Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
National University of Science and Technology MISiS, Leninsky Ave. 4, Moscow 119049, Russia
School of Advanced Materials Engineering and Research Center of Advanced Materials Development, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Republic
of Korea
b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Available online 27 May 2015
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theoretical results and experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deep states related to native defects, impurities, and their complexes in III-Nitrides (theoretical results) .
2.1.
Deep states related to dislocations (theoretical results, brief comparison with experiment) . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Experimental studies of the properties of donor and acceptor dopants in III-Nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Si and oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Si and O related complexes in III-Nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Mg in III-Nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Carbon in III-Nitrides (experiment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.
Carbon in GaN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1.
C in AlN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2.
Fe doping effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.
Other deep traps experimental studies in III-Nitrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deep traps in GaN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Electron and hole traps in AlGaN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Deep traps in AlGaN/GaN and in GaN-based HEMTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AlGaN/GaN heterojunctions: the origin of two-dimensional gas and deep traps in the material . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Trapping in transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Radiation effects in GaN-based HEMTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Deep traps in GaN-based LEDs and LDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deep traps in GaN/InGaN and AlGaN/AlGaN LEDs and LDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.
V.2.LEDs degradation studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ihlee@jbnu.ac.kr (I.-H. Lee).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2015.05.001
0927-796X/ 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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48
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
7.
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Wide-bandgap III-Nitrides have grown into one of the most
important semiconductor materials systems with vast applications
in visible-UV light emitting devices (LEDs) and laser diodes (LDs),
high-power transistors and rectiers, high-frequency devices.
Deep traps in such devices can play a very important role. This is
particularly so for the III-Nitrides because these compounds are
commonly grown on lattice mismatched substrates, with a large
lattice mismatch between individual epitaxial layers. Growth is
performed at high temperatures potentially conducive to strong
impurity contamination, high concentration of point defects and
high strain caused by the difference in thermal expansion
coefcients. All this can result in high density of extended defects
and centers with deep levels. Initial deep center defects studies
were, therefore, aimed at establishing the properties of major
native defects, impurities and dopants and their complexes both
theoretically and experimentally. Also, one of the most important
tasks was to study the electronic structure of extended defects in
III-Nitrides. These studies in III-Nitrides were seriously complicated by the wide-bandgap of most nitrides necessitating the
development of new methods of deep traps spectroscopy. Indeed,
the bandgap of GaN is 3.4 eV at room temperature, while the depth
of deep traps that can be easily scanned by the standard deep levels
transient spectroscopy (DLTS) due to Lang [1] is usually 1 eV from
the conduction or valence band. Thus, the probed regions of the
bandgap even in GaN miss the most important midgap region, the
more so for wider bandgap InAlGaN ternaries and quaternaries.
This can in principle be remedied by increasing the high
temperature in the DLTS temperature scan, but the leakage
current of Schottky diodes or pn diodes in GaN-based devices is
usually relatively high even at room temperature which makes it
very difcult to carry out reliable capacitance measurements at
temperatures exceeding 500 K. Undoped III-Nitrides grow
usually preferentially n-type, so minority carriers traps in such
lms had to be studied on Schottky diodes by the DLTS version
with optical injection pulse, the so called optical DLTS (ODLTS)
[2]. The as-grown, annealed or irradiated III-Nitrides are often
semi-insulating and deep traps in them have to be detected by
using the photoinduced current transient spectroscopy (PICTS or
OTCS) which is similar to DLTS, but utilizes photocurrent
relaxations induced by optical injection pulse [36].
The III-Nitrides lms and layers are often heavily compensated
so that standard DLTS measurements on them are not reliable
[1]. In that case current version of DLTS (CDLTS) (see [7] and
references therein) is often an answer. It also helps in analysing the
spectra of deep traps in p-type nitrides because the depth of p-type
dopants in nitrides is relatively high and causes strong freeze-out
of material at temperatures below room temperature.
Admittance spectroscopy (see e.g. [8]) and capacitancevoltage
(CV) proling in the dark or under illumination (LCV) [7,9] were
found to be very useful in determining the thermal and optical
ionization energy of deep traps near the Fermi level in
compensated nitrides. These techniques also proved very useful
in analyzing the electrical properties and charge distribution in
quantum well or multi-quantum-well structures.
In order to circumvent the problem with high ionization energy
of traps in GaN and AlGaN the deep levels optical spectroscopy
(DLOS) [10] was widely adopted in nitrides studies. In this method
51
52
52
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 1. Formation energies as a function of Fermi level for native point defects in
GaN. Ga-rich conditions are assumed. The zero of Fermi level corresponds to the top
of the valence band. Only segments corresponding to the lowest-energy charge
states are shown. The slope of these segments indicates the charge state. Kinks in
the curves indicate transitions between different charge states.
(After Ref. [12], Fig. 5) Copyright American Institute of Physics 2004.
Fig. 2. Thermodynamic transition levels for defects in GaN, determined from the
formation energies displayed in Fig. 1.
(After Ref. [12], Fig. 6) Copyright American Institute of Physics 2004.
VGa are triple acceptors lled up to the VGa3 level in n-GaN, VN are
donors giving rise to shallow singly positively charged states in nGaN and deep triply positively charged states VN3+ with a level in
the lower half of the bandgap in p-GaN (the doubly charged state is
metastable and should not be observed in equilibrium conditions
[12,20,21]). Ni and Gai in Fig. 1 are, respectively, nitrogen
interstitials (deep acceptors in n-GaN, deep donors in p-GaN, see
Figs. 1 and 2) and Ga interstitials (deep donors). NGa and GaN are
the nitrogen and gallium antisite defects. The zero of Fermi energy
in Fig. 1 corresponds to the valence band maximum, positive slope
of the energy dependence is for donor states, negative slope is for
acceptor states, the points where the slope changes are the
energies at which the defects change their charge state [12]. Naturally, under strongly nonequilibrium conditions (e.g. irradiation
with high energy particles or device operation under very high
power), defects other than vacancies can be observed, but antisite
defects do not seem to be playing any important role even under
these conditions (we will discuss that later).
Switching from GaN to InN or AlN does not change the general
picture qualitatively (see [2227]), although it should be noted
that the calculations for these latter binaries were mostly
performed for the zinc-blend rather than wurtzite polytype. For
InN, an additional uncertainty is added by the fact the bandgap
energy calculations predict the bandgap that is much lower than
the experimentally observed value of about 0.8 eV and special
corrections have to be introduced to circumvent this problem
[12,25]. Fig. 3 taken from Ref. [25] illustrates the Fermi energy
dependence of the defects formation energies in InN. It can be seen
that the lowest energy defects are the gallium and nitrogen
vacancies in respectively n- and p-InN, the formation energy of
nitrogen antisites NIn and nitrogen interstitials Ni is always very
high. However, in contrast to GaN, the formation energies of In
interstitials Ini and In antisites InN in p-InN is low and comparable
to the formation energy of the VN3+ donors.
For AlN, again, the lowest energy defects turn out to be the
triply negatively charged Al vacancies in n-type material and triply
positively charged nitrogen vacancies in p-type material [26]. However, the formation energy of Al interstitials, donors in p-AlN, was
found to be comparable to the formation energy of the main
compensating defect in p-type III-Nitrides, the triply positively
charged VN (in fact, the formation energy for Ali is even lower).
Fig. 4 taken from Ref. [26] depicts the energy positions for different
defects as calculated for zinc-blend AlN. It should be noted here
that, for wurtzite AlN, because of the different coordination of
defects and the larger bandgap than for the zinc-blend polytype,
the general picture would be seriously different [12,26]. For
example, the VN+ state that is a resonance in zinc-blend AlN
produces a deep level in wurtzite AlN, the energy level of the VN3+
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 3. The Fermi energy dependence of the simple native defects formation energy
in InN.
(After Ref. [25], Fig. 1) Copyright the American Physical Society, 2000.
Fig. 4. The calculated energy levels of simple native defects in zinc-blend AlN.
(After Ref. [26], Fig. 2) Copyright The American Physical Society, 2002.
Fig. 5. The dependence of the formation energy of hydrogen donors and hydrogen
acceptors in GaN on the Fermi level position.
(After Ref. [12], Fig. 15) Copyright American Institute of Physics 2004.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 6. The Fermi level dependence of the formation energy of the three main C
species in GaN under Ga-rich (a) and N-rich (b) growth conditions.
(After Ref. [43], Fig. 1) Copyright American Physical Society 2014.
Fig. 7. The band alignment of the CN acceptor (solid lines) and donor (dashed lines)
levels in GaN, AlN, and InN.
(After Ref. [43], Fig. 8) Copyright American Physical Society 2014.
Both, CIn and Ci form shallow donor states, and the shallow donors
due to doubly positively charged CIn 2+ donors are predicted to
dominate in lightly doped InN [43]. The changes in the energy
levels positions of C states in GaN, AlN, InN support the idea that
the levels are aligned in respect to the vacuum level, as illustrated
for the CN acceptor and donor states in Fig. 7 taken from Ref. [43].
