Mountain Plains

Adult Education
Association

Journal
of
Adult Education

Volume 39

2010

Number 2

Editors
Gary J. Conti
Oklahoma State University

Rita C. McNeil
Idaho State University
Editorial Board

Arizona
Michele Zerr

Nevada
Clifford McClain
Carol Steedman

Colorado
Ray Peterson
Patricia Thorpe

New Mexico
Breda Bova
Michael O'Brien

Idaho
Karen Wilson-Scott
Richard Johnson

Utah
Michael Freeman
Lou Workman

Montana
Rita Collins
Curtis Smeby

Wyoming
Donna Amstutz
Michael Day
Michael Woolcott
Copy Editor
Dawnne Ernette
Truckee Meadows Community College
Consulting Reviewers

Anne Ghost Bear

Sally Nichols-Sharpe
Southern Nazarene University ..................................... Bacone College

James Gregson
University of Idaho

Brenda Solomon
Oklahoma State University

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 39

2010

Number 2

Table of Contents
Articles
Understanding Incivility in Online Teaching
Michael W. Galbraith & Melanie S. Jones......................................... 1
Basic Training and Resource Connections for Novice ESL Teachers
Lynn Henrichsen .............................................................................. 11

Applications of Andragogy in Multi-Disciplined Teaching and

Learning
Sang Chan ........................................................................................ 25
Techniques
Leading Online Learning Initiatives in Adult Education
Kathy Olesen-Tracey ......................................................................... 36

Book Review
Mary R. Olson: Wlodkowski, R. J. (2008). Enhancing adult motivation
to learn: A comprehensive guide for teaching all adults........................ 40
_________________________________________________
Copyright 2010 by the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association.
The MPAEA JournalofAdultEducationis an official publication of the
Mountain Plains Adult Education Association and is published twice
annually. Editorial office: Rita C. McNeil, Human Resource Training &
Development, Campus Box 8081, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID
83209; mcnerita@isu.edu or (208) 282-3640.

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 39, Number 2, 2010

Understanding Incivility in Online Teaching

Michael W. Galbraith
Melanie S. Jones
Abstract
This article addresses the issue of incivility in online teaching
and learning. Incivility is defined within the context of face-toface and online learning environments. Certain acts of incivility
are explored as well as methods for prevention and reduction.
Because academic dishonesty is becoming more prevalent,
cheating and plagiarism are examined. Finally, the concept of
developing and maintaining online culture is explored.
Introduction
The history of higher education has been threaded with instances of
deception, incivility, bullying, bias, harassment, discrimination, inequity,
and inequality (Twale & De Luca, 2008). According to Nilson (2003),
incivility has increased because the academy has changed in many ways
over the last 20-plus years that have probably exacerbated behavioral and
disciplinary problems (p. 56). The diversity of the students is a major
cause. Todays students do not share the traditional academic values,
norms, and communication styles (p.56). Nilson suggests that the
college student and college teacher relationship has become more
impersonal, thus generating an atmosphere of distrust and indifference
(p. 56). As a result, a significant amount of attention over the last two
decades has been toward the prevalent problem of incivility within the
________
Michael W. Galbraith is a Professor of Leadership Studies, Marshall
University Graduate College, South Charleston, WV. Melanie S. Jones is
an Assistant Professor of Adult and Higher Education, Morehead State
University, Morehead, KY.

classroom (Amada, 1999; Boice, 1996; Braxton & Bayer, 2005;

Carbone, 1999; Davis, 1993; Delucia & Iasenza, 1995; Eble, 1988;
Feldman, 2001; Galbraith, 2008; Galbraith & Jones, 2008; Gonzalez &
Lopez, 2001; Nilson, 2003; Rowland & Srisukho, 2009; Royce, 2000).
The incivility issue has been extended into a different direction with the
rapid growth and increase of distance education and online teaching and
learning. Along with this endeavor come new unanswered questions and
unsolved issues as it relates to online teaching (Galbraith & Jones, 2009).
This article examines the issue of incivility in online teaching.
Defining acts of incivility are explored. In addition, acts of uncivil
classroom behavior in face-to-face settings are compared to online
situations in an effort to determine if these types of incivility have as
much validity and meaning when teaching online. How to prevent and
respond to acts of incivility are examined as well. Because academic
dishonesty is becoming more prevalent, a detailed discussion on cheating
and plagiarism is presented. A discussion is offered on the importance of
how to develop and maintain an online cultural setting.
Defining Incivility
According to Galbraith and Jones (2009), the term incivility has
been defined and interpreted in different ways. Some definitions place an
emphasis on only the student, while others incorporate the teacher into
the equation. Galbraith (2008) suggests that incivility occurs when the
rules of conduct are broken by students and teachers. Feldman (2001)
defined incivility (2001) as any action that interferes with a harmonious
and cooperative learning atmosphere. Ferris (2002) indicates that the lack
of decorum, manners, deportment, and politeness indicates the presence
of incivility. He states that civility and incivility are filtered through
culture as customs, folkways, mores, and other sociocultural
expectations. These things can be present in classroom settings, and with
time can be created in online situations.
Other authors such as Morrissette (2001) and Phillips and Smith
(2003) focus their definitions on the intentional behavior of students to
disrupt the teaching and learning encounter of others. Finding an
acceptable and uniform definition of incivility seems like a daunting task
since little has been directly focused toward online teaching and learning.
Clarification of a definition can perhaps be generated after an

examination of some acts of incivility. These acts of incivility will be

presented in an effort to determine if these acts are indicative only of
classroom settings, or if they can be applied to the online setting as well.
Incivility Acts
Barash (2004) states that the interpretation of what is civil and what
is uncivil is in the perception of the receiver, not the sender. In response
to Barashs perspective, Twale and DeLuca (2008) remark,
That is what makes the behavior so insidious, because the
meaning behind the interaction could be anything from
complete sincerity to sarcasm to flagrant manipulation. It could
also be harassment, incivility, passive aggression, or bullying as
translated by the receiver. The intent of the sender is
insignificant. (p. 3)
In a number of surveys with college instructors to determine what
they considered acts of incivility, Boice (1996), Ferriss (2002), Royce
(2000) and Rowland and Srisukho (2009) found very similar findings
concerning what student behaviors were unacceptable and/or annoying:
- eating in class
- reluctance in answering
- using a cell phone during class
question
- talking in class
- using a computer in class for
- arriving late and leaving early
non-class purposes
- packing up early
- taunting or belittling others
- acting bored or apathetic
- cutting class
- challenging the instructors
- making physical threats to the
authority, knowledge, or
instructor
credibility
- engaging in academic
- demanding special treatment
dishonesty (cheating and/or
- an I paid for this mentality
plagiarism)
- making offensive
- dominating discussion
remarks/gestures
- making harassing, hostile, or
- missing deadlines
vulgar comments to the
- prolonged chatting in class
instructor in or outside of class
- reading magazines/newspapers
- sending the instructor
in class
inappropriate emails
- sleeping in class

There are several things that must be considered when reviewing the
previous list. First, not all of them may be considered major issues by
some faculty. That does not mean that they are any more acceptable. It
does mean however, that some college instructors believe that the above
list constitutes some behaviors that are uncivil, while others may simply
be more of a simple annoyance. Ferriss (2002) believes that what is
proper and uncivil in one place or time may be proper and civil in
another place or time. This basically depends upon the college
instructors philosophical orientation to teaching.
Second, many of these behaviors listed are obviously not relevant to
online courses. The following list may constitute incivility in the online
teaching and learning process:
- challenging authority
- demanding special treatment
- an I paid for this mentality
- making offensive remarks
- missing deadlines
- reluctance in answering questions or participating in online discussion
- challenging the instructors credibility
- taunting or belittling others
- challenging the instructors knowledge
- making physical threats to the instructor
- engaging in academic dishonesty (cheating and/or plagiarism)
- making harassing, hostile, or vulgar comments
- sending the instructor inappropriate emails.
Galbraith and Jones (2009) discovered that the primary uncivil
behaviors associated with online teaching and learning were in the arena
of demanding special treatment such as extending assignment deadlines,
missing deadlines with no explanation for the lateness, as well as
expressing the I paid for this mentality in a manner that is assertive and
disrespectful. Another is the attitude of students that they are in control
of the teaching and learning situation; therefore, they will announce to
the instructor what they are going to do and when. Yet another behavior
to consider would be the informality of communication from students to
instructors. For example, some students believe it is appropriate to
address the instructor by their first name instead of using more formal
professional titles, such as Dr., Professor, Ms., Mr., and such. Perhaps
because the internet has created an impersonal milieu, it is much easier
for well-mannered learners to become belligerent or informal. Saying
4

