinary power came to stay. Tall beliefs were attributed to it like diamond
being able to cure madness, prevent natural disasters fiom affecting crops, protect
houses fiom lightening and thunderlb9 To stimulate the curative properties of the
diamond they held it firmly in one hand and used the other hand for the
remaining ritual^."^ Another way was to press the diamond hmiy against the
body inorder to warm it with the body's heat and thereby release it's healing
power.I1l From rich families people borrowed precious stones mounted on rings
in order to apply them to the affected parts of the body.ln Diamond powder
taken orally was thought to possess curative and eliminative properties.'" Social
change as profound as that which marked the transition fiom an aristocratic to
a democratic order brought about drastic changes in the uses to \+%ich diamonds
were put. The emergence of more open societies in the world had the effect of
progressively enfranchising wider sections of the society not mereh. politically and
socially, but also as, consumers.
The discussion on the appropriate technology that was in operation at the

various mines and the comments made by the various observers who were
contemporary travellers and diamond experts provide us a picture of the expertise
the Indian miner had gained that equipped him to deal with the diamonds both
when extracting the stones from the earth and also during the process of
polishing. We have also seen the role of the capitalists and the strict measures
that were employed to protect their rights and safeguard the monopoly of the

hg.The socio-cultural background of the mine labourers, the quality of their

labour, the type of remuneration they earned and the ups and downs of their daily
existence are issues that deserve fiuther attention to see how different is the lot
of the ordinary Indian mine worker today as compared to his predecessor in the
seventeenth and in the eighteenth centuries.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1.
2.

M. Mauss, Sociologie et Anthropologie, Paris, 1973, p.371.

Sir Strepsham Master, Account of the Gollapallee Mines, (ed.) by

Rao Bahadur, Dr. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, m Journal of Indian
Histoy, Vol. iU, 1930, p.367.

3.

Johan Verberckmoes and E.Stolls, Aziatische Omnvewingen, Het

levensverhaal van Jacques de Coube, een Brugs diamant-handelaar,
1591-1627. Breda 1988, p.173.

4.

Tavernier, Travels, Vol. II, op.cit., p.60.

5.

V. Ball, The Diamonds, Coal and Gold of India, London, 1881, p.15.

6.

V. Ball, Bid.

7.

Records of Geological S w e y of India, 11, p. 9.

8.

Ibid.

9.

Max Bauer, Systematic Description of Recious Stones, London, 1932,

p. 142.

10. Methwold, op. cit.,pp.31-032, De Coutre, op.cit, p.173.

11. Ibid., 192, Tavernier, Travels, I, p.81.
12. Tavemier, II, p.46, Methwold, pp.32-33, Pieter de Lange, DR 1663,
1-7-1663.
13. The implements that were used for digging and extraction were of
cmde nature and after a certain depth, it was found profitable to open
up new sites and leave the deeper digging for future.
14. Tavemier, II, p.73, V, Ball has worked out the stages on the route thus:
Almasguda, Munugudy Nagulpad Lmgalla, Saravaraq Mallacheru.
15. S. R Dalgado. Glossario Luso-Asiatico, Vol. I, Hamburg, 1982, p.
289. Diaance of around hvo miles.

Tuzukh-iJahangiri, p.155. figs in persian and Hindi refers to s h n q .

Tavemier's thunderstones could they be a reference to jhinga?, Tavemier,

ll, p.66.
V. Ball, Diamond, Coal and Gold of India, London, 1881, p.42.

Dangers from wild animals as well as from the tribals prevented the
detachments of the Governors from making any dent into the diamond

mining areas.
Tumkh-i-Jahangiri op.cit,
Ibid.

V. Ball, op.cit, p.43.

Tuzd&-i-Jahangi<

op.cit.

The Emperor found the colour vely disturbing for it did not readily fall
in the known categories with ~ h i c hhe was well acquainted for a long
time.

S.R Dalgado, Glossario Luso-Asiatico, op.cit, Vol. Q 250. A rati

was equal to the weight of three grains of wheat for weighing diamonds
and precious stones.
It is probable that the diamond stone in question was good but not of
the highest quality to fetch the price mentioned and may have likely
failed to come good during the test.
Classification of diamonds into various definite categories indicates that
the diamond testing method had attained a reasonably reliable degree of
perfection and a majority of the stones found in the period of our study
were more or less given the due value and importance they deserved.

