Chapter # 5

Transmission Lines: Steady State

Operation
Dr. Habib-ur Rehman
Electrical Engineering Department
American University of Sharjah

Chapter # 5
Transmission Lines: Steady State
Operation
Week # 6,
6 Lecture 18

Introduction

13:00

The objective of this chapter is to analyze the performance of

single-phase and balanced three phase transmission line under
normal loading condition.
Expressions for voltage and current at any point along a line
are developed, where is distributed nature of series
impedance and shut admittance is taken into account.
A line is treated here as two pport network for which the
ABCD parameters and an equivalent circuit are derived.
A medium line is approximated by lumping the shunt
admittance, for short line by neglecting the shunt admittance,
and for lossless line by assuming zero series resistance and
shunt conductance.

Introduction

13:00

Transmission lines are classified according to their lengths to:

Short: less than 80 km
Medium: from 80 km to 240 km
Long: longer than 240 km

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

13:00

It is convenient to represent a transmission

li by
line
b a two
t portt network.
t
k
Vs and Is are sending end voltage and
current while VR and IR are receiving end
voltage and current.
The relation between the sending and
receiving end quantities is given by Eq. (1)
which can be represented in the matrix
form by Eq
Eq. (2).
(2)
Where A, B, C, and D are the parameters
that depend on the transmission-line
constant R, L, C, and G.
The ABCD are in general, complex
numbers. A and D are dimension less, B
has unit of ohm and C has unit of siemens.

Vs AVR BI R
I s CVR DI R

....(1)

Vs A B VR
I C D I ...(2)
R
s

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

Figure represent a short transmission

li (< 80 Km)
line
K ) for
f a single
i l phase
h
or
completely transposed three-phase lines
operating under balanced condition.
Z is the total series impedance and
while Y will be the total shunt
admittance. The shunt conductance G is
neglected for the overhead transmission
lines
lines.

Vs 1 Z VR
I 0 1 I ...(2)
R
s
13:00

Vs VR ZI R
Is IR

....(1)

A D 1
BZ
C0
AD BC 1

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

For a medium line typically ranging

from 80 to 250 km at 60 Hz, it is
common to lump the total shunt
capacitance and locate half at each
end of the line. Such a circuit is
called nominal circuit.
V Y YZ

Vs VR Z I R R 1
VR ZI R
2
2

V Y VY
Is IR R s
2
2
Y
VRY YZ
1
Is IR
VR ZI R
2
2

YZ
YZ
I s Y 1
VR 1
I R
4
2

13:00

YZ

Z
1

VR
Vs
2

I YZ YZ I ...(2)
s Y 1
1
R

4
2
A D 1

YZ
2

BZ
YZ
C Y 1

AD BC 1

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

For a medium line typically ranging

from 80 to 250 km, it is common to
lump the total shunt capacitance and
locate half at each end of the line.
Such a circuit is called nominal
circuit.

V Y YZ

Vs VR Z I R R 1
VR ZI R
2
2

V Y VY
Is IR R s
2
2
Y
VRY YZ
Is IR
1
VR ZI R
2
2

2
YZ
YZ
I s Y 1
VR 1
I R
4
2

13:00

YZ

Z
1

VR
Vs
2
I YZ YZ I ...(2)
s Y 1
1
R

4
2
A D 1

YZ
2

BZ
YZ
C Y 1

AD BC 1

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

A medium length
g line
could be approximated
by a T circuit lumping
half of the series
impedance at each end
of the line.
A series network is a
combination of two
networks connected in
series.

13:00

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

The ABCD p
parameters are used to describe the variation of line voltage
g
with the line loading.
Voltage Regulation is the change in voltage at the receiving end of line
when the load varies from no load to a specified full load at a specified
power factor, while the sending end voltage is held constant.
VR

VRNL VRFL

VRNL

13:00

VRFL
VS
A

100

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

In ppractice transmission line voltage

g decrease when heavilyy
loaded and increase when lightly loaded.
When the voltage on EHV lines are maintained within 5%
of rated voltage, corresponding to about 10% voltage
regulation, unusual voltage operating problems are not
encountered.
10% voltage regulation for lower voltage lines including
transformers voltage drop is a good practice.

