Worldbank - Commodity Price Forecast

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A World Bank
Quarterly Report
APRIL 2016
Commodity
Markets
Outlook
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Resource development in an era of

cheap commodities
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
A World Bank
Quarterly Report
APRIL 2016
Commodity
Markets
Outlook
2016 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
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Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Special Focus: Resource development in an era of rising vulnerabilities and low commodity prices . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Commodity Market Developments and Outlook
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fertilizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Metals and minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Precious metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Appendix A: Historical commodity prices and price forecasts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Appendix B: Commodity balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Appendix C: Description of price series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Figures
1
Commodity price indexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Crude oil price for 2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
F1
Global metal and hydrocarbon production (change from 2000 to 2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
F2
Global investment spending on exploration and production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
F3
Mining exploration spending and discoveries during 2003-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
F4
Giant oil and gas discoveries during 2000-09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
F5
Number of years from discovery to production for gold and copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
F6
Rig counts in Africa and Latin America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
F7
Distribution of discovery-to-production time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
F8
Reductions in lead times for copper mines under two scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Crude oil prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
World oil demand growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
U.S. crude oil production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
U.S. oil rig count and oil prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
OPEC crude oil production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
OECD crude oil stocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Coal consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10
Coal and natural gas prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
11
Agriculture price indexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
12
Changes in nominal commodity price indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
13
Global grain production and consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
14
Global production of key edible oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
15
Energy intensities, cost of energy component in 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
16
China's stocks of key commodities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
17
Coffee prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
18
Cotton stocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
19
Fertilizer prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
20
Global nutrient consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
21
Metal and mineral prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
22
World refined metal consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
23
World metal consumption growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
24
Zinc price and LME stocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
25
Precious metal prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
26
Global gold production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Tables
1
Nominal price indexes (actual and forecasts) and forecast revisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Annex
Global metal, ore and hydrocarbon production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
COMMOD I T Y M A R KETS O U TLOOK | a p ri l 2 0 1 6
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
This World Bank Group Report is a product of the Prospects Group in the Development Economics Vice
Presidency. The report was managed by John Baffes under the general guidance of Ayhan Kose and
Franziska Ohnsorge.
Many people contributed to the report. John Baffes
authored the section on agriculture. Shane Streifel
authored the sections on energy, fertilizers,
metals, and precious metals. Christian Eigen-Zucchi
was the principal contributor of the Special Focus
section on the implications of on resource development
in an era of low commodity prices. Xinghao Gong
managed the price database and assisted with the
Annex tables. The design and production of the report
was managed by Maria Hazel Macadangdang and
Adriana Maximiliano. Vandana Chandra, Graeme
Littler, Boaz Nandwa, Yirbehogre Modeste Some,
Dana Vorisek, and Lou Wells provided extensive
editorial comments. David Rosenblatt reviewed the
report. Mark Felsenthal, Phillip Jeremy Hay, and
Mikael Reventar managed the media relations and
dissemination. The accompanying website was
produced by Graeme Littler.
The World Banks Commodity Markets Outlook is

published quarterly, in January, April, July, and
October. The report provides detailed market analysis
for major commodity groups, including energy,
agriculture, fertilizers, metals, and precious metals. A
Special Focus section examines current topics and
issues in commodity markets. Price forecasts to 2025
for 46 commodities are presented, together with
historical price data. The report also contains
production, consumption, and trade balances for
major commodities. Commodity price data updates
are published separately at the beginning of each
month.
The report and data can be accessed at:
www.worldbank.org/commodities
For inquiries and correspondence, email at:
commodities@worldbank.org
C O M M O D I T Y M A R K E T S O U T L O O K | a p ril 2 0 1 6
E X E C U T I V E S U M M A RY
Executive Summary
Most commodity price indexes rebounded in February-March from their January lows on improved market sentiment
and a weakening dollar. Still, average prices for the first quarter fell compared to the last quarter of 2015, with energy
prices down 21 percent and non-energy prices lower by 2 percent. Given the recent rebound in oil prices and expected
supply tightening in the second half of the year, the crude oil price forecast for 2016 has been raised to $41 per barrel
(bbl), up from $37/bbl in the January assessment (and represents a drop of 19 percent from 2015.) Metals prices are
projected to decline 8 percent, a slightly smaller drop than anticipated in January due to supply reductions. Agricultural prices have been revised marginally lower on signs of adequate harvests in major producers, and are expected to
register a decline of 4 percent from last year. Looking to 2017, a modest price recovery is projected for most commodities
as demand strengthens. Crude oil is projected to rise to $50/bbl as the market moves into balance. This issue of the
Commodity Markets Outlook examines the implications of resource development in an era of lower commodity prices
and concludes that ambitious improvements in governance and sounder macroeconomic policies are required to mitigate delays and risks.
Trends. Energy prices fell 21 percent in the first quarter of 2016 (Figure 1). Oil prices led the decline by
dropping 22 percent owing to resilient non-OPEC oil
production, expanding supplies from Iran, and weak
seasonal demand. Natural gas and coal prices are
down 15 and 3 percent, respectively, due to oversupply. Oil prices rose from $25/bbl in mid-January to
more than $40/bbl in mid-April due a number of supply issues, notably outages in Iraq and Nigeria. In addition, oil production in the U.S. fell in December,
the first year-on-year drop in several years, and there
are indications that output declines may accelerate
during 2016. A proposal by key OPEC and nonOPEC producers to freeze production at January levels failed to materialize at the Doha meeting on April
17.
Cost reductions, largely stemming from lower energy

prices, have delayed closures of higher-cost mines. On
early indications of favorable harvests in major producers, agricultural commodity prices fell 1 percent,
marking the eighth consecutive quarterly decline,
though prices of some agricultural commodities reversed the downward trend in March/April. El Niorelated problems reduced production of a few commodities (for example, rice and palm oil), but the
reductions were not large enough to materially affect
the agricultural price index. Fertilizer prices fell 12
percent amid surplus production capacity and slower
seasonal demand. Precious metals prices rose 6 percent in the quarter (the only index with a sizeable increase), on stronger investment demand amid growing concerns about global growth prospects.
Non-energy commodity prices fell 2 percent in the

first quarter on persistently large inventories and ample supplies. Metal prices declined on weakening
growth prospects in China and increasing supplies.
Outlook and risks. All main commodity price indexes are expected to decline in 2016 due to persistently abundant supplies and, in the case of industrial
commodities, weak growth prospects in emerging
FIGURE 1 Commodity price indexes
FIGURE 2 Crude oil price for 2016
US$ indexes, 2010=100
US$/bbl
150
70
Energy
130
Agriculture
110
50
90
40
41.00
41.17
World Bank
forecast
Brent
Futures
39.55
Metals
70
30
50
30
Jan-11
57.95
60
20
Jan-12
Jan-13
Source: World Bank.

Note: Last observation is March 2016.
Jan-14
Jan-15
Jan-16
Consensus
Historical
average
Source: World Bank, Consensus Forecast, Bloomberg.

Notes: World Bank forecast, average of Brent, WTI, Dubai. Average Brent futures
closing for the week of April 18, including actuals to date. Consensus median and
range for Brent as of April 22. Historical average represents the 12-month recovery
(median and range) since the lows of 07/86, 12/98, and 12/08 applied to 01/16
average of $29.78/bbl.
10
E X E C U T I V E S U M M A RY
market and developing economies (EMDE). Energy

prices are expected to fall 19 percent, with average oil
prices projected at $41/bbl in 2016 (compared with
$37/bbl in the January 2016 Commodity Markets Outlook). This implies marginally higher prices for the
rest of the year as the oversupply in the oil market diminishes. The rebound in oil prices from the January
lows will be weaker than previous recoveries (Figure
2). Downside risks to the energy price forecast include
higher-than-expected output from OPEC producers
and weaker global growth. On the other hand, higher
oil prices could result because of supply disruptions
among key OPEC producers, stronger-than-expected
demand, or an agreement by major oil producers to
curtail supplies.
Non-energy prices are expected to fall 5 percent in

2016, 1 percentage point lower than the January 2016
Commodity Markets Outlook forecast (Table 1). Metals
prices are projected to decline 8 percent following last
years 21 percent drop, due to weak demand prospects
and new capacity coming on line. Downside price
risks include a further slowdown in China, largerthan-expected production, and depreciation of currencies of key suppliers.
Agricultural prices have been revised lower, and are
projected to decline 4 percent in 2016 with prices falling in most commodity groups. This agricultural
price outlook reflects adequate supplies in anticipation of another favorable crop year for most grain and
oilseed commodities. Agricultural commodity markets are also aided by lower energy costs and plateauing demand for biofuels. The largest price drop is for
grains and beverages (-5 percent each) and oils and

meals (-3 percent). Other food items and agricultural
raw material prices are expected to fall as well. Upside
risks to agricultural price forecasts include the likely
development of La Nia (unusually cold weather in
the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean). Its
overall impact on commodity marketsif it materializeswill be less than the impact of El Nio. Downside risks reflect policies favoring support to agricultural commodity producers. Fertilizer prices could
retreat as much as 13 percent in 2016 due to surplus
capacity and weak demand. Precious metal prices are
projected to fall 2 percent.
Special Focus on resource development in an era of

low commodity prices. During the commodities super cycle that began in the early 2000s, many resource-rich countries benefitted from surging exploration, investment, and production activities, which
transformed growth prospects. In 2016, with oil and
metals prices 50-70 percent below their early-2011
peaks, these patterns have been reversed, adversely affecting many commodity-exporting countries. Project
development has already been put on hold or delayed
in several emerging and developing countries. It
would take ambitious governance improvements in
EMDEs (e.g., to the levels prevailing in advanced
markets) to mitigate the delays in ongoing development of large mines resulting from falling metals
prices (up to four years for some of the largest mines
in EMDEs). Governments seeking to newly develop
natural resources may consider delaying new initiatives until the price outlook turns more favorable.
TABLE 1 Nominal price indexes (actual and forecasts) and forecast revisions
Revision2
Change (%)
Price Indexes (2010=100)

2012
2013
2014
2015
2016F1
Energy
128
127
118
65
52
Non-Energy3
110
102
97
82
78
80
-5.1
2.3
-1.1
-1.0
Agriculture
114
106
103
89
86
88
-3.5
1.8
-1.9
-1.7
Beverages
Food
2017F1
2015-16
2016-17
2016F
2017F
63
-19.3
20.0
3.5
1.3
93
83
102
94
89
89
-4.6
-0.5
-3.5
-3.1
124
116
107
91
88
90
-3.4
2.1
-1.5
-1.4
Oils and meals
126
116
109
85
82
85
-3.4
3.0
-1.1
-1.0
Grains
141
128
104
89
84
86
-5.3
2.8
-1.6
-1.5
Other food
107
104
108
100
98
99
-1.9
0.5
-2.0
-1.8
Raw Materials
101
95
92
83
81
83
-2.9
2.4
-2.0
-1.8
138
114
100
95
83
84
-13.2
1.4
-8.9
-8.0
96
91
85
67
61
64
-8.2
3.7
1.4
1.1
138
115
101
91
89
88
-1.7
-1.0
5.7
5.0
Fertilizers
Metals and minerals
Precious Metals3
Memorandum items
Crude oil ($/bbl)
Gold ($/toz)
105
104
96
51
41
50
-19.2
21.9
4.0
2.0
1,670
1,411
1,266
1,161
1,150
1,132
-0.9
-1.5
75.0
65.9
Source: World Bank.

