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Many see hydrogen as the clean fuel of the future, because its only by-product is
water. Before hydrogen can become a signicant part of the energy economy, many
fundamental technological issues must be addressed. Governments, research
institutions and businesses, including the oil and gas industry, must play important
roles in solving problems related to hydrogen production, transport, storage
and distribution.
Kamel Bennaceur
Gatwick, England
Brian Clark
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Franklin M. Orr, Jr.
Global Climate and Energy Project (GCEP)
Stanford University
Stanford, California, USA
T. S. Ramakrishnan
Ridgeeld, Connecticut, USA
Claude Roulet
Houston, Texas
Ellen Stout
Air Liquide
Houston, Texas
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Chris de
Koning, Shell Hydrogen BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
Chris Edwards and Maxine Lym, GCEP, Stanford, California.
ECLIPSE 300 is a mark of Schlumberger. Roller Pac is a
mark of Axane.
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Oileld Review
Spring 2005
80
60
Carbon intensity
Source
Wood
29.9
Coal
25.8
Oil
20.1
Gas
15.3
35
30
25
Coal
40
20
Wood
Oil
20
100
15
Gas
Nuclear
0
1850
1900
1950
10
2000
Year
c,
reference 3.)
31
100
10
Petroleum liquids
Natural gas
Coal
Nuclear power
Hydroelectric
Wood and biomass
1
Geothermal
Municipal solid waste
Wind
0.1
Solar thermal
Other
0.01
0.001
Solar photovoltaic
2002
2005
2010
Year
2015
2020
2025
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Oileld Review
2050
Hydrogenoriented economy
2050
n
tio
iza s s
l
a
Increasing decarbonization of H2 production; renewable sources,
ts rci tion ion
2040
efi me ca at
H2 use in aviation
fossil fuels with CCS, new nuclear power plants
en com appli pplic
b
n
te cell bile ary a
o
i
a
t
iv l
tra
pr fue mo tion
ne
Fuel cells become dominant
2040
nd and - FC C sta
pe
a
t
s n
technology in transport, in
-F
rke
rd roge
a
a
distributed power generation,
gm
ew hyd on
n
r
i
2030
s
and in microapplications
Widespread H2 pipeline infrastructure
lic scale ucti rt
ea
r
b
c
In
Pu rge- prod spo
n
a
e
L - H 2 tra rag
o
Interconnection of local H2 distribution grids; significant H2 production
2030
- H 2 2st
H2 becomes primary fuel choice for FC vehicles
H
from renewable sources, including biomass gasification
n
o
Significant growth in distributed power generation with
ati
H2 production from fossil fuels with CCS
2020
str
e
substantial penetration of FCs
us
on
d
m
Local clusters of H2 distribution grids
de n an
tr s and ratio tion
Second-generation on-board storage (long range)
ts
o
Local clusters of H2 filling stations
lee
eff rch ene ibu
2020
ef
te sea al g distr
Low-cost,
high-temperature FC systems; FCs commercial in microapplications
h
a
c
i
H2 transport by road, and local H2
riv d re tric on,
;n
sts
FC vehicles competitive for passenger cars
d p pplie elec rtati
production at refueling stations by
e
n
t
2010
d o
a a
d
reforming natural gas and by
iel
es h, an nsp
Atmospheric pressure hybrid SOFC systems commercial (<10 MW)
t; f
tiv earc icles , tra
electrolysis
n
n
e
s
e
h n
First H2 fleets; first-generation H2 storage
pm
nc tal re r ve ctio
i
o
l
H2 production by
c n fo u
ve
2010
bli e lls rod
de
Series production of FC vehicles for fleets (with direct H2 and on-board reforming) and other
reforming natural gas
Pu ndamel ce en p
nd
a
g
u
transport (such as boats); FC for auxiliary power units
and by electrolysis
F - Fu dro
g
n
i
t
y
s
2000
-H
Stationary low-temperature fuel cell systems (PEMFC) (<300 kW)
, te
h
arc
se
Stationary high-temperature fuel cell systems (MCFC and SOFC) (<500 kW); H2 internal combustion engine
Re
Fossil fueldeveloped; demonstration fleets of FC buses
2000
based economy
Stationary low-temperature FC systems for commercial niches (<50 kW)
Fuel cell (FC) and H2 systems: development and deployment
> European Union roadmap for implementing the hydrogen economy, including fuel cell development.