something directly to a person seems to be much easier on the computer

because no attention is paid to pace, resonance, enunciation, volume,
body language, facial expressions, voice tone, word pronunciation and so
forth. Perhaps this is one explanation for such online uncivil behavior.
An area that has the most potential for incivility in the online
teaching and learning process is academic dishonesty, including cheating
and acts of plagiarism. It is important to remember that every college and
university has a policy concerning academic dishonesty that stipulates
consequences for violating students.
Preventing Incivility
The most effective way of preventing acts of incivility in online
courses is to detail in the course syllabus those behaviors that will not be
acceptable. In addition, instructors may wish to provide an explanation of
why these behaviors are not acceptable. It is imperative to have a
formalized record of the associated consequences of engaging in these
uncivil acts of behavior.
The value of the syllabi for online learners cannot be stated enough.
However, there are other things that higher education faculty can do to
assist in the prevention of incivility. According to Rowland and Srisukho
(2009), administrators can assist by providing workshops and forum for
new faculty members regarding issues of incivilityand appropriate
measures to deter the behavior (p. 125). Instructors with more
experience can also provide important information to new faculty
members by sharing their experiences with issues that have occurred and
how they handled them, including how they documented the incidences
in writing. A detailed syllabus, as well as faculty training, are essential in
helping to prevent incivility.
Academic Dishonesty and Cheating
A major part of the incivility spectrum is academic dishonesty.
Cheating and plagiarism are the two primary factors associated with
academic dishonesty. Cheating is the deception of the truth. Submitting a
paper that was secured from some internet outlet that sells term and
research papers, or working collaboratively with fellow students to
complete an online test are examples of cheating. Technology has
increased the opportunity to engage in some form of cheating. It is
5

therefore essential for online instructors to become more knowledgeable

and informed about the many ways online learners can engage in
cheating schemes.
Plagiarism is another dimension of academic dishonesty. It is part
of cheating but from a different perspective. Submitting work and taking
credit for it, although in reality the work is someone elses, is a form
plagiarism. To help prevent plagiarism, provide examples of it in the
online course materials and give learners an opportunity to discuss what
is and is not plagiarism through a chat room activity. In addition, there
are numerous online plagiarism tutorials which students can complete,
including knowledge tests, in order for both the student and instructor to
ensure that the concept of plagiarism is fully understood.
Online instructors can utilize online services such as
www.turnitin.com or www.mydropbox.com to help identify papers
containing unoriginal materials. Student should be encouraged to utilize
these services as well.
Responding to Incivility
Responding to incivility is a human relations activity. No single
approach will work for every uncivil behavior problem encountered.
There are four things to do in every incident. First, you need to stay calm
and focused. Second, respond to the problem immediately. Third, do not
lose your credibility by wavering on what was indicated as the
consequences of the actions. Fourth, instructors need to be prepared to be
action-oriented when it comes to administering the consequences for
uncivil behavior.
When dealing with a learner that has engaged in some form of
incivility, it is imperative to be consistent in the approach to the situation
and maintain behaviors that are polite, respectful, gracious, considerate,
kind, courteous, and cordial. Sometimes the online instructor and the
student responsible for the uncivil behavior can work out the situation
through a face to-face meeting, and come to an agreement of the
consequences that will be initiated. At other times that is not possible.
When the situation cannot be resolved, it moves to other officials in the
institution who will determine the consequences.
As suggested, there are approaches to help prevent and reduce acts
of uncivil behavior. Twale and De Luca (2008) postulate that
civil/incivility has been interpreted as a semantic differential. This
6

continuum configuration calculated the position of civil versus uncivil by

factoring in the culture setting, which dictates how well the civil
response is accepted or tolerated (p. 5).
Developing an Online Culture
Galbraith (2004, 2008) posits that a conducive environment is
essential for effective teaching and learning. Comprising the
environment are elements such as values, beliefs, and attitudes, as well as
a guiding vision or philosophy. In addition, the environment is grounded
in authenticity and credibility. Cranton (2001) found that a learning
environment is organized and spontaneous, caring and critical,
structured and flexible, calm and enthusiastic, challenging and
supportive, firm and empathic, warm and disciplined, collaborative and
questioning, reflective and charismatic, practical and innovative
(p. 27). Conducive environments constitute a variety of learners and a
diversity of associated characteristics. When teachers and learners accept
the factors that determine the teaching and learning environment, they
are forming a cultural setting.
Eagleton (2000) defines culture as the values, ideologies, and
beliefs that determine a groups way of life, and embodies perceptions
held by those in the group who interpret those values and beliefs.
Although culture is presumed to be unifying, it also supports subgroups
or subcultures and, often, a counterculture (Twale & De Luca, 2008,
p. 94). Gould (2003) suggests that cultures are provocative and full of
dangerous ambiguities. Basically, a culture is not a culture until it is
shared.
Instructors of online courses attempt to develop a cultural setting in
which learners will accept and share the basic beliefs and values of the
teaching and learning environment. When these beliefs or values are not
accepted, a counterculture is present. These expressions become overt in
nature and are played out in various forms of uncivil behavior by online
learners.
The importance of developing a cultural setting that positively
contributes to student learning is paramount. It therefore becomes the
responsibility of the instructor to be proactive in this endeavor.
The course syllabus tends to be the first and most significant piece
of information that learners encounter which pertains to the class.
Instructors need to develop the syllabus with culture in mind and with the
7

goal of detailing the desired setting. By explicitly detailing what actions

or activities are prohibited, and providing information concerning the
consequences for such actions, the instructor will take this first vital step
in establishing leadership within the course.
As technology continues to cause a certain aspect of evolution in the
modern educational setting, one cannot discount some of the negative
consequences that this modernity will cause. When considering
communication, for example, the shift in communication style of the
student population is evident. We have gone from a world of face-to-face
dialogue to the cell phone and now to text or instant messaging.
Instructors need to be more willing to navigate towards these more
culturally accepted forms of casual conversation; however, they have the
responsibility to mandate more academically appropriate discourse
within the online classroom setting.
Another consequence of technology that can be perceived as
negative by some would be the expected timeliness of responses. It is
important to be mindful of the current generation of students who are
sharing responses, results, and discussion at levels that are nearly
instantaneous. Within the syllabus, the timeline for e-mail responses,
grading, and such should be noted. If you check e-mail once per day, let
the students know that. If your turn-around time for grading is 3 days,
again let them know. This will help develop the desired culture within
your online classroom, and will set a standard which students can
become accustomed. Students may become frustrated in having to wait
for an instructor response, and frustration is one of the causes of
incivility. By eliminating student expectation of receiving the instant
response to which they have been accustomed, then you are being
proactive in your efforts to reduce or eliminate incivility.
Concluding Thoughts
Socialization is the mechanism by which teachers and students learn
the cultural patterns of the educational setting. Participation and
observation informs the environmental setting through acts of civility
and incivility. It is essential to engage in more inquiry and research that
address the online teaching process. Incivility will be a major issue
confronting online teaching. Becoming cognizant of what constitutes acts
of incivility, how to address incivility, and how to prevent it are essential
if the teaching and learning process is to be effective and successful.
8

Perhaps the most imperative step that can be taken is the implementation
of a conducive cultural setting.
References
Amada, G. (1999). Coping with misconduct in the college classroom: A
practical model. Asheville, NC: College Administration
Publications.
Barash, D. (2004, June 25). Birds do it, bees do it-Should professors, too,
strive to communicate sincerity? Chronicle of Higher Education,
B9-10.
Boice, R. (1996). Classroom incivilities. Research in Higher Education,
37(4), 453-486.
Braxton, J., & Bayer, A. (Eds.). (2005). Addressing faculty and student
classroom improprieties. New Directions for Teaching and
Learning, no. 99. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Carbone, E. (1999). Student behaving badly in large classes. In S. M.
Richardson (Ed.), Promoting civility: A teaching challenge (pp. 3543). New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 77. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cranton, P. (2001). Becoming an authentic teacher in higher education.
Malabar: Krieger.
Davis, B. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Delucia, R., & Iasenza, S. (1995). Student disruption, disrespect, and
disorder in class: QA seminar for faculty. Journal of College
Student Development, 36(4), 385-388.
Eble, K. (1988). The craft of teaching (2nd ed.). San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Eagleton, T. (2000). The idea of culture. Oxford: Blackwell.
Feldman, L. (2001). Classroom civility is another of our instructor
responsibilities. College Teaching, 49(4), 137-141.
Ferriss, A. (2002). Studying and measuring civility. A framework,
trends, and scale. Sociological Inquiry, 72, 376-392.
Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.). (2004). Adult learning methods: A guide to
effective instruction (3rd ed.). Malabar: Krieger.
Galbraith, M. W. (2008). College teaching: Developing perspective
through dialogue. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Galbraith, M. W., & Jones, M. S. (2008, November). Incivility: Is it in