13:00

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

LINE LOADABILITY:

Three major issues related to line loadability are:

1. The Thermal Limit.
2. The voltage regulation.
3. The steady state stability limit.
Thermal Limit:

The maximum temperature of a conductor determines its thermal limit.

Conductor temperature affects the conductor sag between the towers and
the loss of conductor tensile strength due to annealing.

If the conductor temperature is too high, prescribed conductor to ground

limit may not be met, or elastic limit of the conductor may be exceeded
such that it cannot shrink to its original length when cooled.

Conductor temperature depends upon the current magnitude, its time

duration, as well as ambient temperature, wind velocity and conductor
13:00
surface area.

5.1: Medium and Short Lines Approximations

The loadiblity of short transmission lines (< 80 km) is usually determined
by the conductor thermal limit or by rating of line terminal equipment
such as circuit breakers.
For longer line lengths (up to 300 km), line loadibility is often determined
by the voltage drop limit. Although more severe voltage drops may be
tolerated in some cases, a heavily loaded line with VR/VS 0.95 is usually
consider safe operating practice.
For line length 300 km, steady state stability becomes a limiting factor.
Stability refers to the ability of synchronous machines on either end of the
line to remain in synchronism.

13:00

Example 1

13:00

A 220 kV, three phase transmission line is 40 km long. The resistance per
phase
h
is
i 0.15
0 15 per km
k andd the
th inductance
i d t
per phase
h
is
i 1.3263
1 3263 mH
H per
km. Use the short line model to find the voltage and power at the sending
end, voltage regulation and efficiency when the line is supplying a three
phase load of 381 MVA at 0.8 power factor lagging at 220 kV.

Example 1:
Z (r jL)l 6 j 20
The receiving voltage per
phase is:

VR

IR

SR
1000 36.87
3VR

VS ( L L) 3VS 250kV
PR 3 220 1000 cos(36.8) 304.8MW
Ps 13:003 250 1000 cos(4.93 36.8) 322.8MW

2200
1270
3

VS VR ZI R 144.34.93kV

250 220
13.6%
220
304.8

94.4%
322.8

VR

Chapter # 5
Transmission Lines: Steady State
Operation
Week # 7,
7 Lecture 19

Example 5.1:

A three phase 60 Hz, completely transposed 345kV, 200 km line has two
795 000 cmil 26/2 ACSR conductors per bundle and the following
795,000
positive sequence line constants:
z = 0.032 + j0.35 /km, y = j4.2*10-6 S/km. Full load at the receiving end
of the line is 700 MW at 0.99 power factor leading and at 95% of rated
voltage. Find the following:

ABCD parameters of the nominal circuit

Sending end voltage Vs, current Is and power Ps.

Percent voltage
g regulation.
g

Thermal limit.

Transmission line efficiency at full load.

13:00

Example 5.1:
Z zl 70.2984.78

a)

Y yl 8.4 10 4 90

VS
356.3
A
VRNL ( per phase ) 205.7
VRNL

c)

VR
13:00

C 8.277 10 4 90.08

0.95 345
189.20
3
700 cos 1 0.99
IR
1.2468.11 kA
3 (0.95 345)(0.99)

VR
b)

A D 0.970.159
B Z 70.2984.78

356.3 327.8
8.7%
327.8

VS AVR BI R 199.6026.14
I S CVR DI R 1.24115.5 kA

Example 5.1:
From the table in the previous note, the current carrying capacity is: 2*0.9
= 1.8 kA. The full load voltage is 95% of rated voltage which in practice is
considered to be about the lowest operating voltage possible without
encountering operating problems.

d)

Thus for a 345 kV line, 200

km, uncompensated line,
voltage drop limits the full
load current to 1.246 kA at
0.99 leading pf, well below
the thermal limit of 1.8 kA.

