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Agriculture
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

Agricultureisthecultivationofanimals,plantsandfungiforfood,fiber,biofuel,medicinalplantsandotherproducts
usedtosustainandenhancehumanlife.[1]Agriculturewasthekeydevelopmentintheriseofsedentaryhuman
civilization,wherebyfarmingofdomesticatedspeciescreatedfoodsurplusesthatnurturedthedevelopmentof
civilization.Thestudyofagricultureisknownasagriculturalscience.Thehistoryofagriculturedatesback
thousandsofyears,anditsdevelopmenthasbeendrivenanddefinedbygreatlydifferentclimates,cultures,and
technologies.Industrialagriculturebasedonlargescalemonoculturefarminghasbecomethedominantagricultural
methodology.
Modernagronomy,plantbreeding,agrochemicalssuchaspesticidesandfertilizers,andtechnological
developmentshaveinmanycasessharplyincreasedyieldsfromcultivation,butatthesametimehavecaused
widespreadecologicaldamageandnegativehumanhealtheffects.Selectivebreedingandmodernpracticesin
animalhusbandryhavesimilarlyincreasedtheoutputofmeat,buthaveraisedconcernsaboutanimalwelfareand
thehealtheffectsoftheantibiotics,growthhormones,andotherchemicalscommonlyusedinindustrialmeat
production.Geneticallymodifiedorganismsareanincreasingcomponentofagriculture,althoughtheyarebanned
inseveralcountries.Agriculturalfoodproductionandwatermanagementareincreasinglybecomingglobalissues
thatarefosteringdebateonanumberoffronts.Significantdegradationoflandandwaterresources,includingthe
depletionofaquifers,hasbeenobservedinrecentdecades,andtheeffectsofglobalwarmingonagricultureandof
agricultureonglobalwarmingarestillnotfullyunderstood.
Themajoragriculturalproductscanbebroadlygroupedintofoods,fibers,fuels,andrawmaterials.Specificfoods
includecereals(grains),vegetables,fruits,oils,meatsandspices.Fibersincludecotton,wool,hemp,silkandflax.
Rawmaterialsincludelumberandbamboo.Otherusefulmaterialsarealsoproducedbyplants,suchasresins,
dyes,drugs,perfumes,biofuelsandornamentalproductssuchascutflowersandnurseryplants.Overonethirdof
theworld'sworkersareemployedinagriculture,secondonlytotheservicesector,althoughthepercentagesof
agriculturalworkersindevelopedcountrieshasdecreasedsignificantlyoverthepastseveralcenturies.

Contents
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Etymologyandterminology[edit]
ThewordagricultureisalateMiddleEnglishadaptationofLatinagricultra,fromager,"field",andcultra,
"cultivation"or"growing".[2]Agricultureusuallyreferstohumanactivities,althoughitisalsoobservedincertain
speciesofant,termiteandambrosiabeetle.[3]Topracticeagriculturemeanstousenaturalresourcesto"produce
commoditieswhichmaintainlife,includingfood,fiber,forestproducts,horticulturalcrops,andtheirrelatedservices."
[4]Thisdefinitionincludesarablefarmingoragronomy,andhorticulture,alltermsforthegrowingofplants,animal

husbandryandforestry.[4]Adistinctionissometimesmadebetweenforestryandagriculture,basedontheformer's
longermanagementrotations,extensiveversusintensivemanagementpracticesanddevelopmentmainlyby
nature,ratherthanbyman.Eventhen,itisacknowledgedthatthereisalargeamountofknowledgetransferand
overlapbetweensilviculture(themanagementofforests)andagriculture.[5]Intraditionalfarming,thetwoareoften
combinedevenonsmalllandholdings,leadingtothetermagroforestry.[6]

History[edit]
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Mainarticle:Historyofagriculture
Agriculturebeganindependentlyindifferentpartsoftheglobe,andincludedadiverserangeoftaxa.Atleast11
separateregionsoftheOldandNewWorldwereinvolvedasindependentcentersoforigin.[7]Wildgrainswere
collectedandeatenfromatleast105,000yearsago.[8]PigsweredomesticatedinMesopotamiaaround15,000
yearsago.[9]RicewasdomesticatedinChinabetween13,500and8,200yearsago,followedbymung,soyand
azukibeans.SheepweredomesticatedinMesopotamiabetween13,000and11,000yearsago.[10]Fromaround
11,500yearsago,theeightNeolithicfoundercrops,emmerandeinkornwheat,hulledbarley,peas,lentils,bitter
vetch,chickpeasandflaxwerecultivatedintheLevant.Cattleweredomesticatedfromthewildaurochsinthe
areasofmodernTurkeyandPakistansome10,500yearsago.[11]IntheAndesofSouthAmerica,thepotatowas
domesticatedbetween10,000and7,000yearsago,alongwithbeans,coca,llamas,alpacas,andguineapigs.
SugarcaneandsomerootvegetablesweredomesticatedinNewGuineaaround9,000yearsago.Sorghumwas
domesticatedintheSahelregionofAfricaby7,000yearsago.CottonwasdomesticatedinPeruby5,600years
ago,[12]andwasindependentlydomesticatedinEurasiaatanunknowntime.InMesoamerica,wildteosintewas
domesticatedtomaizeby6,000yearsago.[13]
IntheMiddleAges,bothintheIslamicworldandinEurope,agriculturewastransformedwithimprovedtechniques
andthediffusionofcropplants,includingtheintroductionofsugar,rice,cottonandfruittreessuchastheorangeto
EuropebywayofAlAndalus.[14][15]After1492,theColumbianexchangebroughtNewWorldcropssuchasmaize,
potatoes,sweetpotatoesandmanioctoEurope,andOldWorldcropssuchaswheat,barley,riceandturnips,and
livestockincludinghorses,cattle,sheepandgoatstotheAmericas.[16]Irrigation,croprotation,andfertilizerswere
introducedsoonaftertheNeolithicRevolutionanddevelopedmuchfurtherinthepast200years,startingwiththe
BritishAgriculturalRevolution.Since1900,agricultureinthedevelopednations,andtoalesserextentinthe
developingworld,hasseenlargerisesinproductivityashumanlaborhasbeenreplacedbymechanization,and
assistedbysyntheticfertilizers,pesticides,andselectivebreeding.TheHaberBoschmethodallowedthesynthesis
ofammoniumnitratefertilizeronanindustrialscale,greatlyincreasingcropyields.[17][18]Modernagriculturehas
raisedpoliticalissuesincludingwaterpollution,biofuels,geneticallymodifiedorganisms,tariffsandfarmsubsidies,
leadingtoalternativeapproachessuchastheorganicmovement.[19][20]

Agricultureandcivilization[edit]
Furtherinformation:Plantsinculture
CivilizationwastheproductoftheAgriculturalNeolithicRevolutionasH.G.Wellsputit,"civilizationwasthe
agriculturalsurplus."[21]Inthecourseofhistory,civilizationcoincidedinspacewithfertileareassuchasTheFertile
Crescent,andstatesformedmainlyincircumscribedagriculturallands.TheGreatWallofChinaandtheRoman
empire'slimes(borders)demarcatedthesamenorthernfrontierofcerealagriculture.Thiscerealbeltfedthe
civilizationsformedintheAxialAgeandconnectedbytheSilkRoad.[citationneeded]
AncientEgyptians,whoseagriculturedependedexclusivelyontheNile,deifiedtheriver,worshipped,andexaltedit
inagreathymn.[22]TheChineseimperialcourtissuednumerousedicts,stating:"Agricultureisthefoundationofthis
Empire."[23]Egyptian,Mesopotamian,Chinese,andIncaEmperorsthemselvesplowedceremonialfieldsinorderto
showpersonalexampletoeveryone.[24]
Ancientstrategists,ChineseGuanZhong[25]andShangYang [26]andIndianKautilya,[27]drewdoctrineslinking
agriculturewithmilitarypower.Agriculturedefinedthelimitsonhowlargeandforhowlonganarmycouldbe
mobilized.ShangYangcalledagricultureandwartheOne.[28]Inthevasthumanpantheonofagriculturaldeities[29]
thereareseveraldeitieswhocombinedthefunctionsofagricultureandwar.[30]