Notes: (1) F denotes forecasts. (2) Revision denotes change to the forecast from the January 2016 report (expressed in percentage points for the price indexes, $/bbl
for crude oil, and $/toz for gold). (3) The non-energy price index excludes precious metals. See Appendix C for definitions of price and indexes.
SPECIAL FOCUS:
Resource development in an era
of cheap commodities
SPECIAL FOCUS
Resource development in an era

of cheap commodities1
During the commodities super cycle that began in the early 2000s, many resource-rich countries benefitted from surging
exploration, investment, and production activities, which transformed growth prospects. In 2016, with oil and metals
prices 50-70 percent below their early-2011 peaks, these patterns have been reversed, adversely affecting many commodity-exporting countries. Project development has already been put on hold or delayed in several Emerging Markets
and Developing Economies (EMDEs). It would take ambitious governance improvements in EMDEsfor example, to
the levels prevailing in advanced marketsto mitigate the delays in ongoing development of large mines resulting from
falling metals prices (up to four years for some of the largest mines in EMDEs). Governments seeking to develop natural
resources may consider delaying new initiatives until the price outlook turns more favorable.
Introduction
The post-2000 commodity price increases, in part a
reflection of demand growing faster than supply and
concerns about the security of supply, set in motion a
boom in commodities exploration, investment, and
production, especially in mining and hydrocarbons
(Figure F1). Less is known about the scale of investment that flowed into agriculture, but private sector
investment in farmland in Africa increased significantly (FAO 2012).2
This Special Focus addresses the following three question: (1) How did resource development evolve
through the post-2000 price super-cycle? (2) What
are the main drivers of resource development? (3)
What are the implications of the decline in metal
prices for resource development?
How did resource development

evolve through the post-2000 price
super-cycle?
Exploration. Between 2000 and 2012, investment
spending by global oil, gas, and base-metal mining
companies rose five-fold (Figure F2), especially in
Latin American and the Caribbean, and Sub-Saharan
Africa. Including investment in other mined products, global investment in 201112 amounted to over
$1 trillion; in Africa, mining investment alone
amounted to $100 billion in 2011 (or 15 percent of
global mining investment) and was a key driver of
growth (ICMM 2012).
FIGURE F1 Global metal and hydrocarbon

production (change from 2000 to 2014)
FIGURE F2 Global investment spending on

exploration and production
US$, billion
140
Bauxite
Lead
120
Coal
Nickel
100
Zinc
80
Tin
US$, billion
600
Crude oil exploration & production spending (RHS)
Base metal companies capital expenditures (LHS)
500
400
300
60
Gas
200
40
Copper
100
20
Oil
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Source: BP Statistical Review, World Bureau of Metal Statistics.

Notes: Detailed data are reported in the Annex Table. Blue and red bars refer to
metals and energy commodities, respectively.
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
Source: International Energy Agency, MinEx Consulting.

Note: Last observation is 2012.
2010
Thousands
With oil and metals price declines of 50-70 percent

between 2011 and early 2016, many resource development projects have been delayed or put on hold.
Lead timesthe time it takes from resource discovery
to productionare a critical issue in many countries
as these periods are associated with heightened macroeconomic vulnerabilities. This raises concerns about
the ability of commodity-exporting emerging market
and developing economies (EMDEs) to withstand
shocks in the global economy.
13
14
SPECIAL FOCUS
Discoveries. Several major discoveries transformed

country prospects in Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin
America and the Caribbean (Figure F3). Since 2000,
120 giant oil and gas fields (fields with recoverable
reserves of more than 500 million barrels of oil equivalent) have been discovered world-wide, with estimated proved plus probable reserves of almost 250
billion barrels of oil. The fields are located in seven
clusters (Figure F4), two of which are in Africa, mostly
offshore in East and West Africa. In Tanzania alone
(which accounts for almost 7 percent of these reserves)
there have been 13 giant oil and gas discoveries. Other
major discoveries are in Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, and Uganda, as well as in six countries in West
Africa and in the Gulf of Guinea. Another major
frontier for giant oil and gas fields has emerged in the
Krishna and Rakhine basins in the Bay of Bengal in
South Asia (Bai and Xu 2014; Basu et al. 2010).
Lead times from discovery to production. Bringing
discoveries to actual production is a process that requires large upfront and sustained investment that
varies across regions and time (Figure F5). Currently,
there is high uncertainty about prices, as well as macroeconomic and policy environments (IMF 2012a).
The process of developing most mines generally has
five major stages. It begins with exploration to establish the existence of a potentially commercially viable
deposit. Once a deposit is confirmed, feasibility, environmental, and other impact studies are conducted,
and financing plans are developed to establish commercial viability. Following confirmation of commercial viability, a mining license is obtained, which can
take several years in some countries (on average, three
years in Africa; Gajigo, Mutambatsere, and Ndiaye
2012). Finally, investments are made in constructing
the physical facility, with the amount of time needed
FIGURE F3 Mining exploration spending and
discoveries during 2003-12
Latin America
depending mainly on the accessibility of the deposit.

All steps depend on the quality of governance, the reliability of institutions, and macroeconomic stability.
Investment risks tend to be high in the exploration,
pre-feasibility, and feasibility stages, and decline as a
deposit gets closer to production.
While resource development tends to have lengthy
lead times, there are differences across commodities
and regions:

Oil and gas. Conventional discoveries can take

30-40 years to develop (Clo 2000), but lead times
for giant oil and gas discoveries can be shorter
(Arezki, Ramey, and Sheng 2015). For oil deposits, such as shale, the lead times are much shorter
(2-3 years), a reflection of technological improvements and reduced entry barriers for small, agile
firms (Wang and Xue 2014, World Bank 2015a).3
Monetizing discoveries in natural gas is harder
than oil because the former require investment in
transport infrastructure (in addition to drilling)
as well as long-term contractual arrangements
with end-users (Huurdeman 2014).
Mining. The time to develop resources ranges

from a few years to decades, depending on the
type of mineral, the size and grade of the deposit,
financing conditions, country factors, availability
of key inputs like electricity, and commodity
prices (UNECA 2011, Schodde 2014, World
Bank 2015b). For example, resource development takes an average of ten years for gold but
more than 15 years for base metals such as zinc,
lead, copper, and nickel (Schodde 2014). Development of most gold deposits tends to begin immediately, whereas a significant share of copper
discoveries takes several decades due to their
FIGURE F4 Giant oil and gas discoveries

during 2000-09
Middle East
Africa
Offshore Brazil
Australia
Offshore East Africa
Canada
Central Asia
Western Europe
Northwest Shelf of Australia

Exploration spending
Discoveries
Pacific/ Southeast Asia

United States
Offshore West Africa

Gulf of Mexico
Rakhine Basin (Bay of Bengal)
Rest of the world

0
10
15
20
25
30
Percent of world total
Source: MinEx Consulting.

Note: Rest of World includes Middle East, South West Asia (including India and
Pakistan) and Mongolia.
10
15
20
25
30
Number of fields
Source: Bai and Xu (2014).

Note: Giant fields are those with recoverable reserves of more than 500 million
barrels of oil equivalent.
complexity and larger infrastructure investment

to move ore to export ports (Figure F7).4 Location has a major impact on processing. For instance, it is less costly to ship concentrates from
Chiles copper mines due to their proximity to
the sea, than, say, from Central Africa where, because of infrastructure impediments, it is more
profitable to smelt and refine the ore locally in
order to reduce the volumes transported to ports
(Crowson 2011).
What are the main drivers of resource

development?
Surging resource exploration and development during
the 2000s was driven by rising commodity prices (in
part due to increasing scarcity and availability concerns), lower cost of capital, better technologies, and
improved domestic policies and investment climates
(Arbache and Page 2010). These factors varied by
commodity and country over time, and remain important determinants of resource development in general, and lead times in particular.
SPECIAL FOCUS
ple, the rig count in Africa and Latin America responded quickly to rising oil prices, but also declined
sharply following the oil price plunge (Figure F6).
Cost of capital. Global mining, oil, and gas production has been dominated by large transnational companies, but the structure of the industry has changed
over the past decade. Smaller, younger companies
have emerged as risk takers at the forefront of exploration, whereas larger developers and operators tended
to enter projects only after the discovery of deposits
(UNECA 2011; Gelb, Kaiser, and Vinuela 2012).
Spending by junior companies is primarily driven by
the availability of funding, facilitated by favorable
global financing conditions in recent years (Schodde
2013). In addition, China has emerged as a major
source of exploration and development finance in Africa, broadening choices for governments in the
region.
Commodity prices. Between 2000 and 2010, real energy and metal prices doubled, real precious metal
prices tripled, and real agricultural prices increased
more than 60 percent. Surging prices stimulated a
sharp increase in industry spending on exploration,
investment, and production, including in many lowincome countries and difficult-to-reach places.5 For
example, mining exploration expenditures in Africa
reached an estimated $4.5 billion in 2012, up from
just $0.3 billion in 2000 (UNECA 2011, Schodde
2014). Conversely, lower commodity prices have a
negative impact on resource development. For exam-
Technologies. Technological innovations have allowed

extraction in previously inaccessible or less-developed
regions (including deepwater). The development of
large shipping carriers has reduced the cost of transporting bulk commodities such as iron ore, coal, and
bauxite (ICMM 2012, Lusty and Gunn 2015). As a
result, the location of production and exploration has
increasingly shifted towards frontier regions such as
Africa and the Arctic (ICMM 2012). Mining exploration in Sub-Saharan Africa has been particularly attractive because it is seen as a relatively unexplored
frontier with low cost (African discoveries are found
closer to the surface than anywhere else except Latin
America). Africa had the largest discoveries per dollar
of exploration cost during 200312; it accounted for
22 percent of discoveries but only 15 percent of global
exploration expenditures (Schodde 2013).
FIGURE F5 Number of years from discovery

to production for gold and copper
FIGURE F6 Rig counts in Africa and Latin

America
Number of rigs
160
Middle East and North Africa*

Europe and Central Asia
Number of rigs
480
140
South Asia*
120
Average 1950-70s
Average 1980-90s
Average 2000s
Sub-Sarahan Africa
East Asia and Pacific
Latin Amercia and the Caribbean
40
20
30
40
Number of years
Source: http://pumpkinhollowcopper.com/project-timeline/.
Notes: Based on a sample of 46 countries with copper discoveries and 73 countries with gold discoveries. Regions refer to World Bank classification. (*) indicates
that data is not available for 2000s.
380
330
80
60
10
Latin America(RHS)
100
High-income countries
430
20
2000
280
230
Africa (LHS)
2002
2004
2006
2008
Source: Baker Hughes.

