BE (être)

affirmatif négatif
plein contracté plein contracté
I am 'm am not 'm not
You are 're are not 're not aren't
He /
is 's is not 's not isn't
She / It
We are 're are not 're not aren't
They are 're are not 're not aren't

L'interrogatif
Am I ... ? ( Suis -je ... ?)
Are you ... ? ( Es-tu ... ? )
Is he/she/it ... ? (Est-il ... ?)
Are we ... ? (Sommes-nous ... ?)
Are they ... ? (Sont-ils ... ?)

Exemples :

Is she French ? ( Est-elle française)

Are they from Paris ? (Sont-ils de Paris ?)
We're not English. (Nous ne sommes pas anglais.)

HAVE GOT (avoir)

affirmatif négatif
plein contracté plein contracté
I have got 've got have not got haven't got
You have got 've got have not got haven't got
He / She /
has got 's got has not got hasn't got
It
We have got 've got have not got haven't got
They have got 've got have not got haven't got

L'interrogatif
Have I got...? (Ai -je ...?)
Have you got...? (As-tu ...?)
Has he/she/it got...? (A-il/elle ...?)
Have we got...? (Avons-nous ...?)
Have they got...? (Ont-ils ...?)

Exemples :

Has she got a dog? (A-t-elle un chien ?)

Have they got a swimming pool? (Ont-ils une piscine?)
Have we got a ticket? (Avons-nous un billet ?)

Animals
a chicken a bird a cat a cow a dog

a butterfly a rat a sheep a spider a snake

a kangaroo a monkey a mouse a horse a pig

a camel an elephant a fish a fox a frog

Food
an apple a pear pizza sweets yoghurt

ice
milk lemon meat orange
cream

a burger tomato fruit fish mushroom

cheese beans coffee an egg chicken

a banana sandwich a carrot a kiwi cake

COUNTRIES AND NATIONALITIES

Country Flag Nationality

United Kingdom British
Germany German
France French
Italy Italian
Spain Spanish
Russia Russian
Denmark Danish
Belgium Belgian
Greece Greek
Hungary Hungarian
Ireland Irish
Norway Norwegian
Sweden Swedish
Switzerland Swiss
Poland Polish

CLOTHES
 a bag a cap a coat gloves

a jacket jeans a jumper

a scarf

a shirt shorts
shoes a skirt

sunglasses
socks a sweater a T shirt

trousers an umbrella
a tie
a watch
RAPPEL:

Les Adverbes de fréquence

always - toujours

usually - habituellement

often - souvent

sometimes - parfois

never - jamais

Ils se placent juste avant le verbe dans la phrase

Dave always makes his bed. = Dave fait toujours

son lit.

verbe

Do you often do the cooking? = Fais-tu souvent la

cuisine ?
 AGREEING AND DISAGREEING (with tags)

Agreeing
The Affirmative
tag : SO + Auxiliary + Sujet.
Examples : Fred adores
football, so do I. (= moi aussi)
Dorothy is fond of
swimming, so am I.
Sonia hates chips, so do I.
I love dancing, so does my
friend. (mon ami aussi)
The negative tag (grammatical
form) : NEITHER + Auxiliary + Sujet
Examples : John can’t bear coca
cola, neither can I. (= moi non plus)
Harry isn’t very fond of
westerns neither am I.
Kevin doesn’t like running, neither do I.
I don’t like spinach, neither does my brother.
(= mon frère non plus)

Disagreeing

BUT

The disagreeing tag: WHEREAS + SUJET + AUXILIARY (opposite

form)

YET

Examples: Wendy adores horror films, but I don’t. (Mais moi non)

Jerry can’t bear rugby, whereas I can.

I’m very fond of Jazz, yet Sharon isn’t.

Note : tous ces tags peuvent être utilisés à tous les temps et à toutes
les personnes il suffit d’accorder l’auxiliaire avec le temps et la
personne.

Exemples: George doesn't go to the cinema, neither does Dave.

Maud dances on Saturday, so do I.

They have done their homework, whereas I haven't.

 Adjectives
En anglais il y a souvent plusieurs adjectifs dans un groupe
nominal, le problème se pose pour savoir dans quel ordre il
faut les placer.Il y a un moyen de se rappeler
facilement OTACOM.

C OULEU
M
O PINION T AILLE A GE O RIGINE
ATIER
E
R

metal,
wood,
copper,
good, bad, old, new, red, blue, French, silver,
expensive, big, small, aged lilac, American, rock,
beautiful, slim young, burgundy, Greek, gold,
nervous, tall, thin, teenaged claret, Spanish, wool,
ugly, soft, imposing, ten-year- kaki, light- American- rattan,
speedy, tiny, old blue, Indian glass,
fast, dirty, little, light, out-of-date dark-red, Italian, plastic,
intelligent, microscopic, recent, purple, foreign, velvet,
stupid, gigantic, modern apricot European, cotton,
enormous ancient, Asian rubber,
prehistoric silk,
synthetic,
carbon,
steel,
Exemples:
A good big old red French spoon
An expensive small new blue metal earring

Les Modaux

L'obligation
He must go to school Il doit aller à l'école
must + BV
tomorrow. demain.
He has to go to school
Have to + BV
tomorrow.

L'interdiction
She mustn't smoke here
mustn't + BV Elle ne doit pas fumer ici.
.
can't + BV You can't park there. Tu ne dois pas te garer là.

La permission, la
possibilité et la
capacité
Can I go to the cinema Est-ce que je peux aller au
can + BV
tomorrow? cinema demain.
Pourriez-vous bouger s'il
could + BV Could you move please ?
vous plaît.
be able to + BV I am able to speak now. Je peux parler maintenant.