your classroom? Paper presented at the 57th National Adult and
Continuing Education Conference, Denver, CO.
Galbraith, M. W., & Jones, M. S. (2009, November). Confronting
incivility in online teaching and learning. Paper presented at the 58th
National Adult and Continuing Education Conference, Cleveland,
OH.
Gonzalez, V., & Lopez, E. (2001). The age of incivility: Countering
disruptive behavior in the classroom. AAHE Bulletin (April), 3-6.
Gould, E. (2003). The university as a corporate culture. New Haven:
Yale.
Morrissette, P. (2001). Reducing incivility in the university college
classroom. Electronic International Journal of Leadership
Learning, 5(4), 1-12.
Nilson, L. (2003). Teaching at its best (2nd ed.). Bolton, MA: Anker.
Phillips, T., & Smith, P. (2003). Everyday incivility: Toward a
benchmark. Sociological Review, 51, 85-108.
Rowland, M., & Srisukho, K. (2009). Dental students and faculty
members perceptions of incivility in the classroom. Journal of
Dental Education, 73(1), 119-126.
Royce, A. (2000). A survey of academic incivility at Indiana University:
Preliminary report. Bloomington: Center for Survey Research.
Twale, D., & De Luca, B. (2008). Faculty incivility. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

10

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 39, Number 2, 2010

Basic Training and Resource Connections

for Novice ESL Teachers
Lynn Henrichsen
Abstract
A large number of teachers and tutors of English as a Second
Language (ESL) lack professional-level preparation. The Basic
Training and Resources for Teaching English to Speakers of
Other Languages (BTRTESOL) program is being developed to
prepare untrained, novice, volunteer ESL teachers to be more
successful. In contrast with previous programs for providing
basic training for novice English language teachers, the
BTRTESOL program utilizes an instructional approach that is
minimalist, connectivist, and problem-based. In other words, it
teaches novices the least they should know and where to go
to learn more. In addition, this program employs a hybrid
delivery system involving paper and Web-based text materials,
video clips, and interactive activities. Trial users are invited to
use the existing units (online at www.btrtesol.com) and to
provide feedback on them.
Introduction
Throughout the United States and in many other countries around
the world, a large number of people without professional-level
preparation work as teachers or tutors of English as a Second Language
(ESL). They teach refugees, immigrants, international students, business
people, or other English language learners in various settings such as
adult basic education classes, literacy programs, community programs,
________
Lynn Henrichsen is a professor in the Linguistics and English Language
Department at Brigham Young University (Provo, Utah), where he
teaches courses for graduate students, undergraduates, and novice
volunteers in TESOL methods, materials development, and research.
11

social service programs, commercial language schools, churches, public

libraries, business offices, and private homes. Most of these individuals
have never taken teacher-preparation courses in Teaching English to
Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) at the university level. Because
of time constraints, limited finances, or geographic distance, they may
not be able to do so. In many cases, their only qualification is that they
speak English natively. They often find, to their chagrin, that knowing
how to speak English is not the same as knowing how to teach it
(Pennycook & Coutand-Marin, 2003, p. 341, Snow, 2006, p. v).
Novice teachers without adequate preparation naturally rely on their
own instincts and their previous experiences teaching or learning
languages. That is not always a good thing. Gilbertson (2000) studied
English-teaching volunteers who worked with refugees in the Midwest
and concluded that volunteers with good intentions but no training
actually provided more of a disservice than a service (p. iii). There are
many reasons why this is so; here are three: Many volunteers are older
individuals who went to school years ago when less effective language
teaching methods, which are currently outdated, were common.
Gilbertson explains, How volunteers were taught is probably how they
will teachunless they are provided training. If they believe we learn by
mimickery [sic] and grammar translationthe way they learned, then
that is the way they teach (p. 37). Gilbertson also warns of another
potential problem--that volunteer English language teachers without
proper training often treat adults in their ESL classes like children, which
belittles and insults them, impeding their progress (p. 38). Harris and
Silva (1993) point out yet another possible problem with untrained
teachers, that without any knowledge of [ESL learners] cultural
preferences and other such factors, even tutors who are experienced
with adult native speakers of English are not adequately equipped to
deal with some additional concerns of non-native speakers of English
(pp. 527, 525).
The Debate and the Reality
Pennycook and Coutand-Marin (2003) describe the prevalence of
untrained teachers in English language teaching (ELT) around the world
as a problem endemic to ELT (p. 341). On the electronic discussion
board of the Teacher Education Interest Section of the international
TESOL organization, members have debated this topic, with some
12

participants asserting that only people with masters degrees in TESOL

should be allowed to teach ESL.
In our world today, however, the reality is that many settings exist
where degree-holding, thoroughly prepared TESOL professionals will
probably never teach. The reasons for this are many. First, because of the
fact that English is now the international language of communication, a
huge worldwide demand exists for English language skills, and there are
just not enough thoroughly trained teachers to meet the need.
Furthermore, volunteers who are willing to teach in poor working
conditions for minimal remuneration fill an important gap in the Englishteaching system because many immigrants and refugees (who need
English skills the most to improve their life circumstances) are often the
poorest members of their societies and the least able to afford expensive
English language professionals. Further, the intrinsic rewards that come
from helping people gain a life skill that will do them so much good and
that they so desperately want naturally attract people with good hearts
who are willing to help immigrants, refugees, and others by volunteering
their time as English teachers or tutors. A final reason for the huge
number of untrained English language teachers is that people with
international mindsets like to travel the worldnot simply as tourists
seeing the sights, but mixing with the local people and getting to know
them on a personal basis. English language teaching offers these world
travelers a means for doing this.
A corresponding reality is that, much as some professionals would
like to stop people from teaching English without a license, there is
really no way to stop the untrained from teaching ESL. They are needed,
they enjoy it, and there is no law against it. A final reality to note here is
that, despite their lack of professional training, many novice, volunteer
teachers do a fairly good job because they possess the right personal
qualities which contribute tosuccess as a classroom teacher, [and]
insure understanding and respect forstudents and their cultural
setting (Alatis, Norris, & Marckwardt, 1995, p. 285). This is not to
say, of course, that adding a level of professional preparation in effective
classroom procedures and materials, as well as in the teaching and
learning principles behind them, will not make these untrained novices
even better teachers. That, in fact, is the purpose of the teacher-training
program that this article describes.

13

The Audience
It is difficult to determine with any precision how many novices
teach ESL/EFL around the world. Organizations and institutions do not
normally track or report the numbers of such teachers. All indications,
however, are that the total is huge. A 1986 study by the Center for
Statistics in Washington, DC examined the services provided by and the
role and training of volunteers in adult literacy programs in the United
States. After checking 2,900 adult education programs (offered through
school districts, community colleges, and adult learning centers) and an
additional 1,300 local adult literacy programs (sponsored by communitybased organizations, private literacy organizations, and libraries), this
study concluded that about half of the adult education programs and
nearly all the [local adult literacy programs] used volunteers. Of these
programs, 58% provided English as a Second Language instruction, both
oral and written, and an additional one-fourth of the programs provided
ESL speaking instruction. An estimated 107,000 volunteers served in
these programsin the following capacities: one-to-one tutoring,
teaching small groups, serving as teachers aides, and teaching classes
(Center for Statistics, 1986, p. 1). Of course, these statistics represent
only the tip of the iceberg. They refer only to literacy-oriented ABEESL programs in the USA, and they are now 25 years old! The large
influx of immigrants and refugees to the United States in the last decade
or so (US Department of Homeland Security [DHS] 2010) has
undoubtedly increased the numbers of English language learners. The
number of ESL programs serving this audience is now correspondingly
larger, and many of these programs use volunteers. For instance, the
2006-2007 statistical report of ProLiteracy Worldwide (which offers ESL
classes at all levels, from low beginning to advanced) boasts that this
organization utilized 117,283 volunteers to serve 189,600 students in its
1,200 affiliate programs across the United States (ProLiteracy
Worldwide, 2007, p. 1).
Given these large numbers, it is clear that even though trained,
experienced professionals may be the best providers of ESL instruction,
there simply are not enough of them to satisfy the growing demand. To
meet the instructional needs of the increasingly large audience of English
language learners, volunteers are a readily available and widely utilized
resource. Of course, to be effective, novice, volunteer ESL teachers and
tutors need training, which may or may not be provided by the
14

