Module 3

Module 3
Joining Cutting Metal

and Processes
Cairo Inspection Company
Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky
ASNT NDT-LEVEL III
ASME AUTHORIZED INSPECTOR
Introduction
There are certain aspects of the various joining
and cutting processes which the successful
welding inspector must understand in order to
perform most effectively.
The inspector should realize the important
advantages and limitations of each process.
The inspector should be aware of those
discontinuities which may result when a
particular process is used.
The welding inspector should have some
knowledge of the equipment requirements for
each process.
Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)
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Introduction
The inspector should be familiar with the
various machine controls and what effect their

adjustment will have on the resulting weld
quality.
This knowledge will aid in the discovery of
problems when they occur rather than later
when the cost of correction is greater.
Another benefit of having experience with
these welding methods is that the production
welders will have greater respect for the
inspector and resulting decisions
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Introduction
The processes discussed here can be divided
into three basic groups: welding, brazing
and cutting.
There are numerous joining and cutting
processes available for use in the
fabrication of metal products. These are
shown by the American Welding Society's
Master Chart of Welding and Allied
Processes, shown in Figure 3.1
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Welding Processes
A weld is, "a localized coalescence of
metals or nonmetals produced either by
heating the materials to the welding
temperature, with or without the
application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone and with or
without the use of filler metal."
Coalescence means "joining together."
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Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Method Description
This process operates by heating the
metal with an electric arc between a

covered metal electrode and the metals to
be joined.
Figure 3.2 shows the various elements
of the shielded metal arc welding process.
This illustration shows that the arc is
created between the electrode and the
work piece due to the flow of electricity.
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This arc provides heat, or energy, to melt
the base metal, filler metal and electrode
coating. As the welding arc progresses to
the right, it leaves behind solidified weld
metal covered by a layer of converted flux,
referred to as slag. This slag tends to float
to the outside of the metal since it solidifies
after the molten metal has solidified.
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Another feature noted in Figure 3.2 is
the presence of shielding gas which is
produced when the electrode coating is
heated and decomposed. These gases
assist the flux in the shielding of the
molten metal in the arc region.
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All carbon and low alloy steel electrodes use
essentially the same type of steel core wire, a
low carbon, rimmed steel. Any alloying is
provided from the coating, since it is more
economical to achieve alloying in this way.
Most SMAW electrodes have a solid metal core.
Some are made with a fabricated or composite
core consisting of metal powders encased in a
metallic sheath. In this latter case, the purpose
of some or even all of the metal powders is to
produce an alloy weld deposit.
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electrode coverings can be designed for

welding with alternating current (ac)
Gases that readily ionize are available
from a variety of compounds, including
those that contain potassium To increase
the deposition rate, the coverings of some
carbon and low alloy steel electrodes
contain iron powder.
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The electrode coating is the feature which classifies
the various types of electrodes. It actually serves five
separate functions:
Shielding- the coating decomposes to form a
gaseous shield for the molten metal.
Deoxidation- the coating provides a fluxing
action to remove oxygen and other atmospheric gases.
Alloying- the coating provides
additional
alloying elements for the weld deposit.
Ionizing- the coating improves
electrical
characteristics to increase arc stability.
Insulating- the solidified slag provides an insulating
blanket
to
slow
down
the
weld
metal
cooling rate (minor effect).
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The identification
consists of an "E," which stands for
electrode, followed by four or five digits.

The first two, or three, numbers refer to the
minimum tensile strength of the deposited
weld metal. These numbers state the
minimum tensile strength in thousands of
pounds per square inch. For example, "70"
means that the tensile strength of the
deposited weld metal is at least 70,000 psi.
The next number refers to the positions in
which the electrode can be used. A "1"
indicates the electrode is suitable for use in
any position.
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A "2" means that the molten metal is so fluid
that the electrode can only be used in the flat
position for all welding types and in the
horizontal position for fillet welds only.
A "4" means the electrode is suitable for
welding in a downhill progression.
The number "3" is no longer used as a
designation.
The last number in the designation
describes other characteristics which are
determined by the composition of the coating
present on the electrode.
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It is important to note that those electrodes
ending in "5," "6," or "8" are classified as "low