It is believed that the follouing classification was found in many parts

of India:

1. Brahman

- White, pure water.

2. Kshatriya

Rose or reddish.

3. Vaisya

4. Sudra

- Dark and impure.

Smoky.

D R 1636, 9-11-1708.

Irfan Habib, Potentialities of Capitalist Development in the Economy

of Mughal India, Journal of Economic History., p. 64-65.
V. Ball, op.cit, p.50.

In the category of noble causes were listed donations to widows,

Brahmins, queens and children from the royals through illicit unions.
De Lange obselved that in some places the mines were 70 or 80
fathoms deep, which appears too deep for digging without effective
implements. D R 1616, 3-2-1666.
The villages of this area were identified as filling among the really
poorer ones and it is but natural that the inhabitants went about
scratching the earth in search of diamonds leaving behind a series of
hollows on the ground, in most cases failing to find any diamond
stones. Ibid.
V. Ball, op. cit.,p.37.
The North-Westem Frontier Gazetteer, vol. I, Bundewand, p.565.
D R 1663, 31-7-1663.
Methwold, op. cit, p.32.
Lt. Newbold, Mineral Resources of Southern India, No.8, Diamond
Tracts, The Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, VoLMII, London, 1842,

p.233.
D R 1663. 31-7-1663.

39, Ibid.
40. Ibid., p.174.
41. Ibid., p.177.
42. This mine was called the Portuguese mine because a Portuguese by
name Albaro Mendez had rented it during the reign of King Sebastiau.
Armed with a service mandate AIbaro had sailed to India in search of
diamonds for his jewels. There were still e&mg

some porticoes at the

mine as late as the seventeenth centuq, which were constmcted by the

Portuguese. De Coutre, op. cit, p. 174.
43. The immediate gains were oten slight or illusory. LHabib, The
Technology and Economy of Mughal India,

Dr. Raj Channa, Lec-

tures, DeIhi 1970.

44. Coggin Brown and kKDay, India's Mineral Wealth, London, 1942,
p.581.
45. Report by Pieter de Lange.
46. Phhpus Baldaeus, Naauwkeurige Beschrivinge van Malabar en
Choromandd, denelver aangreazende Ryken en het machtige Eyland
Ceylon, Amsterdam, 1672, p. 183.
47. N. Conti, Narrative in R H. Major, India in the Fifteenth Century,
London, 1974, pp. 29-30.
48. Ibid.
49. De Coutre, op. cit, p.173. Usually animal blood was offered to

Lakshmi the goddess of weaith.

50. N. Conti, op.cit, A1 Benigaras of Nicolo Conti may be Beiragarh, the
modem Wairegarh, See Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, VoLI,
p.43.

51. Methwold in Relations of Golconda, op.cit, pp.30-3:

52. b i d .
53. Jan Qaiser, The Indian Response to European Technology and
Culture, 1498-1707, Delhi, 1982, p.78.
54. Irfan Habib, Technology and Economy, op.cit.. p.31. Mahwold, op.cit.
55. C a r e i op.ciL, p.251.
56. Strepsham Master, The Diaries of Streynsham RIaster, ed., RC.
Temple, 11, p.174.
57. Parsons, op.cit., p.96.
58. Ibid.
59. Rid.
60. Tavemier 4 op.cit.,

p.44

61. Parsons, op.cit. p.96.

62. Ibid., p.99.
63, b i d .
64. b i d .
65. Flyer, 1, p.285.
1. Jahangir mentions a European jeweller under his employment on
whom he bestowed a title of Hunarmand, Tuzukh, pp.166-267
2. A Venetian lapidaly was sent to cut the diamond offered to Aurangzeb
by Mir Jumla, Manucci,op.cit.,

i, pp.237-38

3, W J b m Leeds a gem expen had accepted senice under Akbar. See

Ralph Fitch, Voyages, in W. Foster, Early Travels, op. cit.,p.l8.
4. Mir Jumla is reported to have had m his service a certain Maille