As we have seen above, native defects in III-Nitrides give rise to
a large variety of donor and acceptor states and thus can form
complexes between oppositely charged centers and with impurity
atoms. By far the most important among such complexes are
acceptor Mg and donor hydrogen pairs because their formation
handicaps efcient p-type doping of nitrides. Kinetics of hydrogen
diffusion in different charge states, microscopic structure and the
binding energy of MgH complexes (believed to be neutral) were
analyzed in Refs. [25,26,37,38]. These papers also treat variations
in H concentration observed for varying Mg concentration, the
hydrogen outdiffusion and the kinetics of hydrogen release upon
annealing. This theoretical analysis showed that the binding
energy of MgH complexes in p-GaN is close to 0.71 eV, the
presence of hydrogen suppresses the formation of compensating
VN3+ defects and increases the Mg solubility (see also a review in
Ref. [12]). Some additional features of the process were discovered
in a recent analysis of the phenomena in Ref. [39]. Fig. 8(a) taken
from Ref. [39] illustrates the major differences with the earlier
picture. It can be seen from the Fermi level dependence of the
formation energies of the Mg acceptors MgGa, isolated interstitial
hydrogen Hi, and MgH complexes that, in addition to neutral Mg
H complexes (the authors obtained the binding energy of these
complexes as 1.02 eV), one should observe in p-type material a
donor state near Ev+0.13 eV. For AlN, the authors of Ref. [39]
predict the donor state of the MgH complex to be deeper, close to
Ev+0.43 eV. All that has serious implications for possible optical
transitions in the material as will be discussed below. Mg acceptors
complexing with other donors, nitrogen vacancies in GaN, was
analyzed in Ref. [45]. It was shown that such complexes can create
a donor state near Ev+0.9 eV, more prominent under Ga-rich
growth conditions.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 8. (a) The Fermi level dependence of the formation energy of Mg acceptors, interstitial hydrogen and hydrogenMg complexes in GaN, (b) conguration-coordinate
diagram for optical transitions via Mg acceptors in GaN.
(After Ref. [39], Fig. 2) Copyright American Physical Society 2012.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
should be close to xIn = 0.34 in both cases. The concept also seems
to work for predicting the defects energy evolution in AlxGa1xN.
For these ternaries, there is also a question of the border Al
composition corresponding to switching between the simple
shallow donors and DX-like behavior for oxygen, Si, Ge. Calculations performed in Refs. [2831] place this transition for O at Al
composition close to xAl = (0.30.4), for Si at xAl > 0.6, for Ge at
xAl > 0.3, although there is considerable discrepancy between the
results of different calculations (for example, Van de Walle [29]
does not expect Si to form DX-like centers for any aluminum
composition; see also an extensive discussion in Ref. [12]).
In the mind of non-theorists, to whom the authors of this review
belong, there always is, of course, the looming question of how
accurate the predictions of the theory regarding the formation
energies and the energy levels of defects are. The estimate of the
calculated energies accuracy is discussed in much detail in Ref.
[12]. It is claimed that the energies can be calculated with the
accuracy of 0.1 eV, although this reects the conversion of the
results with respect to increasing the size of the atoms cluster used.
The real accuracy is hard to estimate reliably and here is where
the experiment should come in. The serious problem, of course, is the
tendency of modern theoretical approaches to underestimate
the bandgaps of the host materials. However, supposedly the relative
position of the levels is determined more accurately than the absolute
energy and also new computational methods allow to considerably
improve the accuracy of the bandgaps calculations [12].
2.2. Deep states related to dislocations (theoretical results, brief
comparison with experiment)
The results of different theoretical calculations for electronic
states of dislocations in GaN and other III-Nitrides are somewhat
contradictory. The early work on electronic properties of screw and
edge threading dislocations in GaN [48] suggested that full core
screw dislocations should produce strong lattice distortions and
form a band of deep states near Ev+(0.91.6) eV and relatively
shallow states near Ec0.2 eV. Open core screw dislocations
formed by {10-10}facets were expected to form only shallow states
which was also a prediction for full-core edge dislocations
[48]. When comparing the formation energies of the full-core
versus open-core threading dislocations it was concluded that
open-core screw dislocations with a small diameter of around 7.9 A
could be energetically favorable, whilst for higher diameters opencore dislocations should not be observed. However, in later work of
the same group it was argued that the strain eld related to
threading dislocations is strong enough to create attractive force
for impurity segregation, oxygen being the most likely technologically important impurity to be segregated [49,50]. Complexing of
oxygen donors with triply charged gallium vacancy VGa acceptors
could then form doubly charged acceptors (VGaO)2 which in nGaN would be lled and form the acceptor transition level near
Ev+1 eV. Complexes with two oxygen atoms would produce singly
ionized acceptors, while complexes with three O atoms would be
electrically neutral and could stabilize the surface of the open-core
screw dislocations and make it possible for the large diameter
microtubes associated with open-core screw dislocations to be
formed as observed in some experiments (we shall discuss the
matter below) [50]. In contrast, for edge dislocations, the full-core
dislocations should be dominant [48,50]. Thus, in this approach the
dislocations per se are expected to produce deep gap states only for
the full-core screw dislocations, while, for open-core screw
dislocations and full-core edge dislocations, deep states near
Ev+1 eV would appear only as a result of dislocations decoration by
VGaO complexes. This approach was taken when analyzing the
effect of dislocations in n-GaN on electron mobility and produced a
reasonable agreement with the experiment [51,52].
In a later work Northrup [53] has argued that, under the Ga-rich
growth conditions characteristic of MBE growth of GaN lms,
screw dislocations with Ga-lled core should be the dominant
defects. The Ga-lled dislocation produces metallic-like density of
states over the entire bandgap, the Fermi level in the dislocation
core is pinned near Ev+1.4 eV. Thus, in doped materials dislocations
give rise to a strong band bending and the appearance of a space
charge region around them. Their contribution to electrical
properties is via the excessive leakage current through the
metallic-like core, they also are expected to serve as efcient
nonradiative recombination centers in GaN.
The possible role of threading edge dislocations has been
revisited in a number of papers. In Ref. [54] the atomic and
electronic structures of the threading edge dislocations of GaN was
studied using self-consistent-charge density-functional tightbinding approaches. Full-core, open-core, Ga-vacancy-decorated,
and N-vacancy-decorated edge dislocations were assumed to be
fully relaxed in the total-energy calculations scheme. The Gavacancy dislocation was found to be the most stable in a wide
range of Ga chemical potentials, whereas full-core and open-core
dislocations were more stable than others in the Ga-rich region.
The dangling bonds at Ga atoms were mostly contributing to the
deep-gap states, whereas those at N atoms contributed to the
formation of the valence-band tails. All the edge dislocations could
act as deep trap centers, except the Ga-vacancy dislocation. The
deep levels scheme proposed in the paper is reproduced in Fig. 9. It
can be seen that the full-core dislocations produce a whole
spectrum of defect states between Ec0.4 eV and Ec1.4 eV, opencore edge dislocations give rise to deep states near Ec0.4 eV and
Ec2 eV, dislocations decorated with Ga vacancies are associated
with relatively shallow states near Ec0.2 eV and Ev+0.2 eV,
dislocations decorated with N vacancies produce a whole range
of deep states from Ev+0.6 eV to Ec0.3 eV.
In another work on electronic structure of edge dislocations
published by Wright and Grossner [55] the authors predict that a
structure having Ga vacancies in the dislocation core should be
most stable for n-type samples grown under N-rich conditions. For
p-type and Ga-rich conditions the most stable structure is
expected to be the structure with nitrogen vacancies in the core.
Thus the electronic properties of the edge dislocations are expected
to be similar to the electronic properties of respective vacancies
decorating the core of the dislocation.
In one of the recent theoretical studies of electronic properties
of the edge dislocations in GaN [56] it is argued that such
dislocations can produce the deep acceptor states in the lower half
of the bandgap and the donor states band located about 0.5 eV
higher in the bandgap.
Interestingly, Lymperakis et al. [57] have shown that, even
under the conditions when the atomic reconstruction in the
threading dislocations core results in the formation of no broken
bonds, the high strain eld of the dislocation in combination with
the small lattice parameter of GaN can induce a metal-like
structure caused by the formation of GaGa bonds similar to bonds
in metallic Ga. The electronic structure of such dislocations would
be similar to the Ga-lled core screw dislocations described by
Northrup [53] with the difference that these strain-induced
metallic states will be insensitive to the actual growth stoichiometry and can be observed in crystals grown using techniques in
which the preferred growth conditions are, in fact, N-rich, such as
MOCVD or HVPE.
For other III-Nitrides theoretical studies of electronic properties
of dislocations were less extensive. In Ref. [58] it was suggested
that, for screw dislocations, the total formation energy arguments
favor Al segregation in the cores of dislocations in AlN and In
segregation in the cores of dislocations in InGaN and InAlN. For AlN
it can also be expected that the dislocations could be decorated by
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 9. The schematic diagram of energy levels in the bandgap of GaN for various types of edge dislocations, full-core, open-core, Ga-vacancy terminated, N-vacancy
terminated, lled circles show the occupied states in the two latter cases.
(After Ref. [54], Fig. 7) Copyright the American Physical Society, 2000.
(1)
+
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
350
300
Ea(Tanyasu)
Ea(Polyakov)
Ea(Nakarmi)
Ea(Zeisel)
Ea (meV)
250
200
150
100
50
0
Fig. 10. Composition dependence of the oxygen DX levels depth in AlGaN.
(After Ref. [73], Fig. 2) Copyright the American Physical Society, 1998.
0.0
1.0
Fig. 11. The composition dependence of the depth of dominant centers pinning the
Fermi level in AlGaN lms doped with Si at the density of some 1018 cm3 as
reported by four different groups: Polyakov et al. [75] (red line, open squares),
Tanyasu et al. [76] (black line, solid squares), Nakarmi et al. [77] (green line, open
circles), and Zeisel et al. [78] (blue line, solid circles). (For interpretation of the
references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
10
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
should be located near 0.15 eV. For oxygen the transition occurs at
much lower Al composition x 0.3. For more Al-rich ternaries the
donors are deep DX centers, the activation energy of oxygen DX
centers in AlN should be close to 0.3 eV, the barrier for capture of
electrons close to 0.20.3 eV. The optical ionization energy is close
to 1.31.5 eV depending on composition. When analyzing the
electrical properties of AlGaN/AlN/GaN HEMTs well see that
centers with similar characteristics are often reported as present in
the HEMT barrier (see below).
