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Terms to Know
4
Child
Development
Principles and
Theories
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infant
toddler
preschooler
physical development
gross-motor development
ne-motor development
cognitive development
social-emotional development
cephalocaudal principle
proximodistal principle
maturation
neurons
synapses
windows of opportunity
theory
schemata
sensorimotor stage
preoperational stage
concrete operations stage
multiple intelligences
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Child Development
Development refers to change or growth
that occurs in children. It starts with infancy
and continues to adulthood. By studying
child development, you will form a prole
of what children can do at various ages. For
instance, you will learn that two-year-old
children like to run. This means you should
provide space for them to move freely.
Likewise, you will learn that infants explore
with their senses, often mouthing objects.
Knowing this, you will need to make sure
that all toys for infants are clean and safe.
Different names are used to describe
young children at different ages. From
birth through the rst year, children are
called infants. Toddlers are children from
age one up to the third birthday. (Because
of an awkward style of walking, the name
toddler describes this age group.) The term
preschooler is often used to describe children
ages three to six years of age.
The basic patterns of child development
are a rather recent area of study. Researchers
are constantly discovering new information
on how children grow, develop, and learn
about their world. Studying the basics of
child development is just the beginning
for you. Throughout your career, you will
need to update your knowledge of the latest
research and trends in this career eld.
Seminars, courses, professional articles, and
conferences will help you in this goal. Keep
in mind that growing as a professional is a
lifelong process.
d
ae
The
Human Need
for Safety
According to psychologist Abraham
Maslow, the human need for safety must
be met before growth and development
occurs in other areas. This is especially
true for young children. What does this
mean for early childhood teachers? Be
alert to what causes children in your care
to feel unsafe or have fear. Some children
may cling to you for security. Others may
act out by hitting or biting. Still others
may react negatively to strangers in
the room. On a continuing basis, look for
ways to keep children feeling secure. For
example, this may mean standing close
to a child who fears strangers when a
new person is in the room.
4-2
4-3
Areas of Development
The study of child development is often
divided into three main areas. These include
physical, cognitive, and social-emotional
development. Dividing development into
these areas makes it easier to study.
Physical development refers to physical
body changes. It occurs in a relatively
stable, predictable sequence. It is orderly,
lt
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Principles of Development
Although each child is unique, the
basic patterns, or principles, of growth and
development are universal, predictable, and
orderly. Through careful observation and
interaction with children, researchers and
those who work with children understand the
characteristics of the principles that follow.
v Development tends to proceed from
the head downward. This is called the
cephalocaudal principle. According to
this principle, the child rst gains control
of the head, then the arms, then the legs.
Infants gain control of head and face
movements within the rst two months
after birth. In the next few months, they
are able to lift themselves up using their
arms. By 6 to 12 months of age, infants
start to gain leg control and may be able
to crawl, stand, or walk.
v Development also proceeds from the
center of the body outward according to
the proximodistal principle. Accordingly,
the spinal cord develops before other parts
of the body. The childs arms develop
before the hands, and the hands and
feet develop before the ngers and toes.
Fingers and toes are the last to develop.
v Development also depends on maturation.
Maturation refers to the sequence of
biological changes in children. These
orderly changes give children new
abilities. Much of the maturation depends
on changes in the brain and the nervous
system. These changes assist children to
improve their thinking abilities and motor
skills. A rich learning environment helps
children develop to their potential.
Children must mature to a certain point
before they can gain some skills, 4-4. For
instance, the brain of a four-month-old has
not matured enough to allow the child to use
words. A four-month-old will babble and coo.
However, by two years of age, with the help
of others, the child will be able to say and
understand many words. This is an example
of how cognitive development occurs from
simple tasks to more complex tasks. Likewise,
4-4
Brain Development
4-5
Cerebrum
(language, planning, thought)
Thalamus
(regulates sleep,
relays sensory
motor functions)
Limbic System
(memory, emotion)
Midbrain
(vision, movement,
hearing)
Medulla oblongata
(controls breathing, heart rate)
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Hypothalamus
(regulates body
temperature
hunger)
Cerebellum
(movement, balance)
This diagram illustrates how different functions are controlled by different parts of
the brain. Connections between them are critical to development.