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AstheNeolithicAgriculturalRevolutionproducedcivilization,themodernAgriculturalRevolution,beguninBritain
(BritishAgriculturalRevolution),madepossibletheIndustrialcivilization.Thefirstpreconditionforindustrywas
greateryieldsbylessmanpower,resultingingreaterpercentageofmanpoweravailablefornonagriculturalsectors.
[31]

Typesofagriculture[edit]
Pastoralisminvolvesmanagingdomesticatedanimals.Innomadic
pastoralism,herdsoflivestockaremovedfromplacetoplaceinsearchof
pasture,fodder,andwater.Thistypeoffarmingispractisedinaridand
semiaridregionsofSahara,CentralAsiaandsomepartsofIndia.[32]
Inshiftingcultivation,asmallareaofaforestisclearedbycuttingdown
allthetreesandtheareaisburned.Thelandisthenusedforgrowing
cropsforseveralyears.Whenthesoilbecomeslessfertile,theareais
thenabandoned.Anotherpatchoflandisselectedandtheprocessis
repeated.Thistypeoffarmingispracticedmainlyinareaswithabundant
rainfallwheretheforestregeneratesquickly.Thispracticeisusedin

Reindeerherdsformthebasisofpastoralagriculture
forseveralArcticandSubarcticpeoples.

NortheastIndia,SoutheastAsia,andtheAmazonBasin.[33]
Subsistencefarmingispracticedtosatisfyfamilyorlocalneedsalone,withlittleleftoverfortransportelsewhere.It
isintensivelypracticedinMonsoonAsiaandSouthEastAsia.[34]
Inintensivefarming,thecropsarecultivatedforcommercialpurposei.e.,forselling.Themainmotiveofthefarmer
istomakeprofit,withalowfallowratioandahighuseofinputs.Thistypeoffarmingismainlypracticedinhighly
developedcountries.[35][36]

Contemporaryagriculture[edit]
Inthepastcentury,agriculturehasbeencharacterizedbyincreased
productivity,thesubstitutionofsyntheticfertilizersandpesticidesfor
labor,waterpollution,andfarmsubsidies.Inrecentyearstherehasbeen
abacklashagainsttheexternalenvironmentaleffectsofconventional
agriculture,resultingintheorganicandsustainableagriculture
movements.[19][37]Oneofthemajorforcesbehindthismovementhas
beentheEuropeanUnion,whichfirstcertifiedorganicfoodin1991and
beganreformofitsCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP)in2005tophase
outcommoditylinkedfarmsubsidies,[38]alsoknownasdecoupling.The
growthoforganicfarminghasrenewedresearchinalternative
technologiessuchasintegratedpestmanagementandselective
breeding.Recentmainstreamtechnologicaldevelopmentsinclude
geneticallymodifiedfood.
In2007,higherincentivesforfarmerstogrownonfoodbiofuelcrops[39]
combinedwithotherfactors,suchasoverdevelopmentofformerfarm
lands,risingtransportationcosts,climatechange,growingconsumer

Infraredimageoftheabovefarms.Variouscolors
indicatehealthycrops(red),flooding(black)and
unwantedpesticides(brown).

demandinChinaandIndia,andpopulationgrowth,[40]causedfoodshortagesinAsia,theMiddleEast,Africa,and
Mexico,aswellasrisingfoodpricesaroundtheglobe.[41][42]AsofDecember2007,37countriesfacedfoodcrises,
and20hadimposedsomesortoffoodpricecontrols.Someoftheseshortagesresultedinfoodriotsandeven
deadlystampedes.[43][44][45]TheInternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopmentpositsthatanincreasein
smallholderagriculturemaybepartofthesolutiontoconcernsaboutfoodpricesandoverallfoodsecurity.Theyin
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partbasethisontheexperienceofVietnam,whichwentfromafoodimportertolargefoodexporterandsawa
significantdropinpoverty,duemainlytothedevelopmentofsmallholderagricultureinthecountry.[46]
Diseaseandlanddegradationaretwoofthemajorconcernsinagriculturetoday.Forexample,anepidemicofstem
rustonwheatcausedbytheUg99lineageiscurrentlyspreadingacrossAfricaandintoAsiaandiscausingmajor
concernsduetocroplossesof70%ormoreundersomeconditions.[47]Approximately40%oftheworld's
agriculturallandisseriouslydegraded.[48]InAfrica,ifcurrenttrendsofsoildegradationcontinue,thecontinentmight
beabletofeedjust25%ofitspopulationby2025,accordingtoUnitedNationsUniversity'sGhanabasedInstitute
forNaturalResourcesinAfrica.[49]
AgrarianstructureisalongtermstructureintheBraudelianunderstandingoftheconcept.Onalargerscalethe
agrarianstructureismoredependentontheregional,social,culturalandhistoricalfactorsthanonthestates
undertakenactivities.LikeinPoland,wheredespiterunninganintenseagrarianpolicyformanyyears,theagrarian
structurein2002hasmuchincommonwiththatfoundin1921soonafterthepartitionsperiod.[50]
In2009,theagriculturaloutputofChinawasthelargestintheworld,followedbytheEuropeanUnion,Indiaandthe
UnitedStates,accordingtotheInternationalMonetaryFund(seebelow).Economistsmeasurethetotalfactor
productivityofagricultureandbythismeasureagricultureintheUnitedStatesisroughly1.7timesmoreproductive
thanitwasin1948.[51]

Workforce[edit]
Asof2011,theInternationalLabourOrganizationstatesthatapproximatelyonebillionpeople,orover1/3ofthe
availableworkforce,areemployedintheglobalagriculturalsector.Agricultureconstitutesapproximately70%ofthe
globalemploymentofchildren,andinmanycountriesemploysthelargestpercentageofwomenofanyindustry.[52]
Theservicesectoronlyovertooktheagriculturalsectorasthelargestglobalemployerin2007.Between1997and
2007,thepercentageofpeopleemployedinagriculturefellbyoverfourpercentagepoints,atrendthatisexpected
tocontinue.[53]Thenumberofpeopleemployedinagriculturevarieswidelyonapercountrybasis,rangingfrom
lessthan2%incountriesliketheUSandCanadatoover80%inmanyAfricannations.[54]Indevelopedcountries,
thesefiguresaresignificantlylowerthaninpreviouscenturies.Duringthe16thcenturyinEurope,forexample,
between55and75percentofthepopulationwasengagedinagriculture,dependingonthecountry.Bythe19th
centuryinEurope,thishaddroppedtobetween35and65percent.[55]Inthesamecountriestoday,thefigureisless
than10%.[54]