Oxygen is also believed to be responsible for the high density of
residual donors in InAlN used in III-N HEMTs as an alternative
barrier material instead of AlGaN. The advantage of InAlN is that, in
contrast to AlGaN, it can be made almost lattice matched to GaN if
the In composition is xIn = 0.150.16. At the same time, high
spontaneous polarization eld at the InAlN/GaN interface creates a
very high density of two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) close to
the density only attainable for AlN in the AlGaN system (close to
2 1013 cm2) (see e.g. Ref. [82]). However, one of the drawbacks
of InAlN is a very high density of residual donors on the order of
some 10181019 cm3 [82]. In the recent paper by Py et al. [83] it
has been shown that the residual centers are very likely due to
oxygen contamination. At that admittance spectroscopy measurements revealed the presence of two types of centers: shallow
donor-like centers D1 (activation energy 68 meV, electron capture
cross section 9.7 1017 cm2) and deep acceptor-like centers D2
(290 meV, 6.2 1015 cm2) (see Fig. 13). The former are believed
to be due to normal substitutional O donors on N site, the latter due
to DX like O centers. The authors assumed that such different
oxygen states can coexist as different structural entities e.g. due to
the compositional nonuniformities. The strong persistent photocapacitance effects observed in InAlN even at room temperature by
Py et al. [83] were attributed to the D2 DX centers. Interestingly,
when measuring the temperature dependence of conductivity in
their lms the authors observed two distinct slopes, one at low
temperatures, with the activation energy corresponding to the D1
traps, the other at high temperatures with activation energy of D2
traps. This is not a standard situation when only the DX centers
dominate: in that case the activation energy of conductivity is the
average of the activation energies of the DX-acceptor and normal
donors (see e.g. Ref. [80]).
In InGaN, both GaN-like and InN-like in the sense discussed
above in Section 2.1, the donors are always shallow, no DXlike
behavior has been observed for Si and oxygen, but, in InN-like
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
11
Fig. 14. The band diagram of AlGaN showing the location of different vacancy
complexes, the energies of respective PL transitions in GaN and AlN with taking into
account the doublet splitting of the two different orientations of the VIIIO complex.
(After Ref. [90], Fig. 4) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2012.
AlGaN lms with compositions higher than x 0.7, the centers are
DX acceptors rather than simple donors (see above). This is even
more the case for O doping. Respectively, the picture of the
standard shallow donor-deep acceptor DAP recombination
becomes more complicated, especially at low temperatures (see
e.g. Ref. [91]).
3.3. Mg in III-Nitrides
Mg being the most technologically important p-type dopant in
GaN it is natural that its electronic properties have been
extensively studied. The Mg level position was established from
the temperature dependence of hole concentration and conductivity of p-GaN:Mg lms by many groups (see e.g. Refs. [9296]).
The Mg level was placed based on these measurements close to
Ev+(0.150.17) eV. There has been some published evidence on the
level becoming more shallow with increasing Mg acceptors
concentration [97]. The effect has been ascribed, as usual, to the
overlap of the individual Mg acceptor wave functions resulting in
the formation of an impurity band. Since the depth of Mg acceptors
is quite high and causing severe problems in devices sensitive to
the series resistance of the p-region, such as LEDs or LDs, changes
in the structural quality and electronic properties of GaN:Mg
occurring as the Mg concentration increases have been looked into
in some detail. It turns out that, for high Mg concentrations
approaching 102 cm3, a high density of inversion boundary
domains (IBDs), stacking faults (SFs) and dislocations is generated
due, as it is thought, to forming of Mg2N3 precipitates limiting the
Mg solubility [97101]. The high density of IBDs causes the
inversion of the dominant growth plane mode from Ga-polar at
low Mg concentration to N-polar at high Mg concentration [99],
with consequent increase in the uptake of Si and O shallow donors
and increased compensation [9799].
An additional complication comes from the hole mobility being
considerably lower than expected based on theoretical modeling.
This has been attributed to the effects of grain boundaries and the
mosaic structure of the GaN lms (see e.g. Refs. [102,103]). As a
result the low conductivity of p-GaN still remains a serious
problem in device applications and has not been completely solved
up to the present day. Using modulation doped p-AlGaN/GaN
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
12
Capacitance (pF)
3000
p-GaN MBE
2000
1000
0
G/ (pF)
1000
0.18 eV,
-20
2
5.3*10 cm
0.15 eV,
-17
2
9.3*10 cm
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Temperature (K)
MCL 90K
0.6
10
p-MBE
1
0.1
13
Nakarmi PL
Polyakov Ea(AS) MBE
Polyakov Ea(Hall) MBE
Polyakov Ea(AS) MOCVD
Ea(Amano) Hall&PL min
0.7
p-MOCVD
Ea (Mg) (eV)
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Photon energy (eV)
0.0
0.0
1.0
14
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 21. Formation energy dependence on the Fermi level position in p-GaN:Mg for
nitrogen vacancies VN and VNMg complexes.
(After Ref. [45], Fig. 2a and b) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2012.
location is not outstandingly good, but, given possible uncertainties in determination of both values seems acceptable and thus
conrming the level scheme proposed in Ref. [126]. However, it
should be noted that the authors of Ref. [39] suggest that the
narrow near-bandedge recombination lines in p-AlGaN could be
due to the transitions involving MgH deep donors, as discussed
above. But in this case one would have to explain why growth
under more N-rich conditions in Refs. [125,126,128] greatly
improved the p-type conductivity and suppressed the longer
wavelength PL band in Al-rich p-AlGaN.
In that sense the assumption that, in AlN with the Fermi level
high above the valence band edge, the dominant compensating
states could be due not to VN3+, but to VN+ as suggested in Ref. [127]
better explains experimental observations.
Fig. 22. The formation energy dependence on the Fermi level position for nitrogen
vacancies (red line) in AlN grown under N-rich (a) and Al-rich (b) growth
conditions; the positive slope appearing near Ec1 eV corresponds to the
emergence of the VN+ state. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
(After Ref. [127], Fig. 2a and b) Copyright AIP Publishing LLC, 2013.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
15
16
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
transitions between the shallow donors and the VAlO complexes discussed in Ref. [90], although the transition energy in
Ref. [90] was found to be 3.9 eV, i.e. close to the PL transition
claimed in Ref. [127,156] to be due to CN. The authors of Ref.
[127,156] justied their attribution by the fact that the 3.9 eV
band intensity clearly traced the C concentration, while the
oxygen concentrations in their samples were low and on the
same level. One wonders, however, if the PL bands family
described in Ref. [90] and attributed to VAlO could not be, in
fact, due to the CN transitions. For AlGaN ternary solutions it
seems that the energy positions of respective centers can be
reasonably accurately estimated by assuming that they are
pinned to the level of vacuum, so that the general dependence of
the PL peak of that kind on Al mole fraction should be quite
similar to the one reported in Ref. [90]. We here run into the
same problem as the identication of the origin of the yellow
luminescence band in GaN that has been ascribed both to
transitions involving CN and to VGaO or VGaSi transitions. It
would seem that in both cases the bands in question could be, in
fact, a combination of several bands. For GaN it seems possible
to distinguish the contributions by comparing the temperature
stability of the constituent bands [145].
3.5. Fe doping effects
Fe doping interests us mostly because of its practical importance in preparation high resistivity GaN buffer layers in GaNbased HEMTs. It seems that the rst mention of Fe doping effects in
GaN has been done in Ref. [157] where Fe was introduced into the
material grown by vapor phase epitaxy (VPE). Characteristic
intracenter PL transition near 1.3 eV was identied as belonging to
the Fe3+ state. In Ref. [158] the sharp PL lines at 1.3 eV and 1.19 eV
with ne structure due to phonon replicas observed in undoped
GaN lms were ascribed to the internal transitions in, respectively,
Fe3+ ions and Cr4+ ions. These impurities were believed to be
common contaminants coming from the growth ambience in
MOCVD of GaN. Application of Fe doping to intentionally produce
high resistivity GaN was rst reported in Ref. [159] for MOCVD
grown material and in Ref. [160] for HVPE grown GaN. In both cases
the room temperature sheet resistivity of GaN:Fe lms was above
108 V cm, the activation energy of resistivity was found to be
0.5 eV in Ref. [161]. The authors also observed the 1.3 eV PL band
due to the intracenter transitions in Fe3+ ion. Detailed studies of the
electrical properties of GaN:Fe lms prepared by MOCVD were
reported in Refs. [161164]. It was shown that the Fermi level in
these layers was pinned near Ec(0.50.6) eV level believed to be
due to the Fe induced centers. Other deep traps detected in
photoinduced current transient spectroscopy (PICTS) were electron traps with activation energies near 0.12 eV, 0.15 eV, and
0.9 eV, and hole traps with activation energy close to 0.9 eV [161
164]. The 3 mm-thick lms studied in these papers were grown in
such a way that only the 0.5 mm layer adjacent to the sapphire
substrate was heavily (up to the concentration 1019 cm3
according to SIMS [164]) doped with Fe, the rest of the lm not
doped intentionally, but still showing a relatively high density of
Fe, gradually falling down away from the substrate, but showing a
build-up to high concentration near the surface. Still, the overall
sheet resistivity was quite high, over 107 V/square, the material
showed a well dened PL 1.3 eV PL band attributable to Fe3+
internal transitions [162164]. The electrical properties were
shown to be reasonably stable upon annealing, with the decrease
of sheet resistivity by about an order of magnitude occurring only
after rapid thermal annealing (RTA) at temperatures exceeding
950 8C or after prolonged furnace annealing at 850 8C. These
changes were accompanied by the decrease in the magnitude of
the PICTS signals due to the 0.9 eV electron traps and 0.9 eV hole
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
17
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
18
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Eg
Blue band
Ea(PICTS)
Ea(conductivity)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Al mole fraction
Fig. 23. The Al mole fraction dependence of the bandgap Eg for unintentionally
doped (UID) and Si doped AlGaN (solid square, red) and Fe-doped AlGaN (open
squares, red), the peak energy of the blue band for UID and Si doped samples (solid
circles, blue) and Fe doped AlGaN (open circles, blue), the activation energy Ea
(PICTS) of the major deep trap in PICTS/DLTS spectra of Fe doped samples (open
diamonds, green), the activation energy of deep traps pinning the Fermi level Ea
(conductivity) in undoped (solid diamonds, magenta) AlGaN samples. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
Table 1
Electron traps in undoped n-GaN, Ec Et is the level position in respect to Ec, sn is the electron capture cross section, AS stands for admittance spectroscopy, n(T) for
temperature dependence of electron concentration.