Note: Last observation is April 15, 2016.
2010
2012
2014
2016
180
15
16
SPECIAL FOCUS
Domestic conditions. The business environment for

resource development has benefited from the moderation of conflict and internal political tensions (Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Eritrea, Myanmar, and Rwanda) as well as strengthening of investment climate (Eritrea, Myanmar, and
Rwanda). Improved macroeconomic policies, including easing of fiscal deficits and debt burdens, have also
aided resource developments (World Bank 2015a,
IMF 2014a). Anecdotal evidence suggests that lead
times for exploration, discovery, investment, and production are shorter in countries with more conducive
policy environments.
What are the implications of the

decline in commodities prices for
resource development?
In the same way that high prices spurred activity in
the resources sector, the sharp decline in commodity
prices over the past few years may delay resource development. Lower commodity prices reduce the apparent commercial feasibility of marginal projects,
and could slow the start of development after discovery (Schodde 2014). Once started, however, sunk
costs may make mining companies reluctant to disrupt ongoing projects, particularly if development is
already well advanced (McIntosh 2015, Crowson
2011).6 In addition, other drivers like the accessibility
and quality of the discovery, as well as the policy environment, play an important role. Larger discoveries
that are closer to the surface and in more predictable
policy environments appear to see faster development
(World Bank 2015a).
FIGURE F7 Distribution of discovery-toproduction time
Number of projects
35
A duration analysis has been developed to assess the

relative importance of these drivers (Jenkins 2006,
World Bank 2016). Based on a dataset of 273 copper
discoveries in 46 countries and 687 gold discoveries in
73 countries during 1950-2015, the probability of a
particular mine reaching production in any given year
was examined.7 Explanatory variables include real
gold and copper prices and two indicators of the policy environment. A number of physical characteristics
of the deposit were used as controls. The policy environment is proxied by the Worldwide Governance
Indicators for Control of Corruption and by the
Quality of Government Institutes Index of the Quality of Government. These proxies capture policy conditions that help avoid the resource curse the macroeconomic volatility and stunted institutional
development that often plague resource-based economies (Sachs and Warner 2001; Mehlum, Moene, and
Torvik 2002; Humphreys, Sachs, and Stiglitz 2007).
Three key results emerge from the analysis.
Commodity prices. The findings on the role of

commodity prices are mixed depending on the
commodity. An upswing in copper prices at the
time of discovery the crucial period when licenses are obtained and exploration and extraction rights are negotiated is found to accelerate
development. For example, for the average copper deposit discovered in EMDEs since 2000, rising copper prices at the time of discovery may
have shaved off more than a year from lead times.
For an EMDE mine in the largest quartile, higher
prices can reduce lead times by more than four
years. Although mines in LICs tend to be smaller,
high and rising prices reduced lead times for aver-
FIGURE F8 Reductions in lead times for

copper mines under two scenarios
Range in years
0
30
-1
25
-2
20
-3
Copper
15
-4
-5
10
Gold
5
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40 45 50 55 60
Number of years in lead time
Note: Number of discoveries for each number of years.
EMDE
Average
mine
EMDE
Largest
mines
LIC
Average
mine
LIC
Largest
mines
Price downturn shifts to price upswing
EMDE
All
mines
LIC
All
mines
Governance level
improves
Notes: The bars indicate a range of reduction in lead times. The governance scenarios are: EMDE governance level reaches that of Canada, and LIC governance
level reaches that of Chile.
SPECIAL FOCUS
age sized copper mines by a year, and for their

largest mines by more than three years (Figure
F8, left panel).

Governance. If the average EMDE had the same

readings on the Quality of Government Index or
Control of Corruption Index as Canada (the
worlds ninth largest copper producer), the lead
times for the development of copper discoveries
since 2000 might have been shortened by more
than two years. Similarly, if the average low-income country had the same readings on these indexes as Chile (the worlds largest copper producer), the lead time of the average copper mine
since 2000 might have been shortened by one to
two years (Figure F8, right panel).
Macroeconomic policies. Lowering government
debt below 40 percent of GDP, or reducing inflation below 10 percent, is found to accelerate development times by about 10 percent. Indeed, a
more stable macroeconomic environment is typically associated with more predictable tax and
expenditure decisions.
Extended lead times prolong the period of inflation,

fiscal, and balance of payments vulnerabilities that are
often associated with resource development, as governments and private sectors borrow and invest in anticipation of future income growth. Such vulnerabilities are especially sizeable in small, low-income
countries where resource development accounts for a
sizeable share of economic activity. In countries where
resource development is still in initial stages, further
delays may contain vulnerabilities and reduce the
long-term risk of stranded assets (Stevens, Lahn, and
Kooroshy 2015).
Conclusion
Given that resource development, production, and
revenue streams take place over decades, with substantial sunk costs along the way, longer term commodity
price prospects are critical in deciding whether to develop a discovery into production. In 2016, the outlook for an era of low commodity prices had already
set back many resource development projects. Ambitious improvements in business climates along with
better and more predictable macroeconomic policies
will be needed to offset these headwinds to resource
development. Governments seeking to develop natural resources may consider delaying new initiatives
until the price outlook turns more favorable.
ANNEX TABLE Global metal, ore and hydrocarbon production

Metals (million metric tons)
Bauxite Copper
Energy (mb/d equivalent)
Lead
Nickel
Tin
Zinc
Coal
Gas
Oil
2000
Africa
18.42
0.46
0.17
0.07
0.00
0.29
2.61
2.33
7.76
Asia
17.21
1.90
0.77
0.19
0.15
2.18
18.46
4.45
7.07
Europe
3.87
0.81
0.35
0.02
0.00
0.89
4.73
5.12
6.98
FSU
8.73
1.09
0.05
0.27
0.01
0.46
4.03
11.73
8.03
Latin America
Middle East
Oceania
US and Canada
Total
36.17
5.70
0.45
0.16
0.06
1.67
0.79
2.51
10.11
0.49
0.15
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.08
0.01
3.73
23.72
53.80
1.04
0.68
0.30
0.01
1.42
3.38
0.56
0.82
0.20
2.07
0.60
0.19
0.00
1.83
12.18
13.19
10.44
138.89
13.21
3.08
1.19
0.23
8.82
46.20
43.62
74.93
2014
Africa
21.31
2.06
0.09
0.10
0.01
0.33
3.04
3.65
8.26
Asia
91.50
2.82
3.09
0.68
0.27
6.28
48.79
8.57
7.88
2.63
0.87
0.29
0.06
0.00
0.80
3.53
4.36
3.40
FSU
Europe
10.10
1.32
0.26
0.26
0.00
0.65
5.31
13.69
13.80
Latin America
53.12
8.07
0.67
0.22
0.06
2.74
1.44
4.20
10.40
2.86
0.22
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.16
0.01
10.82
28.55
78.63
1.04
0.73
0.44
0.01
1.56
5.67
1.00
0.45
Middle East
Oceania
US and Canada
Total
Change, 2000-14 (percent)
0.13
2.08
0.39
0.24
0.00
1.18
10.89
16.28
15.94
260.29
18.48
5.56
2.01
0.35
13.71
78.67
62.55
88.67
87.4
39.9
80.5
68.9
52.2
55.4
70.3
43.4
18.3
Source: BP Statistical Review, World Bureau of Metal Statistics.
17
18
SPECIAL FOCUS
Endnotes
References
1. This section draws from the following: World Bank

(2015b, pp. 93-101, After the Commodities
BoomWhat Next for Low-Income Countries,
authored by Tehmina Khan and Gerard Kambou)
and World Bank (2016, pp. 45-60, From Commodity Discovery to Production: Vulnerabilities
and Policies in LICs, authored by Tehmina Khan,
Trang Nguyen, Franziska Ohnsorge and Richard
Schodde).
APEC Advisory Council. 2014. Asia-Pacific Mining

Sector Study. London: CRU International Limited.
2. Total foreign direct investment in agriculture and

agribusiness in developing countries was estimated
at $13 billion in 2006/07, with Africa receiving $1
billion.
3. The U.S. is by far the largest producer of oil and gas
from shale formations, with smaller amounts coming from Canada, China, and Argentina (EIA
2013). A number of other countries possess relatively large shale oil reserves, and several have actively drilled these formations including Algeria,
Australia, Columbia, Norway, Mexico, and Russia
(IER 2015). Related, the U.S. shale oil industry
turned out to be more resilient than originally anticipated following the post-2014 oil price collapse,
a reflection of technological advances and lower input costs (Decker et al. 2016).
4. One-third of copper discoveries since 1950 have
had lead times to eventual production of 30 or more
years, compared with only 4.5 percent of gold discoveries. Similarly, industry estimates place the period from early exploration to final production of
copper mines at close to 25 years (McIntosh 2015).
5. Average annual returns for the top ten global mining companies are estimated to have risen from $3
billion in 2005 to just under $8 billion in 2010
(UNECA 2011). Returns in the oil and gas sector
are even larger, since country conditions matter less,
transportation (including in unprocessed form) is
easier, and the sector is less dependent on the conditions of infrastructure such as roads, railways, and
power stations (UNECA 2013).
6. In general, the cost of delaying projects may be
lower in the resource sector than in non-resource
sectors due to a limited number of alternative feasible projects and heavy involvement of the state,
which provides some insulation from political
shocks (Crowson 2011).
7. The dataset, which is proprietary, was provided by
MinEx Consulting.
Arbache, J. S., and J. Page. 2010. How Fragile Is Africas Recent Growth? Journal of African Economies
19 (1): 1-24.
Arezki, R., V. A. Ramey, and L. Sheng. 2015. News
Shocks in Open Economies: Evidence from Giant
Oil Discoveries. NBER Working Paper 20857,
National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Bai, G, and Y. Xu. 2014. Giant Fields Retain Dominance in the Reserves Growth. Oil and Gas Journal
122 (2): 44-51.
Basu, P., R. Verma, R. Paul, and K. Viswanath. 2010.
Deep Waters of Rakhine Basin - A New Frontier.
8th Biannual International Conference and Exposition on Petroleum Geophysics. Hyderabad, India.
http://www.spgindia.org/2010/160.pdf.
Clo, A. 2000. Oil Economics and Policy. New York:
Springer Science and Business Media.
Crowson, P. 2011. Economics of the Minerals Industry. In SME Mining Engineering Handbook, edited
by Peter Darling. Englewood, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration.
Decker, R. A., A. Flaaen, and M. D. Tito. 2016. "Unraveling the Oil Conundrum: Productivity Improvements and Cost Declines in the U.S. Shale Oil
Industry," FEDS Notes. Washington: Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System, March
22, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.
1736.
Deloitte & Touche. 2015. State of Mining in Africa in
the Spotlight. Johannesburg: Deloitte & Touche.
EIA (U.S. Energy Information Administration).
2013. Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale
Gas Resources: An Assessment of 137 Shale Formations in 41 Countries Outside the United States.
https://eia.gov/analysis/studies/worldshalegas/
archive/2013/pdf/fullreport_2013.pdf.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations). 2012. Proceedings of a Technical
Workshop on Policies for Promoting Investment in
Agriculture, 1213 December, 12-13. FAO, Rome.
http://fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/tcsp/docs/
workshop%20final.pdf.
Fraser Institute. 2011. Annual Survey of Mining
Companies.
Gajigo, O., E. Mutambatsere, and G. Ndiaye. 2012.