PS 730.5 MW
e)

700
95.8%
730.5

13:00

Example 3:

13:00

10

Finding parameters of a TL using open circuit and short circuit tests on

th line.
the
li ( Note:
N t A=D
A D & AD-BC=1
AD BC 1 or A2-BC=1)
BC 1)

Example 3, Solution
VS AVr BI r

I S CVr AI r
A
820 88.8
C
B
20078
A

Z OC
Z SC

Three equations and three unknowns

unknowns, solve for A
A, B and C and proceed
like the previous example.

13:00

Chapter # 5
Transmission Lines: Steady State
Operation
Week # 7,
7 Lecture 20

11

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

The line constants R, L, C are not
lumped, but rather are uniformly
distributed along the length of line.
In order to account for distributed
nature of the line, consider the
circuit of the line shown.
The voltage and current equations at
any point x can be given by:

13:00

V ( x x) V ( x) ( zx ) I ( x)
V ( x x ) V ( x )
zI ( x)
x
dV ( x )
zI ( x )....(1)
dx

z R jL /m
y G jC S/m
I ( x x) I ( x) ( yx)V ( x x)
I ( x x) I ( x)
yV ( x x)
x
dI ( x)
yV ( x)...(2)
dx

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

13:00

12

Equations (1) and (2) are two

linear first order, homogeneous
differential equations with two
unknowns V(x) and I(x).
The variable I(x) can be
eliminated as shown in Eq. (3).
Eq. (3) is linear, second-order,
homogeneous differential equation
with one unknown. The solution
of this differential equation by
inspection can be given by Eq.
(4):
A1 and A2 are integration
constants.

dV ( x)
zI ( x)....(
) (1)
dx
dI ( x)
yV ( x)...(2)
dx
d 2V ( x)
dI ( x)
z
zyV ( x)
2
dx
dx
d 2V ( x)
zyV ( x) 0....((3)
dx 2
Let : 2 zy zy

d 2V ( x)
2V ( x) 0...(3)
dx 2

V ( x) A1ex A2 e x ...(4)

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

The , whose units are m-1, is called

the propagation constant.
Differentiating Eq. (4) we get Eq.
(6).
Zc, whose units are is called the
characteristics impedance.

V ( x) A1ex A2 e x ...((4)

zy

m 1..............(5)

dV ( x)
A1ex A2 e x zI ( x)..(6)
dx
I ( x)

A e

A2 e x

y
A1ex A2 e x
z
A ex A2 e x
1
where
Zc

z
y

Zc

13:00

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

13:00

13

Next the integration constant

A1 and A2 are evaluated
from
the
boundary
conditions.
At x=0, i.e., the receiving
end of the line, the receiving
end voltages and current are
given by (7).
The voltage and current Eq.
(6) at x(0) transforms into
Eq. (8).

V ( x) A1ex A2 e x
1
....(6)
I ( x)
A1ex A2 e x
Zc

VR V( 0 )
....(7)
I R I( 0 )
VR A1 A2
A -A
A ....((8)
IR 1 2
Zc

VR Z c I R
&
2

V Zc I R
A2 R
2
A1

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

Substituting A1 and A2 into

V(x) and I(x) eq. i.e., Eq. (6):
Eq. (9) gives the current and
voltage at any point x along
the line in terms of receiving
end voltage and current.

VR Z C I R x VR Z C I R x
e
e
2
2
V Z C I R x VR Z C I R x
I ( x) R
e
e
2Z C
2Z C

V ( x)

ex e x
ex e x
I R
VR Z C
V ( x)
2
2

...((9)
ex e x
1 ex e x

VR
I R
I ( x)
2
2
ZC

13:00

V ( x) cosh(x)VR Z c sinh(x) I R
1
I ( x)
sinh(x)VR cosh(x) I R
Zc
A Cosh(x) D
B Z c Sinh(x) ...(10)
1
C
Sinh(x)
Zc

V ( x) A( x) B( x) VR
I ( x) C ( x) D( x) I

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

At the sending end where x=l, V(l)=Vs

and I(l)=Is, That is:

Eq. (11) gives the parameters of a

distributed line.
In these equation the propagation constant
is a complex quantity with real and
imaginary parts denoted by and .
The quantity l is dimensionless.

j m

13:00

14

V ( x) A( x) B( x) VR
I ( x) C ( x) D( x) I
R

VS A B VR
I C D I
R
S

A Cosh(l ) D
B Z c Sinh(l ) ....(11)
1
C
Sinh(l )
Zc

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

The
hyperbolic
functions cosh and sinh
can be evaluated either
by using Eq. (12) or,
Alternatively
the
trigonometric identities
can be also used to
evaluate the hyperbolic
f ti
function.
The
dimensionless
quantity l is in radians
not in degrees.

j m 1
el e ( j )l el e jl el l
el e l 1 l
e l e l l ...(12)
2
2
l
l
1
e e
sinh(l )
el l e l l
2
2
cosh(l )

cosh(l jl ) cosh(l ) cos( l ) j sinh(l ) sin( l )

sinh(l jl ) sinh(l ) cos( l ) j cosh(l ) sin( l )

13:00

5.2: Transmission Line Differential Equations

13:00

15

The ABCD parameters given by Eq. (10) are exact parameters valid for
any length
length. For accurate calculations these equations must be used for
overhead lines longer than 250 km.
The ABCD parameters derived earlier are approximate parameters that are
more conveniently used for hand calculations involving short and medium
length line.

Example 5.2:
A three phase 765kV, 60 Hz, 300 km completely transposed line has the
f ll i positive
following
iti sequence line
li constants:
t t
z = 0.0165 + j0.3306 /km, y = j4. 674*10-6 S/km. Calculate the exact
ABCD parameters. Compare the exact B parameter with that of the
nominal circuit.

13:00

Example 4:

j m 1
el e ( j )l el e jl el l

z 0.3387.14 / km
y 4.674 10 6 90 S / km
ZC

z
0.3387.14

y
4.674 10 6 90

(0.3387.14) (4.67 10 90) 300

l 0.37388.57 0.00931 j 0.3730

el e 0.0093 e j 0.373 1.00940.373

0.9400 j 0.3678
e l e 0.0093 e j 0.373 0.9907 0.373

16

1
Sinh(l )
Zc

A D cosh(l ) 0.93130.209o
B Z c sinh(l )

zy l zyl

0.9226 j 0.3610

cosh(l ) 0.93130.209
sinh(l ) 0.364588.63

Z C 266.1 1.43

13:00

A Cosh(l ) D
B Z c Sinh(l )

266.1 1.43 0.364588.63o

B 97.087.2
1
C
sinh(l ) 1.37 10 3 90.06o
Zc
B Z 99.387.14(nominal )

B approximate is about 2 %
larger than the exact value.

Chapter # 5
Transmission Lines: Steady State
Operation
Week # 7,
7 Lecture 21 + Quiz

5.4: Lossless Lines

13:00

17

When line losses are neglected, simpler

expressions for the line parameters are
obtained and the above concepts are more
easily understood.
Since transmission and distribution lines for
power transfer generally are designed to
have low losses, the equations and concepts
developed here can be used for quick and
reasonably
bl
accurate
t
h d calculations
hand
l l ti
leading to the seat-of-the-pants analyses and
to initial designs. More accurate calculations
can then be made with computer programs
for follow up analysis.

For a lossless line

R=G=0
z jL /m
y jC S/m
Zc

z
y

j L
L

jC
C

zy ( jL)( jC )
j LC j m 1

LC m 1

5.4: Lossless Lines

A( x) cosh(x) cosh( j x) D( x)

The characteristics impedance

Z c L commonly called the surge
C
impedance for a lossless line is
pure real, i.e. resistive.

The propagation constant

j is pure imaginary.

A(x) and D(x) are pure real;

B(x) and C(x) are pure
imaginary.