Trap name
ET1
ET2
ET3
ET4
ET5
ET6
ET7
ET8
ET9
ET10
ET11
ET12
ET13
ET14
ET15
sn (cm2)
Et in Ec Et (eV)
18
0.060.09
0.120.14
0.160.18
0.2
0.25
0.30.35
0.4
0.47
0.520.55
0.570.62
0.650.75
0.80.85
0.90.95
11.1
1.281.35
(2.63.1) 10
2 1016
4 1015
4 1015
(210) 1015
(310) 1016
4 1017
6 1017
(25) 1013
(26) 1015
(410) 1017
1015 to 1014
1013
1012 to 1013
1012
Method
References
[193,194]
[197199]
[197199]
[197199]
[13]
[208]
[206,207]
[212]
[186,187]
[184,206,207]
[206,207,219]
[17,184,220]
[17,221223]
[17,203,204,224,225]
[138,206,207,222]
Table 2
Hole traps in n-GaN and p-GaN, Et is the level position in respect to Ev, Ev + Et, sp is the hole capture cross section.
Trap name
Et in Ev + Et (eV)
sp (cm2)
Method
Possible origin
Reference
HT1
HT2
HT3
HT4
HT5
HT6
HT7
0.95
0.50.6
0.650.7
0.850.9
1.11.2
0.951.05
0.40.43
(1.72.5) 1013
2.7 1012
(1.12.3) 1014
(1.32.3) 1013
1013 to 1012
(720) 1015
1014 cm2
ODLTS
ODLTS
ODLTS
ODLTS
ODLTS
ODLTS, DLOS, DLTS
DLOS, AS
(VGa-Si)2
?
?
?
(VGaO)2
CN
CN?
[84]
[86,234,235]
[86,234,235]
[86,234,235]
[86,234,235]
[86,234,235]
[105,237]
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
19
20
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
neutron irradiated n- and p-GaN the Fermi level was pinned close
to the position of these traps. From the electric eld dependence
measurements of the ionization energy the traps are considered to
be acceptors [17,224]).
The ET14 centers with apparent ionization energy 11.1 eV are
very similar to the ET13 traps in all aspects. These traps were more
commonly observed in ELOG GaN [203,224] and maskless
epitaxial overgrowth (MELO) n-GaN [225]. They are often
dominating deep traps spectra of electron irradiated samples
and nanopillar samples produced by dry etching (see e.g. Refs.
[203,204,224]).
Finally, the ET15 traps were mainly detected by DLOS (see e.g.
Refs. [138,206,207]). The traps energy quoted in Table 1 is the
optical ionization threshold energy. The traps were detected in
MOCVD-grown and MBE-grown GaN lms, and their density is
clearly related to the density of C [138]. The traps concentration
markedly increases in samples with higher dislocation density
[138] and is several times higher in MOCVD n-GaN and GaN
prepared by NH3-MBE compared to lms grown by plasmaassisted MBE [206,207] (these comparisons, naturally, were made
for similar total C concentration in all these lms [138,206,207]).
Deep traps DLTS measurements on AlGaN/GaN HEMT structures
performed in Ref. [222] report on the GaN buffer traps A3 with
ionization energy 1.3 eV observed in heavily C doped samples.
These traps could be the same traps as the ET15 traps detected in
DLOS. In that case the optical and thermal ionization energies of
such defects are quite close to each other pointing to weak lattice
relaxation effects. If this attribution is correct the ET15 traps
should also belong to defects decorating dislocations because their
DLTS peak amplitude logarithmically changes with the injection
pulse length [222], in good agreement with the trap concentration
behavior in DLOS (see above). The ET15 traps were assigned in Refs.
[138,206,207] to interstitial C donors and their energy level is
reasonably close to the level predicted by theoretical calculations
in Ref. [43].
To conclude this brief summary of the electron traps behavior in
n-GaN we would like to draw readers attention to several points.
First, as clear from the above, many of the electron traps in n-GaN
show a logarithmic dependence of the DLTS peak amplitude on the
length of the injection pulse. On these grounds the traps in
question are believed to be native defects or their complexes
decorating dislocations in GaN. However, the logarithmic dependence of the said type can stem from other factors, most notably,
from the capture within the Debye length tails in the space charge
region [226]. Careful analysis is necessary to separate this effect
from the correlated capture by centers on the dislocation line
described by Wosinski [11]. As far as we are aware, such careful
analysis has been undertaken only for the omnipresent Ec0.6 eV
ET10 traps in Ref. [227]. The authors conclusion is that, for lowdislocation-density bulk n-GaN, the traps in question are simple
point defects while in epitaxial lms on sapphire these native
defects decorate dislocations [227]. It would seem that the
logarithmic capture argument is only valid when it is supported
by the traps concentration tracing the dislocation density. Also, in
the case of centers showing the logarithmic dependence of the
trapping it is not obvious what will the apparent electron cross
section calculated from the standard DLTS analysis [1,2] correspond to and how can these data be used to determine the height of
the capture barriers from the temperature dependence of the
capture cross section. This, together with factors related to
difference in electric eld and in strain, could account for
considerable spread of activation energies and capture cross
sections of traps reported by various groups. It seems to us that the
ET6 and ET7 traps, ET8 and ET9, ET11 and ET12, ET13 and ET14
traps in Table 1 can well turn out to belong to the same or similar
defects.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
0.0
-5.0x10
14
-1.0x10
15
-1.5x10
15
-2.0x10
15
-2.5x10
15
-3.0x10
15
-3.5x10
15
-3
2(Nd-Na)xC/C (cm )
21
50
sample 1
sample 2
HT2
HT5
100
150
350
400
450
Fig. 24. ODLTS spectra measured on two typical undoped n-GaN bulk HVPE samples
with the injection pulse of 365 nm LED, with reverse bias 2 V and time windows
100 ms/1000 ms (solid curves) and 2.5 s/25 s (dashed curves); (NdNa) in the gure
is the net donor density determined from CV measurements, C the stationary
capacitance, DC the ODLTS signal.
(2)
energies 0.50.6 eV, 0.650.7 eV, 0.850.9 eV, and 1.11.2 eV,
respectively (the traps named H2, H3, H4, H5 in Refs.
[86,234,235]). The HT5 traps were absolutely dominant in various
studied samples. If one assumed that these traps are the main
compensating acceptors in undoped bulk HVPE samples there was
observed a very good linear dependence between the NdNa values
measured by CV proling and NdNa + N(HT5) values calculated
from CV proling and ODLTS (Nd here is the concentration of
residual shallow donors, Na is the concentration of all acceptors,
N(HT5) is the concentration of the HT5 centers). This linearity can
only take place if the HT5 traps are complexes involving the main
residual donors in undoped HVPE n-GaN [86].
These main residual donors are oxygen according to detailed
studies reported in Ref. [13]. Theoretical calculations discussed
above predict the existence of stable doubly charged VGa acceptor
complexes with oxygen donors (VGaO)2 with the level near
Ev+1 eV in n-GaN [22]. Thus, it makes sense to associate the HT5
hole traps with such complexes. The possibility of them being
complexes with other residual donors, Si, is ruled out by the results
of our deep traps spectra measurements on neutron transmutation
doped and annealed to 1000 8C n-GaN lms grown by MOCVD.
Before irradiation and annealing the hole traps spectra of these
MOCVD lms were dominated by the HT1 traps believed, as said
above, to be VGa complexes with Si. After irradiation and annealing
the ODLTS signal from the HT1 traps became negligible while the
HT5 traps became the dominant hole traps [87]. This correlated
very nicely with the earlier positron annihilation experiments that
demonstrated a much higher thermal stability of the (VGaO)
complexes compared to (VGaSi) complexes [236].
When measuring the ODLTS spectra of undoped HVPE n-GaN
crystals it was noticed that the signal in the high temperature
region of the spectrum where the HT5 centers were detected
decreased very rapidly when the photon energy decreased below
3 eV. At the same time the peak position measurably shifted to
slightly higher temperature indicating the presence of another
deep hole trap HT6 with a little bit lower energy Ev+(0.951.05) eV
and a much lower hole capture cross section (see Fig. 25) [86]. The
excitation spectrum of the HT5/HT6 ODLTS signal is presented in
Fig. 26 where it can be seen that there are two distinct optical
thresholds of the traps, one near 2.152.3 eV, the other near 3.1 eV.
These results were explained by us by assuming that the
concentration of the HT6 traps is considerably lower than the
HT5 traps, but, at low photon energies, the optical cross section of
HT6 center is higher and it prevails in the ODLTS spectra via direct
optical excitation of these defects. For intrinsic excitation
producing the high concentrations of free holes the HT5 centers
dominate the ODLTS spectra both because of the higher
concentration and because of the much higher hole capture cross
section [86].
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
22
0
HT6
2.73 eV LED
-5
-10
HT5
-15
3.4 eV LED
-20
340
360
380
Temperature (K)
400
Fig. 25. ODLTS spectra measured on one of the undoped n-GaN bulk HVPE samples
with injection pulse from LED with photon energy 2.73 eV and 3.4 eV.