organization with which they work. Volunteer ESL teachers and tutors
can also benefit from becoming connected to additional professional
resources. Novice volunteers usually recognize this need for training and
information and want such guidance. What they often lack is the means
for getting this desired training. That is the purpose of the ESL teachertraining program described below.
The Precedents
Over the years, a variety of local, primarily face-to-face and paperbased programs for providing basic ESL/EFL teacher training have been
developed. Beebout (2003), who worked with undergraduate peer-tutors
focusing on ESL writing in Ontario, Canada, advocated a practicumbased model. In Washington, Tacoma Community House produced a
Homebound English for [Southeast Asian] Refugee Women,
curriculum for use by volunteer teachers with little or no formal teacher
training (Reck, 1982). The Philadelphia Center for Literacy (Eno,
1981), in an effort to improve recruitment and retention of volunteers
for programs in tutorial literacy and English as a Second Language,
produced a curriculum to be used in workshops to train new volunteer
tutors. The Adult Basic Education Division of Phoenix Union High
School District in Arizona produced a volunteer-training handbook titled
Volunteers for Refugee Self-Sufficiency. The volunteers worked as
home outreach tutors and provided ESL and social adjustment skills
instruction to adult Indochinese refugees in the refugees homes
(Refugee Link, 1981). Literacy Volunteers of America-Connecticut
(1992) produced Teaching Basic Skills in Life Skills Contexts: An
Inservice Training Module for LVA-CT English as a Second Language
Tutors. Guadalupe Educational Programs, in Salt Lake City, Utah,
developed A Reading and Writing Program Using LanguageExperience Methodology Among Adult ESL Students in a Basic
Education Program (Cohen, Throneburg, Trathen, & Weiss, 1982) that
enabled community volunteers [to] provide instruction under the
direction of a professional ESL staff. Last but certainly not least,
international TESOL published More Than a Native Speaker: An
Introduction to Teaching English Abroad in 1996. The book was such a
success that a revised edition was published ten years later (Snow, 2006).
Nevertheless, these various print manuals and programs have not
eliminated the problem of untrained ESL teachers and tutors. Kutner et
15

al. (1992), in a 30-month Study of ABE/ESL Instructor Training

Approaches, concluded that efforts to provide training for teachers were
handicapped not only by a lack of materials but also by limited financial
resources, the predominance of part-time teachers and volunteer
instructors, a high rate of teacher turnover, the lack of state certification
requirements, and limited inservice training requirements. Likewise,
Gilbertson (2000) found that lack of an effective training program was a
deterrent to recruiting and retaining quality volunteer instructors (p. 19)
in the field of adult ESL.
Program Features
The remainder of this article describes a basic ESL teacher-training
program that is currently under development titled Basic Training and
Resources for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages: The
Least You Should Know and Where to Go to Learn More (abbreviated
BTRTESOL, pronounced Better TESOL). It differs substantially from
previous publications and programs. In brief, the BTRTESOL program
employs a minimalist, connectivist, and problem-based approach to
prepare untrained, novice, volunteer teachers to become more effective,
professional, and successful. In addition, it utilizes a hybrid instructional
delivery system that gives users both high-tech and low-tech options and
allows users to get the training they need when they need it.
Instructional Approach
BTRTESOL takes a minimalist, connectivist, problem-based
approach to preparing ESL/EFL teachers and tutors. Very simply,
minimalist means that each unit in the program merely introduces
teachers to the most important concepts and procedures (the least you
should know). To facilitate its use, each BTRTESOL unit is only a few
pages long. Consequently, these units cannot provide great breadth and
depth. Nevertheless, this minimalist approach is just what the intended
audience wants and needs. In line with the principles of Situational
Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard 1982, Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Zigarmi
1985), the minimalist approach recognizes that the preparation needs of
teachers vary depending on their levels of both competence and
commitment. Novice, volunteer teachersin contrast with the more
committed, career-oriented teachers found in many university TESOL
16

teacher education programstypically have only a short-term

commitment to teaching ESL/EFL and work only in one particular
program. Therefore, volunteer teachers need and want simple, directive
instruction of a teacher training sort. Additionally, the BTRTESOL
program is connectivist in nature because, after providing minimal,
introductory instruction, it then connects users with other sources of
information (where to go to learn more). These additional resources
can be accessed and studied in as much depth as users time, needs,
resources, and motivation dictate. Finally, problem-based means that
every BTRTESOL unit begins with a short, problem-oriented case study
or classroom scenario situated in an English as a Second or Foreign
language setting. Besides illustrating the challenges teachers face in the
real world, these scenarios immediately confront users with authentic
instructional challenges and engage them in analytical, problem-solving
tasks.
Instructional Delivery System
Reaching the teachers and tutors who constitute the intended
audience of BTRTESOL is a challenge because they are not enrolled in
traditional campus-based teacher education programs. Consequently, this
program utilizes a hybrid delivery system that provides the flexibility to
permit learners to study BTRTESOL units in a manner and at a time that
are most convenient and productive for them. Thus, units may be used
for individualized self-study or class instruction, in face-to-face
instruction or distance learning.
This hybrid delivery system utilizes (1) traditional paper and/or
Web-based text materials, (2) digital video, and (3) interactive online
activities. Core instruction is provided by means of either a paper-based
textbook or online text, depending on the users technological
preferences or possibilities. Digital video clips are made available
through Web-based streaming video or on a DVD. They show English
language teachers in classroom situations (in the United States and
abroad) related to the focus of each unit. Videos not only help
participants envision real-world instructional settings but also provide the
basis for reflection later. As participants go through each unit, they check
their comprehension by engaging in interactive question and answer
activities, and they participate in reflection exercises.
17

Overview of the Programs ESL/EFL Teacher-Training Topics

The nearly 50 planned units in BTRTESOL cover a broad range of
teacher-preparation topics. These topics or units are organized into 10
major areas (as listed below), but they can be studied in any order,
depending on users interests and needs.
1. Introduction: Basic Concepts
A. The Least You Should Know (the purposes and delimitations
of the BTRTESOL program and suggestions for follow-up
TESOL courses, resources, and professional organizations)
B. Differences between teaching English as a Second Language
(ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
C. Tutoring vs. teaching: How they are different
D. Dealing with cultural differences and culture shock (in your
students and in yourself)
E. Working successfully within foreign educational and
administrative systems
2. Designing Language-teaching Programs, Courses, and Lessons
A. Setting up and operating successful courses for adult English
language learners (i.e., administrative concerns)
B. Planning a curriculum that fits your students and meets their
needs.
C. Designing effective lessons for language learning and teaching
(i.e., curriculum and lesson planning)
D. Assessing your students' language proficiency (for course design
purposes and for determining student placement)
3. Developing Fundamental Teaching Skills
A. Developing a successful teaching personality
B. Adjusting your spoken English to make it comprehensible and
helpful to English language learners at various levels of
proficiency.
C. Managing classes of English language learners (encouraging
participation, maintaining discipline, building a supportive sense
of community, avoiding demeaning or negative behavior, setting
up groups, dealing with multiple levels of proficiency in the
same class)
D. Correcting language learners errors productively, and
developing their self-monitoring skills
18

4. Understanding Key Principles Behind Successful Language

Teaching
A. Understanding basic principles of second language acquisition
B. Creating and using exercises for mechanical, meaningful, and
communicative practice
C. Using communicative language teaching principles and
information gap exercises
D. Encouraging cooperative and collaborative learning to increase
student interaction
E. Creating activities that provide imitative, rehearsed, and
extemporaneous practice
F. Developing an awareness of teaching styles and cross-cultural
style differences
5. Knowing Your Students: Learner Types, Styles, and Strategies
A. Understanding, respecting, and appreciating adult ESL learners
B. Working successfully with young English language learners
C. Understanding your students language learning styles
including cross-cultural differences in learning stylesand then
teaching them accordingly
D. Recognizing multiple intelligences and their implications for
language teaching
E. Teaching your students to use language-learning strategies
commonly employed by successful language learners
6. Developing Language Skills
A. Developing English language learners' listening skills
B. Developing English language learners' speaking skills
C. Developing English language learners' reading skills
D. Developing English language learners' writing skills
E. Integrating multiple language skills in one class
F. Teaching content-based language classes
7. Teaching English Language Components
A. The least you should know about English grammar and how to
teach it
B. The least you should know about English pronunciation and how
to teach it
C. Planned and unplanned vocabulary teaching
D. Vocabulary teaching and learning strategies that work well
E. Understanding and teaching about culture
19