Le conseil
Tu devrais travailler plus
should + BV You should work harder.
dur.
He shouldn't shout so Il ne devrait pas crier si
shouldn't + BV
loud. fort.
We ought Nous devrions arrêter de
ought to + BV
to stop smoking. fumer.

absence
d'obligation
don't have to + BV You don't have to come. Tu n'es pas obligé de venir.
Nous ne sommes pas obligés
needn't + BV We needn't go.
d'y aller.

THINGS I LIKE AND THINGS I DISLIKE

LIKES

I love / adore / like… BV + ING

I am fond of… + ou un groupe
I am keen on…
nominale
I am crazy about…
I enjoy…

Examples: I love swimming. I adore gymnastics.

I’m fond of playing tennis. I’m crazy about football.

DISLIKES

I hate BV + ING
I dislike + ou un groupe
I detest
nominal
I can’t stand
I can’t bear
Examples: I hate washing up. I can’t stand war films.
I detest cold weather.
 Examples
I want you to come tomorrow.
Je veux que tu viennes demain.

John would like his son to do his homework.

John veut que son fils fasse ses devoirs.

The guard didn't allow the journalist to go in.

Le gardien n'a pas laissé entrer le journaliste.

The dentist told the patient to sit down.

Le dentiste a dit au patient de s'assoire.

Fred's dad asked him to tidy his room.

Le père de Fred lui a demandé de ranger sa chambre.

The team's trainer wants them to win.

L'entraîneur de l'équipe veut qu'ils gagnent.

Does Tina's dad allow her to go to the ball?

Est-ce que le père de Tina la laisse aller au bal ?
THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

HAVE + BEEN + BV-ing (! Il y a deux auxiliaires)

Melange le present perfect et le present continuous

Avec ce temps l'accent est sur l'action, l'activité avec souvent un

commentaire sous entendu.

What have you been doing? (On s'intéresse à l'activité dans le passé
proche)

I've been working. (Sous entendu : je viens de mon travail)

Ce temps s'utilise souvent avec une action commencée qui continue

How long have they been playing? (On s'intéresse à la durée de l'action.)
They have been playing for three hours.

Like a bull in a China shop clumsy

That's all Greek to me I don't understand
When pigs can fly never
I know a secret from
A little bird told me
someone
As fit as a fiddle feeling good
As nutty as a fruitcake silly
As easy as pie very easy
it costs an arm and a leg it's very expensive
Go and fly a kite Stop bothering me
it's raining cats and dogs it's raining a lot
to get up on the wrong side of the
to be in a bad mood
bed
A storm in a tea cup. a lot of agitation for nothing
I'll put on my thinking cap. I'll think of it.
to drink like a fish to drink a lot
I have other fish to fry I have many things to do
Like a cat on hot bricks to be impatient
to be dog tired to be very tired
 An American pupil

to play it by ear don't make any definite plans

music to my ears good news
to keep mais
1 lis attentivement yourneeyes peeledpas si pay
te décourage tu neattention / look for something
comprends pas
tout..... a sight for sore eyes somebody you are happy to see that you
haven't seen for a long time
Brian
toissee
Canadian
eye to eye to agree on something
to have
He lives an eye
in Chicago for to have a sense for something
something
he is twelve
to keep your ears open to pay attention to what is being said
He lives with his parents and hasn't got any brothers or
sisters
to be all smiles to be very happy
to have your eyes pop out to be extremely surprised
Michael is 14, Trevor is 12,
of your head
his father is called
to leave a bad Jimtaste in your to be upset about someone's actions
his mouth
mother is called Allison
to have an ear for music to be talented at music
his ancestors are from England
to have a nose for news to know where to look for information
There are many African Americans, Hispanics, Asian, and
keep a living
Native American stiff in
upper lip
the USA don't show that you are upset
to be nosy to stick your nose in someone else's business
His school is called Parkside Elementary.

He goes to school on Monday through Fridays and has his

weekends off.

There is a lot to do in Chicago. The Sears Tower is very high!

he doesn't like macaroni

he has lunch at school

he loves football

His favorite player in the NFL (National Football League) is

called Brian Urlacher of the Chicago Bears.

Americans wear jeans, a shirt, socks, shoes, and sometimes a

hat.
Hi! My name is Robert and I live in Chicago, Illinois in the USA (United States of
America). The USA (also called America) has the third-largest population in the
world and is the fourth-largest country. The USA is divided into 50 sections
called states. The state I live in is Illinois. Is located in the center part, or
Midwestern section, of our country.
I am 10 years old. I have a mom, a dad and three brothers and one sister. Their
names are Michael, Trevor, Jake, and Elizabeth. Michael is 14, Trevor is 12, Jake
is 8, and Elizabeth is 7. But my parents don't want me to tell you how old they
are. But their names are Tim and Allison Jones. My ancestors are from Ireland
and Italy. Many of the people in this country come from European ancestry.
There are also many African Americans, Hispanics, Asian, and Native American
people living here.

My school is called Park Side Elementary. It is Jake and Elizabeth's school too.
Michael and Trevor's school is called Lincoln Middle School. In the USA many
students go to elementary school between the ages of 5-10, then middle school
between the ages of 11-13, then a four year high school, and then many people go
to college. Our elementary school starts at 8:30 am and ends at 3:20 pm. We go
to school on Monday through Fridays and have the weekends off.

Chicago is a great place to visit. First, we are near Lake Michigan. There are lots
of beaches and parks to visit. In Chicago, you'll want to go shopping. We have
lots of great shops. There are also lots of terrific museums to visit .You also
won't want to miss seeing the Sears Tower. It is one of the tallest buildings in
the world. It is 110 stories and 1,707 feet (if you include the antenna) tall.
Some food and drinks here in the USA that I really enjoy are macaroni and
cheese, chicken, ham, milk, and soda. You can buy a hot lunch from the school.
After we eat our lunch, we go outside to play.