10
HT5/HT6
HT4
0.1
0.01
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Capacitance (pF)
G/ (pF))
23
800
600
400
200
0
250
300
350
Temperature (K)
-20
cm
400
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
50
15
-3
40
N=5*10 cm
30
20 N=6.7*1013 cm-3
10
0
0.63 eV
5
0.26 eV
4
3
2
1
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Temperature (K)
G/ (pF)
Capacitance (pF)
24
Current (A)
10
10
-2
10
-4
10
-6
10
-8
10
-10
10
-12
10
-14
#4, 100V
0.74 eV
#8,
10V
#2, 10V,
0.7 eV
2
#1,10V, 0.25 eV
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1000/T (1/K)
Fig. 29. The temperature dependence of current at voltages specied near each
curve for the PVT AlN samples from the seed (samples #1, 2), middle (sample #4),
and tail (sample #8) parts of the boule.
Fig. 30. Admittance spectra for one of the seed PVT undoped AlN samples.
Fig. 28. PICTS spectra of the undoped n-AlGaN (40% Al) HVPE lm before neutron
irradiation (curve 1), after neutron irradiation with neutron uences of 1015 cm2
(curve 2), 3 1016 cm2 (curve 3) and 1.7 1017 cm2 (curve 4).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.15 eV
0.28 eV
0.69 eV 1.28 eV
Fig. 31. PICTS spectra measured on PVT AlN crystal cut from the center of the boule;
the Fermi level in the sample is pinned at Ec-0.74 eV, so the 1.3 eV trap is the hole
trap at Ev+1.3 eV; measurements at 100 V, with 365 nm LED excitation, time
windows 100 ms/2000 ms (black line), 200 ms/4000 ms (red line), 300 ms/6000 ms
(green line), 400 ms/8000 ms (blue line), 500/10,000 ms (magenta line). (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
25
middle
1
seed
0.1
2
4
5
6
Photon energy (eV)
Fig. 32. Room temperature MCL spectra measured on PVT AlN samples cut from the
seed and middle parts of the boule.
Fig. 33. MCL image of the surface of one of the PVT-grown AlN samples obtained for
the 3.4 eV MCL band registration mode and showing the decoration of grain
boundaries by defects producing these bands (VAl3).
(3)
(4)
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
26
the Schottky barrier height Fb plays the role of the surface donor
level [254]:
ns s int =q eAlGaN qFb DEc EF =q2 dAlGaN
Nt1 dAlGaN =2 Nt2 wGaN =2;
(5)
(6)
Fig. 34. Persistent photocurrent spectra at 305 K in untreated and F-treated AlGaN/
GaN, the inset shows the actual photocurrent relaxation curves tted with
stretched exponents.
(After [258], Fig. 2) Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2008 Wiley-VCH Verlag &
Co).
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Capacitance (pF)
1000
27
PPC&
PPC+3V
30% Al at 85K
V(PPC-dark)=0.7V
-9
Q=V*C=1.4*10 C
12
-2
Nss=1.7*10 cm
100
0V
10
-4.1V
-3.7V
1
-4
-2
Voltage (V)
Fig. 37. 85 K CV characteristics of the AlGaN/AlN/GaN (x = 0.3) structure measured
after cooling in the dark at 0 V (black solid line), after cooling in the dark at 3.7 V
(blue line, dashed), at 4.1 V (cyan line, dash-dot), after cooling at 4.1 V in the dark,
illumination at 85 K and 15 min wait (red line, dotted, marked PPC, i.e. persistent
photocapacitance), and after additional application of +3 V of forward voltage
(magenta dashed line marked PPC + 3V). (For interpretation of the references to
color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
V(PPC) (V)
2.0
50%
1.5
1.0
40%
0.5
30%
-2
2.5x10
12
2.0x10
12
1.5x10
12
1.0x10
12
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
3.5
Capacitance (pF)
-5.4V PPC
100
10
Dark
1
100
-5.4V PPC
10
1
Dark
0.1
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Temperature (K)
Fig. 39. The temperature dependence of dark and PPC capacitance C and AC
conductance divided by circular frequency G/v for partial depletion.
2
12
3.0
1000
3.0x10
Nss (cm )
12
2.5
Fig. 38. The spectral dependence of the PPC threshold voltage shift.
10
3.5x10
2.0
G/ (pF)
some 1012 cm2 charged acceptors in the barrier, with the density
of acceptors increasing with Al mole fraction (Fig. 36).
It was also observed that the threshold voltage in CV
characteristics measured at low temperature strongly depended
on cooling conditions: the threshold voltage was more negative for
cooling at 0 V then for cooling at the negative bias close to
threshold voltage, presumably owing to negative charging of deep
traps (Fig. 37). Illumination at low temperature shifted the
threshold voltage back toward the more negative voltages due
to the optical ionization of the traps charged during cooling down
at high reverse voltage (Fig. 37). Fig. 38 presents the spectral
dependence of the effect and shows the presence of the optical
threshold near 1.8 eV. The shift after illumination was persistent at
low temperatures. Heating the sample up to temperatures above
room temperature was required to return to the starting
conditions (see the dark and persistent capacitance and conductance temperature dependences in Fig. 39). It was suggested that
the reason for the observed voltage shifts was the tunneling of
electrons from the Schottky metal into deep states. Indeed, the
reverse IV characteristics of all studied diodes showed the
prevalent tunneling via deep traps manifested in very weak
temperature dependence of reverse current and in the saturation
of the reverse current at reverse voltage close to the threshold
voltage. In fact, the current at high reverse voltages was even
0.0
1.5
10
-2
10
-4
10
-6
10
-8
10
-10
10
-12
85K, 0V
290K
400K
85K, -4V
-4
-3
-2
-1
Voltage (V)
Al composition (%)
Fig. 36. Estimated deep trap densities calculated from the measured threshold
voltages shifts compared to theory.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
28
25
20
15
0
50
0.85 eV
0.7 eV
40%
10
5
0.6 eV
50%
0.65 eV
30%
Capacitance (pF)
1000
30
800
600
-2.8V
400
200
0
10
-1
10
10
10
10
10
Frequency (kHz)
Temperature (K)
Fig. 41. Reverse DLTS (RDLTS) spectra measured in AlGaN/AlN/GaN structures with
different Al mole fractions in the AlGaN barrier.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 43. DLTS spectra observed in AlGaN/GaN(C) structures with the low C
concentration in the buffer (upper panel) and high C concentration in the buffer
(lower panel); the spectra were measured at a xed reverse bias and changing
height of the injection pulse (the actual values are presented in the gure labels).
(After Ref. [222], Fig. 3) Reprinted with permission, Copyright AIP, 2010.
29
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.6 eV,
-15
2
6.8x10 cm
0.59 eV,
-13
2
3.3x10 cm
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
30
E2(0.6 eV)
-10
-20 H3(0.28 eV)
-30
H2(0.41 eV)
E3(0.7 eV)
-40 E4(0.33 eV)
E1(0.6 eV)
H1(1.1 eV)
-50
-60
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (K)
20
0.6 eV
15
10
O2 annealed
-3V->0V
5
0
-5
Reference
-10
-15
-20
0.1 eV
-3.2V->0V
Fig. 47. DLTS spectra measured near depletion for AlGaN/GaN structures before (the
virgin spectrum, black line) and after annealing in dry oxygen (blue line). (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Capacitance (pF)
1750
1250
750
10 kHz
250
600
G/ (pF)
0.2 kHz
400
0.9 eV
10 kHz
0.2 kHz
200
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Temperature (K)
31
(7)
where d2t is the distance of the trapped charge from the 2DEG
region, d is the barrier thickness (for the charge trapped at the
barrier the change in the local 2DEG density is equal to the trapped
charge). It was assumed that the excessive charge is trapped by the
states on the surface of the AlGaN barrier forming the so called
virtual gate, i.e. effectively increasing the gate area and
decreasing the drain current in depletion [289]. The drain current
relaxation then reects the emission process from the traps in the
virtual gate region of AlGaN. Illumination is believed to create
electronhole pairs so that holes travel to the surface and
recombine with the trapped electrons while the photogenerated
electrons replenish the lost 2DEG charge.
The characteristics of the traps can be determined by analyzing
the magnitude of the drain current transients and the temperature
dependence of the recovery time. The former provides the estimate
of the density of the traps. The latter gives the value of the emission
rate of the trap in question [262]. The recovery process is usually
the sum of several exponents corresponding to different traps. The
relative contribution of each trap can be regulated by changing the
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
32
Table 3
Trap parameters detected from deep traps studies on AlGaN/GaN heterostructures.
Trap name
Type (e, n)
E1
E2
E3
E4
H1
H2
H3
E1a
H1a
A1
A2
A3
Ax
H1b
H2b
A
B
C
D
E
F
E1c
Hx
ETB1
ETB2
ETB3
ETS1
ETS2
ETS3
e
e
e
e
p
p
p
e
P?
e
e
e
e
p
p
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
p
e
e
e
e
e
e
0.6
0.59
0.7
0.33
1.1
0.41
0.28
0.6
0.82
1
1.2
1.3
0.9
1.24
1.3
0.15
0.21
0.12
0.42
0.49
0.94
0.3
0.82
0.15
0.29
0.4
0.18
0.27
0.45
s (cm2)
Comments
6.8 1015
3.3 1013
15
3 10
1.3 1015
4.2 1012
2.3 1015
2.3 1016
1.8 1016
7.8 1015
2 1012
5 1012
8.9 1019
1.1 1018
1.8 1018
1.3 1019
2.4 1014
1.1 1022d
3.6 1019
2.9 1014
5 1018
1.6 1013
6 1015
3 1015
4.9 1013
3 1013
amplitude of the negative gate bias pulse and thus the number of
electrons tunneling into AlGaN [262]. Then by measuring the
temperature dependence of recovery time for each component one
can nd the activation energy of emission for all traps. By varying
the drain voltage one can also study the effect of electric eld on
the measured activation energies [262].
Experimental measurements show that the eld dependence is
the one expected for the PooleFrenkel mechanism [262]. Thus, the
correction to the measured activation energy of the trap emission
is DfPF = (q3/pe)F1/2 and the activation energy of the trap Et
Fig. 51. The time evolution of the drain current and the surface potential measured
by the Kelvin probe for a HEMT structure after the application of the lling pulse
VG = 12, VD = 20 V.