8. Making Language Teaching and Learning Enjoyable and

Memorable
A. Conducting effective and enjoyable conversation classes
B. Using songs and chants to increase participation, recall, and
enjoyment
C. Using games, and other fun yet effective activities for English
language teaching
D. Using computers and Internet resources for English language
teaching
E. Using video for teaching English
9. Testing English Language Skills
A. Widely used general proficiency tests (e.g., TOEFL, BEST,
CET)
B. Developing valid and reliable local measures of student
achievement
10. Choosing, Creating, and Adapting Language Teaching Materials
A. Locating, evaluating, and selecting authentic, effective
print/electronic teaching materials for language learners
B. Collecting and creating your own language-teaching materials.
C. Successfully adapting existing materials for greater teaching
enjoyment and success
Structure of BTRTESOL Units
All units in the BTRTESOL program follow the same instructional
pattern. Each unit begins with an engaging, authentic, problem-oriented
scenario in which a teaching situation and related problem are described.
For instance, at the start of the unit on teaching English conversation
classes, the story is told of an American physics professor in Japan on an
academic exchange. Some Japanese acquaintances approach him and ask
him to teach them conversational English. He knows a lot about physics
but has no idea how to teach an English conversation class. After the
story and before the explanation of how to conduct successful English
conversation classes, questions such as What would you do in this
situation? are posed. Then, the units objectives are stated, and carefully
selected points related to these objectives are briefly explained in an
easily readable, expository manner. For the unit on conducting
conversation classes, there are five key points: topic selection, class
atmosphere, speaking in English, class management, and responding to
20

mistakes. As participants read, their comprehension is checked

periodically. Occasionally, participants are referred to other, related
BTRTESOL units. After finishing the expository text, users view a short
(two- to three-minute), authentic (non-staged) video clip that shows a
teacher or tutor dealing with the instructional issue presented in the
opening scenario. After viewing this video, participants are invited to
reflect on it. This reflection is guided by questions such as What did the
teacher do right? What could the teacher have done differently? Why
might that be better/worse? and What would you do in this situation?
After typing in their responses online, users can view what previous
users have written in response to these questions and learn from others
perspectives. Each BTRTESOL unit ends with a Where to go to learn
more section that provides brief descriptions of (as well as live links or
publisher and/or contact information for) selected books, Websites, and
other resources that will provide users with much more in-depth
information on the units topic.
Conclusion
At the present time, the various units of Basic Training and
Resources for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages: The
Least You Should Know and Where to Go to Learn More are at different
stages of development. Some are almost finished, while others are still
being created. A number are ready to be piloted online (see figure 1).
Potential pilot users are invited to visit the site at www.btrtesol.com,
work through the units, benefit from their content, and provide feedback
to the author.
References
Alatis, J. E., Norris, W. E., & Marckwardt. A. H. (1995) Guidelines for
the certification and preparation of teachers of English to speakers
of other languages in the United States. In E. Garshick (Ed.),
Directory of professional preparation programs in TESOL in the
United States and Canada, 1995-1997 (pp. 284-288). Alexandria,
VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Beebout, L. (2003). On-the job training for novice ESL writing tutors: A
practicum model. College ESL, 10(1-2), 60-73.
21

Blanchard, K., Zigarmi, P., & Zigarmi, D. (1985). Leadership and the
one minute manager: Increasing effectiveness through situational
leadership. New York: William Morrow.
Center for Statistics. (1986). Adult literacy programs: Services, persons
served, and volunteers. OERI Bulletin, pp. 1-4, 10. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED268387)
Cohen, J., Throneburg, P., Trathen, W., & Weiss, S. (1982). A reading
and writing program using language-experience methodology
among adult ESL students in a basic education program. Salt Lake
City, UT: Guadalupe Educational Programs.
Eno, R. A. (1981). Project LEAP. Something stops you and makes you
think: An adaptation. Final Report. Philadelphia, PA: Center for
Literacy, Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED221648)
Gilbertson, S. A. (2000). Just enough: A description of instruction at a
volunteer-based adult English as a second language program.
(Doctoral dissertation, University of Cincinnati, Ohio). Dissertation
Abstracts International, Section A: The Humanities and Social
Sciences, 61(5). (UMI No. 9973105).
Harris, M., & Silva, T. (1993). Tutoring ESL students: Issues and
options. College Composition and Communication, 44, 525-537.
Henrichsen, L. (2009). Basic Training and Resources for Teaching
English to Speakers of Other Languages. Retrieved from
http://www.btrtesol.com
Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. H. (1982). Management of organizational
behavior: Utilizing human resources (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kutner, M. A., Sherman, R., Webb, L. Herman, R., Tibbetts, J.,
Hemphill, D., Terdy, D., Jones, E. (1992). Study of ABE/ESL
instructor training approaches. Phase I technical report.
Washington, DC: Pelavin Associates, Inc. with San Francisco State
University and Adult Learning Resource Center. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED344054)
Literacy Volunteers of America-Connecticut (1992) Teaching basic
skills in life skills contexts: An inservice training module for LVACT English as a second language tutors. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED352862)

22

Pennycook, A., & Coutand-Marin, S. (2003). Teaching English as a

missionary language. Discourse: Studies in the cultural politics of
education, 24(3), 337-353.
ProLiteracy Worldwide. (2007). 2006-2007 statistical report. Retrieved
from
http://www.proliteracy.org/NetCommunity/Document.Doc?id=16
Reck, D. L. (1982). The HER project: Homebound English for refugee
women. Teachers manual and student book of illustrations. Tacoma,
WA: Tacoma Community House.
Refugee Link Program of the Adult Basic Education Division, Phoenix
Union High School District, AZ. (1981). Volunteers for refugee
self-sufficiency. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED251588)
Snow, D. (2006). More than a native speaker: An introduction to
teaching English abroad (rev. ed.). Alexandria, VA: Teachers of
English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
US Department of Homeland Security. (2010). Yearbook of immigration
statistics: 2009. Retrieved from
http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/2009/ois_yb
_2009.pdf

23

Figure 1: Screen shot of BTRTESOL website home page

24

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 39, Number 2, 2010

Applications of Andragogy in Multi-Disciplined Teaching and

Learning
Sang Chan
Abstract
Arguments regarding the distinction between child and adult
learning have existed for decades. Pedagogy has a long
tradition of providing educational guidance in which there is
little differentiation between child and adult education. The
two groups of learners are assumed to learn under the same
philosophy. Conversely, andragogy, advanced by Malcolm
Knowles in the 1970s, is a well-known approach to address the
distinct needs of adult learners. Knowles concept of
andragogy has been widely adopted by educators from various
disciplines around the world. Andragogy is based upon six
assumptions: (a) self-directedness, (b) need to know, (c) use of
experience in learning, (d) readiness to learn, (e) orientation to
learning, and (f) internal motivation. This paper presented a
synthesis of research that discussed the applications of
Knowles andragogy in different settings.
Developing Human Capital in a Global Economy
Globalization has become a common term in the 21st century. It brings
about change in trade, economic, social, and educational issues
(Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). In order to survive in the
global economy, businesses need to invest in advanced technology,
modern machinery, and human capital to keep up with the changes in
this volatile environment. Barney (1991) states that although competitors
can easily imitate tangible assets such as technology and machinery,
these assets are not sufficient to maintain competitiveness. The competitive
_____
Sang Chan is a Doctoral Candidate in Instructional Design, College of
Education, Idaho State University.
25

advantage can be best sustained through human capital, and the

development of human capital denotes education. Zmeyov (1998) states,
The main goal of education today is to provide individuals with a
multifaceted training, and principally with knowledge and skills for
creative activities, for adapting to the changes in the natural social
environment and for lifelong learning (p. 104). Therefore, education
is essential to the development of skills and knowledge to compete in the
21st century.
Having just identified education as a potential source to
competitiveness is not an end task to itself. One needs to continue asking
questions regarding the kinds of education to offer in schools, the
approaches to use in classrooms, and ways in which to involve learners
in the teaching and learning process. The discussion of these issues is
prefaced below with a very brief history of teaching approaches.
Pedagogy
The history of training can be traced back to the Stone Age period
when it was just a process of transferring skills from parents to their
children (Swanson & Holton, 2001). According to Swanson and Holton,
the educational system became more organized during the Greek and
Roman periods (100 B.C.-300 A.D). The organized form of education
(the origin of pedagogy) was implemented in cathedral schools in the
seventh century (Knowles et al., 1998 in Ozuah, 2005). Since the
eighteenth century, pedagogy has frozen the educational system in which
teachers are responsible for making fundamentally every learning
decision (Ozuah, 2005). It is apparent that the pedagogical approach is
still embedded in the present educational systems and will keep playing
its popular role in the teaching and learning process.
According to Ozuah (2005), pedagogy is defined as the art and
science of teaching children (p. 83). Pedagogy placed the importance on
the role of the teacher in education (Bedi, 2004). The teacher decides
what students should learn, how students are taught, and when the
teaching and learning process will begin. Pedagogy is a teacher-oriented
approach (Ozuah, 2005). According to Knowles et al. (1998), pedagogy
makes various assumptions: (a) learners have dependent personalities,
(b) learning is subject-oriented, (c) extrinsic motivation is an essential
factor to learning, and (d) learners previous experience is not relevant to
learning (cited in Ozuah, 2005). Apparently, these assumptions do not fit
26