Gold Mining in Africa: Maximizing Economic
Returns for Countries. Working Paper 147, African Development Bank, Tunis, Tunisia.
Gelb, A., K. Kaiser, and L. Vinuela. 2012. How
Much Does Natural Resource Extraction Really Diminish National Wealth? The Implications of Discovery. Working Paper No. 290, Center for Global
Development, Washington, DC.
Humphreys, M., J. Sachs, and J. E. Stiglitz, eds. 2007.
Escaping the Resource Curse. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Huurdeman, W. 2014. Natural Gas: Fiscal Regime
Challenges. Presentation for workshop on Fiscal
Management of Oil and Natural Gas in East Africa. East African Community and IMF Workshop, Jan.15-17, 2014, Arusha, Tanzania.
ICMM (International Council of Mining and Metals). 2012. Trends in the Mining and Metals Industry. InBrief Publication.
IER (Institute for Energy Research). 2015. U.S.
Miles Ahead in Global Shale Race. http://www.
instituteforenergyresearch.org/analysis/only-fourcountries-produce-shale-oilgas/
IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2012. Macroeconomic Policy Frameworks for Resource-Rich
Developing Countries. IMF Policy Paper, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
______. 2014. Macroeconomic Developments in
Low-Income Developing Countries. IMF Policy
Paper, September 18, 2014, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
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cial Publications Vol. 393, Issue 1.

McIntosh, S. 2015. Mining Exploration in Emerging MarketsA Majors Perspective. Presentation at
the Global Mining Finance Conference, London.
Mehlum, H., K. Moene, and R. Torvik. 2006. Institutions and the Resource Curse. The Economic
Journal 116 (508): 1-20.
Sachs, J. D., and A. M. Warner. 2001. The Curse of
Natural Resources. European Economic Review 45
(4): 827-838.
Schodde, R. 2013. The Impact of Commodity Prices
and Other Factors on the Level of Exploration.
MinEx Consulting presentation.
Stevens, P., G. Lahn, and J. Kooroshy. 2015. The Resource Curse Revisited. Chatham House Research
Paper, London.
UNECA (United Nations Economic Commission on
Africa). 2011. Minerals and Africas Development:
The International Study Groups Report on Africas
Mineral Regimes. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
______. 2013. African Economic Outlook: Structural Transformation and Natural Resources. Special Thematic Edition, published jointly by UNECA, AFDB, OECD, UNDP and European
Commission.
Wang, Z., and Q. Xue. 2014. The Market Structure
of Shale Gas Drilling in the United States. Discussion Paper 14-31, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC.
Jenkins, S. 2006. Introduction to the Empirical

Analysis of Spell Duration Data. Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex.
World Bank. 2015a. Global Economic Prospects: Having Fiscal Space and Using It. January 2015. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Loayza, N. V., and C. Raddatz. 2007. The Structural

Determinants of External Vulnerability. The World
Bank Economic Review 21 (3): 359-387.
______. 2015b. The Power of the Mine: A Transformative Opportunity for Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Lusty, P. A. J., and A. G. Gunn. 2015. Challenges to

Global Mineral Resource Security and Options for
Future Supply. Geological Society, London, Spe-
______. 2016. Global Economic Prospects: Spillovers

Amid Weak Growth. January 2016. Washington,
DC: World Bank.
19
Commodity Market
Developments
and Outlook
Energy
Agriculture
Fertilizers
Metals and minerals
Precious metals
C O M M O D I T Y M AR K E T S O U T L O O K
april 2016
Energy
The World Bank Energy Price Index fell 21 percent
in the first quarter of 2016 from the previous quarter.
Oil led the decline by dropping 22 percent on weak
demand and well-supplied markets. Natural gas and
coal dropped 15 and 3 percent, respectively. However,
oil prices recovered from lows in mid-January on
improving market sentiment.
Crude oil
After dropping to $25/bbl in mid-January, oil prices
rebounded to more than $40/bbl in mid-April on improved sentiment and investor short covering (Figure
3). However, average oil prices were down 22 for the
quarter and 70 percent from June 2014.
The rally during the quarter reflected a number of
supply side factors, notably disruptions in Iraq and
Nigeria. In addition, the United States reported that
oil production in December fell year-on-year for the
first time in several years, and the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) projections show falling
output accelerating in 2016. Expectations of a production freeze among a number of OPEC and nonOPEC countries at a meeting in Doha on April 17
ended without an agreement. A weaker dollar and
improved oil demand sentiment also contributed to
the rally.
with WTI at a small premium. WTI was supported

by declining domestic production and the lifting of
the U.S. export ban on crude oil, while Brent was relatively suppressed due to weak seasonal demand. WTI
subsequently slipped back into a modest discount
throughout much of the quarter, reflecting crude oil
stocks rising to ever-higher record levels and lower refinery production. Futures prices show the WTI discount to Brent widening to more than $3/bbl, or
about 6 percent, several years forward. This compares
to a discount of $25/bbl or 23 percent at its most extreme in September 2011, and with an average historical premium of $1.2/bbl or 4 percent on average
over 1986-2010.
World oil demand in 2015 grew by 1.8 mb/d or 2.0
percent, the highest growth in five years, in part aided
by low prices. OECD oil demand grew by more than
0.4 mb/d (1 percent), after falling nearly 5 mb/d (10
percent) on a cumulative basis during the previous
nine years. All of the OECD growth last year was in
North America and Europe. Non-OECD oil demand
trended modestly higher, rising by 1.4 mb/d (3 percent), with most of the growth in Asia. Among products, gasoline led the way, particularly in the U.S. and
Asia, due to lower prices and increased miles driven.
Gasoil/diesel demand was subdued, however, due to
slower economic activity, lower freight travel, and reduced industrial activity.
The differential between West Texas Intermediate

(WTI) and Brent spot crude oil prices began the year
Robust world oil demand growth slowed in the fourth

quarter of 2015 and into the first quarter of 2016, in
part because of mild weather in the northern hemisphere and waning effects of lower prices (Figure 4).
World oil demand is projected to increase by 1.2
mb/d to 95.9 mb/d in 2016. OECD oil demand is
projected to be flat, with modest gains in North
America offset by losses elsewhere. Non-OECD oil
demand is projected to rise by 1.2 mb/d (2.4 percent),
FIGURE 3 Crude oil prices
FIGURE 4 World oil demand growth
Despite the improved sentiment, the oil market remains oversupplied with stocks near record levels.
Given that crude oil demand typically weakens in late
winter and spring due to refinery maintenance, stocks
are likely to stay high until demand picks up in the
second quarter.
mb/d, growth year over year

4
US$/bbl
70
OECD
China
Other Non-OECD
60
Brent
50
40
WTI
-2
30
20
Jan-15
Apr-15
Jul-15
Oct-15
Source: Bloomberg.
Notes: Daily frequency. Last observation is April 22, 2016.
Jan-16
Apr-16
-4
2007Q1
2009Q1
2011Q1
Source: International Energy Agency.
2013Q1
2015Q1
23
24
commodity markets outlook
april 2016
somewhat slower than last year. Growth is projected

to slow in Asia, notably in China, but the region still
accounts for the bulk of non-OECD growth, rising by
0.9 mb/d or 3.7 percent.
Global oil supply in 2015 increased by 2.7 mb/d, far
exceeding the pace of demand. The gains were split
between OPEC at 1.3 mb/d (mainly Iraq and Saudi
Arabia) and non-OPEC 1.4 mb/d (of which 0.9 mb/d
was in the United States). Other increases were in Brazil, Canada, the North Sea, and Russiamainly from
earlier investments in large projects. While OPEC
maintained strong production growth throughout the
year, non-OPEC growth declined steadily from 2.3
mb/d in the first quarter to just 0.4 mb/d in the fourth
quarter, mainly due to a sharp slowdown in the United
States. In the first quarter of 2016, non-OPEC supply
is estimated to have fallen by 0.3 mb/d, the first reduction in 14 consecutive quarters. Declines are expected to steepen during the year to more the 1 mb/d
in the fourth quarter, resulting in an average annual
fall of 0.7 mb/dthe bulk of which will be from onshore U.S. producers. Some annual increases are anticipated, with Canada and Russia raising output by
more than 0.1 mb/d each.
operating improvements include shorter drilling cycles, longer laterals, multi-well drilling pads, tighter
well spacing, greater proppant use, better geo-steering, and re-fracking of wells. There is also a significant
backlog of drilled but uncompleted wells that can be
completed at roughly two-thirds the cost of a new
well.
U.S. oil production recorded a year-on-year decline in
December, the first material drop in nearly 10 years
(Figure 5). The U.S. EIA projects that production will
decline from 9.3 mb/d in the fourth quarter of 2015
to 7.9 mb/d in third quarter of 2017 before trending
upward. U.S. upstream investment is estimated to
have declined by at least one-third last year, and is
likely to fall another 40 percent this year. Consequently, rigs drilling for oil have plunged by more
than three-quarters from their October 2014 high
(Figure 6).
Slowing output growth from higher-cost, short-cycle,

unconventional oil in the U.S. is expected to help rebalance supply. This output includes but is not limited to shale plays. Production from unconventional
oil rose from 0.5 mb/d in 2009 to 4.6 mb/d at its high
in 2015, and accounted for about half of U.S. oil output in last year. U.S. shale production has held up remarkably welldespite low prices and large declines
in investment and drillingthrough significant cost
reductions, productivity improvements, technology
innovations, an emphasis on the most productive assets, and hedging programs. Some of the important
Still, there is large uncertainty as to how far production will decline, or when it may start rising again.
The recent oil price rally brought some relief to producers cash flow, and many hedged production forward at higher prices, thereby delaying supply rebalancing. Higher prices and continued efficiency
improvements could further impinge on required rebalancing. On the other hand, the industry borrowed
heavily during the boom years, outspending cash flow,
and many companies are encumbered with debt, selling assets, and entering into bankruptcy (and not
confined to U.S. producers). With external financing
increasingly closed, companies will need greater cash
flow generation to fund drilling and completion of
wellswhich will depend on the level of prices. In
addition, cost reductions and efficiency improvements may be more difficult going forward as much as
the potential gains have already been achieved.
FIGURE 5 U.S. crude oil production
FIGURE 6 U.S. oil rig count and oil prices
mb/d, growth year over year