(After Ref. [263], Fig. 3) Reprinted with permission, Copyright IEEE, 2003.
Fig. 52. Spatial variation of the surface potential with time after the lling pulse.
(After Ref. [263], Fig. 4) Reprinted with permission, Copyright IEEE, 2003.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
33
34
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 53. Schematics of the surface conductivity measurements in AlGaN/GaN test structure imitating HEMT, (a) without SiN passivation of the surface between two Schottky
gates, (b) with SiN passivation.
(After Ref. [302], Fig. 1) Copyright AIP Publishing LLC, 2014.
Fig. 54. The voltage dependence of the Schottky barrier (Ib) and surface conductivity
(Isurf) in the AlGaN/GaN test structure with and without SiN passivation.
(After Ref. [302], Fig. 2), Copyright AIP Publishing LLC, 2014.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
35
Fig. 57. The variation of the time constants of the TP1 andTP2 processes with
temperature.
(After Ref. [304], Fig. 5) Copyright IEEE, 2010.
Fig. 55. The current transient in AlGaN/GaN during trapping (a) and respective time
constants of the current transient TP1 and TP2.
(After Ref. [304], Fig. 3) Copyright IEEE, 2010.
Fig. 58. (a) RON time dependence and (b) Detrapping times spectra of AlGaN/GaN
MISHEMT on Si for pulsing into off-state and semi-off-state; two detrapping
processes E1 and E2 can be observed.
(After Ref. [305], Fig. 3a and b) Copyright 2014 AIP LLC.
Fig. 56. The evolution of the TP1 and TP2 processes time constants on the VDS value.
(After Ref. [304], Fig. 4) Copyright IEEE, 2010.
36
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
(8)
(9)
Fig. 59. (a) gate controlled CID-DLTS spectra in AlGaN/GaN and InAlN/GaN HEMTs showing the electron-trap-like state with level Ec0.69 eV in the AlGaN barrier and the
hole-trap-like state near Ev+1 eV in the InAlN barrier; (b) Arrhenius plots for respective traps.
(After Ref. [309], Fig. 4a and b) Copyright 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 60. The dependence on MOCVD growth temperature of the overall buffer traps
densities (solid circles) of the trap 1 density (open circles), trap 2 density (open
squares), and the sheet 2DEG charge density (solid diamonds) in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs
with semi-insulating GaN(C) buffers.
(After Ref. [318], Fig. 1) Copyright IEEE 2001.
1.6
DLTS signal (Arb. units)
37
ETB2
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
ETS2
-2V->1V
ETS1
-3V->-2.5V
ETB4
ETB3 ETS3
ETB1
ETB5
Fig. 61. Deep electron traps observed in one of the studied AlGaN/GaN/Si HEMTs by
DLTS; ETS traps with numbers are attributed to electron traps in the buffer and were
detected by applying the steady state bias of 3 V, with the voltage pulsed to
2.5 V, ETB traps are believed to be located mainly in the AlGaN barrier or at the
AlGaN/GaN interface and were detected with the 2V-> 1 V bias/pulse sequence.
The traps activation energies are shown below the traps label.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
38
3.0
2.5
2.0
0.8 eV
ETB5
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.55 eV
ETB4
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (K)
structures were prepared on the same epitaxial wafer. Electrontrap-like states with activation energies 0.49 eV and acceptor-traplike states with activation energies 0.44 eV and 0.52 eV were found
in the drain access region of the Schottky diodes. For the barrier
region under the gate the hole-trap-like centers with activation
energy of 0.18 eV were dominant. The latter activation energy was
close to the activation energy obtained from the drain-lag
measurements on transistors (0.14 eV).
As discussed in the previous subsection, in our understanding,
the hole-trap-like features in transient measurements on HEMTs
should most likely come from tunneling from acceptors below the
Fermi level at high reverse voltages and subsequent hole emission
from these traps during recovery. The acceptors with energy close
to the hole traps observed in Ref. [270] have indeed been detected
in AlGaN barriers of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs (see the previous
subsection and Refs. [187,244]).
In terms of degradation mechanisms for high-off-state voltage
stressing several additional traps different from the above
discussed Ec0.57 eV trap have been observed and reported. The
early degradation stages in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs were reported to be
strongly affected by the dislocation density (Fig. 63). The amount
of degradation was low for low dislocation densities of
2 107 cm2, it was much higher for medium dislocation
density of 5 108 cm2, and the degradation became very
pronounced for dislocation densities over 1010 cm2. At that, the
recovery time spectra analysis revealed the presence of three
different recovery processes TP1, TP2, and TP3 [319]. The TP1
process became very dominant in samples with high dislocation
Table 4
Activation energies Ea and electron capture cross sections s of electron traps in the
barrier (traps labeled ETB with serial number) and in the buffer (traps labeled
ETS with serial number); the parameters were determined from DLTS
measurements with different biases and different injection pulse heights
performed on AlGaN/GaN/Si HEMTS with long multi-nger gates.
Trap signature
Ea (eV)
s (cm2)
ETB1
ETB2
ETB3
ETB4
ETB5
ETS1
ETS2
ETS3
ETS4
0.15
0.29
0.4
0.55
0.76
0.18
0.27
0.45
0.9
5 1018
1.6 1013
6 1015
5 1015
1.9 1014
3 1015
4.9 1013
3 1013
1 1013
density. For these samples the activation energy of the process was
found to be equal to 0.48 eV, as for one of the traps detected in Ref.
[270]. Previously similar traps have been detected in AlGaN/GaN
transistors after degradation and associated with movement of
oxygen from the surface oxide on AlGaN [320]. The authors of Ref.
[319] note that the dislocations, when present in high density, can
easily form reverse leakage channels near the edge of the Schottky
gate and can serve as the preferential sites for device breakdown
upon application of strong off-state stress. At the same time,
dislocations can produce avenues for easy electrically stimulated
diffusion of impurities. However, despite the enormous practical
importance, these issues need a lot more study.
Dislocations were found to also have a marked impact on other
transistor characteristics. In Ref. [321] the authors measured the
subthreshold drainsource current dependence on the draincurrent voltage for the pinched-off channel of AlGaN/GaN
transistor with semi-insulating buffer grown on semi-insulating
SiC. They observed the dependence that, when built in double
logarithmic scale, showed a clear evidence of the trap lling
current (TFC) regime [322]: the current rst increased linearly with
voltage, then grew superlinearly with voltage as I 1 Vn, and then
switched to the I 1 V2 region after a sharp current increase at the
breakdown voltage C. For the semi-insulating GaN single layers on
SiC the character of the current owing between the two contacts
on top was similar (Fig. 64). The switching voltage at point C was
found to increase quadratically with the layer thickness d and to
Fig. 63. Trapping in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs induced by OFF-state stress before and after degradation in transistors with different dislocation densities; the inset in the second
panel shows the temperature dependence of detrapping in process TP1.
(After Ref. [320], Fig. 3) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2011.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
39
follow well the expression for the trap lling limit regime VTFL
[322]:
2
V TFL qN t d =2e;
(10)
Fig. 65. The dependence of the deep traps density responsible for the breakdown
voltage on the semi-insulating GaN thickness (and hence the dislocation density).
(After Ref. [321], Fig. 3) Copyright the Japan Society of Applied Physics, 2008.
40
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 70. (Top) Threshold voltage evolution in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs after electrical
stress as a function of stress time; (Bottom) threshold voltage evolution after proton
irradiation for AlGaN/GaN HEMTs; the results are shown for structures grown by
MBE under N-rich and Ga-rich conditions, structures grown by NH3-MBE, and
MOCVD-grown structures.
(After Ref. [229], Fig. 2) Copyright IEEE, 2011.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 71. Transconductance of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs before and after the 60Co gammairradiation.
(After Ref. [332], Fig. 2) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2002.
the threshold voltage should be the more pronounced than for MBE
growth under Ga-rich conditions. This is conrmed by experiment
as illustrated by Fig. 70 (bottom). Apparently, for the MOCVD and
NH3-MBE transistor structures additional hydrogen passivation of
defects should be invoked to explain the relatively lower shifts of
Capacitance (pF)
Fig. 72. AlGaN/GaN transistor IVs before and after 60Co gamma-irradiation.
(After Ref. [332], Fig. 3) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2002.
1000
AlGaN/GaN
AlN/GaN
100
10
-8
-6
-4
-2
Voltage (V)
Fig. 73. CV characteristics of AlGaN/GaN (solid lines) and AlN/GaN (dashed lines)
measured at 10 kHz before 10 MeV irradiation (black curves) and after irradiation
with the uences of 5 1015 cm2 (red curves), and 1016 cm2 (blue curves). (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
41
the threshold voltage in Fig. 70 (bottom). This defects hydrogenation was proposed as the cause of the negative threshold voltage
shifts upon the application of OFF-stress, as in Fig. 70 (top)
[229]. Here the dominant hydrogenated defects are supposed to be
C acceptors and nitrogen antisite donors (see also Refs.
[229,333,334]).
The model does explain some important features of the
transistors degradation under electrical stress and after proton
bombardment. The rational point also is that, at low radiation
doses, the sign of the threshold voltage shift can be negative and
coincide with the sign of the threshold voltage shift during
electrical OFF-stress degradation, presumably, because at these
early irradiation stages radiation causes the same modication of
defects as the electric stress. This situation is indeed encountered
for proton, electron, and gamma-irradiations and could well be
related to dehydrogenation of structural defects or impurities at
low doses. However, further developments and renements of the
model are necessary. For example, from detailed studies of VGa
behavior in III-Nitrides it seems clear that in most cases they are
complexed with oxygen, the NGa antisites are believed by some
groups never to be the defects present in high concentration in asgrown III-Nitrides, simultaneous hydrogen passivation of C
acceptors and NGa antisites donors requires hydrogen to co-exist
in the donor and acceptor state which can only occur for an arrow
range of Fermi level positions (see the section on theory of defects
above). Besides, as weve seen in the previous subsection,
dislocations and impurities play an important role in device
degradation under stress and perhaps should not be discarded in
modeling of radiation damage in devices.