all learners, especially adult learners. According to Merriam, Caffarella,

and Baumgartner (2007), adult learners are self-directed, problem
oriented, internally motivated, and independent learners. Knowles (1980)
states that:
When adult education began to be organized systematically during
the 1920s, teachers of adults began experiencing several problems
with the pedagogical model. One problem was that pedagogy was
premised on a conception of the purpose of educationnamely, the
transmittal of knowledge and skills that had stood the test of time
that adult learners seemed to sense was insufficient. Accordingly,
their teachers found them to be resistant frequently to the strategies
that pedagogy prescribed, including fact-laden lectures, assigned
readings, drills, quizzes, rote memorizing, and examinations. Adults
appeared to want something more than this, and drop-out rates were
high. (p. 40)
Zmeyov (1998) states that the rapid development of adult education
changed its status within the realm of education. Adults had to improve
their competencies to harmonize with their own anthroposphere.
Therefore, there is a necessity for an educational approach that considers
adult learning needs. The andragogical approach, developed extensively
by Malcolm Knowles, is a well-lauded response to these needs.
Introduction to Andragogy
Andragogy is defined as the art and science of helping adults learn,
in contrast to pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children
Knowles (1980, p.43). The term andragogy has a long history of
development and evolution. In 1833, Alexander Kapp, German
educationalist, coined the term (Howard, 1993). However, the concept
was not popular until Eduard C. Lindeman extended the idea in 1926
(Gessner, 1956 cited in Ozuah, 2005). In 1959, Malcolm Knowles further
extended Lindemans work on andragogy (Ozuah, 2005) and helped
develop it into a theory of adult learning (Zmeyov, 1998).
According to Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) and
Forrest and Peterson (2006), Knowles perspective on andragogy is
based on six main assumptions:
1. Self-Concept: Adult learners are self-directed, autonomous, and
independent.
27

2. Role of Experience: Repository of an adults experience is a rich

resource for learning. Adults tend to learn by drawing from their
previous experiences.
3. Readiness to Learn: Adults tend to be ready to learn what they
believe they need to know.
4. Orientation to Learning: Adults learn for immediate applications
rather than for future uses. Their learning orientation is problemcentered, task-oriented, and life-focused.
5. Internal Motivation: Adults are more internally motivated than
externally.
6. Need to Know: Adults need to know the value of learning and
why they need to learn.
Applications of Knowles Andragogy
Andragogy has become popular among educators and researchers in
many countries, and its research body has been growing (Savicevic,
1991). According to Savicevic, andragogy was adopted by at least ten
European countries such as Germany, England, Poland, France, Finland,
Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, Russia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia. The
andragogical approach has been adopted in multiple disciplines such as
education (Bolton, 2006), medicine (Bedi, 2004), criminal justice
(Birzer, 2004), and management (Forrest & Peterson, 2006). The
following accounts review the applications of Knowles andragogy in a
variety of fields.
Forrest and Peterson (2006) claim that the andragogical approach is
essential in management education to help prepare students for their
working environment. Forrest and Peterson further state, Modern
management requires practical implementation of skills learned, not
regulation of principles. Without implementation, students cannot adapt
to the ever-changing workplace (p.114). In short, management students
value practical knowledge in the workplace. Using the andragogical
principles, the instructor can tailor the instruction to meet student interest
by involving the students in planning the learning objectives and
activities and solving real-world business problems. Andragogy
improves communication between the student and instructor; they work
together as partners to design instructional content and methods to suit
the learners needs. As a result, the principles promote trust between the
student and the instructor and enhance self-awareness in students.
28

Birzer (2004) examined the application of the andragogical

principles in criminal justice programs. Birzer notes that behavioral and
cognitive learning approaches have become embedded in criminal justice
classrooms, and the two approaches have two problems: (a) teachers
control the teaching and learning process with little learner participation
and (b) learners are taught in the same consistent manner without
differentiation between a child and an adult. Instead, the andragogical
approach provides a guidance to design learner-centered instruction to
enhance competencies and traits necessary for criminal justice
professionals. Birzer proposes the application of the six principles of the
andragogical practice in criminal justice, as follows:
1. Establish a physically and psychologically conducive learning
atmosphere. In criminal justice classrooms, good physical and
psychological climates help the instructor create mutual respect
and a collaborative environment to ensure learning effectiveness
in the classroom. Moreover, a psychologically conducive
atmosphere helps promote trust during the first meeting, which is
crucial in the justice program.
2. Involve learners in mutual planning: The instructor and students
can jointly plan the learning process and adjust a syllabus based
on learning interests and activities.
3. Involve learners in diagnosing learning needs: The instructor can
help students determine the level of competency in the area of
interest.
4. Encourage students to formulate the learning objectives.
5. Encourage learners to identify resources to accomplish the
learning objectives: The instructor works closely with students to
identify resources and sets up strategies to use those resources to
reach the objectives. However, this requires students to be selfdirected and motivated to achieve the objectives with the
instructors assistance.
6. Involve learners in learning evaluation. A learning assessment is
important in andragogy. Not only does the instructor assess
student performance, but students also assess themselves. This
process helps reduce bias from a single judgment of the
instructor.
Bedi (2004) applied the andragogical approach in training medical
registrars. Bedi countered the traditional, pedagogical approach that
encouraged training passivity and reliance of the registrars on the trainer
29

for a training structure, curriculum planning, and training activities by

applying andragogical principles to engage the registrars in active
learning to acquire practical skills.
In addition, Bedi also recommends the use of the andragogical
approach in doctor consultations. To ensure effective consultations,
doctors need to be an active listener to patients ideas, concerns, and
expectations. Using this patient-centered approach, doctors can establish
understanding, collaboration, and enhanced relationships with patients.
Bedi claims, A pedagogical approach is doctor-centered and leads to a
poor consultation, with the doctor imparting information to the patient
and encouraging dependency (p. 96).
Birzer (2003) examined how andragogy was applied in police
training. Many training programs have followed behaviorist and
militaristic approaches which are not best for police training and can
cause subsequent problems, as well. Birzer argues that police officers
should be self-starters in solving problems in the community. Applying
the andragogical approach helped police officers develop problemsolving skills and become self-directed in dealing with community issues
such as drug, crime, fear of crime, and urban decay. These skills allow
the officers to prevent small disorders from becoming serious crimerelated problems. Moreover, andragogy promotes the use of relevant
learning experiences which is also a key element in police training. The
instructor can create case scenarios in the classroom and encourage
learners to utilize their experiences to solve the problems.
According to Robinson (2002), the informality of andragogy
encourages the involvement of learners in their learning experiences and
sets the parameters of those experiences. Therefore, The artistic side of
andragogy can capture all the thoughts of a shaman, a silent knower, as
well as a deer talking in the wood (p. 7). Robinson continues,
andragogy not only captures the beginning of the adult education
movement, but its perspective is timeless and applies to adult education
in a multicultural world (p. 2). Cretchley and Castle (2001) note that
andragogy has a profound impact on the beliefs and teaching philosophy
of adult educators in several countries, including South Africa where the
andragogical approach has been applied from adult literacy to adult
higher education. Moreover, Cretchley and Castle state:
In South Africa, the andragogical approach offered an alternative to
education dominated by the goals and philosophies of an
undemocratic state which had a firm grip on formal education at
30

primary and secondary levels. Adult education and higher education

provided at least some space for resistance by empowering the
individual. (p. 494)
According to Merriam (2001), andragogy contributes to the
understanding of how adults learn, in what context, and the process of
learning. Moreover, andragogy is a rallying point for separating adult
education from other areas of education. Davenport and Davenport
(1985) state that andragogy is considered as a theory of adult education,
theory of adult learning, theory of technology of adult learning, method
of adult education, technique of adult education, and a set of
assumptions (cited in Merriam, 2001, p. 5). In the same article, Houle
(1996) states that andragogy reminds educators to engage adult learners
in their learning and to create conducive learning environments that
helped them learn their best. Henschke (1998) notes that andragogy is a
science discipline involving teaching and learning that helps adults to
achieve their full level of humaneness (cited in Merriam, 2001).
However, according to Zmeyov (1998), The andragogical
principles of learning are widely needed now, and not only in adult
education. Practically all sectors of educational services need these
principles (p.107). Zmeyov suggests that the principles might be
successfully applicable when learners: (a) have a good amount of
practical and social experience, (b) are aware of a life goal and of the
applicability of their knowledge and skills, (c) have adequate background
of the selected field study, and (d) are trying to attain short-term
educational goals.
Not only are the andragogical principles applied in education, they
have been used in training, as well. Zmeyov led a group of researchers to
create an andragogical training standard. The standard lists skills,
knowledge, abilities, qualities, and minimal levels of training
requirements that are necessary to become adult educators. Based on the
standard, the andragogical training programs were set up in a number of
higher education institutions in Russia, specifically in the Moscow State
Open Pedagogical University (Zmeyov, 1998).
Bedi (2004) provides insights regarding the role of andragogy in
education. Bedi claims that andragogy helps educators understand a
learners behavior and identify causes of the learners anxiety and
encourages learners to search for options to a problem and to become
self-directed learners. In addition, Bedi states that:
31