Some of the favorite sports here in America are basketball, baseball, football,
soccer, hockey, and more. But, my favorite sport is football. My favorite player
in the NFL (National Football League) is Brian Urlacher of the Chicago Bears
(the Bears are my favorite team too).

Americans wear jeans, a shirt, socks, shoes, and sometimes a hat. I usually wear
a baseball hat, my favorite pants, and my favorite shirt. My pants have 4
pockets on it, and my shirt has red and black stripes on it.

Maybe sometime you will come to America! I'm sure you would love it. You would
probably like the parks and the big buildings. Well, I have to go! Bye!
 Time

second la seconde season la saison

minute la minute year l'année
hour l'heure decade la décennie
day le jour century le siècle
week la semaine millennium le millénium
month le mois eternity l'éternité

morning le matin evening la soirée

noon le midi night la nuit
afternoon l'après-midi midnight le minuit

Monday le lundi Friday le vendredi

Tuesday le mardi Saturday le samedi
Wednesday le mercredi Sunday le dimanche
Thursday le jeudi

January le janvier July le juillet

February le février August l'août
March le mars September le septembre
April l'avril October l'octobre
May le mai November le novembre
June le juin December le décembre

Answer the questions and click on the button Correct. (There may sometimes be
more possible answers than those proposed.)
 1. You must vacate the flat the weekend. Till until by for

2. The municipal art gallery is still .constracting in construction being

constracted constracted

3. For over an hour now, he .

4. It's not far, good because I'm tired.

5. I hate taxes.

6. I like to the dentist's twice a year.

7. I'd rather .

8. They anticipate more staff.

9. A crime was committed; the police are looking it.

10. As he's very argumentative, he's .

11. If you were ever in trouble, I would give you all the help you .

12. It's time you up your socks.

13. How !

14. Pearl, , has retired.

15. Mark asked .

16. There's a shopping centre City Hall.

17. Who you?

18. It's to ignore him when he's like that.

19. It was the first time I in love.

20. On the way home .

21. The computer's broken and .

22. That obelisk is a .

23. If I had had better connections, I a minister.

24. I'm looking for a T-shirt.

25. The police planning to arrest the demonstrators.

26. The .

27. Ignore him while he disruptive.

28. It be one o'clock already; I'm not ready.

29. I wonder if the price of cigarettes in next week's budget.

30. Nobody knows the exact value of pi, ?

Correct

Emploi
Le Present Perfect en général
En général, on emploie le Present Perfect pour parler d'un lien entre le passé et le présent:

• s'il s'agit du résultat présent d'une action dans le passé (Ex. Look! I've bought a new car — Regardez!
Je viens d'acheter une voiture neuve [la voiture est le résultat visible de ce que je viens de faire]),
• s'il s'agit d'une action accomplie (Ex. I've read Pickwick Papers — J'ai lu Pickwick Papers (le roman de
Dickens) [je ne précise pas quand, sinon je dois employer le prétérit]),
• s'il s'agit d'une action accomplie dans une période qui n'est pas encore terminée (Ex. pendant la
matinée, je dis I've been to the doctor's this morning — Je suis allé chez le médecin ce matin [si je
parle de cela pendant l'après-midi, je dois employer le prétérit parce que la période dont je parle (le
matin) est terminée]),
• s'il s'agit d'une action qui continue depuis un moment du passé jusqu'au moment où je parle
(Ex. I have been playing tennis since I was 7 years old — je joue au tennis depuis l'âge de 7 ans),
o Notez que depuis se traduit en anglais par since s'il est suivi par un complément de date ou
d'heure (Ex. hier, le 2 février, 10h00, le 12ème siècle), et par for s'il est suivi par un
complément de durée (Ex. deux heures, longtemps).
• s'il s'agit d'une action récente qui peut être considérée dans le moment présent comme une
information (Ex. The Prime Minister has met the President — Le Premier ministre vient de rencontrer le
Président [il s'agit d'un événement récent qui est une information au moment où j'en parle]).

Present Perfect Simple

On emploie la forme simple du Present Perfect:

• lorsqu'il s'agit d'un résultat ou d'une action terminée (Ex. Look! I've bought a new car. / I've
read Pickwick Papers). Dans le premier cas, il y a un résultat que l'on peut constater, à savoir la
voiture neuve; dans le deuxième cas, il s'agit de quelque chose qui est terminé — j'ai lu Pickwick
Papers de bout en bout.

Present Perfect Progressive (or Continuous)

On emploie la forme progressive du Present Perfect:

• lorsqu'il s'agit d'une action qui continue ou de la durée d'une action (Ex. I've been playing tennis since
I was 7. / I've been readingPickwick Papers. Dans le premier cas, je vous informe que je joue au
tennis depuis l'âge de 7 ans (et vous pouvez supposer que je n'y ai pas renoncé); dans le deuxième
cas, je vous informe que ces derniers temps, je lis Pickwick Papers (et vous pouvez supposer que je
n'ai pas encore terminé ma lecture).
• Il est à noter que certains verbes n'ont pas de forme progressive — les verbes d'état comme to know,
to believe, to like, et to have(lorsqu'il signifie 'avoir').

Emploi
Le Past Perfect en général
En général, on emploie le Past Perfect pour parler d'un lien entre un moment passé et un moment encore
plus loin dans le passé:

• Lorsque nous parlons au prétérit déjà et nous voulons parler d'un événement encore plus loin dans le
passé, nous employons lepast perfect.
o Ex. When Peter went to the theatre, he discovered that all the seats had been sold. —
Lorsque Peter est arrivé au théâtre, il a découvert que toutes les places avaient été vendues.
 • On emploie la forme progressive pour dire pendant combien de temps un certain événement durait
avant qu'un autre ne se produise - les deux événements sont dans le passé.
o Ex. I had been waiting for 20 minutes when Paul arrived. — J'avais attendu pendant 20
minutes avant que Paul n'arrive.
• Le past perfect s'emploie avec the first (second, third, fourth ... nth) time lorsque cette première
(2ème, 3ème, 4ème ... énième) fois est dans le passé.
o Ex. It was the first time we had met. — C'était la première fois que nous nous étions
rencontrés.