hydrogen" types. To maintain this low
hydrogen (moisture) content, they must be
stored in their original factory-sealed metal
container or an acceptable storage oven.
This oven should be heated electrically and
have a temperature control capability in the
range of 150 to 350F. Since this device will
assist in the maintenance of a low moisture
content (less than 0.2%) it must be suitably
vented.
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Any low hydrogen electrodes which are
not to be used immediately should be

placed into the holding oven as soon as
their airtight container is opened. Most
codes require that low hydrogen electrodes
be held at a minimum oven temperature of
250F (120C) after removal from their
sealed container.
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Some electrode types are designed to
have a certain moisture level. If this
moisture is eliminated, the operating
characteristics of the electrode will
deteriorate significantly.
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Electrode Coating Classification

F #s
F1 - EXX20, EXX24, EXX27

F2 - EXXX2, EXXX3, EXXX4
F3 - EXX10, EXXX1
F4 - EXXX5, EXXX6, EXXX8
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Low Hydrogen Electrodes

Types end in a 5, 6, or 8
Purchase in sealed, metal
containers
Store after opening in heated,
vented oven
Limit atmospheric exposure
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Electrode Suffixes - 1 of 2
- A1
0.5% Mo
- B1
0.5% Mo 0.5% Cr
- B2
0.5% Mo 1.25% Cr
- B3
1.0% Mo 2.25% Cr
- B4
0.5% Mo 2.0% Cr
-W
Weathering
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Electrode Suffixes - 2 of 2
- C1
2.5% Ni
- C2
3.5% Ni
- C3
1.0% Ni
- D1
0.3% Mo 1.5% Mn
- D2
0.3% Mo 1.75% Mn
-G
0.2% Mo 0.3% Cr 0.5% Ni

1% Mn 0.1% V
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Stainless Steel Electrodes

E308, E308L - Weld 304 and 304L
E316, E316L - Weld 316 and 316L
E309 - Weld Stainless to Carbon Steel
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SMAW Equipment
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The Equipment
Shielded metal arc welding equipment is
relatively simple, as can be seen in Figure

3.6. One lead from the welding power source
is connected to the piece to be welded and the
opposite lead goes to the electrode holder
into which the welder places the welding
electrode to be consumed.
The electrode and base metal are melted
by the heat produced from the welding arc
created between the end of the electrode and
the work piece when they are brought close
together.
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The power source for shielded metal
arc welding is a constant current power

source,
having
a
"drooping"
characteristic. This terminology can be
more easily understood by looking at the
characteristic volt-ampere (V-A) curve for
this type of power source.
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long arc length will result in more heat
produced than a short arc length
the welder can increase or decrease the
fluidity of the weld pool simply by changing
the arc length. However, an extremely long
arc length will cause a loss of heat in the weld
pool due to loss of arc concentration. An
excessively long arc length will also result in a
loss of arc stability and weld pool shielding
gases.
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An experienced welder might choose a
flat slope setting to gain more control,
while an inexperienced welder might
need a steeper slope setting for less
change in weld pool characteristics due
to an inconsistent arc length.
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Advantages
The equipment is relatively simple and
inexpensive.
Limitations
Slow
Solidified slag which must be removed
Low hydrogen electrodes require storage
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Discontinuities
Porosity in the finished weld
Which is a result of the presence of moisture or
contamination in the weld region could be present
in the electrode coating, on the surface of the
material, or come from the atmosphere
surrounding the welding operation. Or "long
arcing" or arc blow.
Slag inclusions can also occur with SMAW
simply because it relies on a flux system for weld
protection.
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Incomplete
fusion,
incomplete
joint
penetration, cracking, undercut, overlap,
incorrect weld size, and improper weld profile.
Arc blow
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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Introduction
we also hear it commonly referred to as

"MIG" it is semiautomatic process; however, it is
also used in mechanized and automatic
applications as well.
Gas metal arc welding is characterized by a
solid wire electrode which is fed continuously
through a welding gun. An arc is created
between this wire and the work piece to heat
and melt the base and filler materials.
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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