V ( x) Cos ( x)VR jZ c Sin( x) I R

1
....(1)
I ( x) j Sin( x)VR Cos ( x) I R
Z
13:00
c

e j x e j x
cos( x)
2
sinh(x) sinh( j x)

e jx e jx
j sin( x)
2
B( x) Z c sinh(x) jZ c sin( x)

sin( x)
C
sinh(x) j sin( x)
C ( x)

Zc
L
C
B( x) j L

A Cos ( x) D
B Z c Sin( x)

1
Sin( x)
Zc

5.4: Lossless Lines

Wavelength: A wavelength is the distance required to
change the phase of the voltage or current by 2 radians or
360o.

13:00

18

2
1

LC f LC

1
LC

Velocity of propagation

Example 5:
A three phase 60 Hz, 500kV, 300 km. The line inductance is 0.97
mH/km
H/k andd its
it capacitance
it
is
i 0.0115
0 0115 F/km
F/k per phase.
h
A
Assume a
lossless line:
Determine the line phase constant , the surge impedance Zc, velocity of
propagation and the line wavelength.
The receiving end rated load is 800 MW, 0.8 power factor lagging at 500
kV, determine the sending end quantities.

a)

b)

13:00

Example 5:
a) For a lossless line:
LC 2 60 0.97 0.0115 10 9 0.001259 rad/km
ZC

L
290.43
C

v
4990 km
f

b) The receiving end voltage is:

The receiving end
current is:
13:01

19

1
2.994 105 km/s
LC

IR

VR

5000
288.670 kV
3

800 106
cos 1 (0.8) 1154.7 36.87 A
3
3 500 10 0.8

Example 5:
The sending end voltage is:

VS cos( l )VR jZ C sin( l ) I R 356.516.1 kV

IS j

1
sin( l )VR cos( l ) I R 902.3 17.9 A
ZC

13:01

Chapter # 5
Transmission Lines: Steady State
Operation
Week # 8,
8 Lecture 22

20

5.4: Surge Impedance Loading

Surge impedance loading (SIL) is the
power delivered
d li
d by
b a lossless
l l line
li to
t a
load resistance equal to the surge
impedance Zc.

Figure shows a lossless line

terminated by a resistance equal to its
surge impedance.

At SIL, the apparent power can be

given by Eq.
Eq (1) and the voltage
equation can at any point (x) can be
given by Eq. (2):

Thus at (SIL) the voltage profile is

flat, i.e., the voltage magnitude (Eq.
3) at any point along a lossless line is
13:01
constant.

V ( x) Cos ( x)VR jZ c Sin( x) I R

1
....(1)
Sin( x )VR Cos ( x) I R
Zc

I ( x) j

SIL 3VR I R 3

V ( x) e jxVR
V ( x) VR ....(3)

V ( x) Cos ( x)VR jZ c Sin( x) I R

1
....(1)
Sin( x )VR Cos ( x) I R
Zc

I ( x) j

At SIL the current at any point (x) along

1
V
I ( x) j Sin( x)VR Cos ( x) R ...((4)
th line
the
li can be
b given
i
by
b Eq.
E (4):
(4)
Zc
Zc
Using Eq. (3) and (5) the complex power
VR
I ( x) cos( x) j sin( x)
flowing at any point (x) along the line
Zc
can be calculated by (6):
jx VR
Thus the real power flow along a lossless I ( x) e Z ...(5)
c
line at SIL remains constant from the
S ( x) p ( x) jQ ( x) V ( x) I * ( x)..(5)
sending end to the receiving end of the
*

V
line The reactive power flow is zero.
line.
zero
e jxVR e jx R
Zc

At rated line voltage v SIL is given by (7)

P( x)

21

....((1)

V
V ( x) cos( x)VR jZ c sin( x) R
Zc
V ( x) cos( x) j sin( x) VR

P( x)

13:01

Zc

V ( x) cos( x)VR jZ c sin( x) I R ...(2)

5.4: Surge Impedance Loading

VR

VR
Zc

...(6)

2
Vrated
...(7)
Zc

5.4: Surge Impedance Loading

Surge Impedance and SIL values for Typical 60-HZ overhead Lines

13:01

5.4: Voltage Profile under loading conditions

13:01

22

In practice power lines are not terminated by their surge impedance.