Alaska
2.0
Gulf of Mexico
Lower 48
1.5
US$/bbl
150
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.5
Jan-07
Oil price, WTI (LHS)
125
1,500
100
1,200
75
900
50
600
25
-1.0
Jan-09
Jan-11
Jan-13
Jan-15
Jan-17
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration.

Notes: Last actual is January 2016. February 2016 to December 2017 are forecasts.
Rig count
1,800
0
Jan-07
300
US oil rig count (RHS)

Jan-09
Jan-11
Jan-13
Jan-15
Source: Baker Hughes, Bloomberg.

Notes: Weekly frequency. Last observation is April 22, 2016.
april 2016
OPEC crude oil production averaged 32.6 mb/d in

the first quarter of 2016, up 1.4 mb/d from a year
earlier, with all of the increase coming from Middle
East Gulf countries (Figure 7). Saudi Arabia has maintained output at around 10.2 mb/d for much of the
past year, rising only in summer to meet peak summer
domestic power demand. Iraqs production surged to
a high of 4.4 mb/d in January, but slipped in February
as sabotage halted flows on the northern export pipeline through Turkey. Nigerian production was also
disrupted due to an attack on a sub-sea pipeline. The
Islamic Republic of Iran has increased output 0.4
mb/d following the lifting of sanctions in January.
Irans exports have resumed to Europe, and Asian buyers have also increased purchases. The countrys output is expected to continue climbing, from 2.9 mb/d
at end-2015 toward its estimated capacity of 3.6
mb/d. The International Energy Agency states that
with foreign investment and technology, the Islamic
Republic of Iran could increase capacity to 4 mb/d by
the end of the decade.
At a meeting in Doha on April 17th, sixteen OPEC
and non-OPEC countries failed to freeze production,
as many anticipated. Non-OPEC members were
Azerbaijan, Colombia, Mexico, Oman, and Russia.
OPEC members Libya and the Islamic Republic of
Iran did not attend. This failure was attributed to
disagreement over whether to include the Islamic Republic of Iran and other producers in the freeze. An
agreement was not expected to materially affect supply in the near term, as most countries were producing at relatively high levels and were not expected to
produce much more in 2016. OPEC next meets on
June 2 to discuss market developments.
of the increase has been in North America, but stocks

are elevated in Europe and the Pacific regions as well.
In the fourth quarter of 2015a period when stocks
typically fallimplied inventories soared by a record
1.8 mb/d. Global stocks are estimated to have risen by
a 1.5 mb/d in first quarter, again with continued gains
in North America. The stock buildup slowed significantly in March, suggesting a beginning of a tightening of oil balances. The flattening of futures prices
curves this year further suggests the process is
underway.
Crude oil prices are projected to average $41/bbl in
2016, a decline of 19 percent from last year. This implies small increases through the rest of the year as the
oversupply in the oil market diminishes. The market
surplus is expected to extend in the first half of the
year amid weak seasonal demand, but stocks are expected to fall during the second half of the year as refinery demand increases and U.S. production declines
steepen. OPEC production excluding the Islamic Republic of Iran is expected to remain flat, while Iranian
output is expected to climb by some 0.5 mb/d.
The large supply overhang continues to result in near

record OECD crude oil inventories (Figure 8). Much
Near-term upside risks to the price forecast include

larger non-OPEC supply declines and slow expansion
of Iranian exports. In addition, there are risks of supply disruptions among key OPEC producers (Iraq,
Nigeria, and the Repblica Bolivariana de Venezuela)
due to internal conflict and financial constraints.
Higher global demand, particularly for transport,
would also help reduce the stock overhang. Downside
price risks include a slower rebalancing because of
weak demand, and continued resilience of U.S. producers to sustain output and develop uncompleted
wells. A large increase in the Islamic Republic of Irans
exports and higher production from the rest of OPEC
could help sustain the surplus.
FIGURE 7 OPEC crude oil production
FIGURE 8 OECD crude oil stocks
mb/d
14
Other Gulf
13
12
Million barrels
1,200
1,100
11
Crude oil stocks
Saudi Arabia
10
1,000
9
8
7
Jan-07
Non Gulf
Jan-09
Jan-11

Jan-13
Jan-15
5-year average
900
Jan-07
Jan-09
Jan-11
Jan-13
Jan-15

Notes: Previous 5-year average for each month. Last observation is February,
2016.
25
26
april 2016
Coal
Natural gas
Thermal coal prices fell 3 percent in the first quarter

of 2016and down 60 percent over past five years
on continued weak import demand and excess supply.
Prices rose slightly in February and March on somewhat firmer seasonal demand and low stocks at Chinese ports, but surplus conditions are expected to
remain due to falling imports into Chinathe worlds
largest consumer of coal (Figure 9). High cost production has been reduced, notably in Indonesia, and new
capacity continues to be developed, boosted in part by
falling costs and depreciating producer currencies.
Natural gas prices fell 15 percent in the first quarter

of 2016 amid weak demand and large stocks (Figure
10). European gas prices plunged 23 percent to $4.8/
mmbtu on weak demand; gas has been too expensive
to compete with coal in power generation. Most gas
is delivered at a spot or hub basis.
Chinas thermal coal imports fell by one-third last year

due to slowing power demand, increases in other
energy sources to generate electricity, and government
policies to reduce pollution and limit coal use. The
governments planned closure of high-cost, low-quality
mines will improve the countrys overall power plant
efficiency, further reducing thermal coal imports. Coal
markets are contracting in many developed economies
under government initiatives to shift away from coal.
New climate change commitments may accelerate that
transition. Growing supplies of low-priced natural gas
are also prompting substitution away from coal.
Coal prices are expected to decline by 13 percent in
2016, averaging $50/ton, on continued weak demand
and oversupply. Import demand in China is expected
to continue to fall, and will partly be offset by rising
demand in India and other emerging markets. However, production in India is rising under new government policies that plan to significantly reduce imports
in the next few years. Coal supply is expected to be
ample, and there is also significant spare capacity that
could be brought back on-line in countries such as
Australia and Indonesia. China is also seeking to boost
exports, further bloating the seaborne market.
FIGURE 9 Coal consumption
Gas delivered to Japan fell 11 percent to $8.0/

mmbtu, owing to weak demand and strong seaborne
supply from the Pacific and Atlantic Basins. Spot
cargoes of liquefied natural gas (LNG) flowing into
Asia and Europe have collapsed to around $4/mmbtu
because of excess supply, but they only account for
about 1 percent of global LNG trade. Significant new
liquefaction capacity is expected from Australia and
the U.S. in the next few years.
U.S. gas prices fell 6 percent to under $2.0/mmbtu
due to record high stocks and weak demand from a
mild winter. Natural gas use in the power sector continues to increase and is expected to overtake coal this
year. U.S. gas production finally shows signs of plateauing. The country shipped its first two cargoes of
LNG to Brazil and India, and is on track to be a net
exporter of gas by mid-2017.
Natural gas prices are projected to fall in 2016, led by
large declines in Europe (-38 percent to $4.2/mmbtu)
and Japan (-23 percent to $8.0/mmbtu) on continued weak demand and surplus supply. Gas prices in
the U.S. are expected to fall by 4 percent and average
$2.5/mmbtu due to high stocks. However, strong
growth in the power sector, rising exports, and slowing production growth are expected to underpin
prices. Risks to the forecast are mainly to the downside, given a global supply surplus and forthcoming
increases in new LNG capacity.
FIGURE 10 Coal and natural gas prices
Million tons of oil equivalent

2,000
US$/mmbtu
20
China
1,500
Natural Gas
(Japan)
15
OECD
1,000
10
Other
500
Natural Gas
(U.S.)
Natural Gas
(Europe)
FSU
0
1970
1980
Source: BP Statistical Review.

Note: Last observation is 2014.
1990
2000
2010
0
Jan-00
Coal
(Australia)
Jan-03
Jan-06
Source: World Bank.