Safety[edit]
Mainarticle:Agriculturalsafetyandhealth
Agriculture,specificallyfarming,remainsahazardousindustry,andfarmersworldwideremainathighriskofwork
relatedinjuries,lungdisease,noiseinducedhearingloss,skindiseases,aswellascertaincancersrelatedto
chemicaluseandprolongedsunexposure.Onindustrializedfarms,injuriesfrequentlyinvolvetheuseofagricultural
machinery,andacommoncauseoffatalagriculturalinjuriesindevelopedcountriesistractorrollovers.[56]
Pesticidesandotherchemicalsusedinfarmingcanalsobehazardoustoworkerhealth,andworkersexposedto
pesticidesmayexperienceillnessorhavechildrenwithbirthdefects.[57]Asanindustryinwhichfamiliescommonly
shareinworkandliveonthefarmitself,entirefamiliescanbeatriskforinjuries,illness,anddeath.[58]Common
causesoffatalinjuriesamongyoungfarmworkersincludedrowning,machineryandmotorvehiclerelated
accidents.[58]
TheInternationalLabourOrganizationconsidersagriculture"oneofthemosthazardousofalleconomicsectors."[52]
Itestimatesthattheannualworkrelateddeathtollamongagriculturalemployeesisatleast170,000,twicethe
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averagerateofotherjobs.Inaddition,incidencesofdeath,injuryandillnessrelatedtoagriculturalactivitiesoftengo
unreported.[59]TheorganizationhasdevelopedtheSafetyandHealthinAgricultureConvention,2001,whichcovers
therangeofrisksintheagricultureoccupation,thepreventionoftheserisksandtherolethatindividualsand
organizationsengagedinagricultureshouldplay.[52]

Agriculturalproductionsystems[edit]
Cropcultivationsystems[edit]
Croppingsystemsvaryamongfarmsdependingonthe
availableresourcesandconstraintsgeographyandclimateof
thefarmgovernmentpolicyeconomic,socialandpolitical
pressuresandthephilosophyandcultureofthefarmer.[60][61]
Shiftingcultivation(orslashandburn)isasysteminwhich
forestsareburnt,releasingnutrientstosupportcultivationof
annualandthenperennialcropsforaperiodofseveralyears.

RicecultivationinBihar,India

[62]Thentheplotisleftfallowtoregrowforest,andthefarmer

movestoanewplot,returningaftermanymoreyears(1020).Thisfallowperiodisshortenedifpopulationdensity
grows,requiringtheinputofnutrients(fertilizerormanure)andsomemanualpestcontrol.Annualcultivationisthe
nextphaseofintensityinwhichthereisnofallowperiod.Thisrequiresevengreaternutrientandpestcontrolinputs.
Furtherindustrializationledtotheuseofmonocultures,whenonecultivar
isplantedonalargeacreage.Becauseofthelowbiodiversity,nutrient
useisuniformandpeststendtobuildup,necessitatingthegreateruseof
pesticidesandfertilizers.[61]Multiplecropping,inwhichseveralcropsare
grownsequentiallyinoneyear,andintercropping,whenseveralcrops
aregrownatthesametime,areotherkindsofannualcroppingsystems
knownaspolycultures.[62]
Insubtropicalandaridenvironments,thetimingandextentofagriculture
maybelimitedbyrainfall,eithernotallowingmultipleannualcropsina
TheBanaueRiceTerracesinIfugao,Philippines
year,orrequiringirrigation.Inalloftheseenvironmentsperennialcrops
aregrown(coffee,chocolate)andsystemsarepracticedsuchas
agroforestry.Intemperateenvironments,whereecosystemswerepredominantlygrasslandorprairie,highly
productiveannualfarmingisthedominantagriculturalsystem.[62]

Cropstatistics[edit]
Seealso:Listofmostimportantagriculturalcropsworldwide
Importantcategoriesofcropsincludecerealsandpseudocereals,pulses(legumes),forage,andfruitsand
vegetables.Specificcropsarecultivatedindistinctgrowingregionsthroughouttheworld.Inmillionsofmetrictons,
basedonFAOestimate.
Topagriculturalproducts,bycroptypes
(milliontonnes)2004data
Cereals

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Vegetablesandmelons

866

Rootsandtubers

715

Milk

619

Fruit

503

Meat

259

Oilcrops

133

Fish(2001estimate)

130

Eggs

63

Pulses

60

Vegetablefiber

30

Source:
FoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)[63]

Topagriculturalproducts,byindividualcrops
(milliontonnes)2011data
Sugarcane

1794

Maize

883

Rice

722

Wheat

704

Potatoes

374

Sugarbeet

271

Soybeans

260

Cassava

252

Tomatoes

159

Barley

134

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Source:
FoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)[63]

Livestockproductionsystems[edit]
Mainarticle:Livestock
Seealso:Listofdomesticatedanimals
Animals,includinghorses,mules,oxen,waterbuffalo,camels,llamas,
alpacas,donkeys,anddogs,areoftenusedtohelpcultivatefields,
harvestcrops,wrangleotheranimals,andtransportfarmproductsto
buyers.Animalhusbandrynotonlyreferstothebreedingandraisingof
animalsformeatortoharvestanimalproducts(likemilk,eggs,orwool)
onacontinualbasis,butalsotothebreedingandcareofspeciesfor
workandcompanionship.
Livestockproductionsystemscanbedefinedbasedonfeedsource,as
grasslandbased,mixed,andlandless.[64]Asof2010,30%ofEarth'sice
andwaterfreeareawasusedforproducinglivestock,withthesector
employingapproximately1.3billionpeople.Betweenthe1960sandthe
2000s,therewasasignificantincreaseinlivestockproduction,bothby
numbersandbycarcassweight,especiallyamongbeef,pigsand
chickens,thelatterofwhichhadproductionincreasedbyalmostafactor
of10.Nonmeatanimals,suchasmilkcowsandeggproducingchickens,
alsoshowedsignificantproductionincreases.Globalcattle,sheepand
goatpopulationsareexpectedtocontinuetoincreasesharplythrough

Ploughingricepaddyfieldswithwaterbuffalo,in
Indonesia

2050.[65]Aquacultureorfishfarming,theproductionoffishforhuman
consumptioninconfinedoperations,isoneofthefastestgrowingsectors
offoodproduction,growingatanaverageof9%ayearbetween1975
and2007.[66]

AnoxpulledploughinIndia

Duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,producersusingselective
breedingfocusedoncreatinglivestockbreedsandcrossbreedsthatincreasedproduction,whilemostlydisregarding
theneedtopreservegeneticdiversity.Thistrendhasledtoasignificantdecreaseingeneticdiversityandresources
amonglivestockbreeds,leadingtoacorrespondingdecreaseindiseaseresistanceandlocaladaptationspreviously
foundamongtraditionalbreeds.[67]
Grasslandbasedlivestockproductionreliesuponplantmaterialsuchasshrubland,rangeland,andpasturesfor
feedingruminantanimals.Outsidenutrientinputsmaybeused,howevermanureisreturneddirectlytothe
grasslandasamajornutrientsource.Thissystemisparticularlyimportantinareaswherecropproductionisnot
feasiblebecauseofclimateorsoil,representing3040millionpastoralists.[62]Mixedproductionsystemsuse
grassland,foddercropsandgrainfeedcropsasfeedforruminantandmonogastric(onestomachmainlychickens
andpigs)livestock.Manureistypicallyrecycledinmixedsystemsasafertilizerforcrops.[64]
Landlesssystemsrelyuponfeedfromoutsidethefarm,representingthedelinkingofcropandlivestockproduction
foundmoreprevalentlyinOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)membercountries.
Syntheticfertilizersaremoreheavilyrelieduponforcropproductionandmanureutilizationbecomesachallengeas
wellasasourceforpollution.[64]Industrializedcountriesusetheseoperationstoproducemuchoftheglobal
suppliesofpoultryandpork.Scientistsestimatethat75%ofthegrowthinlivestockproductionbetween2003and
2030willbeinconfinedanimalfeedingoperations,sometimescalledfactoryfarming.Muchofthisgrowthis
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happeningindevelopingcountriesinAsia,withmuchsmalleramountsofgrowthinAfrica.[65]Someofthepractices
usedincommerciallivestockproduction,includingtheusageofgrowthhormones,arecontroversial.[68]