Si on compare le Past Perfect avec le Present Perfect (voir leçon) on constate que dans ce dernier cas il
s'agit d'un lien entre un moment passé et le présent tandis dans le cas du Past Perfect le lien est entre deux
moments du passé, l'un étant plus récent que l'autre. Par exemple:

• It is 9 o'clock and I have been waiting for over an hour. ('is' = présent, 'have been waiting' = present
perfect)
• It was 9 o'clock and I had been waiting for over an hour. ('was' = prétérit, 'had been waiting' = past
perfect)

Le gérondif
Le gérondif a la même forme que le participe présent (V-ing). Il s'agit d'un verbe employé comme nom. Il
s'emploie dans les situations suivantes :

1. Comme sujet de la phrase :

o Ex. Smoking damages your health. Fumer nuit à votre santé.
2. Comme complément :
o Ex. I like skiing. J'aime faire du ski.
3. Après une préposition :
o Ex. Are you interested in working for us? Cela vous dirait de travailler pour nous ?
o Ex. Tim's very good at building sand castles. Tim est très doué pour construire des châteaux
de sable.
4. Il s'emploie souvent avec les verbes suivants : admit, avoid, consider, delay, deny, detest, dread,
enjoy, envisage, fancy, feel like, finish, imagine, involve, keep, mind, miss, postpone,
practise, recall, regret, resent, risk, stop, suggest (traductions ci-dessous).
o Ex. It has stopped raining. La pluie s'est arrêtée.
o Ex. I dread going to the dentist's. Je redoute aller chez le dentiste.
5. Pour parler d'une action terminée, on peut employer le gérondif ou le gérondif parfait (having done,
having eaten, etc).
o Ex. Penny regretted having changed jobs. Penny a regretté d'avoir changé de travail.

L'infinitif

1. Après ces verbes, on emploie l'infinitif : afford, agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, choose,
consent, dare, decide, decline, demand, expect, fail, forget, hope, learn , manage, offer,
plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, swear, tend, threaten, want, wish (traductions
ci-dessous).
o Ex. Owen pretended to be asleep. Owen a fait semblant de dormir.
o Ex. The boss refused to give us a day off. Le patron a refusé de nous donner un jour de
congé.
2. Après les verbes suivants, on peut employer un mot en WH + infinitif : ask, decide, explain, forget,
know, remember, understand.
o Ex. He forgot what to say. Il a oublié quoi dire.
o Ex. Do you know how to play the piano? Savez-vous jouer du piano ?
o Ex. I don't know whether to tell him or not. Je ne sais pas si je devrais le lui dire ou non.
o Aussi show / tell / ask someone what / how / where to do something.
  Ex. Tell me how to do this exercise. I don't knowwhat to do. Dites-moi comment
faire cet exercice. Je ne sais pas quoi faire.
3. Il y a l'infinitif parfait (to have + participe passé) et l'infinitif progressif (to be + participe présent) que
l'on emploie surtout après les verbes appear, pretend, seem.
o Ex. Arnold seems to have enjoyed himself. Arnold semble s'être amusé.
o Ex. Arnold seems to be enjoying himself. Arnold semble s'amuser.
4. Après dare, on peut employer l'infinitif avec ou sans particule.
o Ex. He doesn't dare to ask for a raise. He doesn't dare askfor a raise. Il n'ose pas demander
une augmentation.
5. Après would like on met l'infinitif.
o Ex. I would like to be taller. J'aimerais être plus grand.

L'infinitif ou le gérondif
Après certains verbes on peut mettre ou l'infinitif ou le gérondif.

1. Après begin, can't bear, continue, intend, love, start on peut mettre ou l'infinitif ou le gérondif.
o Ex. I can't bear getting up early. I can't bear to get upearly. Ces deux phrases ont le même
sens, à savoir "Je ne supporte pas de me lever tôt".
2. Après like on emploie le gérondif lorsqu'il s'agit d'apprécier quelque chose et l'infinitif lorsqu'il s'agit de
trouver cela bien de faire quelque chose (sans nécessairement le trouver agréable).
o Ex. I like playing polo. J'aime jouer au polo. => Cela me plaît.
o Ex. I like to go to the dentist's twice a year. Je trouve cela bien d'aller chez le dentist deux
fois par an. => Je trouve qu'il est bien (ou nécessaire) d'y aller. Cela ne me plaît pas pour
autant.
3. Après stop on met le gérondif lorsqu'il s'agit d'arrêter quelque chose; mais on met l'infinitif lorsqu'il
s'agit d'arrêter ce que l'on est en train de faire afin de faire autre chose.
o Ex. He has stopped smoking. Il a arrêté de fumer. => Il avait fumé, mais maintenant il a
arrêté.
o Ex. He stopped to look at the shop window. Il s'est arrêté pour regarder la vitrine. => Il a
arrêté de marcher ou de conduire de façon à pouvoir regarder la vitrine.
4. Après remember on met l'infinitif lorsqu'il s'agit de se rappeler quelque chose avant de le faire; on
met le gérondif lorsqu'il s'agit de se rappeler quelque chose après l'avoir fait.
o Ex. Did you remember to feed the cat? Avez-vous pensé à donner à manger au chat ? => Je
veux savoir si vous vous êtes rappelé de donner à manger au chat, et si ensuite vous l'avez
fait.
o Ex. Yes, I remember feeding the cat before leaving for work. Oui, je me rappelle lui avoir
donné à manger avant de partir pour le travail. => Je vous assure que je me souviens d'avoir
donné à manger au chat.