from ~ m e r d a mto establish gun foundries. See Tavernia. op. cit., 11,
pp.289-90. In 1663 he employed Thomas Pran, an En-&

man to build

boats and manufacture ammunitions in BengaL See Manucci, op. cit.,&

p.87, and EFI. 1660-1664, p.294.
Tavemier, ll, p.45.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Tools in India were made almost entirely of wood, unlike those of
Europe which contained a large portion of iron even before the
Industrial Revolution. Irfan Habib feels that this was not so much for
technical reasons, because wooden mechanism such as those used for
spinning and weaving could often be sophisticated and ingenious. As for
reasons of con the high prices of European metal machinery would not
have been compensated for by the savings made on labour which was
both plentifid and cheap. In mining, the Indians were producing crucible
fired steel of exceptional quality, which was exported at high prices to
Persia. In this respect they were ahead of European metallurgy. They
worked their own metal, producing ship anchors, swords and daggers of
every design, good hand guns and respectable canons. See LHabib,
Potentialities, p.63.
Tavemier,op.eit, 11, p.46.
Ibid.,p.44.
Thevenot, op. cit., p.138.
There were two types of procurements nameiy spot purchases and
purchase through the system of advances for the supply of diamonds
and pearls. The spot purchases were done at the major markets or small

urban markets It could be direct purchase from the divers or miners.

The system of money advances was dadani system 'Ibis was a

common practice of the Jndian merchants and was followed by the

Europeans too. Money advances were necessary to ensure the timely
supply of the commodities because (1) the artisans were dependent on
financial support of the merchants to carry out their profession, (2)
Wtthout advances there would not be any guarantee of supply. (3)
Resources of producers were very meagre to cope

the expanding

demand, and it was necessary to avert the competition of other buyers,

to bind up the producer, stabilize the prices at the lean times and
maintain the supply. Lastly money advances were followed with a view
to expand and regulanse the production process since there was a gap
between supply and demand. See KN.Chaudhuri Trading World of
Asia, op.cit, pp. 305-315.
DR. 1616, 3-2-1616.
bid.
bid.
Ibid.
bid.
bid.
Max Bauer, Recious Stones, London, 1932, p.152.

V. Ball, op.cit, p.51.

V.Ball, The Diamonds, Coal and Gold of India, op.cit, p.52.
Repon by De Lange.

De Coutre, op. c i t , p.115.

The Armenian interpreter was one certain Francesco Gonsales. The
same Gonsales was sent to Goa with others and Coyana\~aone of the
servants of the King to fetch the two jewels that were worth more than

100,000 ducats. These jewels were in the possession of Joseph de

Coutre, a brother of Jacques de Coutre who looked after the joint
business of the brothers fiom his office at Merces on the outskirts of
Panaji, the present day capital and chief city of the State of h a .
Jacques had only carried with him two models of the said jewels.
Hoping to get the jewels, the king commanded that the Armenian
Francesco Gonsales was to be given 900 larins to purchase the jewels,
a horse for his journey and also all the travelling expenses for the to
and fro journey fiom Bijapur to Goa and back. See De Coutre, op. cit.,
p.117.
86. The Piligao river, a tributary of the Mandovi separated Portuguese Goa

from the territory of the Adil Shahi. The route fiom Adil Shahi out post
Bicholim went through Ponda and Belgao to Bijapur.
87. News of the wealth of Jacques and Joseph had been a common

knowledge in and around Goa. Moreover, the two Belgian brothers

were known for their acts of charity and philantrophic deeds. The
Portuguese benefitted from the wealth of the two, the church in Merces
was the recepient of many favours fiom them and fmally the guards and
security o5cers patrolling the routes and enuies and exits did not
hesitate fiom making their intentions clear to such foreign capitalists
whose participations in the diamond mining and trade was too well
know.

88. Navaspur in those years was a suburb of Bijapur. See De Coutre,

op. cit.,p.273.
89. It was a crare among the princes of the interior to buy Arabian horses
fiom the Europeans who mostly bought them fiom Goa or Surat the

two chief markets for the sale of Arabian horses on the west coast of
India.
De Coutre, op. c i t , p.125.
bid., p.160.