Jan-09
Jan-12
Jan-15
april 2016
Agriculture
Food
Agricultural prices continued their broad-based decline in the first quarter of 2016, with the overall index down 1.4 percentthe eighth consecutive quarterly declineand 9 percent lower than a year ago
(Figure 11). The decline was driven primarily by a 7.5
percent drop in the Beverage Price Index and a 1.8
percent decline in the Agricultural Raw Material Index. The two key food price indexes, grains, and oils
and meals, increased marginally in the quarter as a
whole as their January-February weakness was offset
by a recovery in March, which continued into early
April. The rebound of these two price indexes later in
the quarter reflects El Nio-related production shortfalls in some commodities, notably rice and palm oil
(both dominated by producers in Southeast Asia,
where El Nio had its strongest impact) and wheat
(following a switch to maize by U.S. producers, as indicated by the planting intentions survey data published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture).
Most agricultural commodity prices are expected to
fall in 2016, before recovering marginally in 2017.
Grain prices are projected to decline by 5.3 percent in
2016 (a downward revision from a 3.4 percent drop
projected in the January 2016 Commodity Markets
Outlook), while oils and meals are expected to fall 3.4
percent (down from a 2.2 percent decline projected in
January). Beverages and raw material prices are projected to drop as well, by 4.6 and 2.9 percent, respectively. Downside risks to the price forecast for agricultural commodity prices include a deterioration of
weather due to La Niaa cooling of the equatorial
Pacific Ocean. The main upside risk to the forecast is
greater engagement in farm support policies. Upside
or downside risks could also stem from energy prices,
given the energy-intensive nature of agriculture.
FIGURE 11 Agriculture price indexes
140
Global production of wheat is expected to reach a new

record in the 2015-16 season, 1.4 percent higher than
last season. Early assessment for the next season, released in April by the Agricultural Marketing Information System (AMIS) and the International Grains
Council (IGC), however, show that next seasons
global production may fall by as much as 3 percent,
with notable declines in the Russian Federation and
Ukraine, both key wheat exporters. Consumption
during 2016-17 is projected to remain largely unchanged, with some decline in feed use offset by increasing food consumption. As a result of tighter
wheat supplies, the stocks-to-use ratio (a measure of
the abundance of supplies relative to demand) is anticipated to decline, after reaching a 14-year high of
almost 34 percent in 2014-15. Trade volume for next
season is expected to increase marginally.
Production of maize, down 4 percent from the previous season, is projected to increase by more than 1
percent in 2016-17, reflecting good crop conditions
in the United States, the worlds top maize supplier, as
well in the European Union and Ukraine. The rate of
increase in maize production, however, is expected to
be outstripped by a 2 percent uptick in consumption.
Together, these forecasts imply that maize stocks at
the end of next season could fall by as much as 5 percent. Trade volume of maize is expected to remain
unchanged.
FIGURE 12 Changes in nominal commodity
price indexes, 2011-16
Percent
0
Food
-10
120
Raw
materials
100
80
60
Jan-07
Grain prices changed very little in the first quarter of

2016 (up 0.3 percent from the fourth quarter of
2015), but stood 12 percent lower than a year ago and
30 percent below their early 2011 peaks (Figure 12).
Wheat and rice prices gained 6 and 3 percent, respectively, in the quarter, but maize prices declined 4
percent.
-20
-30
Beverages
-40
Jan-09
Jan-11
Source: World Bank.

Jan-13
Jan-15
2011Q1-2015Q1
2015Q1-2016Q1
Oils and
meals
Grains
Beverages
Other food
Source: World Bank.

Note: Price changes are based on quarterly averages.
Raw
materials
27
28
april 2016
Rice production, which began the current crop year

on a positive note, has been gradually declining due to
the El Nio-related shortfall in various East Asian rice
producers, notably Thailand, the worlds dominant
rice exporter. Global rice production, which is expected to decline by 2 percent this season, will partly
recover in 2016-17, perhaps by as much as 1 percent,
according to the AMIS and IGC assessment. Increased production is expected to materialize in India,
the Philippines, and Thailand, which together account for more than one-quarter of global rice supplies. The stock-to-use ratio, however, is likely to decline as consumption is projected to outpace
production growth and a stock drawdown is expected
to take place in India and Thailand.
Global supplies (beginning stocks plus production)
for all three grains will reach 2.70 billion tons in
2015-16, slightly up from last seasons record production. Next seasons assessment is that global supplies
will remain at the same levels, as higher maize and rice
crops will offset lower wheat production (Figure 13).
The World Banks Oils and Meals Price Index changed
little in the first quarter as increases in palm oil (+11
percent), coconut oil (+15 percent), and palm kernel
oil (+24 percent) were offset by a decline in soybean
meal (-8 percent) and some other oils. The overall index is down 13 percent from a year ago and is onethird lower than its early 2011 peak. As was the case
for rice, the price of edible oils, which are produced
primarily in East Asia (notably palm oil and coconut
oil), were affected by El Nio.
which is projected to reach 104 million tons, up from

last seasons 100 million tons. Most of the stocks come
from the large soybean crop.
This seasons outlook is also favorable for the 17 most
consumed edible oils (Figure 14). Despite the shortfall from key producers in East Asia, global production in 2015-16 (October to September) will reach
206.9 million tons, up from last seasons 204.7 million tons, with most of the increase coming from soybean oil.
In view of adequately supplied food commodity markets, together with the projection of lower energy and
fertilizer prices, the World Banks Food Commodity
Price Index is expected to fall by 3.4 percent in 2016,
a downward revision from the 1.9 percent decline
projected in the January assessment. A moderate gain
of 2.1 percent is expected in 2017.
Risks
This forecast for food prices is subject to a number of
short- and long-term risks. The most important are
the evolution of energy prices; weather patterns (especially the possibility of a La Nia episode in late
2016); and trade policies, including policies aimed at
supporting commodity producers and biofuel
production.
The oilseed supply outlook is healthy, with current

season global supplies for the 10 major oilseeds expected to exceed 621 million tons, 12 million tons
higher than last season. Most of the increase in current supplies comes from elevated stock carry-over,
Food commodity prices are affected by energy prices

through a number of channels, including fuel costs
and chemicals, and indirectly through fertilizers (some
fertilizers are made directly from natural gas). Overall,
agriculture has been estimated to be four to five times
more energy intensive than manufacturing. The transmission elasticity from energy to food commodity
prices has been estimated at between 0.15 and 0.20,
implying that a halving of energy prices could precipitate a 10 percent permanent decline in food prices
FIGURE 13 Global grain production and

consumption
FIGURE 14 Global production of key edible

oils
Billion metric tons

2.4
Million metric tons, growth year over year

10
Production
Consumption
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1996
1999
2002
2005
2008
2011
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, AMIS-FAO, IGC.

Note: Grains include maize, wheat, and rice.
2014
-2
Palm oil
Soybean oil
Rapeseed oil
Others
1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Note: Data is based on USDA's April 2016 update.
april 2016
over the longer term, assuming everything else remains constant.

Oil prices are expected to average $41/bbl in 2016 (27
percent lower than 2015), while fertilizer prices are
projected to fall 13 percent, on top of a similar decline
in 2015. Low energy prices will ease input cost pressure for food commodity producers, especially in
countries where energy intensity in agriculture is
highest, such as North America, Europe, China, and
Brazil (Figure 15).
El Nio, a key weather risk, reached its maximum
strength in December 2015. By most accounts is the
largest, or second largest after 1997, this years episode
of the past 30 years. (The October 2015 edition of the
Commodity Markets Outlook has an extensive discussion on El Nio.) El Nio has had diverse impacts on
food commodity producers. In East Asian countries,
especially for rice and palm oil producers, the impact
has been detrimental. On the other hand, the delayed
onset of rains in Southern Africa and the increased
precipitation in Central Asia that El Nio has brought
about is expected to aid agricultural production in
these regions. Although the effects are expected to dissipate by June 2016, it is possible (with a current
probability of 50 percent) that La Nia will develop
toward the end of 2016. Typically, the impacts of La
Nia are milder than those of El Nio.
October 2016. The quantity of stocks under government control is not known with certainty, nor is the
quality. As of mid-April, the U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates that China is holding 109 million
metric tons, or 53 percent of global stocks. Chinas
stockpiling program is intended to be replaced by a
less distortionary program. Although details of the
new support mechanism are unknown, it appears that
China will follow the footsteps of agricultural policy
reforms introduced by the European Union (1992),
Mexico (1994), and the United States (1996). These
replaced earlier stockpiling and price support programs by direct income support mechanisms (often
referred to as decoupled support). Chinas stockpiling policies are not restricted to maize by they have
been implemented to other agricultural commodities
as well. For example, China accounts for more than
half of global stocks for cotton and rice and 40 percent of global wheat stocks (Figure 16). In the case of
cotton and wheat, Chinas stocks have been twice as
high compared to past decades average.
While policy changes such as the above have been isolated so far, and therefore have not affected global
commodity prices in a major way, they could play a
key role if implemented by several major exporters (or
numerous smaller suppliers).
The most important policy change is Chinas decision

to end its maize stockpiling program, beginning in
Finally, the outlook assumes that biofuels will continue to be a source of demand for food commoditiesmainly maize for ethanol in the United States,
sugar cane for ethanol in Brazil, and edible oils for
biodiesel in Europe. Biofuels currently account for
3-4 percent of global arable land and 1.5 mb/d in
crude oil equivalent terms. Yet, the role of biofuels
will be less important in the long term as policymakers increasingly realize that the environmental and
energy independence benefits stemming from biofuels policies are not as strong as originally envisaged.
FIGURE 15 Energy intensities: cost of energy

component in 2007
FIGURE 16 Chinas stocks of key

commodities
In the current weak commodity price environment,

governments are increasingly shifting from trade policies aimed at reducing consumer prices (frequent during the food price spikes of 2007-08 and 2010-11) to
domestic and trade policies designed to raise producer
prices. India, for instance, has extended a 15-percent
import duty on wheat from March to June 2016.
Percent of world total

12
World
High-income countries
Manufacture
Agriculture
Developing countries
Sub-Saharan Africa
48
50
United States
Canada
EU-12
Past 10 years
2015/2016
60
109
42
57
40
96
China
Brazil
52
30
India
Turkey
0
5
10
15
20
Share of energy component in 2007, percent
Source: World Bank.

Note: Calculations based on the Global Trade Analysis Project database.
20
Cotton
Rice
Maize
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Note: Figures on top of colunms represent million metric tons.
Wheat
29
30
april 2016
Beverages
Agricultural raw materials
The World Banks Beverage Price Index declined 7

percent in the first quarter of 2016. Although arabica
coffee prices have been broadly stable during the first
quarter, robusta prices declined sharply to reach a sixyear low in February, and 25 percent lower than a year
ago. The global coffee market is expected to be oversupplied in the 2015-16 season, with production of
153 million bags compared to consumption of 151
million bags. The weakness in robusta prices reflects
record output by Vietnam, whose exports increased
by 20 percent over the first five months of the season.
Based on early assessments, 2016-17 will be another
surplus production year, which combined with depreciated exchange rates by Brazil and Colombia, makes
the coffee outlook bearish: arabica and robusta are
projected to average 6 and 12 percent lower, respectively, compared to 2015.
The World Banks Raw Material Price index declined

almost 2 percent in the first quarter of 2016. The index is down 6 percent from a year earlier and 40 percent lower than its early 2011 peak. This pattern is
remarkably similar to the other two industrial commodity price indexesenergy and metalsand
mainly reflects a slowing global economy (see the
special focus of the January edition of the Commodity Markets Outlook) and the scale-up in production
capacity (see Special Focus).
Although cocoa prices declined 10 percent in the

quarter, they are still 2 percent higher than a year ago.
The recent weakness in cocoa prices reflects, in part,
strong exports from Cte dIvoire, the worlds dominant cocoa producer, and better-than-expected midcrop production, despite a late start. The demand
side, however, has been weak, especially by European
chocolate and confectionary companies. Cocoa prices
are expected to register only a marginal decline in
2016.
Cotton prices declined 4 percent in the quarter. The

weakness accelerated in February and March as early
indications for the upcoming 2016-17 season suggest
a 3 percent increase in global production from the
current season. Although consumption is projected to
be higher than production for a second consecutive
year, the cotton market is mired by unusually high
stocks, the equivalent of almost one years worth of
consumption. More than half of those stocks are held
by China (Figure 18); fears that they could be released
will prevent any significant recovery in cotton prices.
No change is expected in cotton prices for 2016 and
only a marginal increase is projected in 2017.
Tea prices fell almost 15 percent in the first quarter of