The shielding for welding is provided by a
protective gas which is also emitted from the

welding gun from some external source.
Gases used include both inert and reactive
types. Inert gases such as argon and helium are
used for some applications. They can be applied
singly, or in combination with each other, or mixed
with other reactive gases such as nitrogen, oxygen
or carbon dioxide
The electrodes used for this process are solid
wires which are supplied on spools or reels of
various sizes.
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Gas metal arc electrodes have increased
amounts of deoxidizers such as manganese,

silicon, and aluminum to help avoid the
formation of porosity. The most critical factor
here is that the wire must be kept clean
power source
gas metal arc welding uses a constant
voltage, or constant potential, power source.
That is, welding is accomplished using a preset value of voltage over the range of welding
currents.
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ER XXS-X
They are denoted by the letters "ER," followed
by two or three numbers, the letter "S," a
hyphen, and finally, another number,
The ER means Electrode , Rod.
The next two or three numbers state the
minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld
metal in thousands of pounds per square inch. a
"70" denotes a filler metal whose tensile
strength is at least 70,000 psi. The letter "S"
stands for a Solid wire. Finally, the number after
the hyphen refers to the particular chemistry of
the electrode
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Gas metal arc welding is normally accomplished
using direct current, electrode positive (DCEP).

When this type of power source is combined with a
wire feeder, the result is a welding process which
can be either semiautomatic, mechanized or fully
automatic.
To set up for welding, the welder will adjust the
voltage at the power source and the wire feed speed
at the wire feeder. As the wire feed speed is
increased, the welding current increases as well.
The melt-off rate of the electrode is proportional to
the arc current, so the wire feed speed actually
controls this feature as well
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This feature allows the process to

function as a semiautomatic type,
meaning that the welder does not have to
control the feeding of the filler metal as
was the case for manual shielded metal
arc welding. "Self-Regulating Constant
Potential"
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Looking at Figure 3.13, it can be seen

that moving the gun closer to the
workpiece will reduce the electrical
resistance and produce an instantaneous
increase in current. This, in turn,
instantaneously burns off the additional
electrode to bring the arc length and
current back to their original values
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Metal Transfer
There are four basic modes of metal
transfer. They are spray, globular, pulsed
arc, and short circuiting.
The type of metal transfer depends upon
several factors, including shielding gas,
current and voltage levels, and power source
characteristics.
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1-Spray transfer is considered to be the
hottest, followed by pulsed arc, globular, and

finally short circuiting. Therefore, spray
transfer is the best for heavier sections and
full penetration weld joints, as long as they
can be positioned in the flat position.
Spray transfer can be achieved only when
there is at least 80% argon present in the gas
mixture.
2-Globular transfer provides almost as much
heating and weld metal deposition, but its
operating characteristics tend to be less
stable, resulting in increased spatter.
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3-Pulsed arc
requires a welding power

source capable of producing a pulsing direct
current output which allows for improved
heat control and process flexibility
4-Short circuiting transfer results in the least
amount of heating to the base metal, making
it an excellent choice for welding of sheet
metal and joints having excessive gaps due to
poor fit up. for heavier section welding,
incomplete fusion can result from insufficient
heating of the base metal.
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CO2 is probably the most popular gas for
GMAW of carbon steel, primarily due to its

relatively low cost and its excellent
penetration characteristics. One drawback,
however, is that there will be more spatter
which may require removal, reducing
operator productivity.
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Spray
Globular
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Short-Circuiting Transfer
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Advantages:
GMAW can be effectively used to join or
overlay many types of ferrous and nonferrous
metals.
GMAW can be used successfully in situations
where the presence of hydrogen could cause
problems.
GMAW is well suited for automatic and
robotic welding or other high production
situations.
The efficiency is further increased by the
fact that the continuous spool of wire doesn't
require changing nearly as often as the
individual electrodes used in SMAW.
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High lbs/hr of metal deposited, which
reduces labor costs