An understanding of andragogy has fundamentally changed me as a

teacher because it has informed my teaching methods and expanded
and harnessed my teaching skills. I would argue that there is a
natural bridge between my expanding knowledge of learning styles
and the way in which I have matured as an andragogical educator.
This link, for me, is learning that we as trainers are not responsible
for a students learning, and that appreciating the learning style of
an individual in a given situation helps us to better understand the
learner. (p. 93)
Along this line, Carlson (1979) argues that, in a democratic society,
learners take control of their learning, and educators should respect that
(cited in Cretchley & Castle, 2001). From this perspective, Knowles
andragogy contributes to the establishment of the democratic society in
which learning is no longer controlled by educators but by learners.
These previously stated selected examples of studies illustrate how
the andragogical approach has been applied in different settings and
disciplines. Many other studies exist in the literature through which one
can search and learn about the application of andgragogy in other
contexts. Andragogy has been adopted in many fields and by educators
in different countries. Some have viewed andragogy as an adult learning
theory, whereas others view it as an approach, a set of principles, a set of
assumptions, or a guideline for educational practice. Regardless of the
definition, andragogy contributes tremendously to adult learning and
education.
Although andragogy has been perceived as important in adult
education and has played a critical role in adult learning, there are also
some criticisms on this approach. One criticism is that andragogy does
not consider social and political contexts in an adult learning
environment (Pearson & Podeschi, 1997; Sandlin, 2005 cited in
Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).
Pratt (1993) and Wlodowski and Ginsberg (1995) criticize
andragogy for not considering cultural perspectives (cited in Roberson,
2002). Roberson (2002) contends that the linear perspective of
Knowless learning contract emphasizes western notions of rationality
and analysis and does not consider the cultural imperatives and diversity
in ways of knowing across cultures world-wide.

32

Recommendations
In order to improve the effectiveness and increase the scope of the
andragogical applications, the following recommendations are proposed.
1. The focus of andragogical practice could expand beyond that of
the adult learner to also consider social, political, and cultural
contexts. Learners are influenced by the surrounding contexts
which shape their thinking and action.
2. Research (or more research) on the application of the
andragogical approach in Asian countries could be conducted in
order to examine whether the approach is applicable to those in
the Eastern hemisphere.
3. Andragogy could address a situation of neither adult nor
children, which Marshak (1983) called adolegogy to describe the
adolescent state.
4. Although andragogy is an art and science of teaching adult
learners, it is recommended that the approach be applied in the
teaching of children and adolescents, as well. It is believed that
passivity in a classroom does not help students to learn more
effectively. Though children do not meet the andragogical
assumptions, it does not necessarily mean that the andragogical
approach would not be effective with them. Active learning is
more effective than passive learning, regardless of age.
Conclusion
Andragogy is applicable in multiple contexts. The andragogical
approach has changed the teaching philosophy of educators around the
world. Given the current educational needs, the pedagogical approach
has become less effective in teaching adult learners. Adult learners need
more than passive transfer of knowledge from one person. Instead, they
need to be involved actively in the learning process to construct their
own knowledge, to make sense of the learning, and to apply what is
learned. Educators as well as the educational systems world-wide should
provide all learners, both children and adults, with the opportunities to be
actively engaged in learner-centered educational experiences.
It is understood that the traditional teacher-centered teaching style
has been well grounded in educational systems world-wide. Educators
have been trained to use this one-way teaching mode to teach learners
33

and it is true that the educators are a product of their own environment.
However, educators should not use this as a reason to deprive learners of
more active and meaningful learning experiences. Therefore, it would be
in the best interest of the learners if educators were to abandon traditional
teacher-centered assumptions and consider adopting and applying
andragogical principles, learner-centered approaches, and constructivist
principles in the classroom. The use of these strategies will create a more
engaging and practical learning environment, which can lead to creativity
and innovation in the classroom and, ultimately, competent individuals
prepared to compete in the 21st century workforce.
References
Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive
advantage. Journal of Management, 17, 99-120.
Bedi, A. (2004). An andragogical approach to teaching styles. Education
for Primary Care, 15, 93-108.
Birzer, M. L. (2003). The theory of andragogy applied to police training.
International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 26(1),
29-42.
Birzer, M. L. (2004). Andragogy: Student centered classrooms in
criminal justice programs. Journal of Criminal Justice Education,
15(2), 393-411.
Bolton, F. C. (2006). Rubrics and adult learners: Andragogy and
assessment. Assessment Update, 18(3), 5-6.
Cretchley, G., & Castle, J. (2001). OBE, RPL and adult education: Good
bedfellows in higher education in South Africa. International
Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(6), 487-501.
Forrest, S. P., III, & Peterson, T.O. Its called andragogy. Academy of
Management Learning and Education, 5(1), 113-122.
Howard, S. (1993). Accreditation of prior learning: Andragogy in action
or a cut price approach to education? Journal of Advanced
Nursing, 18(11), 1817-1824.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From
pedagogy to andragogy (revised and updated). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Cambridge Adult Education.
Marshak, R. J. (1983). Whats between pedagogy and andragogy?
Training and Development, 37(10), 80-81.
34

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of

adult learning theory. New Direction for Adult and Continuing
Education, 89, 3-13.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007).
Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ozuah, P. O. First, there was pedagogy and then came andragogy.
Einstein Journal of Biology & Medicine, 21(2), 83-87.
Roberson, D. N., Jr. (2002). Andragogy in color (Report No. CE083281).
Office of Educational Research and Improvement: U.S. Department
of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED465047)
Savicevic, D. M. (1991). Modern conceptions of andragogy: A European
framework. Studies in the Education of Adults, 23(2), 179.
Swanson, R. A., & Holton, E. F., III. (2001). Foundations of human
resource development. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Zmeyov, S. I. (1998). Andragogy: Origins, developments and trends.
International Review Education, 44(1), 103-108.

35

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 39, Number 2, 2010

TECHNIQUES

Leading Online Learning Initiatives in Adult Education

Kathy Olesen-Tracey
Abstract
Adult learners often face barriers to participation in traditional
classroom instruction. As technology access grows and adults
naturally incorporate technology into their daily lives, adult
education programs are finding innovative ways to blend
technology with instruction through quality online learning
opportunities. This article highlights the tips, strategies, and
best practices learned from the deployment of GED-i, a
nationally recognized online GED test preparation curriculum
developed at the Center for the Application of Information
Technologies at Western Illinois University. However, the
procedures presented are applicable to all online/distance
learning options and are based on solid administrative
leadership strategies such as determining benchmarks,
establishing and communicating clear processes and
procedures, and setting professional development goals.
Introduction
GED Program Coordinators struggle each year to accommodate the
diverse needs of adult learners seeking their GED credentials. GED
educators are challenged to engage students in this world of instant
communication and connection to thousands of resources and media at
the click of a button. Internet technologies have the capability to
________
Kathy Olesen-Tracey is an Instructional Designer and GED-i
Coordinator, Center for the Application of Information Technologies,
Western Illinois University.
36

overcome the barriers of time and place, and students are definitely ready
for the inclusion of online learning. As a result, adult education programs
are seeking effective and innovative strategies that merge existing
curriculum and technology without straining existing budgets. After
exploring the information presented in this article, program
administrators and instructors will be able to identify the essential steps
involved in developing the foundation for deploying online learning at
the local program level.
Online learning opportunities have helped learners connect their
daily use of technology to meaningful educational opportunities.
Additionally, the integration and deployment of quality online learning
creates opportunities for adult education programs to provide greater
access to GED Test Preparation Courses. Furthermore, as community
colleges and universities expand their online learning opportunities, it is
critical for local adult education program administrators to evaluate their
ideas of the traditional teaching and learning experience to include online
learning in order for students to develop the necessary skills to transition
into higher education or enter skilled employment opportunities.
Leading an online learning initiative can feel like a daunting task.
Using a blueprint for creating a program specific vision for online
learning, administrators can lead their programs toward the successful
and meaningful addition or expansion of online courses. The blueprint
consists of setting benchmarks, selecting the curriculum, determining
deployment method, and identifying the intended audience. The blueprint
for online learning consists of the following steps:
Set realistic goals and benchmarks. Think about how many
students will be served with the online curriculum. Consider the
screening criteria for participants and ensure the goal numbers
are realistic. Critical elements of setting benchmarks include
developing a marketing plan and determining assessment
strategies.
Determine the deployment method. Will the online course be
delivered solely at a distance, as a hybrid, as a classroom
supplement, or as a combination of methods? This decision will
guide the remainder of the planning process.
Establish clear policies and procedures for reaching goals. Once
goals are determined, clearly established processes and
procedures for all staff members to follow are outlined. These
include expectations for monitoring teacher and student
37

interaction that holds teachers accountable for their time.