Productionpractices[edit]
Farmingisthepracticeofagriculturebyspecializedlaborinanarea
primarilydevotedtoagriculturalprocesses,inserviceofadislocated
populationusuallyinacity.
Tillageisthepracticeofplowingsoiltoprepareforplantingorfornutrient
incorporationorforpestcontrol.Tillagevariesinintensityfrom
conventionaltonotill.Itmayimproveproductivitybywarmingthesoil,
incorporatingfertilizerandcontrollingweeds,butalsorenderssoilmore
pronetoerosion,triggersthedecompositionoforganicmatterreleasing

Roadleadingacrossthefarmallowsmachinery
accesstothefarmforproductionpractices

CO2,andreducestheabundanceanddiversityofsoilorganisms.[69][70]
Pestcontrolincludesthemanagementofweeds,insects,mites,anddiseases.Chemical(pesticides),biological
(biocontrol),mechanical(tillage),andculturalpracticesareused.Culturalpracticesincludecroprotation,culling,
covercrops,intercropping,composting,avoidance,andresistance.Integratedpestmanagementattemptstouseall
ofthesemethodstokeeppestpopulationsbelowthenumberwhichwouldcauseeconomicloss,andrecommends
pesticidesasalastresort.[71]
Nutrientmanagementincludesboththesourceofnutrientinputsforcropandlivestockproduction,andthemethod
ofutilizationofmanureproducedbylivestock.Nutrientinputscanbechemicalinorganicfertilizers,manure,green
manure,compostandminedminerals.[72]Cropnutrientusemayalsobemanagedusingculturaltechniquessuch
ascroprotationorafallowperiod.[73][74]Manureisusedeitherbyholdinglivestockwherethefeedcropisgrowing,
suchasinmanagedintensiverotationalgrazing,orbyspreadingeitherdryorliquidformulationsofmanureon
croplandorpastures.
Watermanagementisneededwhererainfallisinsufficientorvariable,whichoccurstosomedegreeinmostregions
oftheworld.[62]Somefarmersuseirrigationtosupplementrainfall.InotherareassuchastheGreatPlainsinthe
U.S.andCanada,farmersuseafallowyeartoconservesoilmoisturetouseforgrowingacropinthefollowing
year.[75]Agriculturerepresents70%offreshwateruseworldwide. [76]
AccordingtoareportbytheInternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute,agriculturaltechnologieswillhavethe
greatestimpactonfoodproductionifadoptedincombinationwitheachotherusingamodelthatassessedhow
eleventechnologiescouldimpactagriculturalproductivity,foodsecurityandtradeby2050,theInternationalFood
PolicyResearchInstitutefoundthatthenumberofpeopleatriskfromhungercouldbereducedbyasmuchas40%
andfoodpricescouldbereducedbyalmosthalf.[77]
"Paymentforecosystemservices(PES)canfurtherincentiviseeffortstogreentheagriculturesector.Thisisan
approachthatverifiesvaluesandrewardsthebenefitsofecosystemservicesprovidedbygreenagricultural
practices."[78]"InnovativePESmeasurescouldincludereforestationpaymentsmadebycitiestoupstream
communitiesinruralareasofsharedwatershedsforimprovedquantitiesandqualityoffreshwaterformunicipal
users.Ecoservicepaymentsbyfarmerstoupstreamforeststewardsforproperlymanagingtheflowofsoilnutrients,
andmethodstomonetisethecarbonsequestrationandemissionreductioncreditbenefitsofgreenagriculture
practicesinordertocompensatefarmersfortheireffortstorestoreandbuildSOMandemployotherpractices."[78]

Cropalterationandbiotechnology[edit]
Mainarticle:Plantbreeding
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Cropalterationhasbeenpracticedbyhumankindforthousandsofyears,sincethebeginningofcivilization.Altering
cropsthroughbreedingpracticeschangesthegeneticmakeupofaplanttodevelopcropswithmorebeneficial
characteristicsforhumans,forexample,largerfruitsorseeds,droughttolerance,orresistancetopests.Significant
advancesinplantbreedingensuedaftertheworkofgeneticistGregorMendel.Hisworkondominantandrecessive
alleles,althoughinitiallylargelyignoredforalmost50years,gaveplantbreedersabetterunderstandingofgenetics
andbreedingtechniques.Cropbreedingincludestechniquessuchasplantselectionwithdesirabletraits,self
pollinationandcrosspollination,andmoleculartechniquesthatgeneticallymodifytheorganism.[79]
Domesticationofplantshas,overthecenturiesincreasedyield,improveddiseaseresistanceanddroughttolerance,
easedharvestandimprovedthetasteandnutritionalvalueofcropplants.Carefulselectionandbreedinghavehad
enormouseffectsonthecharacteristicsofcropplants.Plantselectionandbreedinginthe1920sand1930s
improvedpasture(grassesandclover)inNewZealand.ExtensiveXrayandultravioletinducedmutagenesisefforts
(i.e.primitivegeneticengineering)duringthe1950sproducedthemoderncommercialvarietiesofgrainssuchas
wheat,corn(maize)andbarley.[80][81]
TheGreenRevolutionpopularizedtheuseofconventionalhybridizationtosharplyincreaseyieldbycreating"high
yieldingvarieties".Forexample,averageyieldsofcorn(maize)intheUSAhaveincreasedfromaround2.5tonsper
hectare(t/ha)(40bushelsperacre)in1900toabout9.4t/ha(150bushelsperacre)in2001.Similarly,worldwide
averagewheatyieldshaveincreasedfromlessthan1t/hain1900tomorethan2.5t/hain1990.SouthAmerican
averagewheatyieldsarearound2t/ha,Africanunder1t/ha,andEgyptandArabiaupto3.5to4t/hawithirrigation.
Incontrast,theaveragewheatyieldincountriessuchasFranceisover8t/ha.Variationsinyieldsareduemainlyto
variationinclimate,genetics,andthelevelofintensivefarmingtechniques(useoffertilizers,chemicalpestcontrol,
growthcontroltoavoidlodging).[82][83][84]

Geneticengineering[edit]
Mainarticle:Geneticengineering
Geneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMO)areorganismswhosegeneticmaterialhasbeenalteredbygenetic
engineeringtechniquesgenerallyknownasrecombinantDNAtechnology.Geneticengineeringhasexpandedthe
genesavailabletobreederstoutilizeincreatingdesiredgermlinesfornewcrops.Increaseddurability,nutritional
content,insectandvirusresistanceandherbicidetoleranceareafewoftheattributesbredintocropsthrough
geneticengineering.[85]Forsome,GMOcropscausefoodsafetyandfoodlabelingconcerns.Numerouscountries
haveplacedrestrictionsontheproduction,importoruseofGMOfoodsandcrops,whichhavebeenputinplace
duetoconcernsoverpotentialhealthissues,decliningagriculturaldiversityandcontaminationofnonGMOcrops.
[86]Currentlyaglobaltreaty,theBiosafetyProtocol,regulatesthetradeofGMOs.Thereisongoingdiscussion