2016, with large declines at Mombasa and Kolkata
auctions. In addition to strong supplies in key East
African tea producing countries and India, the tea
market has been facing headwinds from weak consumption in several tea-consuming countries. Tea
prices are projected to decline 4 percent in 2016 but
gain 2 percent in 2017.
Natural rubber prices increased 4 percent in the quarter with most of the gains realized in March (up 15
percent from February). The strengthening in rubber
prices reflects a seasonal decline in production by Malaysia and Thailand, stronger demand by China, and,
perhaps most importantly, the International Tripartite
Rubber Councils export quota scheme which began
in March and is expected to withhold 615,000 tons of
natural rubber from the world market over the next
six months. Despite the recent uptick, natural rubber
prices are expected to remain weak in 2016 and increase only marginally in 2017.
FIGURE 17 Coffee prices
FIGURE 18 Cotton stocks
US$/kg
US$/kg
2.1
Robusta
(LHS)
1.9
25
4.5
20
4.0
15
1.7
3.5
1.5
1.3
Jan-15
Arabica
(RHS)
Apr-15
Jul-15
3.0
Oct-15
Jan-16
Source: Bloomberg.
Apr-16
Million metric tons
5.0
2.5
Rest of world
China
10
5
0
1990
1993
1996
1999
2002
2005
Source: International Cotton Advisory Committee.
2008
2011
2014
april 2016
Fertilizers
Fertilizer prices plunged 12 percent in the first quarter
(Figure 19), down a fifth consecutive quarter, due to
weak import demand, high stocks, and ample supply.
Urea prices led the decline by dropping 17 percent,
down for a sixth straight quarter, on weak demand
and increasing capacity. Phosphate prices fell 13-14
percent, while potash prices declined 2 percent. Demand weakness stems from poor farmer profitability,
low crop prices, and depreciated currencies of key importing countriesalthough these reversed slightly
during the quarter on a weaker dollar. Supply surpluses continue to be impacted by falling costs and
cheaper feedstock prices (e.g., natural gas).
Urea prices dropped 17 percent, mainly due to oversupply amid weak seasonal demand, including the
impact of drought in south-east Asia. However, prices
rose in March on strong purchases in the United
States for spring application. Chinese demand continues to decline on lower crop prices and a desire to reduce unsustainably high application rates. The U.S.
Department of Agriculture reported sharply higher
planting intentions for rice and corn, which should
benefit urea consumption. Increases in new export capacity are expected this year, especially in Africa and
the Middle East. However, continued large increases
in the U.S. are expected to keep downward pressure
on prices, unless there are reductions in high-cost capacity. Chinas exports are also expected to increase.
Phosphate prices fell by 14 percent (TSP) and 13 percent (DAP) due to weak demand in Brazil and India
amid high stocks and weak currencies. Higher U.S.
planting intentions for cotton and cornthe latter
mainly at the expense of wheatcould increase phosphate consumption, as both consume more fertilizer
than wheat. Some producers have curtailed output
FIGURE 19 Fertilizer prices
US$/mt
1200
but there is little indication of further cuts. Chinese

exports are set to pick up just as the domestic demand
season comes to an endwhich has also been slower
than expected. Production capacity continues to expand globally, with significant expansions expected in
Morocco and Saudi Arabia.
Potash (potassium chloride) prices fell 5 percent owing to weak demand, high stocks, and ample supply.
March was an exception, however, thanks to stronger
demand in Brazil aided by increased credit made
available to farmers on February 1. Major potash producers also withheld shipments to Brazil. Near-term
demand could be buoyed in Brazil and the U.S., but
reduced in Asia because of dry weather. The annual
contract negotiations with Chinese buyers is expected
to be settled later in the second quarter, as high inventory levels in China have delayed discussions. The
price is also expected to be settled significantly lower
than the current contract price of $315/mt, with various estimates at $220-240/mt owing to weak demand
and surplus global capacity. The Indian annual contract is expected to be settled soon after at some $10/
mt higher.
Fertilizer prices are projected to decline by 13 percent
in 2016 due to weak demand, rising supply capacity,
and destocking. Nutrient application, which has been
on a rising trend (Figure 20), remains constrained as
farmers face both weak crop prices and domestic currencies. Prices are generally expected to increase moderately over the medium term due to expected growth
in demand, higher energy costs, and needed new capacity of primary and processed supply.
Risks to the forecast are skewed to the downside on
low farm margins and expected increases in new production capacity. On the upside, higher agriculture
prices and currency appreciation could boost fertilizer
demand and prices.
FIGURE 20 Global nutrient consumption
Million metric tons
DAP
200
1000
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
160
Potassium
chloride
800
120
600
80
400
200
0
Jan-07
40
Urea
Jan-09
Jan-11
Source: World Bank.

Jan-13
Jan-15
2004-05
2006-07
2008-09
2010-11
2012-13
Source: Agrium Fact Book, International Fertilizer Association.
2014-15
31
32
april 2016
Metals and minerals
high-cost operations and may create incentives to restart idled capacity.
Metals prices fell 1 percent in the first quarter, a sixth

straight quarterly decline (Figure 21). Prices rebounded in mid-January, and average prices in March
were 11 percent higher than January. Most metals
prices recorded strong gains in February and March
particularly iron ore, tin, and zincmainly driven by
improved market sentiment, short covering, and a
weaker dollar. Expectations of rising demand in China
followed strong imports in January and February, and
improving macro indicators. Prices were also buoyed
by falling stocks, production cuts, and a few supply
interruptions. Most markets remain oversupplied,
however, with large stocks and lingering uncertainty
over demand.
Chinas share of world metal consumption rose above
50 percent in 2015 (Figure 22), and the country accounted for the majority of global growth over the
past 15 years (Figure 23). Metals consumption growth
in the country has begun to retreat due to ongoing
rebalancing to a consumer-based and less metal-intensive economy. Construction growth, for example, is
expected to remain constrained this year as the government attempts to reduce the current large overhang of housing in lower-tiered cities by tightening
credit.
Iron ore prices rose 3 percent in the quarter, but

soared 33 percent in February/March on a spike in
steel prices and restocking at Chinese mills ahead of
the construction season. In addition, there were some
disruptions to iron ore seaborne supply which further
tightened the market. Prices continued to rally in
April driven by renewed growth prospects in China,
especially following governments added stimulus
measures and revival of construction. Significant volumes of low-cost capacity are expected over the next
2-3 years, while high-cost capacity is being shut down.
Further closure of high-cost capacity is required to
balance the market.
On the supply side, production cuts among some

high-cost operations and supply disruptions have
helped support prices. Global mining investment has
fallen by more than half since peaking in 2012, although new lower-cost supply continues to expand
for some metals from legacy investment. Supply at
existing operations has been supported by significant
cost reductions (notably for energy), producer currency devaluations, and better management practices.
The recent price rally has likely delayed closure of
Zinc prices rose 4 percent in the quarter, but jumped

19 percent in February/March on expected market
tightening due to large mine closures and Glencores
production cuts. LME stocks fell slightly but remain
high, and stocks rose in China because of weak demand to galvanize steelwhich accounts for more
than half of global zinc end-use consumption (Figure
24). With large mine closures in Australia (Century)
and Ireland (Lisheen) in 2015, no new major projects
are expected in the near-to-medium term, and stocks
FIGURE 21 Metal and mineral prices
FIGURE 22 World refined metal consumption
Tin prices rose 2 percent in the quarter, but surged 22

percent in February/March on production cuts, low
LME inventories, and stockpiling in China. Chinas
nine major tin producerswhich account for 40 percent of world productionagreed to cut output in
response to low prices. New regulations in Indonesia
to curb environmental degradation and illegal trade
has also reduced exports. Shipments from Myanmar
continue to fill the gap, while Chinese demand in the
key electronics sector (solder) remains weak. Although
supply growth remains limited, higher prices would
likely reactivate idled capacity.

145
Million metric tons

5
125
105
Base metals
85
Iron ore
45
25
Jan-07
3
2
65
Jan-09
Jan-11
Source: World Bank.

Jan-13
Jan-15
China
OECD
Other non-OECD
0
Jan-95 Jan-98 Jan-01 Jan-04 Jan-07 Jan-10 Jan-13 Jan-16
Source: World Bureau of Metal Statistics.
Note: Last observation is January 2016.
are expected to fall and tighten the market. Key uncertainties are demand growth in China and future
mine capacity additions.
Lead prices rose 3 percent in the quarter and 9 percent
in February/March, but retreated in April due to weak
seasonal demand for replacement batteries. The lead
market is expected to tighten going forward from closure of large zinc/lead mines. With more than half of
refined supply coming from recycled batteries, a key
uncertainty is the supply of scrap material. Also uncertain is the pace of demand, given Chinas maturing
e-bike market and the growth of electric vehicles. One
positive development is the increase of stop-start vehicles, which require 25 percent more lead per
battery.
Aluminum prices rose 1 percent in the quarter. After
rising modestly in February, prices reverted to below
$1500/mt toward the quarter's end on continued
oversupply in China. The rest of the world, however,
remains in deficit due to significant capacity closures.
While demand growth has slowed in Chinas property
and manufacturing sectors, the outlook for global aluminum consumption is robust due to its many uses,
favorable properties, and substitution attractiveness.
Low prices have curtailed high-cost capacity in China,
but new capacity continues to come online there and
elsewhere. Further closure of high-cost supply is required to bring the market into balance and reduce
the large inventory overhang, but restart of idle capacity will continue to overhang the market.
april 2016
number of production cuts. Furthermore, new capacity will continue to come on-line in the next 2-3 years
from earlier investment. The market is expected to
remain in surplus, especially as Chinese demand
growth slows, with additional risks from cost-saving
measures and substitution of other materials.
Nickel prices dropped 10 percent and did not rise significantly during the quarter, as the market remains
oversupplied amid record high stocks and weak stainless steel demand (which consumes about two-thirds
of the worlds refined nickel). Other than Chinas
nickel pig iron sector, production cuts have been limited despite prices falling deep into the cost curve. A
group of Philippine producers agreed in March to cut
exports by up to 20 percent this year, but further cuts
are required to reduce excess supply.
Metals prices are projected to decline by 8 percent in
2016 due to slowing demand in emerging economies,
notably China, and increases in new production capacity. The largest decline is for nickel, which is expected to fall by 22 percent due to weak demand and
insufficient production cuts. Sizable declines are also
expected for iron ore (down 10 percent) and copper
(down 9 percent). Most other prices are expected to
fall as markets remain in surplus amid high stocks.
Markets are expected to tighten in the medium term
due to reduced investment in supply capacity, rising
global demand, and some specific factors, including
Indonesias ore export ban and closure of large zinc
mines due to exhaustion.
Although copper prices average 4 percent lower in the

first quarter of 2016, they rallied in February/March
on declining LME inventories and strong import demand in China. However, the imports likely boosted
Chinese inventories, as did part of the LME outflows,
as Chinas end-use consumption growth has slowed.
The global market remains oversupplied, despite a
Downside risks to the forecast include slower demand

in China and higher-than-expected production due to
further cost reductions. Upside risks are centered on
stronger global demand growth and supply shortfalls
from project delays, operational disruptions, falling
ore grades, environmental constraints, and greater
closure of high-cost capacity.
FIGURE 23 World metal consumption growth
FIGURE 24 Zinc price and LME stocks
Million metric tons, growth year over year