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Windows of Opportunity
The brain has a remarkable capacity to
change. However, timing is important. The
parts of the brain develop at different times
and different rates. Studies show that there
are windows of opportunity, or a specic
span of time, for the normal development
of certain types of skills. During these key
times, appropriate stimulation is needed
4-6
4-7
Risk Factors for Healthy
Brain Development
v
v
v
v
v
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trauma
emotional or physical abuse
poverty
exposure to environmental toxins such
as lead
parents who suffer from substance
abuse, both during the prenatal period
and after birth
Brain Function
Vision
Birth to 6 months
Motor development
Prenatal to 8 years
Emotional control
Birth to 3 years
Vocabulary/speech
Birth to 3 years
Math/logic
1 to 4 years
The ages for these windows of opportunity are estimates and can vary according
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Vocabulary/Speech: Birth to
Three Years
Infants must hear language to learn it.
The speech a child hears during the rst
three years of life will determine his or her
adult vocabulary. Children at this age have an
incredible capacity for learning language. On
the other hand, infants and toddlers who hear
fewer words develop smaller vocabularies.
It is important for caregivers to speak
in full sentences. Talk to children often. Tell
them what you are doing, what they are
doing, and what you will do next. Read them
stories and play music. Engage them in social
interactions that require language.
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4-8
Theories of
Development
Psychologists continue to study human
development. They are learning more about
what people are like and how they develop.
Over the past century, many psychologists
have provided theories that are considered
practical guides. A theory is a principle
Eriksons Psychosocial
Theory
Erik Erikson proposed a theory of
psychosocial development. He believed
development occurs throughout the life
span. His theory provided new insights into
the formation of a healthy personality. It
emphasizes the social and emotional aspects
of growth. Childrens personalities develop in
response to their social environment. The same
is true of their skills for social interaction.
Eriksons theory includes eight stages. At
each stage, a social conict or crisis occurs.
These are not generally tragic situations;
however, they require solutions that are
satisfying both personally and socially. Erikson
believed that each stage must be resolved before
children can ascend to the next stage.
Maturity and social forces help in the
resolution of the crisis or conict. Therefore,
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4-9
Eriksons Stages of Development During Early Childhood
Stage
Approximate Age
Psychosocial Crisis
Birth18 months
II
18 months3 years
III
35 years
IV
612 years
The rst four stages of Eriksons theory concern children from birth to twelve yea
years.
ears
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4-10
4-11
Piagets Cognitive
Development Theory
4-12
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4-13
happened through exploration with handson activities. Vygotsky, on the other hand,
believed that children learn through social and
cultural experiences. Interactions with peers
and adults help children in this process. While
interacting with others, children learn the
customs, values, beliefs, and language of their
culture. For this reason, families and teachers
should provide plenty of social interaction for
young children. See 4-14.
Vygotsky believed language is an
important tool for thought and plays a key
role in cognitive development. He introduced
the term private speech, or self-talk. This
refers to when children think out loud.
After learning language, children engage in
this self-talk to help guide their activity and
develop their thinking. Generally, self-talk
continues until children reach school age.
One of Vygotskys most important
contributions was the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). This concept presents
learning as a scale. One end of the scale or
zone includes the tasks that are within the
childs current developmental level. The other
end of the scale includes tasks too difcult
for children to accomplish, even with help.
4-14
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Gardners Multiple
Intelligences Theory
Howard Gardner has helped teachers
rethink how they work with young children.
Traditional intelligence tests mainly focus on
language and math/logic skills. In contrast,
4-15
Vygotskys Sociocultural
Theory
Both Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
believed that children build knowledge
through experiences. Piaget believed this
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Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves
the ability to control body movements.
This includes using parts of the body
to solve problems, handle objects, and
express emotions. People with this type of
Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence
4-16
Gardners Eight Intelligences
Bodily-kinesthetic
v
v
Musical-rhythmic
v
v
v
v
v
v
Logical-mathematical
Verbal-linguistic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Visual-spatial
Naturalistic
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
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Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence is more
than just the ability to use math. It is the ability
to use logic and reason to solve problems.
Math experts have this form of intelligence.
Scientists and composers may also have it.
This intelligence involves the ability to explore
categories, patterns, and other relationships.
It includes applying the principle of cause
and effect. It also involves the skill to make
predictions about patterns, 4-17.