regardingthelabelingoffoodsmadefromGMOs,andwhiletheEUcurrentlyrequiresallGMOfoodstobelabeled,
theUSdoesnot.[87]
Herbicideresistantseedhasageneimplantedintoitsgenomethatallowstheplantstotolerateexposureto
herbicides,includingglyphosates.Theseseedsallowthefarmertogrowacropthatcanbesprayedwithherbicides
tocontrolweedswithoutharmingtheresistantcrop.Herbicidetolerantcropsareusedbyfarmersworldwide.[88]
Withtheincreasinguseofherbicidetolerantcrops,comesanincreaseintheuseofglyphosatebasedherbicide
sprays.Insomeareasglyphosateresistantweedshavedeveloped,causingfarmerstoswitchtootherherbicides.
[89][90]Somestudiesalsolinkwidespreadglyphosateusagetoirondeficienciesinsomecrops,whichisbothacrop

productionandanutritionalqualityconcern,withpotentialeconomicandhealthimplications.[91]
OtherGMOcropsusedbygrowersincludeinsectresistantcrops,whichhaveagenefromthesoilbacterium
Bacillusthuringiensis(Bt),whichproducesatoxinspecifictoinsects.Thesecropsprotectplantsfromdamageby
insects.[92]Somebelievethatsimilarorbetterpestresistancetraitscanbeacquiredthroughtraditionalbreeding
practices,andresistancetovariouspestscanbegainedthroughhybridizationorcrosspollinationwithwildspecies.
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Insomecases,wildspeciesaretheprimarysourceofresistancetraitssometomatocultivarsthathavegained
resistancetoatleast19diseasesdidsothroughcrossingwithwildpopulationsoftomatoes.[93]

Environmentalimpact[edit]
Mainarticle:Environmentalissueswithagriculture
Agriculture,asimplementedthroughthemethodoffarming,imposesexternalcostsuponsocietythrough
pesticides,nutrientrunoff,excessivewaterusage,lossofnaturalenvironmentandassortedotherproblems.A2000
assessmentofagricultureintheUKdeterminedtotalexternalcostsfor1996of2,343million,or208perhectare.
[94]A2005analysisofthesecostsintheUSAconcludedthatcroplandimposesapproximately$5to16billion($30to

$96perhectare),whilelivestockproductionimposes$714million.[95]Bothstudies,whichfocusedsolelyonthefiscal
impacts,concludedthatmoreshouldbedonetointernalizeexternalcosts.Neitherincludedsubsidiesintheir
analysis,buttheynotedthatsubsidiesalsoinfluencethecostofagriculturetosociety.[94][95]In2010,the
InternationalResourcePaneloftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammepublishedareportassessingthe
environmentalimpactsofconsumptionandproduction.Thestudyfoundthatagricultureandfoodconsumptionare
twoofthemostimportantdriversofenvironmentalpressures,particularlyhabitatchange,climatechange,wateruse
andtoxicemissions.[96]The2011UNEPGreenEconomyreportstatesthat"[a]griculturaloperations,excludingland
usechanges,produceapproximately13percentofanthropogenicglobalGHGemissions.ThisincludesGHGs
emittedbytheuseofinorganicfertilisersagrochemicalpesticidesandherbicides(GHGemissionsresultingfrom
productionoftheseinputsareincludedinindustrialemissions)andfossilfuelenergyinputs.[78]"Onaveragewe
findthatthetotalamountoffreshresiduesfromagriculturalandforestryproductionforsecondgenerationbiofuel
productionamountsto3.8billiontonnesperyearbetween2011and2050(withanaverageannualgrowthrateof
11percentthroughouttheperiodanalysed,accountingforhighergrowthduringearlyyears,48percentfor2011
2020andanaverage2percentannualexpansionafter2020)."[78]

Livestockissues[edit]
AseniorUNofficialandcoauthorofaUNreportdetailingthisproblem,HenningSteinfeld,said"Livestockareone
ofthemostsignificantcontributorstotoday'smostseriousenvironmentalproblems".[97]Livestockproduction
occupies70%ofalllandusedforagriculture,or30%ofthelandsurfaceoftheplanet.Itisoneofthelargest
sourcesofgreenhousegases,responsiblefor18%oftheworld'sgreenhousegasemissionsasmeasuredinCO2
equivalents.Bycomparison,alltransportationemits13.5%oftheCO2.Itproduces65%ofhumanrelatednitrous
oxide(whichhas296timestheglobalwarmingpotentialofCO2,)and37%ofallhumaninducedmethane(whichis
23timesaswarmingasCO2.)Italsogenerates64%oftheammoniaemission.Livestockexpansioniscitedasa
keyfactordrivingdeforestationintheAmazonbasin70%ofpreviouslyforestedareaisnowoccupiedbypastures
andtheremainderusedforfeedcrops.[98]Throughdeforestationandlanddegradation,livestockisalsodriving
reductionsinbiodiversity.Furthermore,theUNEPstatesthat"methaneemissionsfromgloballivestockare
projectedtoincreaseby60percentby2030undercurrentpracticesandconsumptionpatterns."[78]

Landandwaterissues[edit]
Seealso:Environmentalimpactofirrigation
Landtransformation,theuseoflandtoyieldgoodsandservices,isthemostsubstantialwayhumansalterthe
Earth'secosystems,andisconsideredthedrivingforceinthelossofbiodiversity.Estimatesoftheamountofland
transformedbyhumansvaryfrom39to50%.[99]Landdegradation,thelongtermdeclineinecosystemfunctionand
productivity,isestimatedtobeoccurringon24%oflandworldwide,withcroplandoverrepresented.[100]TheUN
FAOreportciteslandmanagementasthedrivingfactorbehinddegradationandreportsthat1.5billionpeoplerely

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uponthedegradingland.Degradationcanbedeforestation,desertification,soilerosion,mineraldepletion,or
chemicaldegradation(acidificationandsalinization).[62]
Eutrophication,excessivenutrientsinaquaticecosystemsresultinginalgalbloomsandanoxia,leadstofishkills,
lossofbiodiversity,andrenderswaterunfitfordrinkingandotherindustrialuses.Excessivefertilizationandmanure
applicationtocropland,aswellashighlivestockstockingdensitiescausenutrient(mainlynitrogenandphosphorus)
runoffandleachingfromagriculturalland.Thesenutrientsaremajornonpointpollutantscontributingto
eutrophicationofaquaticecosystems.[101]
Agricultureaccountsfor70percentofwithdrawalsoffreshwaterresources.[102]Agricultureisamajordrawonwater
fromaquifers,andcurrentlydrawsfromthoseundergroundwatersourcesatanunsustainablerate.Itislongknown
thataquifersinareasasdiverseasnorthernChina,theUpperGangesandthewesternUSarebeingdepleted,and
newresearchextendstheseproblemstoaquifersinIran,MexicoandSaudiArabia.[103]Increasingpressureisbeing
placedonwaterresourcesbyindustryandurbanareas,meaningthatwaterscarcityisincreasingandagricultureis
facingthechallengeofproducingmorefoodfortheworld'sgrowingpopulationwithreducedwaterresources.[104]
Agriculturalwaterusagecanalsocausemajorenvironmentalproblems,includingthedestructionofnatural
wetlands,thespreadofwaterbornediseases,andlanddegradationthroughsalinizationandwaterlogging,when
irrigationisperformedincorrectly.[105]