Finally, the results reported in Refs. [268,269] suggest that the
defects responsible for the positive shift of the threshold voltage
after irradiation are the same defects as present in the material
rather than new types of defects as suggested in Ref. [229]. Namely,
in Refs. [268,269] it was shown that neutron and electron
irradiations produce defects similar to the defects causing
metastabilities and low threshold voltages in AlGaN/GaN,
AlGaN/AlN/GaN, and InAlN heterostructures (see the subsection
on heterostructures above). Neutron irradiation effects were
studied in Ref. [268] for a group of AlGaN/AlN/GaN heterostructures with Al composition in the barrier of 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%.
These were the same heterostructures for which high acceptor
concentrations in the AlGaN barrier were detected in CV
measurements (see above). The neutron irradiation increased
the density of these barrier acceptors and the acceptors in question
were shown to be the same that cause metastable decrease of the
threshold voltage upon cooling down at high reverse bias and
persistent increase of the threshold voltage after low temperature
illumination. The threshold voltages necessary for 2DEG depletion
in Ni Schottky diodes were progressively shifting toward more
positive values with increasing the neutron uence in the (1
5) 1015 cm2 range. The reverse DLTS and the optical ionization
spectra of acceptors before and after irradiation were very similar
to these characteristics in the starting lms. Thus, it was concluded
that the neutron irradiation increases the density of pre-existing
barrier traps rather than creates new traps. The traps concentrations at various neutron uences could be estimated from observed
changes of the threshold voltage and increased approximately
linearly with the neutron uence (see Fig. 74). The introduction
rate of these acceptors coincided very reasonably with the
introduction rate of compensating acceptors measured for
undoped AlGaN single lms in Refs. [247,335]. Interestingly and
somewhat counter-intuitively, the introduction rate of acceptors
increased for AlGaN lms with high Al composition (40% or higher)
for which the starting concentrations of deep barrier acceptor traps
were high. Most likely, this increased starting concentration
reected higher density of native defects and impurities (see
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
42
12
5x10
12
40% Al
-2
Nss (cm )
4x10
12
3x10
30% Al
12
2x10
20% Al
12
1x10
15
15
1x10
2x10
-2
Neutron fluence (cm )
3x10
15
Fig. 74. The areal density of deep acceptor traps in the barrier of AlGaN/AlN/GaN
heterostructures as inuenced by neutron irradiation, the curves are marked by the
Al composition in the AlGaN sub-barrier of these structures.
30% Al
1400
2
1200
AlGaN/GaN
1000
40%
800
600
InAlN/GaN
400
15
15
2x10
3x10
1x10
-2
Neutron fluence (cm )
1600
1600
15
Fig. 75. The 2DEG electron mobility variations with neutron uence for AlGaN/AlN/
GaN heterostuctures with Al concentration in the AlGaN barrier of 30% and 40%;
also shown are the data for the AlGaN/GaN heterostructures (30% Al) and for InAlN/
GaN heterostructures.
1400
AlGaN/AlN/GaN
1200
1000
800
AlGaN/GaN
InAlN/GaN
AlGaN/GaN/Si
600
0
16
16
1x10
2x10
3x10
-2
Electron fluence (cm )
16
4x10
16
Fig. 76. The 2DEG electron mobility evolution with 10 MeV electrons uence for
AlGaN/AlN/GaN, AlGaN/GaN, and InAlN/GaN heterostructures grown on sapphire,
also shown are the results for AlGaN/GaN/Si heterostructures grown on Si substrate.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Reference
10
80
DC
100 Hz
10 kHz
VDS=+5V
8
6
4
60
40
20
2
0
-4.0
-3.5
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
VG (V)
-1.5
100
12
IDS (mA/mm)
100
(a)
16
2
DC
1.6x10 /cm
100 Hz
10 kHz
10
8
80
60
VDS=+5V
40
4
(b)
2
0
-4.0
-3.5
20
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
IDS (mA/mm)
12
43
VG (V)
Fig. 77. (a) DC and AC measurements of the drain current as a function of gate
voltage for the AlGaN/GaN/Si HEMT before electron irradiation; (b) the same after
irradiation with 1.3 1016 cm2 10 MeV electrons.
3.0
2.5
2.0
0.3 eV
1.5
0.55 eV
0.45 eV
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.8 eV
16
2
1.3x10 e/cm
0.17 eV
before
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (K)
Fig. 78. DLTS spectra in the virgin AlGaN/GaN/Si HEMT and the same HEMT after
irradiation with 1.3 1016 cm2 10 MeV electrons.
Fig. 79. (a) Drain-source current transients before and after proton irradiation, (b)
time-domain analysis of the data in (a).
(After Ref. [337], Fig. 4a and b) Copyright Elsevier Ltd., 2014.
44
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
3.5x10
17
3.0x10
17
2.5x10
17
2.0x10
17
1.5x10
17
1.0x10
17
5.0x10
16
0.0
T=85K
1017 cm-2
QW5
QW2
virgin
QW3
1016 cm-2
0.10
Depth (m)
QW4
-3
Concentration (cm )
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
5*1016 cm-2
0.15
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
50
45
0.6 eV
0.4 eV
1 eV
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (K)
Fig. 82. DLTS spectrum measured on the GaN/InGaN MQW structure with reverse
bias 0.2 V, forward bias pulse of 1 V and time windows 30 ms/300 ms.
became the only remaining feature (Fig. 83). The 0.4 eV peak was
attributed in Refs. [348,352] to the transition from the ground state
level in the GaN QW lled by the injection pulse to the rst excited
level in the well and subsequent tunneling into continuum. The
0.6 eV trap was attributed to the trap in the GaN barrier. The 1 eV
hole-trap-like feature in Figs. 82 and 83 was ascribed to surface
charge transition caused by switching the external voltage from
out-of-phase to in-phase with the polarization eld
[224,353]. DLTS spectra measurements with optical injection
performed for these structures indicated the presence of one
dominant hole trap peak with the activation energy of 0.9 eV
[224]. This peak was ascribed to the major acceptor level in the
GaN barriers. Such measurements were performed for structures
with the top n-GaN cap grown at 970 8C and at 1040 8C. The
abruptness of the interfaces in CV proles and the leakage current
of the structures were considerably better for the lower growth
temperature, which correlated very reasonably with the results of
varying the growth temperature of the p-GaN cap layer for
different LED structures.
In Refs. [348,352] we studied CV proles, admittance spectra,
and DLTS spectra of GaN/InGaN MQW LED structures grown by
epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELOG) technique that allows to
radically decrease the dislocation density in the laterally overgrown regions (see e.g. Ref. [354]). As is well known the application
of this growth technique was mainly instrumental in the rst
successful demonstration of a feasible injection laser on GaN/
InGaN [355]. The structures used were true LED structures with 10mm-thick n+-GaN contact layer, 5 GaN/InGaN QWs, and 0.15 mm of
p-GaN contact layer on top, all grown by ELOG. CV proling of
these structures showed that at 0 V bias the space charge region
boundary was between the lowermost and the second lowermost
QWs. Admittance spectra of the structures (Fig. 84) showed the
presence of two major steps/peaks, one with the activation energy
450
400
2.0
350
300
G/ (pF)
80
20 meV
60 meV
60
40
20
0
100
150
200
250
Temperature (K)
300
Capacitance (pF)
1.5
1.1 eV
GaN/InGaN MQW
10 MeV electrons
16
1.0
0.5
5x10 cm
QW-states
-2
16
10 cm
-2
0.0
Virgin, 1 eV
-0.5
50
Fig. 83. DLTS spectra of the GaN/InGaN MQW structure measured before 10 MeV
electron irradiation and after irradiation with uences 1016 and 5 1016 cm2 at
reverse bias 3 V, forward bias pulse of 1 V, and time windows 500 ms/5000 ms.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Capacitance (pF)
46
100
300
Fig. 84. Admittance spectrum of the ELOG MQW LED structure (the data shown for
several of the used frequencies in the 1 kHz1 MHz frequency range.
10
0.2 eV
0.25 eV
0.85 eV 1 eV
0.6 eV
0.8 eV
0.1
0.4 eV
1 eV
ELOG n-GaN
ELOG MQW LED
0.01
50
Fig. 85. Comparison of DLTS spectra measured on ELOG n-GaN and ELOG MQW LED.
Fig. 87. DLOS spectra of the two MQW LEDs with two different dislocation densities
density.
(After Ref. [356], Fig. 2) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2012.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
47
Fig. 88. Distribution of the tree deep traps detected by DLOS in various layers of the two MQW LEDs, solid bars refer to the high dislocation density sample, cross-hatched bars
to the low dislocation density sample.
(After Ref. [356], Fig. 4) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2012.
hIQE
Bn
;
An Bn2 Cn3
(11)
Fig. 89. DLTS spectra in MQW LEDs A and B with respectively low and high quantum
efciency.
(After Ref. [360], Fig. 2a) Copyright AIP Publishing LLC, 2014.
Fig. 90. Correlation between the trap density determined from DLTS and the A
coefcient of the non-radiative recombination in the ABC model.
(After Ref. [360], Fig. 3a) Copyright AIP Publishing LLC, 2014.
Capacitance (pF)
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1500
G/ (pF)
48
1000
25 meV
0.16 eV
500
75 meV
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Temperature (K)
Fig. 92. Admittance spectra measured on DH AlGaN/GaN LED emitting at 360 nm.
Fig. 91. (a) DLTS spectra in MQW LED structure with high dislocation density, (b)
the same for the sample with low dislocation density.
(After Ref. [362], Fig. 2a and b) Copyright AIP Publishing LLC, 2014.