Le discours indirect
On emploie le discours indirect (reported speech) pour dire ce que quelqu'un a dit. Il y a deux façons de
faire cela:

1. Vous pouvez répéter les mots (discours direct): He said: "I'm watching TV" (Il a dit: "Je regarde la
télé").
2. Ou vous pouvez employer le discours indirect: He said (that) he was watching TV (Il a dit qu'il
regardait la télé).

Le mot that est entre parenthèses parce qu'il n'est pas obligatoire.

En général, lorsque nous employons le discours indirect, nous parlons du passé. D'ordinaire donc nous
mettons le verbe (ou auxiliaire) auprétérit.
Exemples:
Discours direct Discours indirect

"Mary is happy." He said (that) Mary washappy.

"I want to buy a new computer, but He said (that) he wanted to buy a new
I don't know which one to buy." computer but didn't know which one to buy.

"I am going to buy a car." He said (that) he was going to buy a car.

He said (that) it was cold; hewould close the

"It is cold in here; I will close the
window.
window."
Note: would est le prétérit dewill.

"I have lost my watch." He said (that) he had lost his watch.

La plupart des modaux (could, might, must, ought, should, would) restent inchangés dans le discours
indirect. En revanche, can devient could etmay devient might.

En général, le prétérit simple (I did) reste inchangé dans le discours indirect, mais vous pouvez le changer
au past perfect (I had done):

Discours direct Discours indirect

He said he hadn't gone (ou didn't go) to school on

I didn't go to school on Thursday
Thursday because there had been (ou was) a train
because there wasa train strike.
strike.

Parfois, on ne modifie pas le verbe lorsqu'on emploie le discours indirect. Si ce que vous rapportez est
toujours vrai, vous n'êtes pas obligé de changer le temps du verbe:

Discours direct Discours indirect

"Diamonds are more expensive He said (that) diamonds are (ouwere) more
than pearls." expensive than pearls.

"Computers have gone down in He said (that) computers have(ou had) gone
price." down in price.

Dans ces deux exemples on peut mettre le verbe au prétérit (ou past perfect) ou le laisser comme il est.

Mais on est obligé d'employer le prétérit lorsqu'on n'est pas d'accord avec ce que on rapporte (si on estime
qu'il est faux).

Discours direct Discours indirect

"France is bigger than Canada." He said (that) France wasbigger than Canada.

"Ireland have neverbeaten England at He said (that)

rugby." Ireland hadnever beaten England at rugby.

Say et tell
Après say on n'est pas obligé d'employer un complément d'object indirect (COI); après tell on est obligé d'en
employer un. Donc, si vous mentionnez avec qui vous parlez, employez le verbe tell comme ceci:

• Correct: He told me [COI] (that) he didn't know the answer.

 • Incorrect: *He said me he didn't know the answer.

Sinon, employez say:

• Correct: He said (that) he didn't know the answer.

• Incorrect: *He told he didn't know the answer.

Si on emploie say avec un COI, on est obligé d'employer la prépositionto, mais cela est rare. Voici un exemple:

• Correct: He said to me that he didn't know the answer.

A la différence de say (ou said), après tell (ou told) on peut avoir différentes structures:

COI + mot en WH:

He told me what he wanted.
what, who, when, where, why, how

COI + infinitif He told me to go home.

COI + mot en WH + infinitif He told me where to go.

COI + groupe nominal He told me the truth.

On emploie l'infinitif dans le discours indirect, surtout avec tell et ask(pour des ordres et des requêtes):

Discours direct Discours indirect

My boss said: "Finish that project by Friday." The boss told me to finish the project by
(ordre) Friday.

She said: "Please be quiet while the baby is She asked me to bequiet while the baby
asleep." (requête) was asleep.

He said: "Can you pass me the salt?"

He asked me to pass the salt.
(requête)

On peut aussi employer said avec l'infinitif:

• The boss said to finish the work by Friday.

Les Adjectifs en -ing et -ed

Le participe présent (V-ing) peut être employé comme un adjectif ; le sens est actif. Par exemple, si on prend
le verb to interest on peut créer l'adjectif interesting (intéressant) ; le sens est actif parce que le nom qu'il
qualifie produit un effet : That is an interesting book - C'est un livre intéressant. Le livre m'intéresse ; il produit
cet effet sur moi ou sur d'autres personnes.

Le participe passé (V-ed) peut de même être employé comme adjectif ; le sens dans ce cas est passif. Par
exemple, du verbe to frighten(effrayer) on peut créer l'adjectif frightened (effrayé) ; le sens est passif parce
que le nom qu'il qualifie subit l'action du verbe transformé en adjectif : After the film, the frightened children
refused to go to bed - Après le film, les enfants effrayés ont refusé de se coucher. Les enfants étaient affectés
de cette manière par le film.

On peut aussi créer un adjectif à partir d'un nom en ajoutant -ed comme suffixe. Le nom qualifié par un tel
adjectif est doté de l'objet signifié par ce nom transformé en adjectif. Par exemple, si on prend le
nom feather(plume), on peut former l'adjectif feathered ; donc, A bird is a feathered creature - un oiseau est
une créature dotée de plumes.
Les Adjectifs composés
Un adjectif, un participe présent ou participe passé employé comme adjectif, ou un nom + -ed peut être
combiné avec un nom, un autre adjectif ou un adverbe pour former des adjectifs composés. Il peut aussi être
dérivé d'un verbe à particule (phrasal verb). Par exemple :

good- That horse looks good. It's a good-looking

adjectif + V-ing good + to look beau
looking horse. C'est un beau cheval.
This sweet has been coated in chocolate.
chocolate + to chocolate- enrobé de
nom + V-ed It's a chocolate-coated sweet. C'est un
coat coated chocolat
bonbon enrobé de chocolat.
That girl has red hair. She's a red-haired
adjectif + nom + -ed red + hair + -ed red-haired roux
girl. C'est une fille aux cheveux roux.
aux poings His fists are like iron. He's an iron-fisted
nom + nom + -ed iron + fist + -ed iron-fisted
de fer boxer. C'est un boxeur aux poings de fer.
She dresses well. She's well-dressed. Elle
adverbe + V-ed well + to dress well-dressed bien habillé
est bien habillée.
The car was blown up by a bomb. It's a
verbe à particule to blow up blown-up explosé
blown-up car. C'est une voiture explosée.