Children with this type of intelligence
take pleasure in nding patterns and
relationships. They enjoy discovering
similarities and differences. Manipulatives
for matching, measuring, and counting
should be provided. Blocks can encourage
the childrens problem-solving and reasoning
skills. Storybooks that show a sequence of
events hold appeal for this type of intelligence.
Water and sand activities with different-size
containers help teach the concept of volume.
4-17
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Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
Verbal-linguistic intelligence involves the
ability to use language for expression. People
with this type of intelligence have welldeveloped language skills. They demonstrate
sensitivity to the meaning, sound, and
rhythm of words. Lawyers, poets, public
speakers, and language translators have this
type of intelligence.
Young children with this intelligence
learn best by talking, listening, reading, and
writing. These children quickly learn the
words to new stories, songs, and nger plays.
They enjoy talking to other people and are
able to speak in an interesting and engaging
manner. They are also able to learn a second
language with ease.
This intelligence can be nurtured by
environments rich with language opportunities.
Children learn language in settings where it
is used. Teachers need to follow the childrens
interests. They can then use these interests to
engage children in meaningful conversations.
Childrens storybooks, songs, poetry, chants,
and rhymes can serve as means for learning
new vocabulary words. Listening to and telling
stories can also promote language development.
Interpersonal Intelligence
People with interpersonal intelligence
display excellent communication and
social skills. These people have a gift for
understanding the feelings, behaviors,
moods, and motives of others. They make
friends easily. They use language to develop
trust and bonds with others. They are also
skilled in supporting others and empathizing
with them. These skills are important for
teachers, politicians, salespeople, and people
working in the service industry.
These skills are nurtured in young
children when caring behaviors are modeled
for them. Teachers should keep this in mind.
4-18
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability
to understand the inner self. This is also
known as self-awareness. It involves knowing
your skills, limits, and feelings. It includes
understanding your desires and motives.
The ability to organize groups of people is
part of this strength. Communicating needs
clearly is another aspect. Psychologists, social
workers, religious leaders, and counselors
are examples of people with this type of
intelligence.
How can you foster this type of
intelligence? In the classroom, share emotions
that all children experience. These include
joy, sadness, regret, and disappointment.
Classroom examples should be shared as
well as storybooks that contain emotional
concepts.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Visual-spatial intelligence allows people to
use their vision to develop mental images.
People who have this type of intelligence
show a preference for pictures and images.
Photographers and artists are some examples.
Architects, engineers, and surgeons also need
this ability. They use it to see the relationship
of objects in space.
Teachers can foster this intelligence
by providing children with unstructured
materials. Building blocks and puzzles
strengthen this type of intelligence, 4-18.
Make and use visual aids wherever possible.
For example, classroom schedules, recipes,
and stories can all be displayed on charts.
Shelving units can be labeled with pictures
cut from equipment catalogs.
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Naturalistic Intelligence
Naturalistic intelligence is developed from
the need to survive. This is the ability to
classify objects in nature such as animals
and plants. It depends on a type of pattern
recognition. This strength also includes
the ability to distinguish among types and
brands of objects. Sailors, gardeners, chefs,
and farmers are people who have this
intelligence.
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ary
Summ
Understanding child development will
help make you a successful caregiver or
early childhood teacher. The study of child
development is divided into three main areas
physical, cognitive, and social-emotional
development.
Brain development occurs rapidly during
the rst three years of life. The connections
between nerve cells are created as a child
interacts with the environment. The links allow a
greater number of messages to pass through the
brain. Therefore, infant care and interaction with
caregivers is crucial to brain development.
Theories of development can help caregivers
understand how to best work with children. Some
of the most prominent theories include the eight
stages of Eriksons psychosocial theory and the
four stages of Piagets cognitive development
theory. Vygotsky claimed that children learn
through social and cultural expression. Gardner
developed a theory of multiple intelligences used
by the human brain. All these theories provide
insight into childrens development.
Cross-Curricular Link
Social Studies
1. Visit the Web site www.pyschology.about.com
to review theories of development discussed
in this chapter.
Technology
2. Read the information at the Web site Zero
to Three (www.zerotothree.org) about
stimulating the infants developing brain
through touch, voice, movement, and
vision.
place Link
orkIn
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Interview
terview an
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