It is a relatively clean process because
less smoke is generated
The visibility of the process ,welder
can more easily observe the action of the
arc and molten puddle to improve
control since no slag is present
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Limitation
If the base metal is excessively
contaminated, the shielding gas alone may
not be sufficient to prevent the occurrence
of porosity.
GMAW is also very sensitive to drafts or
wind which tend to blow the shielding gas
away and leave the metal unprotected. For
this reason, gas metal arc welding is not
well suited for field welding.
The equipment required is complex
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Inherent Problems
porosity due to contamination or loss of
shielding,
Incomplete fusion due to the use of
short circuiting transfer on heavy sections,
and arc instability caused by worn liners
and contact tips.
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Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

This is very similar to gas metal arc welding except
that the electrode is tubular and contains a granular
flux instead of the solid wire used for gas metal arc
welding
The tubular electrode being fed through the contact
tube of the welding gun to produce an arc between the
electrode and the work piece.
As the welding progresses, a bead of solidified weld
metal is deposited Covered by a layer of slag, as occurs
for shielded metal arc welding.
With flux cored arc welding, there may or may not be
an externally-supplied shielding gas, depending upon
what type of electrode is used
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EXXT-X
An identification begins with the letter "E" which
stands for electrode.
The first number refers to the minimum tensile
strength of the deposited weld metal in ten
thousands of pounds per square inch, so a "7"
means that the weld metal tensile strength is at
least 70,000 psi.
The second digit is either a "0" or a "1." A "0"
means that the electrode is suitable for use in the
flat or horizontal fillet positions only, while a "1"
describes an electrode which can be used in any
position
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Following these numbers is the letter "T" which
refers to a tubular electrode.

This is followed by a hyphen and then another
number which denotes the particular grouping
based upon the chemical composition of deposited
weld metal, type of current, polarity of operation.
Some electrodes are to be used without any
additional shielding . They are designated by the
suffixes 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, and 14.
However, those electrodes having the numerical
suffixes 1, 2, 5, 9, or 12 require some external
shielding to aid in protecting the molten metal
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Gases typically used for flux cored arc

welding are CO2,or 75%Argon-25%CO2 or
other combination
Depending on the type of electrode, the
operation may be DCEP (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12)
or DCEN (7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14) or both DCEN
or DCEP (5).
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Advantages
High productivity in terms of the
amount of weld metal that can be
deposited in a given period of time.
Requires less skills
FCAW is capable of tolerating a greater
degree of base metal contamination than
is GMAW
FCAW lends itself well to field situations
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Limitations
The smoke reduces the welder's visibility to
the point where it may be difficult to properly
manipulate the arc in the joint , and their will
be a need for ventilation
The equipment required for FCAW is more
complex than that for SMAW
There exists a possibility that the solidified
slag could become trapped in the finished
weld.
Lake of maintenance can cause the wire
feeding problems
incomplete
joint
penetration,
slag
inclusions, and porosity.
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Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

The most significant feature of GTAW is
that the electrode used is not intended to be
consumed during the welding operation. It is
made of pure or alloyed tungsten which has
the ability to withstand very high
temperatures, even those of the welding arc.
The presence of the thoria or zirconia aids
in improving the electrical characteristics by
making the tungsten slightly more emissive.
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Class
EWP
EWCe-2
EWLa-1
EWLa-1.5
EWLa-2
EWTh-1
EWTh-2
EWZr
Alloy
Pure tungsten
1.8-2.2% cerium
1% lanthanum
1.5% lanthanum
2.0% lanthanum
0.8 -1.2% thorium
1.7-2.2% thorium
0.15-0.40% zirconium
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Color
Green
Orange
Black
Gold
Blue
Yellow
Red
Brown
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The EWTh-2 type is most commonly used
for the joining of ferrous materials.