Pesticides[edit]
Mainarticle:Environmentalimpactofpesticides
Pesticideusehasincreasedsince1950to2.5millionshorttonsannuallyworldwide,yetcroplossfrompestshas
remainedrelativelyconstant.[106]TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatedin1992that3millionpesticide
poisoningsoccurannually,causing220,000deaths.[107]Pesticidesselectforpesticideresistanceinthepest
population,leadingtoaconditiontermedthe"pesticidetreadmill"inwhichpestresistancewarrantsthedevelopment
ofanewpesticide.[108]
Analternativeargumentisthatthewayto"savetheenvironment"andpreventfamineisbyusingpesticidesand
intensivehighyieldfarming,aviewexemplifiedbyaquoteheadingtheCenterforGlobalFoodIssueswebsite:
'Growingmoreperacreleavesmorelandfornature'.[109][110]However,criticsarguethatatradeoffbetweenthe
environmentandaneedforfoodisnotinevitable,[111]andthatpesticidessimplyreplacegoodagronomicpractices
suchascroprotation.[108]TheUNEPintroducesthePushpullagriculturalpestmanagementtechniquewhich
involvesintercroppingthatusesplantaromastorepelorpushawaypestswhilepullinginorattractingtheright
insects."TheimplementationofpushpullineasternAfricahassignificantlyincreasedmaizeyieldsandthe
combinedcultivationofNfixingforagecropshasenrichedthesoilandhasalsoprovidedfarmerswithfeedfor
livestock.Withincreasedlivestockoperations,thefarmersareabletoproducemeat,milkandotherdairyproducts
andtheyusethemanureasorganicfertiliserthatreturnsnutrientstothefields."[78]

Climatechange[edit]
Seealso:Climatechangeandagriculture
Climatechangehasthepotentialtoaffectagriculturethroughchangesintemperature,rainfall(timingandquantity),
CO2,solarradiationandtheinteractionoftheseelements.[62]Extremeevents,suchasdroughtsandfloods,are
forecasttoincreaseasclimatechangetakeshold.[112]Agricultureisamongsectorsmostvulnerabletotheimpacts
ofclimatechangewatersupplyforexample,willbecriticaltosustainagriculturalproductionandprovidethe
increaseinfoodoutputrequiredtosustaintheworld'sgrowingpopulation.Fluctuationsintheflowofriversarelikely
toincreaseinthetwentyfirstcentury.BasedontheexperienceofcountriesintheNileriverbasin(Ethiopia,Kenya
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andSudan)andotherdevelopingcountries,depletionofwaterresourcesduringseasonscrucialforagriculturecan
leadtoadeclineinyieldbyupto50%.[113]Transformationalapproacheswillbeneededtomanagenatural
resourcesinthefuture.[114]Forexample,policies,practicesandtoolspromotingclimatesmartagriculturewillbe
important,aswillbetteruseofscientificinformationonclimateforassessingrisksandvulnerability.Plannersand
policymakerswillneedtohelpcreatesuitablepoliciesthatencouragefundingforsuchagriculturaltransformation.
[115]

Agricultureinitsmanyformscanbothmitigateorworsenglobalwarming.SomeoftheincreaseinCO2inthe
atmospherecomesfromthedecompositionoforganicmatterinthesoil,andmuchofthemethaneemittedintothe
atmosphereiscausedbythedecompositionoforganicmatterinwetsoilssuchasricepaddyfields,[116]aswellas
thenormaldigestiveactivitiesoffarmanimals.Further,wetoranaerobicsoilsalsolosenitrogenthrough
denitrification,releasingthegreenhousegasesnitricoxideandnitrousoxide.[117]Changesinmanagementcan
reducethereleaseofthesegreenhousegases,andsoilcanfurtherbeusedtosequestersomeoftheCO2inthe
atmosphere.[116]InformedbytheUNEP,"[a]griculturealsoproducesabout58percentofglobalnitrousoxide
emissionsandabout47percentofglobalmethaneemissions.Cattleandricefarmsreleasemethane,fertilized
fieldsreleasenitrousoxide,andthecuttingdownofrainforeststogrowcropsorraiselivestockreleasescarbon
dioxide.[118]BothofthesegaseshaveafargreaterglobalwarmingpotentialpertonnethanCO2(298timesand25
timesrespectively)."[78]
ThereareseveralfactorswithinthefieldofagriculturethatcontributetothelargeamountofCO2emissions.The
diversityofthesourcesrangesfromtheproductionoffarmingtoolstothetransportofharvestedproduce.
Approximately8%ofthenationalcarbonfootprintisduetoagriculturalsources.Ofthat,75%isofthecarbon
emissionsreleasedfromtheproductionofcropassistingchemicals.[119]Factoriesproducinginsecticides,
herbicides,fungicides,andfertilizersareamajorculpritofthegreenhousegas.Productivityonthefarmitselfand
theuseofmachineryisanothersourceofthecarbonemission.Almostalltheindustrialmachinesusedinmodern
farmingarepoweredbyfossilfuels.Theseinstrumentsareburningfossilfuelsfromthebeginningoftheprocessto
theend.Tractorsaretherootofthissource.ThetractorisgoingtoburnfuelandreleaseCO2justtorun.The
amountofemissionsfromthemachineryincreasewiththeattachmentofdifferentunitsandneedformorepower.
Duringthesoilpreparationstagetillersandplowswillbeusedtodisruptthesoil.Duringgrowthwateringpumpsand
sprayersareusedtokeepthecropshydrated.Andwhenthecropsarereadyforpickingaforageorcombine
harvesterisused.Thesetypesofmachineryallrequireadditionalenergywhichleadstoincreasedcarbondioxide
emissionsfromthebasictractors.[120]ThefinalmajorcontributiontoCO2emissionsinagricultureisinthefinal
transportofproduce.Localfarmingsufferedadeclineoverthepastcenturyduetolargeamountsoffarmsubsidies.
Themajorityofcropsareshippedhundredsofmilestovariousprocessingplantsbeforeendingupinthegrocery
store.Theseshipmentsaremadeusingfossilfuelburningmodesoftransportation.Inevitablythesetransportadds
tocarbondioxideemissions.[121]

Sustainability[edit]
Seealso:Listofsustainableagriculturetopics
Somemajororganizationsarehailingfarmingwithinagroecosystemsasthewayforwardformainstream
agriculture.Currentfarmingmethodshaveresultedinoverstretchedwaterresources,highlevelsoferosionand
reducedsoilfertility.AccordingtoareportbytheInternationalWaterManagementInstituteandUNEP,[122]thereis
notenoughwatertocontinuefarmingusingcurrentpracticesthereforehowcriticalwater,land,andecosystem
resourcesareusedtoboostcropyieldsmustbereconsidered.Thereportsuggestedassigningvalueto
ecosystems,recognizingenvironmentalandlivelihoodtradeoffs,andbalancingtherightsofavarietyofusersand
interests.Inequitiesthatresultwhensuchmeasuresareadoptedwouldneedtobeaddressed,suchasthe
reallocationofwaterfrompoortorich,theclearingoflandtomakewayformoreproductivefarmland,orthe
preservationofawetlandsystemthatlimitsfishingrights.[123]
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Technologicaladvancementshelpprovidefarmerswithtoolsandresourcestomakefarmingmoresustainable.[124]
Newtechnologieshavegivenrisetoinnovationslikeconservationtillage,afarmingprocesswhichhelpsprevent
landlosstoerosion,waterpollutionandenhancescarbonsequestration.[125]
AccordingtoareportbytheInternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI),[77]agriculturaltechnologieswill
havethegreatestimpactonfoodproductionifadoptedincombinationwitheachotherusingamodelthatassessed
howeleventechnologiescouldimpactagriculturalproductivity,foodsecurityandtradeby2050,IFPRIfoundthatthe
numberofpeopleatriskfromhungercouldbereducedbyasmuchas40%andfoodpricescouldbereducedby
almosthalf.