Thus, a complete list could be:

(article) + number + judgement/attitude + size, length, height + age + colour + origin +

material + purpose + noun

English sentences always begin with a capital letter.

We saw the accident from a distance.

The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.

The personal pronoun "I" is always written with a capital letter, wherever in a sentence it comes:

I like horror films.

Jenny and I went to the beach together.

Apart from these cases, capital letters are used at the beginning of the following types of words:

Names of people and places

Peter
Susan
Australia
Hyde Park
the Middle East

Planets and stars can be considered as places:

Jupiter
Pluto
Alpha Centauri

Titles
 Mr Finnegan
Mrs Edgeware
Ms Johnson
Dr Jacobs
Major Fingleton
the Director General

Days, months and public holidays

Monday
Friday
July
December
Christmas
Ramadan
Yom Kippur

Nationalities and regions, languages, religions and ethnic groups

a German car
the Scandinavian countries
She speaks Russian and Chinese
a Muslim cleric
the Aboriginal people

Titles of books, magazines, films, songs, etc.

War and Peace

Rolling Stone
the New Statesman
Citizen Kane
Stairway to Heaven
the Mouse Trap

Notice that articles, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. are not usuallycapitalised.

"Some words in English have silent letters. How can we know which letters in which words are silent?"

Unfortunately, the best answer to this question is "Become a professional etymologist!" Etymology is the
study of the origins of words, and the truth is that this is more a question of etymology than of
grammar.

To give an idea of how big an area we are considering here, according to Kent Jones, Education
Committee, Esperanto Society of Chicago, "More than 60% of (English) words have silent letters."

James Chandler observes "Many people are perhaps not aware of the astonishing fact that nearly every
letter of the English alphabet is silent in some word."

Here are three reasons why English has so many silent letters:
Old English was 90% phonemic (words sound the same as they look). But from the beginning of the 15th
century, we began to borrow words from other languages. Because grammar and usage rules are
different in other languages, adopted words did not follow the rules of English pronunciation.

The English language 'borrowed' the Latin alphabet, and so we have only got 26 letters to represent
around 41 different significant sounds. This means that we must attempt to use combinations of letters
to represent sounds.

In the Middle English Period William Caxton brought the printing press to England. As time passed,
pronunciation continued to change, but the printing press preserved the old spelling. That's why today
we have words that end in a silent 'e', or have other silent letters in the middle, like 'might'. In fact,
modern day English is only 40% phonemic.

So are there any rules and can they help us? Axel Wijk (Regularized English, 1959, Stockholm: Almqvist
& Wiksells) came up with over 100 rules for English spelling. It is claimed that by using these rules, you
can spell up to 85% of the words in English with 90% accuracy. But is this really helpful? Basically, no! It
gets so complicated that a much easier approach is to memorize sight words.

So you can see that unfortunately there is no clear way to know about all the silent letters in English. But
is it a hopeless case? Well, the best we can do is to offer the following list of some silent letters:

• Mb at the end of a word (silent b), e.g. comb, lamb, climb.

• Sc at the beginning of a word followed by 'e' or 'i', (silent c), e.g. scene, scent, science, scissors
(except for the word 'sceptic' and its derivations!).
• Kn (silent k), e.g. knife, knock, know.
• Mn at the end of a word (silent n), e.g. damn, autumn, column
• Ps at the beginning of a word (silent p), e.g. psalm, psychiatry, psychology
• Ght (silent gh), e.g. night, ought, taught
• Gn at the beginning of a word (silent g), e.g. gnome, gnaw, gnu
• Bt (silent b), e.g. debt, doubtful, subtle (but not in some words, e.g. 'obtain', 'unobtrusive'!)

The letter H is silent in the following situations:

• At the end of word preceded by a vowel, e.g. cheetah, Sarah, messiah;

• Between two vowels, e.g. annihilate, vehement, vehicle
• After the letter 'r', e.g. rhyme, rhubarb, rhythm
• After the letters 'ex', e.g. exhausting, exhibition, exhort.

A particularly good tool for viewing words with silent letters is the Web Concordancer:

In the 'search string' field, select the following options depending on what you are looking for: "starts
with", e.g. sc, gn, ps; "contains", e.g. ght, bt, xh; "ends with", e.g. mb, mn, vowel + h.

Another interesting possibility here, considering the relevance of etymology mentioned above, is to select
corpuses from different eras in the 'select corpus' field. If you choose, in turn, the Bible, Sherlock Holmes
and a Times corpus, you will see examples through the ages.

1) Complétez avec l'auxiliaire BE conjugué au présent:

I happy. She happy.

2) Complétez avec l'article indéfini a / an:

I've just seen mouse and elephant.

3) Ajoutez la marque de la possession:

This is the Simpsons house. Here is Peter car.
4) Utilisez le bon adjectif possessif.
This car belongs to me. It's car.
My brother has just bought this motorbike. It's
motorbike.

5) Mettez au pluriel:
church -> study ->

6) Complétez soit avec THERE IS, soit avec THERE ARE

At home, a big computer and two huge
armchairs.

7) Complétez avec le bon pronom relatif (WHO, WHICH):

Do you know the girl is sitting there?
Our dog, is over there, is very strong.