Spring 2005
33
Conducting
ion
Operating
temperature, C
Power
density
Disadvantages
Advantages
Applications
60 to 80
High
Transportation,
electric utility
200
Medium
Electric utility,
transportation
60 to 120
Medium
Small portable
applications
100 to 250
High
Military, space
and undersea
applications
Greater than
650
Low
Natural gas
and coal-based
power plants
600 to 1,000
Medium
to high
Electric utility
PAFC
Phosphoric acid
fuel cell
DMFC
Direct methanol
fuel cell
AFC
Alkaline fuel
cell
OH
MCFC
Molten carbonate
fuel cell
CO3
SOFC
Solid oxide
fuel cell
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Oileld Review
Electron flow
Basic
chemicals
Load
Water and
waste heat
(H2O)
Excess
fuel
+
H
Glass
Optical glass
Heat treatment,
fiber
steel
Laboratory
Food,
analysis
sorbitol
Heat treatment,
stainless steel Food, fat and oils
Fuel
cells
Glass polishing
10
100
1,000
m3/hr
10,000
Anode
Refining for
clean fuels
100,000
> Current use of hydrogen. Fuel cells, such as the Axane Roller Pac portable
fuel cell (inset), use a very small proportion of the current hydrogen
production. The predominant uses are for basic chemical production and for
making fuels such as gasoline less polluting. Uses near the bottom of this
chart are most likely to be supplied by tube trailers and cylinders. Those at
the top are most likely to have a pipeline supply, and those in the middle are
likely to have onsite generation.
Spring 2005
Cathode
Hydrogen
fuel (H2)
Air supply
(O2)
Anode reaction:
+
H2
2H + 2e
Electron flow
Load
Excess fuel
and water
Unused
gas
2
Cathode
Anode
Air supply
(O2)
Hydrogen
fuel (H2)
Cathode reaction:
2
O2 + 4e
2O
public, these niches will expand. DMFC technology is most likely for small-scale consumer
appliances, such as laptop computers and cellular phones. Portable generators, such as the
Axane system, which uses a PEMFC, are
already on the market.
35
Worldwide capacity,
Gt carbon
100s
10s to 100s
100s to 1,000s
For comparison:
Worldwide anthropogenic CO2 emissions (McKee)
7 Gt/yr carbon
12 Mt/yr carbon
> Estimates of worldwide CO2 storage potential. (Data on CO2 injection for
EOR from Gielen, reference 24; other data from McKee, reference 25.)
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Oileld Review
Spring 2005
> Major onshore (green) and offshore (blue) sedimentary basins. The brown line indicates the 1,000-m
[3,280-ft] water-depth contour.
37
Baton
Rouge
LOUISIANA
Houston
TEXAS
Bayport
Freeport
Gul
exico
f of M
Corpus Christi
150
100
Pipeline
Hydrogen plant
Hydrogen/CO plant
50
25
300
450 km
200
300 miles
100 km
Rozenburg
50 miles
THE NETHERLANDS
Bergen-op-Zoon
Terneuzen
Antwerp
BELGIUM
Feluy
Isbergues
Charleroi
FRANCE
Waziers
> Hydrogen networks. Air Liquide operates hydrogen pipelines in northern Europe and the US Gulf coast, part of the companys 1,700-km [1,060-mile]
worldwide network. This is about 10% of all the hydrogen pipelines in the world. Plants in Antwerp, Belgium, and Bayport, Texas, each produce more than
100,000 m3/hr [629,000 bbl/hr] of hydrogen from natural gas. Most hydrogen produced at these plants is used to remove polluting sulfur from gasoline and
diesel fuel.
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Oileld Review
Spring 2005
Hydrogen
Methane
Propane
Property
2.02
16.04
44.06
~107
Gasoline
0.084
0.651
1.87
4.4
0.07
0.55
1.52
3.4 to 4.0
0.61
0.16
0.12
0.05
4.1
5.3
2.1
1.0
75
15
10
7.8
0.02
0.29
0.26
0.24
858
813
760
501 to 744
18
6.3
3.1
1.1
59
13.5
7.0
3.3
2.02
7.02
20.2
44.2
39
> Shell hydrogen station and fuel cell car. This station in Washington, DC, has both gasoline pumps and a hydrogen pump (top). The General Motors
demonstration car has a hydrogen fuel cell under the hood (bottom). The version of this car with a 70-MPa [10,000-psi] compressed-hydrogen tank has a
range of about 270 km [168 miles]. (Photographs courtesy of Shell Hydrogen BV.)
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Oileld Review
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41