Agriculturaleconomics[edit]
Mainarticle:Agriculturaleconomics
Seealso:AgriculturalsubsidyandRuraleconomics
Agriculturaleconomicsreferstoeconomicsasitrelatestothe"production,distributionandconsumptionof
[agricultural]goodsandservices".[126]Combiningagriculturalproductionwithgeneraltheoriesofmarketingand
businessasadisciplineofstudybeganinthelate1800s,andgrewsignificantlythroughthe20thcentury.[127]
Althoughthestudyofagriculturaleconomicsisrelativelyrecent,majortrendsinagriculturehavesignificantly
affectednationalandinternationaleconomiesthroughouthistory,rangingfromtenantfarmersandsharecroppingin
thepostAmericanCivilWarSouthernUnitedStates[128]totheEuropeanfeudalsystemofmanorialism.[129]Inthe
UnitedStates,andelsewhere,foodcostsattributedtofoodprocessing,distribution,andagriculturalmarketing,
sometimesreferredtoasthevaluechain,haverisenwhilethecostsattributedtofarminghavedeclined.Thisis
relatedtothegreaterefficiencyoffarming,combinedwiththeincreasedlevelofvalueaddition(e.g.morehighly
processedproducts)providedbythesupplychain.Marketconcentrationhasincreasedinthesectoraswell,and
althoughthetotaleffectoftheincreasedmarketconcentrationislikelyincreasedefficiency,thechangesredistribute
economicsurplusfromproducers(farmers)andconsumers,andmayhavenegativeimplicationsforrural
communities.[130]
Nationalgovernmentpoliciescansignificantlychangetheeconomicmarketplaceforagriculturalproducts,inthe
formoftaxation,subsidies,tariffsandothermeasures.[131]Sinceatleastthe1960s,acombinationofimport/export
restrictions,exchangeratepoliciesandsubsidieshaveaffectedfarmersinboththedevelopinganddeveloped
world.Inthe1980s,itwasclearthatnonsubsidizedfarmersindevelopingcountrieswereexperiencingadverse
effectsfromnationalpoliciesthatcreatedartificiallylowglobalpricesforfarmproducts.Betweenthemid1980sand
theearly2000s,severalinternationalagreementswereputintoplacethatlimitedagriculturaltariffs,subsidiesand
othertraderestrictions.[132]
However,asof2009,therewasstillasignificantamountofpolicydrivendistortioninglobalagriculturalproduct
prices.Thethreeagriculturalproductswiththegreatestamountoftradedistortionweresugar,milkandrice,mainly
duetotaxation.Amongtheoilseeds,sesamehadthegreatestamountoftaxation,butoverall,feedgrainsand
oilseedshadmuchlowerlevelsoftaxationthanlivestockproducts.Sincethe1980s,policydrivendistortionshave
seenagreaterdecreaseamonglivestockproductsthancropsduringtheworldwidereformsinagriculturalpolicy.
[133]Despitethisprogress,certaincrops,suchascotton,stillseesubsidiesindevelopedcountriesartificially

deflatingglobalprices,causinghardshipindevelopingcountrieswithnonsubsidizedfarmers.[134]Unprocessed
commodities(i.e.corn,soybeans,cows)aregenerallygradedtoindicatequality.Thequalityaffectsthepricethe
producerreceives.Commoditiesaregenerallyreportedbyproductionquantities,suchasvolume,numberor
weight.[135]

Agriculturalscience[edit]
Mainarticle:Agriculturalscience
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Agriculturalscienceisabroadmultidisciplinaryfieldofbiologythatencompassesthepartsofexact,natural,
economicandsocialsciencesthatareusedinthepracticeandunderstandingofagriculture.(Veterinaryscience,
butnotanimalscience,isoftenexcludedfromthedefinition.)

Listofcountriesbyagriculturaloutput[edit]
Mainarticle:ListofcountriesbyGDPsectorcomposition
Seealso:Listofmostimportantagriculturalcropsworldwide
LargestcountriesbyagriculturaloutputaccordingtoIMFandCIAWorldFactbook,2015
Economy

Countriesbyagriculturaloutputin2015(billionsinUSD)

(01)

China

1,088

(02)

India

413

EuropeanUnion

333

()

(03)

(04)

(05)

(06)

(07)

UnitedStates

290

Indonesia

127

Brazil

110

Nigeria

106

Pakistan

63

Turkey

62

Argentina

59

(10)

Japan

51

(11)

Egypt

47

Thailand

47

Russia

47

(08)

(09)

(12)

(13)

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(14)

Australia

46

(15)

Mexico

(16)

France

42

Italy

41

Spain

39

Vietnam

37

(17)

(18)

(19)

(20)

43

Iran

36

Thetwentylargestcountriesbyagriculturaloutputin2015,accordingtotheIMFandCIAWorldFactbook.

Energyandagriculture[edit]
Sincethe1940s,agriculturalproductivityhasincreaseddramatically,duelargelytotheincreaseduseofenergy
intensivemechanization,fertilizersandpesticides.Thevastmajorityofthisenergyinputcomesfromfossilfuel
sources.[136]Betweenthe196065measuringcycleandthecyclefrom1986to1990,theGreenRevolution
transformedagriculturearoundtheglobe,withworldgrainproductionincreasingsignificantly(between70%and
390%forwheatand60%to150%forrice,dependingongeographicarea)[137]asworldpopulationdoubled.Modern
agriculture'sheavyrelianceonpetrochemicalsandmechanizationhasraisedconcernsthatoilshortagescould
increasecostsandreduceagriculturaloutput,causingfoodshortages.[138]
Agricultureandfoodsystemshare(%)oftotalenergy
consumptionbythreeindustrializednations

Country

Year

Agriculture
(direct&indirect)

Food
system

UnitedKingdom[139]

2005

1.9

11

UnitedStates[140]

2002

2.0

14

Sweden[141]

2000

2.5

13

Modernorindustrializedagricultureisdependentonfossilfuelsintwofundamentalways:1.directconsumptionon
thefarmand2.indirectconsumptiontomanufactureinputsusedonthefarm.Directconsumptionincludestheuse
oflubricantsandfuelstooperatefarmvehiclesandmachineryanduseofgasoline,liquidpropane,andelectricity
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topowerdryers,pumps,lights,heaters,andcoolers.Americanfarmsdirectlyconsumedabout1.2exajoules(1.1
quadrillionBTU)in2002,orjustover1%ofthenation'stotalenergy.[138]
Indirectconsumptionismainlyoilandnaturalgasusedtomanufacturefertilizersandpesticides,whichaccounted
for0.6exajoules(0.6quadrillionBTU)in2002.[138]Thenaturalgasandcoalconsumedbytheproductionof
nitrogenfertilizercanaccountforoverhalfoftheagriculturalenergyusage.Chinautilizesmostlycoalinthe
productionofnitrogenfertilizer,whilemostofEuropeuseslargeamountsofnaturalgasandsmallamountsofcoal.
Accordingtoa2010reportpublishedbyTheRoyalSociety,agricultureisincreasinglydependentonthedirectand
indirectinputoffossilfuels.Overall,thefuelsusedinagriculturevarybasedonseveralfactors,includingcrop,
productionsystemandlocation.[142]Theenergyusedtomanufacturefarmmachineryisalsoaformofindirect
agriculturalenergyconsumption.Together,directandindirectconsumptionbyUSfarmsaccountsforabout2%of
thenation'senergyuse.DirectandindirectenergyconsumptionbyU.S.farmspeakedin1979,andhasgradually
declinedoverthepast30years.[138]Foodsystemsencompassnotjustagriculturalproduction,butalsoofffarm
processing,packaging,transporting,marketing,consumption,anddisposaloffoodandfoodrelateditems.
AgricultureaccountsforlessthanonefifthoffoodsystemenergyuseintheUS.[143][140]