I t d loading
Instead,
l di can vary from
f
a small
ll fraction
f ti off SIL dduring
i li
light
ht load
l d
conditions up to multiples of SIL, depending on line length and
compensations, during heavy load conditions.
If line is not terminated by surge
impedance the voltage profile is not flat.
Figure shows four loading conditions
assuming a fixed voltage Vs at the
sending end :
1. No-Load,
2. SIL,
3. Full load,
4. Short circuit.

5.4: Voltage Profile under Loading Conditions

13:01

At no-load, IRNL=0 and VNL(x)=cos(l) * VRNL

The no-load voltage increases from VS=cos(l) * VRNL at the sending end
to VRNL at the receiving end where x=0.
V ( x) Cos ( x)V jZ Sin( x) I
The voltage profile is constant at SIL.
1
....(1)
R

I ( x) j

For short circuit, VR=0. For full load, the

receiving voltage will drop depends on the
loading conditions.
Figures
g
shows that there will be a high
g
receiving end voltage at no-load, and low
receiving end voltage at full load.
This voltage regulation problem becomes
more severe as the line length increases.
Shunt compensation methods are used to
reduce the voltage fluctuations.

Zc

Sin( x )VR Cos ( x) I R

5.5: Complex Power Flow Through

Transmission Lines

Vs AVR BI R ....(1)

Maximum power flow will be

derived here in terms ABCD
parameters for lossy lines.
Solving Eq.(1) for receiving end
current we get Eq. (2).
The complex power delivered to
the receiving end is given by Eq.
(3):
S R P jQ VR I

*
R

A Cosh(l ) A A
B Z / Z / z
VS VS
VR VR 0
IR

VS A A VR 0
Z / Z

V A A VR 0
VR S

Z / Z

13:01

23

SR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) ( Z ) A VR ( L L ) ( Z A )
Z/

...(3)

....(2)

5.5: Complex Power Flow Through

Transmission Lines
2

SR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) ( Z ) A VR ( L L ) ( Z A )
Z/

...(3)

Using Eq. (3) The Real Power at the receiving end of the line is:

PR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) cos( Z ) A VR ( L L ) cos( Z A )
Z/

...(4)

For a lossless line, A=0, B=Z/=jX, z=90

13:01

PR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) sin( )
X

5.5: Complex Power Flow Through

Transmission Lines
So the maximum power that can be
delivered will be given when =90o

PR max

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L )
X

...(5)

This value is called the steady-state stability limit of a lossless line. If an

attempt was made to exceed this limit, then synchronous machines at the
sending end would lose synchronism with those at the receiving end.
The theoretical maximum real power delivered (or steady state stability limit)
occurs when =Z. Thus Equation (4) is transformed as:
The second term and the fact that Z/
is somewhat larger than X/, reduces
Prmax to a value somewhat less than
that give by Eq. (5)
13:01

24

PR max

VRVS AVR2 R

Cos( Z A )
Z/
Z/

5.5: Complex Power Flow Through

Transmission Lines
2

SR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) ( Z ) A VR ( L L ) ( Z A )
Z/

...(3)

Using Eq. (3), the Reactive Power at the receiving end of the line is:
2

QR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) sin( Z ) A VR ( L L ) sin( Z A )
Z/

For a lossless line, B=jX, A=0, B=90

QR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L )
X

cos( )

VR ( L L )

cos(l )

13:01

Power Transmission Capabilities

PR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) sin( )
X

For planning and other purposes, it is very useful to express the power
transfer formula in terms of SIL.
For a lossless line:

PR

13:01

25

X Z C sin( l )

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) Vrated 2 sin( )
Vrated Vrated
Z C sin( l )

PR

PR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L ) sin( )
Z C sin( l )

VSpu
VRpu
SIL
S
R
sin( l )

sin( )..(6)

5.6: Line Loadability

13:01

Equation (6) revels two important

f t affecting
factors
ff ti the
th steady
t d state
t t
stability. First it increases with the
square of the line voltage. For
example, doubling the voltage will
enable a fourfold increase in the
power flow. Second it decreases with
the line length.
Eq (6) is plotted for Vs.p.u.=V
Eq.
VR.p.u.
=1
1,
R
=5000km, and line length up to 1100
km.
As shown, the theoretical steady state
stability limit decreases from 4(SIL)
for 200 km line to about 2(SIL) for a
400 km line.