GTAW can be performed using DCEP, DCEN
or AC. The DCEP will result in more heating of
the electrode, while the DCEN will tend to heat
the base metal more. AC alternately heats the
electrode and base metal. AC is typically used
for the welding of aluminum because the
alternating current will increase the cleaning
action to improve weld quality. DCEN is most
commonly used for the welding of steels.
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Effect of DCEN
Current on
GTAW
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Effect of DCEP
Current on
GTAW
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Effect of AC
Current on
GTAW
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GTAW uses inert gases for shielding. Argon
and helium are the two inert gases used in

GTAW. Some mechanized stainless steel
welding applications use a shielding gas
consisting of argon and a small amount of
hydrogen
The equipment
required for GTAW has as its primary
element a power source like the one used for
SMAW, that is, a constant current type. Since
there is a gas present, it is now necessary to
have apparatus for its control and
transmission. Figure 3.22 shows a typical gas
tungsten arc welding setup.
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An added feature of this welding system,
which is not shown, is a high frequency

generator which aids in the initiation of the
welding arc
There are numerous applications for GTAW
in many industries. It is capable of welding
virtually all materials, because the electrode
is not melted during the welding operation.
Its ability to weld at extremely low currents
makes gas tungsten arc welding suitable for
use on the thinnest (down to 0.005 in.) of
metals.
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Its typically clean and controllable operation
causes it to be the perfect choice for extremely

critical applications such as those found in the
aerospace, food and drug processing,
petrochemical, and power piping industries.
Advantages
The principal advantage of GTAW lies in the
fact that it can produce welds of high quality
and excellent visual appearance
the process is quite clean and there is no slag
it is suitable for welding most metals
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where there is no commercially-available

wire for a particular metal alloy, it is possible
to produce a suitable filler metal by simply
shearing a piece of identical base metal to
produce a narrow piece which can be hand-fed
into the weld zone just as if it were a wire.
disadvantages.
GTAW is among the slowest of the available
welding processes
low tolerance for contamination
gas tungsten arc welding requires a high
skill level
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Problems
porosity in the deposited weld.
tungsten inclusions
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Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

the most efficient one mentioned so
far in terms of the rate of weld metal
deposition. SAW is characterized by the
use of a continuously-fed solid wire
electrode which provides an arc that is
totally covered by a layer of granular
flux; hence the name "submerged" arc.
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Submerged
Arc Welding
(SAW)
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Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

uses a separate electrode and flux, there
are numerous combinations available for
specific applications. There are two general
types of combinations which can be used to
provide an
alloyed weld deposit: an alloy electrode with
a neutral flux, or a mild steel electrode with
an alloy flux.
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Identification
FXXX-EXXX
Examples
F7A6-EM12K is a complete designation. It
refers to a flux that will produce weld metal
which, in the as-welded condition, will have a
tensile strength no lower than 70,000 psi (480
MPa) and Charpy V-notch impact strength of a
least 20 ft-lb (27 J) at -60F (-51 C) when
produced with an EM12K electrode under the
conditions called for in this specification.
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F7A4-EC1 is a complete designation for a

flux when the trade name of the electrode
used in the classification is indicated as well.
It refers to a flux that will produce weld metal
with that electrode, which in the as-welded
condition, will have a tensile strength no
lower than 70,000 psi (480 MPa) and Charpy
V-notch of at least 20 ft-lb (27 J) at -40F (40C) under the conditions called for in this
specification.
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The equipment
used for submerged arc welding consists of
several components a power source is
required. most submerged arc welding is
performed with a constant voltage power
source, there are certain applications where a
constant current type is preferred.
the flux is generally placed into a hopper
above the welding torch and fed by gravity so
that it is distributed either slightly ahead of
the arc or around the arc from a nozzle
surrounding the contact tip.
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For
some applications, multiple

electrodes can be used. The electrodes
may be energized by a single power
source, or multiple power sources may be
necessary
Due to the high rate of weld metal
deposition, it has shown to be quite
effective for overlaying or building up
material surfaces
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Advantages
1-High deposition rate
2-High operator appeal
3-less smoke generated
4-Ability to penetrate deeply
limitation
1-flat or horizontal fillet positions only
2-extensive fixturing and positioning equipment
3-slag must be removed
4-the flux prevents the welder from seeing the
arc
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Width vs Depth Ratio
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Inherent problems
porosity .
underbead cracking .
solidification cracking .
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Plasma Arc
Welding
(PAW)
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Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