8) Complétez avec le verbe conjugué au présent simple:

She (catch). He (try).

9) Traduisez en anglais ces adverbes de fréquence:

parfois = souvent =

10) Ecrivez l'heure en toutes lettres (exemple du format

accepté: it's three past six):
10.20 = It's .
07.50 = It's .

11) Ecrivez ces nombres en toutes lettres:

253 =
2,300 =

12) Ecrivez ces nombres ordinaux:

9th = THE | 12th = THE

13) Ecrivez ces dates en toutes lettres:

In 1993 = IN | In the 80s = IN
14) Ecrivez ces fractions:
1/2 = | 3/4 =

15) Complétez avec le verbe entre parenthèses conjugué

au présent en BE + ING:
she (write) | they (stop)

16) Conjuguez le verbe soit au présent simple, soit au

présent en BE + ING:
Listen! Peter (play) music!
On Sundays, he (play) football.

17) Complétez avec le bon modal: CAN ou MUST.

I speak English.
I do my homework.

18) Complétez avec le bon pronom personnel complément:

Please send your essay. I will phone you as soon as I
receive it.
Where is your brother? I can't see .

19) Conjuguez l'auxiliaire BE au prétérit:

She . They .

20) Conjuguez les verbes entre parenthèses au prétérit:

I (dance). He (study).

21) Indiquez les formes manquantes de ces verbes

irréguliers (prétérit et participe passé, séparés par un
espace):
to write
to sleep

22) Complétez avec l'adjectif au comparatif de supériorité

(+) ou d'infériorité (-):
Tom is (+ big) than Sandra.
Tom is (- intelligent) than Peter.
23) Complétez avec le verbe conjugué au plus-que-
parfait/plu-perfect.
I (to take) an umbrella.
She (sleep) a lot.

24) Complétez avec le verbe conjugué au prétérit en BE +

ING:
I (to sleep) when the phone rang.
They (to listen) to music when they heard a big
noise.

25) Complétez avec SOME ou ANY.

I want fruit. Is there left?

26) Complétez avec l'adjectif au superlatif de supériorité:

I'm (intelligent) man in the town.
Sandra is (rich) woman.

27) Mettez à la voix passive:

Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. > .
That man is stealing my car! > !

28) Complétez avec le verbe conjugué au present perfect

(pas de forme contractée):
We (to finish)
She (to eat)

29) Posez la question sur l'élément souligné (le point

d'interrogation est déjà mis):
I have been living in Paris for 5 years. -> ?
Peter went to London 5 days ago. -> ?

30) Inscrivez D si le nom est dénombrable ou I si le nom

est Indénombrable:
table ->
water ->
Tense Changes When Using Reported Speech

Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech:

She said, "I am tired." She said that she was tired.

The changes are shown below:

Simple present Simple past

"I always drink coffee", she said She said that she always drankcoffee.
Present continuous Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he explained. He explained that he was reading a
book
Simple past Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said. He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday
Present perfect Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told me. He told me that he had been to Spain
Past perfect Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he He explained that he had just turned
explained. out the light.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have They complained that they had been
beenwaiting for hours". waiting for hours.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris", they told me. They told me that they had been
living in Paris.

Future Present conditional

"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he He said that he would be in Geneva on
said Monday.
Future continuous Conditional continuous
She said, "I'll be using the car next She said that she would be usingthe car
Friday". next Friday.

NOTE:

1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original
statement was about something that is still true, e.g.

• He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
• We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.

2. These modal verbs do not change in reported speech:

might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g.

• We explained that it could be difficult to find our house.

• She said that she might bring a friend to the party.
Time/place references change when using reported speech

Example
• "I will see you here tomorrow", she said. She said that she would see methere the
next day.

The most common of these changes are shown below:

Today that day

"I saw him today", she said. She said that she had seen him that day.
Yesterday the day before
"I saw him yesterday", she said. She said that she had seen him theday
before.
The day before yesterday two days before
"I met her the day before yesterday", He said that he had met her two days
he said. before.
Tomorrow the next/following day
"I'll see you tomorrow", he said He said that he would see me the next
day.
The day after tomorrow in two days time/ two days later
"We'll come the day after tomorrow", They said that they would come in two
they said. days time/ two days later.
Next week/month/year the following week/month/year
"I have an appointment next week", she She said that she had an appointmentthe
said. following week.
Last week/month/year the previous/week/month/year
"I was on holiday last week", he told us. He told us that he had been on
holidaythe previous week.
ago before
"I saw her a week ago," he said. He said he had seen her a week before.
this (for time) that
"I'm getting a new car this week", she She said she was getting a new
said. carthat week.

this/that (adjectives) the

"Do you like this shirt?" he asked He asked if I liked the shirt.
here there
He said, "I live here". He told me he lived there.

Question Forms and Reported Speech

1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb,
and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did':

• "Where does Peter live?" She asked him where Peter lived.

2. Yes / no questions: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether +
clause:
 • "Do you speak English?" He asked me if I spoke English.
• "Are you British or American?" He asked me whether I was British or American.
• "Is it raining?" She asked if it was raining.
• "Have you got a computer?" He wanted to know whether I had a computer.
• "Can you type?" She asked if I could type.
• "Did you come by train?" He enquired whether I had come by train.
• "Have you been to Bristol before?" She asked if I had been to Bristol before.

3. Question words:

This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word +
clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense
change.

• "What is your name?" he asked me. He asked me what my name was.

• "How old is your mother?", he asked. He asked how old her mother was.
• The policman said to the boy, "Where do you live?" The policeman asked the
boy where he lived.
• "What time does the train arrive?" she asked. She asked what time the train
arrived.
• "When can we have dinner?" she asked. She asked when they could have dinner.
• Peter said to John, "Why are you so late?" Peter asked the John why he was so late.

Summary of reporting verbs

Note that some reporting verbs may appear in more than one of the following groups.