For near-UV and deep-UV LEDs the data on deep traps is very
scarce. The near-UV LEDs are usually based on either AlGaN/GaN
MQWs or on AlGaN/GaN double heterostructures (DH). When
grown on sapphire the structures standardly use AlN/AlGaN or
AlxGa1xN/AlyGa1yN superlattices (SLs) to reduce strain and
prevent cracking. The structure is further comprised of n-AlGaN
and p-AlGaN cladding layers with the MQW region or GaN active
region in between and the p-GaN contact cap layer on top.
In Ref. [363] we presented the studies of the deep traps spectra
in near-UV AlGaN/GaN DH LEDs prepared by HVPE. HVPE growth
resulting in relatively low dislocation density in the active GaN
region allowed to switch from MQW structure to simple DH
structure. The dislocation density in high-performance LEDs
emitting near 360 nm was around 5 107108 cm2 according
to EBIC and MCL imaging [363]. The diffusion length of
nonequilibrium charge carriers determined from EBIC collection
efciency dependence on accelerating voltage [364] gave the value
of 120150 nm for the active region. This was in reasonable
agreement with such LEDs quantum efciency dependence on the
thickness of the GaN active layer as published in Ref. [365]. The
admittance spectra of the structures are shown in Fig. 92. Three
major steps/peaks corresponding to traps with activation energies
0.16 eV, 7585 MeV, and 2528 MeV were observed. The main
0.16 eV feature is related to the Mg freeze-out in the p-GaN contact
layer and in the p-AlGaN EBL. The shallow 2528 meV traps are
most likely related to oxygen donors. DLTS spectra measurements
revealed the peak due to electron traps with the level near
Ec0.35 eV, but these centers were detected only in the failed LED
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
49
Fig. 93. (a) Evolution of optical power at different currents for GaN/InGaN MQW LDs after different stress times, (b) the evolution of the lasers threshold current with stress
time (the black line is the t1/2 approximation, the red line is the erfc approximation), (c) optical power of LED structures on the same wafers as the LDs measured as a function
of driving current for several stress times; (d) the LEDs optical power degradation with stress time for different driving currents. (For interpretation of the references to color
in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
(After Ref. [370], Fig. 1ad) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2010.
For MOCVD LDs and LEDs perhaps the most insightful studies
were reported in papers [370,372]. The authors performed
measurements of degradation parameters in MQW LDs and
LED-like structures, both prepared on the same epitaxial wafers
and differing by the presence of the ridge and mirror facets in lasers
(absent in LED structures). It was found that the degradation of
electrical and optical parameters during the stress test at the same
forward driving current density of 4 kA/cm2 at 75 8C occurred in a
similar fashion for LEDs and LDs, thus allowing to exclude the laser
facets degradation as the main reason for the lasers failure after
stress test. Rather, the reason had to be related to the increased
impact of non-radiative recombination in the active region of both
types of structures. The authors observed the increase of the
threshold current of LDs and the decrease of the quantum
efciency of LEDs with the test time occurring as the square root
of time or, more precisely, as a complementary error function (erfc)
expected to describe the diffusion with the diffusion coefcient D.
It was observed that, as it should be, the degradation of the optical
output for LEDs was more pronounced for the lower driving
50
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Fig. 95. DLTS spectra in LEDs measured after different stress times.
(After Ref. [372], Fig. 2b) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2011.
Notably, the center with the level near Ec0.6 eV has been
attributed in several papers to Mg complexes with nitrogen
vacancies (see e.g. Refs. [216,379]) which would tie neatly the
degradation behavior with the reported observations of Mg indiffusion. But more study is obviously necessary here. It should be
perhaps noted that the traps behavior upon degradation seems to
be similar to the behavior of QW-related traps upon 10 MeV
irradiation reported by us in Ref. [224]. The studied structures were
the ones for which the starting deep traps spectra and CV
concentration proles are presented in Figs. 8083. Electron
irradiation created traps with energies 0.1 and 0.2 eV decorating
the GaN/InGaN QW interfaces. As the result effective compensation of the MQW region occurred as shown in Fig. 80 for several
10 MeV electrons uences. Simultaneously, in DLTS spectra
appeared and grew in amplitude a broad feature related to
trapping in the MQW region (Fig. 83). This feature is clearly
reminiscent of the 0.350.45 eV trap feature in degraded LEDs in
Fig. 95. In tune with that we observed the emergence of a
prominent electron traps peak with activation energy 1.1 eV
whose concentration increased with electron uence. These traps
most likely were formed in n-GaN barriers of the MQW region. The
logarithmic dependence of their peak magnitude on the injection
pulse suggests that these traps belong to dislocations decorated
with point defects, very likely nitrogen interstitials [224]. The
electron traps of the said type also dominated the deep traps
spectra measured by DLTS with optical excitation. At electron
uences higher than 1016 cm2 they totally suppressed the signal
from the hole traps near Ev + 0.9 eV in the n-GaN barriers. The deep
electron traps formation after electron bombardment with
uences higher than 1016 cm2 led to very substantial decrease
of the MQW-related luminescence efciency.
Degradation of blue GaN/InGaN MQW LEDs prepared by
MOCVD and near-UV AlGaN/GaN DH LEDs grown by HVPE was
studied by Shmidt et al. [375]. The authors observed a somewhat
similar behavior in both cases: an increase with aging of the
forward current and reverse current attributed to enhanced
tunneling via dislocations decorated by point defects. This creates
a tunneling shunt not contributing to injection and thus decreasing
the internal quantum efciency of devices. The formation of such
shunts was ascribed to local heating of the structures causing In or
Al segregation on dislocations [378]. The lifetime of the near-UV
AlGaN/GaN DH LEDs was found to be considerably lower than for
Fig. 96. (a) Electroluminescence spectra of 285-nm LEDs as function of aging time.
(After Ref. [385], Fig. 6) Copyright American Institute of Physics, 2011.
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
51
Table 5
Electron and hole traps detected in MOCVD-grown GaN/InGaN MQWs LEDs and LDs.
Trap name and type
e1, electron
e2, electron
h1, hole
A, electron
A1, electron
B, electron
Electron
Electron
Electron
Electron
Hole
Electron
Electron
a
b
c
d
e
3 10
4 1015
8 1012
1019
1018
1018
2.6 1014
1012
1012
1012
Dislocation related?
a
Yes
Yesa
?
Yesb
Yesb
?
?
?
?
Yesa
?
Yes
Yesa
Reference
DLTS [360]
DLTS [360] c
DLTS [360]
DLTS [362]
DLTS [362]
DLTS [362]
DLTS [372] c
AS [224] d
DLTS [352]
DLTS, ODLTS [224] d
ODLTS [224]
AS [211] e
DLTS [211] e
Determined from the logarithmic DLTS peak amplitude dependence on injection pulse length.
Correlation with dislocation density and logarithmic dependence of the DLTS peak.
Degrades optical output.
Produced by electrical stress, determines output degradation electron irradiation.
Observed in non-polar LEDs with high density of extended defects.
Fig. 97. (a) EL and PL spectra in 285 nm LEDs before aging, excitation of only QWs in
PL measurements, (b) the same as (a) after aging, (c) EL and PL spectra with PL
excitation of the top p-AlGaN cladding layer (After Ref. [385], Fig. 7ac) Copyright
American Institute of Physics, 2011.
52
A.Y. Polyakov, I.-H. Lee / Materials Science and Engineering R 94 (2015) 156
Such centers play important role in gate lag and drain lag observed
in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs where they seem to be located near the
AlGaN/GaN interface on the GaN side. The majority of deep
electron traps in GaN are most likely dislocation-related and that
probably explains the prominent role of dislocations in the
trapping, gate leakage, subthreshold current leakage, and degradation in AlGaN/GaN HEMTs. The gate leakage in AlGaN/GaN
HEMTs seems to be promoted by open-core screw dislocations and,
in InAlN/GaN HEMTs, by dislocations decorated by In. Some major
hole traps in n-GaN and n-AlGaN are most likely related to gallium
vacancies complexes with Si or oxygen and to C, which reasonably
explains the behavior of YL-like, GL-like, and RL-like PL/MCL bands
in AlGaN. The blue luminescence band attribution seems to require
either the presence of electron traps in the upper half of the
bandgap or the (VGa2O) hole traps in the lower half of the
bandgap. Each of these centers, depending on relative concentrations, can play outstanding role in hole trapping determining the
charge collection efciency and photosensitivity of GaN-based
radiation detectors and photodetectors. The light emission
efciency of GaN/InGaN MQW LEDs and the threshold current
in GaN/InGaN MQW LDs seem to be greatly affected by deep
electron traps near Ec(0.30.6) eV located close to or in the MQW
active region. The traps are most likely dislocation-related and
such dislocation-related centers play important role in LEDs and
LDs degradation after electrical stress. In many cases one observes
similar effects upon stress tests degradation of HEMTs and LEDs
with the changes induced by high energy particles irradiation. The
work along these directions is at the very beginning and much
more study is necessary to clarify the nature of the observed
effects, but they are denitely very important for optimization of
GaN-based devices performance.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the contribution to this paper of long standing collaboration with Dr. N.B.
Smirnov at MISiS (Moscow), Prof. E. Yakimov (IPTM, Chernogolovka,
Russia), Prof. S.J. Pearton, Prof. Fan Ren (both University of
Florida, Gainesville USA), of Prof. H. Amano at Nagoya University
(Nagoya, Japan), Prof. J. Han at Yale University (New Haven, USA),
and Dr. A. Dabiran at SVT Technologies (Minneapolis, USA). The work
at NUST MISiS was supported in part by the Ministry of Education
and Science of the Russian Federation in the framework of Increased
Competitiveness Program of NUST MISiS (No. K2-2014-055). The
work at Chonbuk National University was supported by National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by Ministry of Science,
ICT & Future Planning (2013R1A2A2A07067688, 2010-0019626).
AYP would like to acknowledge support from the Brain Pool program
of the Korean Government during his stay at Chonbuk National
University.
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