A plasma is defined as an ionized
gas. With any process using an arc, a
plasma is created.
Both GTAW and PAW use the same
type of power source
Both the PAW and GTAW torches
use a tungsten electrode for the
creation of the arc
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There is a "plasma" gas which is forced
through this orifice and past the welding arc

resulting in the constriction of the arc.
This constriction, or squeezing, of the arc
causes it to be more concentrated, and
therefore more intense.
There are two categories of plasma arc
operation, the transferred and nontransferred
arc.
The transferred arc is generally used for
both welding and cutting of conductive
materials,
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The no transferred arc is preferred

for the cutting of nonconductive
materials and for welding of
materials when the amount of
heating of the work piece must be
minimized.
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Transferred vs Nontransferred Arc
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two separate gases are required: the

shielding gas and the orifice (or plasma) gas.
Argon is most commonly employed for both
types
PAW is used for full penetration welds in
material up to 1/2 in. thick by employing a
technique referred to as "keyhole welding."
Figure 3.32 shows the typical appearance of a
keyhole weld.
Keyhole welding is performed on a square
butt joint with no root opening.
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Keyhole
Welding
Technique
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Advantages
It provides a very localized heat source.
Faster welding speeds and less distortion
The welder has better visibility
The welder is less likely to contact the
molten metal and produce a tungsten
inclusion.
Limitations
possibility of getting incomplete fusion
small amounts of mistracking can produce
incomplete fusion along the joint.
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Electroslag Welding (ESW)

ESW is characterized by the joining of
members which are placed edge to edge so
that the joint is vertical. The welding is done
in a single pass such that the progression is
from the bottom to the top of the joint
ESW is that it is not an arc welding
process. It relies on heating from the
electrical resistance of the molten flux to
melt the base and filler metals.
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Electroslag
Welding
Equipment
---Conventional
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Electroslag
Welding
Equipment
--Consumable
Guide
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ESW Advantages
Joins heavy sections
High deposition rates
Single or multiple electrodes
Minimum joint preparation
Low distortion
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ESW Limitations
Vertical casting process
Very extensive setup time
Uses water-cooled shoes
Flux storage
Largely confined to vertical
orientation and flat position only
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ESW Discontinuities
Gross porosity
Slag inclusions
Large grains
Gross shrinkage
Cracks
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Oxyacetylene
Welding
(OAW)
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Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

acetylene is the only fuel gas capable of
producing high enough temperatures for effective

welding.
With OAW, the energy for welding is created by a
flame, so this process is considered to be a
chemical welding method.
the shielding for is accomplished by this flame
therefore no flux or external shielding is necessary
The equipment
for oxyacetylene welding is relatively simple
It consists of several parts: oxygen tank,
acetylene tank, pressure regulators, torch, and
connecting hoses.
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A higher amount of oxygen will create an
oxidizing flame and a higher amount of

acetylene will produce a carburizing flame.
filler material identification
Two examples are RG-45 and RG-60. The
"R" designates it as a rod, "G" stands for gas
and the 45 and 60 relate to the minimum
tensile strength of the weld deposit in
thousands of pounds per square inch (psi).
It is used for the welding of thin steel
sheet and small diameter steel piping and
maintenance situations.
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Oxyacetylene Welding
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OAW
Equipment
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OAW Filler Metals
RG - 45
RG - 60
R refers to rod
G refers to gas
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OAW Advantages
Simple equipment
Suitable for thin materials
Very portable
No electricity required
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OAW Limitations
Very slow process

Manual only
Less concentrated heat
Low productivity
Flame adjustment sensitive
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Stud Welding
(SW)
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Stud Welding (SW)

SW is considered to be an arc welding
process
The process is controlled by a mechanical
gun which is attached to a power supply
through a control panel
Due to the convenience and simplicity
offered by SW, it has seen tremendous usage in
many industries for a variety of metals.
SW has two possible discontinuities. They
are lack of 360 flash and incomplete fusion at
the interface
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Stud
Welding
Cycle
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SW Studs and Fasteners
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Stud Welding - Studs

Flux on tip cleans weld area
Stand off tips also used
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SW Advantages
Simple
Fast
Repetitive
Automatic stud feeding (option)
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SW Limitations
Needs clean surface