1. Verbs followed by 'if' or 'whether' + clause:

ask say
know see
remember

2. Verbs followed by a that-clause:

add doubt reply

admit estimate report
agree explain reveal
announce fear say
answer feel state
argue insist suggest
boast mention suppose
claim observe tell
comment persuade think
complain propose understand
confirm remark warn
consider remember
deny repeat

3. Verbs followed by either a that-clause or a to-infinitive:

decide promise
expect swear
guarantee threaten
hope

4. Verbs followed by a that-clause containing should

(but note that it may be omitted, leaving a subject + zero-infinitive):

advise insist recommend

beg prefer request
demand propose suggest

5. Verbs followed by a clause starting with a question word:

decide imagine see

describe know suggest
discover learn teach
discuss realise tell
explain remember think
forget reveal understand
guess say wonder

6. Verbs followed by object + to-infinitive

advise forbid teach

ask instruct tell
beg invite warn
command

ORDERS, REQUESTS, SUGGESTIONS

1. When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' with a to-clause.

Example
• He told me to go away.

The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause.

(The indirect object is the person spoken to.)

Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order, warn, ask,
advise, invite, beg, teach, forbid.

Examples
• a. The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!". The doctor told me to stop smoking.
• "Get out of the car!" said the policeman. The policeman ordered him to get out of
the car.
• "Could you please be quiet," she said. She asked me to be quiet.
• The man with the gun said to us, "Don't move!" The man with the gun warned us
not to move.

(See also section on Verbs followed by infinitive and Verbs followed by gerund)
2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern ask + for + object:

Examples
• "Can I have an apple?", she asked. She asked for an apple
• "Can I have the newspaper, please?" He asked for the newspaper.
• "May I have a glass of water?" he said. He asked for a glass of water.
• "Sugar, please." She asked for the sugar.
• "Could I have three kilos of onions?" He asked for three kilos of onions.

3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in these
clauses:

• She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?" She suggested that I
should get a mechanic to look at the car. OR She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car.

Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request, propose.

Examples
• "It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother. My mothersuggested I
see the dentist.
• The dentist said, "I think you should use a different toothbrush". The
dentistrecommended that I should use a different toothbrush.
• My manager said, "I think we should examine the budget carefully at this meeting."
My manager proposed that we examine the budget carefully at the meeting.
• "Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said. She suggested that I
sleep overnight at her house.

HOPES, INTENTIONS & PROMISES

When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by
a that-clause or a to-infinitive:

"I'll pay you the money tomorrow."

He promised to pay me the money the next day.
He promised that he would pay me the money the next day.

Other verbs used in this pattern include:

hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, swear.

Examples
• "I'll be back by lunchtime."
• He promised to be back by lunchtime.
• He promised that he would be back by lunchtime.

• "We should arrive in London before nightfall."

• They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall.
• They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall.

• "Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!"

• He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
• He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
Capital letters are used with:

Names and titles of people

• Winston Churchill
• Marilyn Monroe
• the Queen of England
• the President of the United States
• the Headmaster of Eton
• Doctor Mathews
• Professor Samuels.

Note: The personal pronoun 'I' is always written with a capital letter.

Titles of works, books etc.

• War and Peace
• The Merchant of Venice
• Crime and Punishment
• Tristan and Isolde

Months of the year

January July
February August
March September
April October
May November
June December

Days of the week

Monday Friday
Tuesday Saturday
Wednesday Sunday
Thursday

Seasons
Seasons
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter

Holidays
Christmas Easter New Year's Day

Boxing Day May Day Thanksgiving Day

Geographical names...
Names of countries and continents
America England Scotland
China Peru Albania
Africa Europe Asia

Names of regions, states, districts etc.

Sussex California Queensland
Provence Tuscany Vaud
Florida Costa Brava Tyrol

Names of cities, towns, villages etc.

London Cape Town Rome
Florence Bath Wagga Wagga
Vancouver Wellington Peking

Names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes etc.

the Atlantic the Dead Sea the Pacific
Lake Leman Lake Victoria Lake Michigan
the Rhine the Thames the Nile

Names of geographical formations

the Himalayas the Alps the Sahara

Adjectives relating to nationality nouns

France - French music
Australia - Australian animals
Germany - German literature
Arabia - Arabic writing
Indonesia - Indonesian poetry
China - Chinese food

Names of streets, buildings, parks etc.

Park Lane Central Avenue Pall Mall
George Street Sydney Opera House Central Park
Hyde Park the Empire State Building Wall Street

THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

Most nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es.

Examples
Singular Plural
boat boats
hat hats
house houses
river rivers

A noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant makes the plural with -ies.

Examples
Singular Plural
a cry cries
a fly flies
a nappy nappies

a poppy poppies
a city cities
a lady ladies

a baby babies

There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. Some of the most common ones
are listed below.

Examples of irregular plurals

Singular Plural
woman women
man men
child children
tooth teeth
foot feet
person people
leaf leaves
half halves
knife knives
wife wives
life lives
loaf loaves
potato potatoes
cactus cacti
focus foci
fungus fungi
nucleus nuclei
syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
analysis analyses
diagnosis diagnoses
oasis oases
thesis theses
crisis crises
phenomenon phenomena
criterion criteria
datum data

Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.
Examples

Singular Plural
sheep sheep
fish fish
species species

aircraft aircraft

Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.

Examples
• news The news is on at 6.30 p.m.
• athletics Athletics is good for young people.
• linguistics Linguistics is the study of language.
• darts Darts is a popular game in England.
• billiards Billiards is played all over the world.

Some nouns have a plural form and take a plural verb.

Examples
• trousers My trousers are too tight.
• jeans Her jeans are black.
• glasses Those glasses are his.

others include:

• savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages,spectacles,

outskirts, goods, wits

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