Consider this the road map that identifies where students and
teachers are beginning, where they are going, and how they are
going to get there.
Define your target distance learning population. Typically, your
target population is a student who is reading at the 9th grade
level who has reliable access to the Internet and has basic
computer skills. By defining your target audience, you can set
realistic marketing / recruitment, and retention goals for GED-i
or any distance learning program.
Communicate expectations for distance learning to all staff.
Examine the expectations of online instructors. Should they have
online office hours? How often will they check student
submissions? How will they submit student progress
information? When will students post-test? Answers to these
questions must be clearly communicated to all staff members so
everyone can meet the expectations.
Develop professional development goals. Establishing
professional development goals as they relate to the online
learning initiative will help you prioritize how the trainings fit
into the overall implementation plans.
Assign a go-to person in your department for the online
learning initiative. Make sure there is a designated online leader
in the program, whether it is you or a staff member. The leader
must be knowledgeable about the online learning program and
must be well trained and prepared to serve in this role before
implementing and/or training instructors to teach online.
Make sure your interest in technology and online offerings are
genuine. Although it is not necessary to be a technical expert, it
is important to promote and create buy in. Be prepared to
head-off potential resistance when presenting new ideas in
learning/teaching with technology and execute ways for
innovation to take root in the program.
Conclusion

Through insightful and forward-thinking initiatives, adult education

program administrators can bring online learning opportunities to the
adult learners doorsteps. The essential first steps involve planning as
38

administrators determine how to best fit the online learning into their
existing curriculum. Online projects such as GED-i can help programs
provide flexible, dynamic, and high quality curricular choices and build
the bridge from traditional classroom instruction to viable distance
learning initiatives that will prepare students for the shift in academic
experiences in higher education.
Reference
Center for the Application of Information Technologies, Western Illinois
University. GED-i. Retrieved from http://info.ged-i.org

39

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 39, Number 2, 2010

BOOK REVIEW

Wlodkowski, R. J. (2008). Enhancing adult motivation to learn: A

comprehensive guide for teaching all adults (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey Bass. 508 pages.
Introduction
Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn (Wlodkowski, 2008) is a must
read for practitioners of adult education who wish to deepen their
understanding of the characteristics of a motivating instructor and the
conditions that motivate adult learning. The book is steeped in research,
yet filled with practical examples. This review of Enhancing Adult
Motivation to Learn focuses on the information that has direct
implications for designing instruction.
Characteristics of a Motivating Instructor
Wlodkowski states that, Motivating instructors are not entirely
magical. They are unique; they do have their own style and strengths.
But research, observation, and common sense all point to essential
elements that are the foundation of their instruction (p. 49).
Wlodkowski defines five characteristics of motivating instructors as:
expertise, empathy, enthusiasm, clarity, and cultural responsiveness.
Expertise. First and foremost, as effective teachers of adults, we
must have information that is beneficial for adults to learn, information
they perceive as valuable and directly relevant to their lives. We must
connect our expertise to learners pre-existing knowledge and
experience. Furthermore, we must thoroughly know our subject matter
and come to the classroom well prepared to teach it.
Empathy. Adults learn in response to their own learning goals
rather than in response to the goals of the instructor. As instructors, we
must be sensitive to how our students are perceiving the learning
experience. Empathetic instructors understand the learners goals and
40

expectations, adapt their instruction to meet learners readiness levels,

and continuously consider learners perspectives.
Enthusiasm. According to research, people emulate the emotional
states of those they are observing. Consequently, when learners observe
us being enthusiastic about what we are teaching, they too become
enthusiastic. Enthusiastic instruction involves personally valuing what
we are teaching, valuing it for the learner, and demonstrating appropriate
emotion and expressiveness.
Clarity. Learners bring different levels of knowledge and expertise
into the learning environment. Consequently, it is critical that we, as
instructors, effectively bridge students existing understanding to what
we are teaching. To provide instructional clarity, we must aspire to
deliver instruction in such a way that is understandable to all learners,
and offer options for learners who may require additional assistance.
Cultural Responsiveness. Effective instructors understand that
learning is inherently connected to culture. In order to deliver culturally
responsive instruction, it is necessary to: (a) create a safe, inclusive, and
respectful learning environment, (b) engage all learners, and (c) relate
course content to the concerns of the learners and the broader society. A
prerequisite to establishing cultural responsiveness is that we, as
instructors, have a thorough awareness and understanding of own
cultural values and biases.
Conditions that Enhance Motivation and Learning
In addition to defining characteristics of motivating instructors,
Wlodkowski defines four conditions that teachers can influence to
enhance adult motivation and learning. Those four conditions are:
1. Establishing inclusion
2. Developing positive attitudes toward learning
3. Enhancing meaning
4. Engendering competence
Establishing Inclusion. Establishing inclusion involves being
intentional about making sure learners are respected by, and connected
to, one another and the instructor. Wlodkowski proposes 11 strategies for
establishing inclusion. One such strategy involves using collaborative
learning activities. An example of such an activity is the jigsaw
exercise. To review a reading assignment, an instructor divides the
assignment into sections, asking each student to be responsible for
41

thoroughly learning the material in a particular section and teaching it

back to the larger group until the entire reading assignment has been
covered. This activity promotes positive interdependence yet maintains
individual accountability.
Developing Positive Attitudes Toward Learning. Wlodkowski
offers 16 strategies for helping adults develop positive attitudes. Success
breeds a positive attitude, and students are more likely to be successful
when they know what is expected of them. One approach for
demonstrating expected learning is to have a panel of former students
share their class experience with current students. Former students might
discuss their initial attitudes toward the course, challenges they faced,
and how they overcame those challenges and ultimately achieved
academic success. Final class projects or papers may be provided as
examples for current students.
Enhancing Meaning in Learning Activities. Wlodkowski
provides 20 strategies for gaining and sustaining learners interest,
thereby enhancing meaning in learning activities. One such strategy is to
provide variety in personal presentation style, modes of instruction, and
learning materials. Varying presentation style involves use of body
movement, gestures and facial expressions, tone and pitch of voice, and
pauses. Types of instruction include lecturing, discussing, playing CDs,
showing DVDs, and having the students engage in role-plays and
simulations. Various types of learning materials include books, CDs,
DVDs, case studies, online resources, and computer software. Providing
variety enhances learners attention and is an effective way to connect
with students of varying learning styles.
Engendering Competence Among Adult Learners. The final
condition for enhancing motivation to learn is engendering competence
among learners. Wlodkowski offers 13 strategies toward this end. One
strategy is to provide effective feedback. Feedback should be prompt,
based on clearly defined criteria, and informative rather controlling in
nature. It is important that feedback emphasize improvements and
progress rather than deficiencies and errors. Instructors should ask
learners what they would like feedback on, consider learners readiness
to receive feedback, and follow up to ensure that feedback was
understood.

42

Conclusion
As educators of adults, we have a high calling that bears daunting
responsibility. Each time we step into a classroom, we have the potential
to foster our students growth toward their full potential. Doing so
successfully is dependent on our effectiveness as teachers. It is,
therefore, imperative that we continue to refine our instructional skills,
constantly working toward mastering our craft. Wlodkowskis (2008)
Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn is a tremendous resource toward
this end.
________

Mary R. Olson is an Assistant Professor of Business, George Fox

University, Boise Center, Meridian, ID.

43

MPAEA Officers and Directors

Officers
President
Donna Bakke

President Elect

Brad Deeds

Past President
Nancy Lambott

Secretary
Lou Workman

Treasurer
Detlef Johl
Board of Directors
Arizona
Lily Beth Brazones
Jeff Hall

Nevada
Gordon Harmes
Kathleen Jameson

Colorado
Jolene Goerend
Glenda Sinks

Utah
Tracy Moore
Claudia Thorum

Idaho
Karen Wilson Scott
Kevin Laughlin

Wyoming
Mickey Douglas
Kelly Willmarth

Montana
Jake Gustin
David Strong

Journal of Adult Education

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