Equipment malfunctions
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SW Discontinuities
Lack of flash
Incomplete fusion
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Laser Beam
Welding
(LBW)
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LBW - 1 of 2
Laser
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
A fusion welding process
Heat from concentrated light source
Keyhole welding
Light beam very small x-section
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LBW - 2 of 2
Light can be transmitted by
fiber optics or mirrors
Non-contact process
Shielding gas often required
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Cross Section of LB Weld
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LBW Advantages - 1 of 2
Low heat input
Less grain growth and distortion
High D/W ratios of 10:1 attainable
Relatively thick single pass welds (up to 1.25 )
Welds thin metals or small
diameter wires
Closely spaced components, small
welds
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LBW Advantages - 2 of 2
Welds wide variety of materials
Beams readily focused and aligned
Not influenced by magnetic fields
Welds metals of dissimilar physical
properties
No vacuum or X-ray shielding
required
Beams transmitted to many work
stations
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LBW Limitations
Joints must be accurately positioned

Surfaces must be forced together
Alloy reflectivity and thermal
conductivity
Plasma control device often required
Cost
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LBW Discontinuities
Porosity
Embrittlement
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Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
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EBW
Originally required high vacuum
Can now operate in low, or no,
vacuum
A fusion joining process
Heat applied from stream of
high-energy electrons from gun
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EB
Schematic
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Electron
Beam
Welding
Fixture
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EB Weld
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EBW Advantages
Similar to LBW
Deeper penetration capability
High purity, especially for
vacuum environment
High welding speeds
Ability to change weld shape
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EB Limitations
Similar to LBW
Vacuum chamber may be
required
Vacuum chamber size can
limit assembly size
X-Rays generated
Cost
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EBW Discontinuities
Cracking
Root voids
Porosity
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Resistanc
e Welding
- 1 of 3
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Resistance Welding
- 2 of 3
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Resistance Welding
- 3 of 3
Heat obtained from resistance
of workpieces as current flows
through them
Electrodes are usually copper
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RSW Advantages
Very fast welding times - < 1
sec / spot
Semiautomatic or automatic
Good for thin materials
No flux required
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RSW Limitations
Inspection of welds may be
difficult
Primarily a shop process
Electrodes must be clean
Metal surfaces must be clean
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RSW Discontinuities
Non-fusion areas
Cracks
Misalignment of RSEW
electrodes
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Brazing
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Brazing vs Welding vs
Soldering
Base metal not melted in brazing or
soldering
Brazing filler metals melt above
8400 F (4500 C)
Soldering filler metals melt below
8400 F
Strong joints possible with all
processes if designed properly
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Brazing Aspects
Large surface area
Very small clearance
Clean surfaces
Flux often used
Capillary action
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Braze Joint Configurations
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Brazing Filler Metals

Wire
Strip
Foil
Paste
Preforms
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AWS Brazing Filler

Metals
Designation
BAlSi
BCuP
BAg
BAu
BCu
RBCuZn
BMg
BNi
Primary Element
Aluminum-Silicon
Copper-Phosphorus
Silver
Gold
Copper
Copper-Zinc
Magnesium
Nickel
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Brazing Methods
Named after heating
method
Torch
Furnace
Induction
Resistance
Dip
Infrared
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Brazing Advantages
Strong joints
Joins dissimilar metals
Joins metals to nonmetals
Joins unweldable metals
Less heat, less distortion
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Brazing Limitations
Cleanliness requirements
Joint design requirements
Difficult to inspect
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Brazing Discontinuities
Voids, unbonded areas
Base metal erosion
Corrosion by flux
Trapped flux
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TORCH BRAZING
TORCH BRAZING IS accomplished by heating with one or
more gas torches. Depending upon the temperature and
the amount of heat required, the fuel gas (acetylene,
propane, city gas, etc.) may be burned with air,
compressed air, or oxygen. Air-natural gas torches
provide the lowest flame temperature as well as the
least heat. Acetylene under pressure is used in the airacetylene torch with air at atmospheric pressure. Both
air-natural gas and air-acetylene torches can be used to
advantage on small parts and thin sections.
Torch heating for brazing is limited in use to filler metals
supplied with flux or self-fluxing.
Brazing filler metal may be preplaced at the joint in the