VSpu VRpu SIL

ssin(( )
sin( l )
..(6)
VSpu VRpu SIL
sin( )

2l
sin(
)

PR

5.6: Line Loadability

13:01

26

In practice, power lines are not operated to deliver their theoretical

maximum
i
power, which
hi h is
i based
b d on rated
t d terminal
t
i l voltage
lt
andd angular
l
displacement of =90o across the line.
Figure shows a practical line loadability curve plotted below the theoretical
steady state stability limit. This curve is based on voltage drop limit
VR/VS 0.95 and on a maximum angular displacement of 30 to 35o across
the line in order to maintain stability
during the transient disturbance
without
ith t any compensation.
ti
For short lines less than 80 km long,
loadability is limited by thermal
rating of the conductor or by terminal
equipment ratings, not by the voltage
drop or stability consideration.

Chapter # 5
Transmission Lines: Steady State
Operation
Week # 8,
8 Lecture 23

Example 6:
A three p
phase p
power of 700 MW is to be transmitted to a substation
located 315 km from a source of power. For a preliminary line design
assume the following parameters:
Vs = 1 per unit, VR = 0.9 per unit, =5000 km, Zc=320 and =36.87
a) Based on the practical line loadability equation determine a nominal
voltage level for the transmission line.
b) For the transmission voltage obtained in (a) calculate the theoretical
maximum power that can be transferred by the transmission line.

13:01

27

Example 6:
The line p
phase constant is:

2l

rad

360
(315) 22.68o
5000

The practical line loadability:

700

1 0.9 SIL
sin( 22.68)

PR

VSpu VRpu SIL

sin( l )

sin(36.87)

sin( )
SIL = 499 MW

kVL ( Z C )( SIL) (320)(499.83) 400 kV

Pmax
13:01

VSpu VRpu SIL

sin( l )

1167 MW

Example 5.7:
It is required
q
to transmit 9000 MW to a load center 500 km from the p
plant
based on practical line loadability criteria,
Determine the number of three phase, 60 Hz lines to transmit this power with
345 kV and 765 kV lines and surge impedance = 297 and 266 ohm
respectively. Assume the sending voltage is 1.0 per unit, the receiving voltage
= 0.95 per unit and =35.

13:01

28

5.7: Reactive Compensation Techniques

Inductors and capacitors

are used to on mediumlength
and
long
transmission lines to
increase line loadibility
and to maintain voltages
near rated values.
Shunt
reactors
(i d t )
(inductors)
are
commonly installed at
selected points along
EHV lines from each
phase to neutral.

13:01

5.7: Reactive Compensation Techniques

13:01

29

Figure 5.14 shows a schematic and an equivalent circuit for a

compensated line section, where Nc is the amount of series capacitive
compensation
expressed in percent of the positive-sequence line
impedance and NL is the amount of shunt reactive compensation in
percent of the positive-sequence line admittance.
It is assumed in Figure 5.14 that half of the compensation is installed at
each end of the line section.

5.7: Reactive Compensation Techniques

The inductors absorb

reactive power and reduce
over voltages during light
load conditions.
They also reduce transient
over voltages due to
switching and lightning
surges.
However, shunt reactors
can reduce line loadability
if they arc not removed
under
full-load
conditions.