A wall was built around the mine and hence it was called cona in the

local language.
This was a common method followed by many of the European traders
and even Company officials who m times of need had recourse to the

Indian diamond mines and within a shoa time were able to get their
financial situation in order.
The Gujarati merchants were known for their cordial relations with
foreigners. They were already in touch with the Portuguese and now
they were yet ready for another major contact with the Flemish
capitalist. De Coutre, op. fit., p.172.

bid.
Fernso Jorge de Silveira and his brother Francesco de Silveira along
with other major goan merchants shipped dozens of bizalhos of dia-

monds as well as quintals of other goods annually to Lisbon. India,

C x i doc.73, Cx.9, Doc. 73, Cx.12, doc.19.
Femio Jorge de Silveira bemg rather new to Jacques de Coutre wanted
perhaps f a d e r information about the latter and thought that Francesco
de Silveira his brother would be m a better position to fiunish him with
details about the new buyer. Moreover Francesco de Silveira had been
the travel companion of De Coutre for quite some time and had a f i l y
broad idea about the business contacts and reputation of De Coutres
both in

~6 and

outside.

98. De Coutre, op. cit.,p.173.

99. Tuadars were the masters of the mines.

100. V. B a 4 op.cit, p.51.

101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Although cheating was rampant, only a few were caught and the
Maharaja was robbed of large and valuable diamonds annually.
104. Phillipus Baldaeus, op.cit., p. 174.
105. D R 1616, 3-2-1616.
106. V. Ball, op.cit, p.53.
107. D R 1636, 9-11-1636.
108. The mine diggers being indebted to the sponsors had the obligation of
surrendering the diamonds to their benefactors whose capital they had
borrowed for the purchase of the implements, goats and for their day
to day maintenance. Ibid.
109. Tavernier, 11, pp.46-47, Methwold, pp.32-33, Report by De Lange DR
1616, 3-2-1616.
110. Ibid.
111. DR. 1663, 31-7-1663.
112. Ibid.
113. De Coutre, op. cit, p.177.
114. Ibid.
115. Goa's reputation as an ideal market centre for quality diamonds was at

its height during this part of the seventeenth century and all available
good diamonds were immediately dispatched to Goa from where sales
were conducted The diamond in question was sent to Joseph de Coutre
from whom many Europeans made their purchases.
106

116. De Coutre, op.cit., p.17.

117. V. Ball, op.cit, p.57.
118. b i d .
119. De Coutre, op.cit, p.174.
120. Natural disasters like landslides, floods and earthquakes instilled a great
fear among the inhabitants and the scient5c knowledge about these was
yet to dawn on their illiterate minds.
121. D R 1636, 9-11-1636.
122. b i d .
123. b i d .
124. Spanish and Portuguese currency has been refered to for the writer m
question was writing his account keeping the Iberian public m mind
ffom where he had embarked for India.
125. De Coutre, op.cit.
126. IOL, Mackenzie, Vol. 47, il. 62.
127. Gotoal mine was one among the eight others in that cluster. Each of
the mine was under a digerent Governor. The other mines in that group
were: Langapur, Ramancona, Poli, Duangutty, Marmur, Costaconda, and
one more new mine.
128. In such fights between brothers, the locals were usually forced to join
the opposing camps and many used to lose their lives. Moreover the
warring brothers used to come to tenns and have peace accords
whereas the villagers were left m conhsion. Often their bread earning
members were ldiled m the fights and the surviving continued in enmity.
Hence, one pf the safer ways was to flee fiom the tillage, atleast till
the war was over.

129. Albaro Mendez the Portuguese conducted his diamond transactions fiom
here too.
130. At the most the artisans, craftsman, weavers, smiths and dyers moved
fiom house to house and renuned home on the same day or at the
most in a day or two carryiDg with them their earnings which were
often in kind and bulky enough to carny for too long. See A.I.
Chicherov, India's Economic Development in the Sixteenth to the
Eighteenth Cenhuy, Moscow, 1971, pp.72.
131. Besides the political upheavals, that made the miners move, the limited
technological h o w how and the primitive implements were not good
enough for all places and hence they had to move fiequentiy to be more
successfd. There was definitely a slower approach towards higher
technological innovations. Wan Habib points to the existence of a very
numerous class of artisans and craftsmen able to live at very low wages.
'The very numbers of the population of s u e d craftsmen constantly
militate against labour saving techniques for the immediate gains &om
these might be very slight or illusory. He adds that a less favowable
situation with regard to skilled labour, might have held out much
greater incentive for technological innovation. See