forms of rings, washers, strips, slugs, or powder, or it may
be fed from hand-held filler metal, usually in the form of
wire or rod. In any case, proper cleaning and fluxing are
essential.
Torches which employ oxygen with natural gas, or other
cylinder gases (propane, butane) have higher flame
temperatures. When properly applied as a neutral or
slightly reducing flame, excellent results are obtainable
with many brazing applications.
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

Visual Inspection
The joint should be free from foreign materials: grease, paint, oil, oxide
film, flux, and stopoff. Visual examination
should reveal flaws due to damage, misalignment and poorfit-up of
parts, dimensional inaccuracies, inadequate flow
of brazing filler metals, exposed voids in the joint, surface
flaws such as cracks or porosity, and heat damage to base metal.
Visual inspection will not detect internal flaws, such as
flux entrapment in the joint or incomplete filler metal flow
between the faying surfaces.
Proof Testing
PROOF TESTING IS a method of inspection that subjects the completed
joint to loads slightly in excess of those that will be experienced during
its subsequent service life.
Leak Testing
PRESSURE TESTING DETERMINES the gas or liquid tightness of a closed
vessel.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection

THIS NDT METHOD finds cracks, porosity, incomplete flow, and similar
surface flaws in a brazed joint. Commercially colored or fluorescent
penetrants penetrate surface openings by capillary action.
Radiographic Inspection
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF brazements detects lack of bond or
incomplete flow of filler metal.
Ultrasonic Inspection
THE ULTRASONIC TESTING method using low energy, high
frequency mechanical vibration (sound waves) readily detects, locates,
or identifies discontinuities in brazed joints.
INSPECTION BY HEAT transfer will detect lack of bond in

such brazed assemblies as honeycomb and covered skin
panel surfaces
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF inspection clearly show
whether a brazement design will meet the requirements of
intended service conditions.
Metallographic Inspection
THIS METHOD REQUIRES the removal of sections from the
brazed joints and preparing them for macroscopic or microscopic
examination. This method detects flaws (especially porosity), poor
flow of brazing filler metal, excessive
base metal erosion, the diffusion of brazing filler metal,
improper fit-up of the joint, and it will reveal the microstructure of
the brazed joint.
Peel Tests
PEEL TESTS ARE frequently employed to evaluate lap type
joints. One member of the brazed specimen is clamped rigidly in a
vise, and the free member is peeled away from the joint. The broken
parts reveal the general quality of the bond
Tension and Shear Tests

THESE TESTS DETERMINE quantitatively the strength of the
brazed joint, or verify the relative strengths of the joint .
Torsion Tests
THE TORSION TEST evaluates brazed joints with a stud,
screw, or tubular member brazed to a base member.
Cutting Processes
We will be discussing:
Oxyfuel Cutting
Air Carbon Arc Cutting
Plasma Arc Cutting
Mechanical Cutting
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Oxyfuel
Cutting (OFC)
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Oxyfuel Cutting (OFC)
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OFC - Kerf and Drag
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Oxyfuel Cutting Gases

Commonly used
Acetylene
Methane
Propane
MPS
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OFC Torches
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OFC Cut
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OFC Advantages
Simple equipment
Very portable
Cuts thin or thick materials
Good accuracy
Manual or mechanized
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The End any questions?
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Joining Cutting Metal

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

various machine controls and what effect their

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

This process operates by heating the

metal with an electric arc between a

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

electrode coverings can be designed for

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

electrode, followed by four or five digits.

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

ending in "5," "6," or "8" are classified as "low

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

not to be used immediately should be

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Electrode Coating Classification

F1 - EXX20, EXX24, EXX27

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Low Hydrogen Electrodes

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

0.2% Mo 0.3% Cr 0.5% Ni

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)

Eng. Ibrahim Eldesoky

Stainless Steel Electrodes

Cairo Inspection Company (CIC)