13:01

5.7: Reactive Compensation Techniques

13:01

30

In addition to shunt reactors, shunt capacitors are sometimes used to

d li
deliver
reactive
ti power and
d increase
i
t
transmission
i i voltages
lt
d i heavy
during
h
load conditions.
Synchronous condensors (synchronous motors with no mechanical load)
can also control their reactive power output, although more slowly than
static var compensators.
Another type of shunt compensation includes thyristor-switched reactors
in parallel with capacitors. These devices, called static var
compensators can absorb reactive power during light loads and deliver
compensators,
reactive power during heavy loads.

5.7: Reactive Compensation Techniques

Through automatic control of the thyristor switches, voltage fluctuations

are minimized and line loadability is increased.
Series capacitors arc sometimes used on long lines to increase line
loadability. Capacitor banks arc installed in series with each phase
conductor at elected points along a line. Their effect is to reduce the net
series impedance of the line in series with the capacitor banks, thereby
reducing line-voltage drops and increasing the steady-state stability
limit.

13:01

5.7: Reactive Compensation Techniques

13:01

31

A disadvantage of series capacitor banks is that automatic protection

devices must be installed to bypass high currents during faults and to
reinsert the capacitor banks after fault clearing.
Studies have shown. however, that series capacitive compensation can
increase the loadability of long lines at only a fraction of the cost of new
transmission line

13:01

5.7: Reactive Compensation Techniques

Shunt reactors are applied to

compensate
t
f
for
th
the
undesirable
d i bl
voltage effects associated with line
capacitance.
X Lsh

IR

VR
jX Lsh

VS VR (cos l

sin l
ZC
VS
cos l
VR

for VS VR
sin l
ZC
1 cos l
1
I S I R (
sin( l ) X Lsh cos l )
ZC
X Lsh

13:01

32

IS = -IR

ZC
sin l )
X Lsh

5.7: Shunt Capacitor Compensation

Shunt capacitors are used lagging power factor circuits created by heavy
l d
loads.
The objective is to supply the needed reactive power to maintain the
receiving end voltage at a satisfactory level.

13:01

5.7: Series Capacitor Compensation

Series capacitors are used to reduce the series reactance between the
l d andd the
load
th supply.
l
This results in improved transient and steady state stability, more
economical loading and minimum voltage dip on load buses.

P3

13:01

33

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L )
X ' X Cser

sin

Example 8:
For the transmission line of example
p 5:
a) Calculate the receiving end voltage when the line is terminated in an open
circuit and energized with 500 kV at the sending end.
b) Determine the reactance and the Mvar of a three phase shunt reactor to
be installed at the receiving end to the keep the no-load receiving voltage
at the rated value.

13:01

Example 8:
The line is energized
g
with 500 kV at the sending
g end, so the p
phase voltage
g is:
VS

5000
288.7 kV
3

From previous examples, ZC = 290.43, l = 21.64. When the line is open IR = 0 and
VR will be:
VR ( nl )

VS
310.57 kV
cos l

For VR = VS, then:

The reactor rating is:

13:01

34

X Lsh

sin l
sin 21.64
ZC
290.43 1519.5
1 cos l
1 cos 21.64

kVLrated 2
X Lsh

5002
1519.5

164.5 Mvar

Example 9:
The transmission line of example
p 5 supplies
pp
a load of 1000 MVA, 0.8 p
power
factor lagging at 500 kV:
a) Determine the Mvar of the shunt capacitors to be installed at the receiving
end to keep the receiving end voltage at 500 kV when the line is
energized with 500 kV at the sending end.

13:01

Example 9:
From previous examples
examples, ZC = 290.43,
290 43 l = 21.64
21 64 so the equivalent line reactance
for a lossless line is given by: X Z sin l 107.1
C

S 1000 cos 1 (0.8) 800 j 600 MVA

The receiving end power is:

For the above operating condition, the power angle is obtained from:

800

500 500

107.1

20.04o

sin( )

So the net reactive power at the receiving end is:

QR

VS ( L L ) VR ( L L )
X

cos( )

VR ( L L )
X

cos( l ) 23.15 Mvar

So the required Mvar will be: SC = j23.15 j600 = -j576.85 Mvar

13:01

35