IrEan Habib, The

Technology and Economy of Mughal India, op.cit

132. DR VoLXIV, 1663, Entry dated 31st July, 1663.
133. Ibid.
134. b i d .
135. In India according to

P.M. Schuhl, conquerors left indumy to the

conquered population. P.M. Schubl, Classical Antiquity and Mechanisation, in S. Battacharya and P. Redondi op.cit, p.105.

136. V. Ball. op.cit., p.25.

137. V. Ball Economic Geology of Lndia. op.cit., p.3.
138. Kosambi feels that the low caste origin of the labour class prevented the
development of technology. Artisanal technology stagnated because of
the low caste status of the practitioner and the contempt for science on
the part of those well to do prevented fd development as in the west.

D.D. Kosambi, The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in

Historical Outline, Debti, 1977, p.23.
139. V, Ball, op.cit.
140. Captain Burton, Quarterly Journal of Sciences, N.S., YoLVI, 1876,
p. 351.
141. Major Ousley, Journal of Asiatic Society, Bengal VolVm, 1839,
p.1057.
142. b i d .
143. The h e r gravel often canied a thin coating of mud and M e r
cleansing was required to liberate the minute pieces 6om it and to
restore its proper resplendent state.
144. V. Ball, Diamonds, Gold and Coal op.cit.,

p.37.

145. V. Ball, b i d .
146. The money carried during the annual search for diamonds was additional income which greatly reduced the acute nature of their poverty
and all the ill effects from it. V.Ball, b i d .
147. Oraons
148. S.

- A tribal g o u p in the Chotanagpur region.

R Dalgado, op. cit., VoL

11, p. 135. Pagoda was a gold coin of

South India vred in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenh centuries.

149. Pieter de Lange, Report, op.cit
150. b i d .
109

151. Ibid., These were some of the smaller mines which could manage with
a much reduced work force than the bigger ones where even 50,000 to
60,000 were engaged at a time. Sir Strepsham Masters Account of the
Gollapallee Diamond Mines by Rao Bahadur, in J.1.H VoLIX, 1930,
p.363.
152. b i d .
153. Ibid.
154. Ibid.
155. Tavernier,

II, op.cit, p.354.

156. A M . VOC. 1099, 7-3-1631.

157. b i d .
158. Even the foreigners like Joseph Cona, Albaro Mendez, Wcente Ribeiro,
Bernardo Norona and FemPo Jorge made their contn%utions to the
miners. See De Coutre, op.cit
159. Goddess Lakshmi was offered the oblations.
160. De Coutre, op.cit, p.174.
161. Tnis psychological phenomenon which in modern times would have
reasonable scientific explanation was not sufficiently known to the
foreigners. The Indians were well versed with it for centuries and had
acquired a mastery over it.
162. Lt. Newbold, JRAS, V o L q p.226.
163. Ibid.
164. DR. 1663, 31-7-1663.
165. Initidly the doubly blessed were the rulers and princes but gradually the
merchant class due to its we&

was also considered as part of that

category who could afford to buy, possess and sell diamonds. There is

no record of a woman wearing a diamond before the 6fleenth century.

Agnes Sore1 1422-50, mistress of Charless W, was the first woman to
depart fiom this tradition. See C.W. King, The Natural History of
Precious Stones, London, 1867, p.39.
166. Ibid. p.40.
167. Ibid.
168. Ibid.
169. Ibid.
170. St. Hildegaardc (1098-1179) in her work, The Garden of Health gave

some hints as how to Stimulate the curative propenies of the diamond.

171. C.W. King, op.cit, p.41.
172. Ibid.
173. Doctors in the middle ages debated this subject at great length and were
of divided opinions. The proponents of such treatment, however, met
with notable failures. Later it was felt that diamond powder had
pernicious properties and it could even kill. Catherine de Medici (15191589) used it reportedly to eliminate certain people who were acting
against her. Her enemies called the mixture she prepared "the powder
of succession", Ibid., p.41.