Mitigationofeffectsofpetroleumshortages[edit]
Intheeventofapetroleumshortage(seepeakoilforglobalconcerns),
organicagriculturecanbemoreattractivethanconventionalpractices
thatusepetroleumbasedpesticides,herbicides,orfertilizers.Some
studiesusingmodernorganicfarmingmethodshavereportedyields
equaltoorhigherthanthoseavailablefromconventionalfarming.[145]In
theaftermathofthefalloftheSovietUnion,withshortagesof
conventionalpetroleumbasedinputs,Cubamadeuseofmostlyorganic
practices,includingbiopesticides,plantbasedpesticidesandsustainable
croppingpractices,tofeeditspopulace.[146]However,organicfarming
maybemorelaborintensiveandwouldrequireashiftoftheworkforce
fromurbantoruralareas.[147]Thereconditioningofsoiltorestoreorganic
matterlostduringtheuseofmonocultureagriculturetechniquesis
importanttoprovideareservoirofplantavailablenutrients,tomaintain

M.KingHubbert'spredictionofworldpetroleum
productionrates.Modernagricultureistotallyreliant
onpetroleumenergy[144]

texture,andtominimizeerosion.[148]
Ithasbeensuggestedthatruralcommunitiesmightobtainfuelfromthebiocharandsynfuelprocess,whichuses
agriculturalwastetoprovidecharcoalfertilizer,somefuelandfood,insteadofthenormalfoodvs.fueldebate.As
thesynfuelwouldbeusedonsite,theprocesswouldbemoreefficientandmightjustprovideenoughfuelforanew
organicagriculturefusion.[149][150]
Ithasbeensuggestedthatsometransgenicplantsmaysomedaybedevelopedwhichwouldallowformaintaining
orincreasingyieldswhilerequiringfewerfossilfuelderivedinputsthanconventionalcrops.[151]Thepossibilityof
successoftheseprogramsisquestionedbyecologistsandeconomistsconcernedwithunsustainableGMO
practicessuchasterminatorseeds.[152][153]WhiletherehasbeensomeresearchonsustainabilityusingGMO
crops,atleastoneprominentmultiyearattemptbyMonsantoCompanyhasbeenunsuccessful,thoughduringthe
sameperiodtraditionalbreedingtechniquesyieldedamoresustainablevarietyofthesamecrop.[154]

Policy[edit]
Mainarticle:Agriculturalpolicy

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Agriculturalpolicyisthesetofgovernmentdecisionsandactionsrelatingtodomesticagricultureandimportsof
foreignagriculturalproducts.Governmentsusuallyimplementagriculturalpolicieswiththegoalofachievinga
specificoutcomeinthedomesticagriculturalproductmarkets.Someoverarchingthemesincluderiskmanagement
andadjustment(includingpoliciesrelatedtoclimatechange,foodsafetyandnaturaldisasters),economicstability
(includingpoliciesrelatedtotaxes),naturalresourcesandenvironmentalsustainability(especiallywaterpolicy),
researchanddevelopment,andmarketaccessfordomesticcommodities(includingrelationswithglobal
organizationsandagreementswithothercountries).[155]Agriculturalpolicycanalsotouchonfoodquality,ensuring
thatthefoodsupplyisofaconsistentandknownquality,foodsecurity,ensuringthatthefoodsupplymeetsthe
population'sneeds,andconservation.Policyprogramscanrangefromfinancialprograms,suchassubsidies,to
encouragingproducerstoenrollinvoluntaryqualityassuranceprograms.[156]
Therearemanyinfluencesonthecreationofagriculturalpolicy,includingconsumers,agribusiness,tradelobbies
andothergroups.Agribusinessinterestsholdalargeamountofinfluenceoverpolicymaking,intheformof
lobbyingandcampaigncontributions.Politicalactiongroups,includingthoseinterestedinenvironmentalissuesand
laborunions,alsoprovideinfluence,asdolobbyingorganizationsrepresentingindividualagriculturalcommodities.
[157]TheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)leadsinternationaleffortstodefeathunger

andprovidesaforumforthenegotiationofglobalagriculturalregulationsandagreements.Dr.SamuelJutzi,
directorofFAO'sanimalproductionandhealthdivision,statesthatlobbyingbylargecorporationshasstopped
reformsthatwouldimprovehumanhealthandtheenvironment.Forexample,proposalsin2010foravoluntary
codeofconductforthelivestockindustrythatwouldhaveprovidedincentivesforimprovingstandardsforhealth,
andenvironmentalregulations,suchasthenumberofanimalsanareaoflandcansupportwithoutlongterm
damage,weresuccessfullydefeatedduetolargefoodcompanypressure.[158]

Seealso[edit]
Mainarticle:Outlineofagriculture

References[edit]
1.Jumpup^Safetyandhealthinagriculture.InternationalLabourOrganization.1999.pp.77.ISBN97892
21115175.Retrieved13September2010.
2.Jumpup^Chantrell,Glynnis,ed.(2002).TheOxfordDictionaryofWordHistories.OxfordUniversityPress.
p.14.ISBN0198631219.
3.Jumpup^UlrichG.MuellerNicoleM.GerardoDuurK.AanenDianaL.SixTedR.Schultz(December
2005)."TheEvolutionofAgricultureinInsects".AnnualReviewofEcology,Evolution,andSystematics.36:
563595.doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152626.
4.^Jumpupto:ab"DefinitionofAgriculture".StateofMaine.Retrieved6May2013.
5.Jumpup^CommitteeonForestryResearch,NationalResearchCouncil(1990).ForestryResearch:A
MandateforChange.NationalAcademiesPress.pp.1516.ISBN0309042488.
6.Jumpup^Budowski,Gerardo(1982)."Applicabilityofagroforestrysystems".InMacDonald,L.H.Agro
forestryintheAfricanHumidTropics.UnitedNationsUniversity.ISBN9280803646.Retrieved17March
2016.
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152.Jumpup^R.PillarisettiKylieRadel(June2004)."EconomicandEnvironmentalIssuesinInternational
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153.Jumpup^Conway,G.(2000)."Geneticallymodifiedcrops:risksandpromise".4(1):2.Conservation
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154.Jumpup^"Monsantofailure".NewScientist.181(2433).London.7February2004.Retrieved18April
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157.Jumpup^Ikerd,John(2010)."CorporatizationofAgriculturalPolicy".SmallFarmTodayMagazine.
158.Jumpup^Jowit,Juliette(22September2010)."CorporateLobbyingIsBlockingFoodReforms,SeniorUN
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Furtherreading[edit]
Alvarez,RobertA(2007)."TheMarchofEmpire:Mangos,Avocados,andthePoliticsofTransfer".
Gastronomica.7(3):2833.doi:10.1525/gfc.2007.7.3.28.
Bolens,L.(1997)."Agriculture"inSelin,Helaine(ed.),EncyclopediaoftheHistoryofScience,Technology,
andMedicineinNonWesternCultures.KluwerAcademicPublishers,Dordrecht/Boston/London,pp.2022.
Collinson,M.(ed.)AHistoryofFarmingSystemsResearch.CABIPublishing,2000.ISBN9780851994055
JaredDiamond,Guns,germsandsteel.Ashorthistoryofeverybodyforthelast13,000years,1997.
Mazoyer,MarcelRoudart,Laurence(2006).Ahistoryofworldagriculture:fromtheNeolithicAgetothe
currentcrisis.MonthlyReviewPress,NewYork.ISBN9781583671214
Watson,A.M.(1983).AgriculturalInnovationintheEarlyIslamicWorld,CambridgeUniversityPress.

Externallinks[edit]
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