12
8
OECD
Other non-OECD
China
Thousand metric tons

1,400
LME stocks (RHS)
1,200
4,000
3,000
1,000
Zinc price (LHS)
800
600
2,000
400
1,000
-4
-8
US$/ton
5,000
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
0
Jan-07
200
Jan-09
Jan-11
Jan-13
Source: Bloomberg.
Jan-15
33
34
april 2016
Precious metals
Precious metals prices rose 6 percent in the first quarter on stronger investment demand and safe-haven
buying (Figure 15). Gold rose by 7 percent, while silver and platinum prices each increased 1 percent. All
prices rose strongly in February and March, aided in
part by U.S. dollar depreciation, declining real interest rates, and a more cautious U.S. Federal Reserve
position on future interest rate hikes.
Gold prices increased 7 percent in the first quarter,
and jumped 13 percent in second and third months,
averaging $1,245/toz in March. Investor sentiment
reversed due to the U.S. Federal Reserve interest rate
hike deferral, a weaker dollar, increased macro risks,
and a rise in safe-haven demand. The adoption of
negative interest rates in a number of developed economies increased golds attractiveness by reducing its
holding costs. Conversely, rising interest rates typically have negative implications for gold prices, as investors seek yield-bearing assets.
ward gold. Physical demand was weighed down by

slowing industrial activity, partly reducing its attractiveness as a safe-haven asset. Falling silver intensity in
electronic and photovoltaic sectors, and declining
trends in photographic applications are also contributing to lower consumption. Mine supply is contracting mainly in Australia and the Americas, and in part
reflects lower by-product output from declines in zinc
and other metals production.
Platinum prices also rose 1 percent in the quarter. As
with gold and silver, platinums surge (13 percent)
came in February and March, with rising gold prices
and a stronger Rand (South Africa produces about 60
percent of global production) sparking the rally. However, mine supply is facing headwinds due to sharply
lower investment, upcoming labor negotiations, and
adverse effects from drought. Demand from the auto
sector remains robust, boosted by low fuel prices and
easing credit.
Silver prices rose 1 percent in the quarter. After a weak

January performance, prices surged 10 percent in February and March, in line with investor sentiment to-
Precious metals prices are projected to decline 2 percent in 2016, mainly due to lower investment demand. Platinum is expected to lead the decline, falling
10 percent on surplus supply. Silver prices are expected to fall 5 percent due to slowing physical demand, as the metal is more vulnerable than gold to
shifts in industrial production. Gold prices are projected to fall just 1 percent, reflecting strong investment demand in the first quarter, but is expected to
decline going forward on expectations of a rising dollar and tightening in U.S. monetary policy. Physical
demand is expected to remain robust in India and
China, while mine production continues to benefit
from cost reductions. Downside risks to the forecast
include stronger-than-expected monetary tightening
and dollar strength. Upside risks include weaker
global growth, financial stress in key economies,
heightened geopolitical events, and stronger demand
from consumers, central banks, and investors.
FIGURE 25 Precious metal prices
FIGURE 26 Global gold production
Physical gold demand was weak in the two largest

consuming countries. In India, higher prices and uncertainty over the governments end-February budget
restrained purchases. An excise tax of 1 percent was
announced in March and many Indian jewelers went
on strike. In China, demand was weak due to New
Year holidays and a slowing economy. Global gold
mine supply growth has trended lower due to declining investment, but has been partly offset by cost reductions and depreciating producer currencies. Nevertheless, significant new production is expected this
year as mines commissioned last year continue to
ramp up (Figure 16).
US$/toz
45
US$/toz
2,100
Platinum
(RHS)
35
Gold (RHS)
1,800
1,500
25
Thousand metric tons

300
Americas
250
Asia
Europe
Africa
Oceania
200
150
1,200
5
Jan-07
100
Silver
(LHS)
15
Jan-09
Jan-11
Source: World Bank.

900
Jan-13
Jan-15
600
50
0
Jan-95
Jan-00
Jan-05

Note: Last observation is January 2016.
Jan-10
Jan-15
Appendix A
Historical commodity prices
Price forecasts
APPENDIX A
37
TABLE A.1 Commodity prices

Commodity
Energy
Coal, Australia
Coal, Colombia
Coal, South Africa
Crude oil, average
Crude oil, Brent
Crude oil, Dubai
Crude oil, WTI
Natural gas, Index
Natural gas, Europe
Natural gas, US
Natural gas, Japan
Unit
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/bbl
$/bbl
$/bbl
$/bbl
2010=100
$/mmbtu
$/mmbtu
$/mmbtu
*
*
*
*
*
*
2014
2015
Q1
2015
Q2
2015
Q3
2015
Q4
2015
Q1
2016
Jan
2016
Feb
2016
Mar
2016
70.1
65.9
72.3
96.2
98.9
96.7
93.1
111.7
10.05
4.37
16.04
57.5
52.5
57.0
50.8
52.4
51.2
48.7
73.3
7.26
2.61
10.40
61.2
57.3
62.1
51.6
53.9
52.2
48.6
85.4
8.60
2.87
14.26
59.0
54.3
60.7
60.5
62.1
61.4
57.8
74.2
7.33
2.73
9.18
57.5
50.4
54.3
48.8
50.0
49.9
46.4
72.2
6.86
2.75
9.23
52.3
48.0
51.1
42.2
43.4
41.2
42.0
61.4
6.26
2.11
8.94
50.9
42.7
51.6
32.7
34.4
30.6
33.2
52.3
4.82
1.98
7.95
49.8
43.0
49.9
29.8
30.8
27.0
31.5
58.4
5.35
2.27
7.85
50.7
41.4
51.5
31.0
33.2
29.5
30.4
52.5
4.90
1.96
8.00
52.1
43.8
53.2
37.3
39.1
35.2
37.8
46.1
4.20
1.70
8.00
3.06
4.42
2.22
2.72
3.54
2.58
2.05
3.14
3.53
1.94
2.71
2.96
2.42
2.74
2.92
3.89
2.12
2.43
3.16
1.82
2.31
3.07
3.54
1.98
2.79
3.00
2.56
2.80
3.25
3.36
1.87
2.85
2.83
2.78
2.95
3.30
3.31
1.79
2.76
2.85
2.52
2.91
2.98
3.31
1.65
2.36
2.82
1.89
2.38
2.95
3.20
1.65
2.50
2.84
2.07
2.58
2.92
3.26
1.63
2.31
2.79
1.78
2.37
3.07
3.47
1.67
2.28
2.82
1.81
2.21
1,280
854
1,709
1,296
1,313
821
1,121
528
909
492
1,110
735
1,558
1,248
1,337
623
909
395
757
390
1,147
760
1,712
1,333
1,371
683
1,046
432
774
411
1,115
737
1,523
1,290
1,346
664
957
391
774
394
1,067
708
1,472
1,193
1,332
574
802
398
736
385
1,109
737
1,524
1,175
1,298
570
831
358
743
372
1,273
855
1,465
1,158
1,277
631
1,032
328
749
370
1,155
763
1,476
1,175
1,274
566
894
333
727
367
1,216
813
1,472
1,150
1,271
640
988
326
758
369
1,448
990
1,448
1,150
1,286
686
1,213
325
761
375
138
193
423
382
425
407
207
285
245
194
170
386
373
386
352
205
204
206
189
174
417
397
416
363
237
239
223
201
168
385
372
388
351
215
216
205
200
169
374
362
376
337
190
183
196
187
167
368
359
365
356
176
180
201
183
160
379
370
373
362
174
191
190
185
161
369
361
366
365
174
193
192
187
160
384
374
377
360
174
187
188
176
159
384
375
375
360
174
191
190
1.04
0.93
4.95
2.43
6.39
0.78
17.25
0.43
0.53
0.37
0.90
0.96
4.42
2.53
5.22
0.68
14.36
0.36
0.55
0.30
0.92
0.98
4.76
2.51
5.60
0.70
15.84
0.37
0.54
0.32
0.92
0.97
4.47
2.55
5.38
0.62
15.65
0.36
0.54
0.29
0.90
0.95
4.55
2.55
5.07
0.65
15.43
0.36
0.54
0.27
0.88
0.93
3.91
2.50
4.82
0.73
10.50
0.36
0.56
0.32
0.91
1.03
3.72
2.47
4.51
0.69
10.83
0.36
0.57
0.31
0.86
1.04
3.50
2.48
4.54
0.69
10.44
0.35
0.57
0.31
0.93
1.05
3.77
2.47
4.51
0.69
11.02
0.36
0.56
0.29
0.94
1.01
3.88
2.46
4.48
0.68
11.02
0.36
0.58
0.34
Non-Energy
Agriculture
Beverages
Cocoa
Coffee, arabica
Coffee, robusta
Tea, average
Tea, Colombo
Tea, Kolkata
Tea, Mombasa
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
**
**
Oils and Meals

Coconut oil
Copra
Fishmeal
Groundnuts
Groundnut oil
Palm oil
Palmkernel oil
Soybean meal
Soybean oil
Soybeans
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
**
Grains
Barley
Maize
Rice, Thailand 5%
Rice, Thailand 25%
Rice, Thailand A1
Rice, Vietnam 5%
Sorghum
Wheat, US HRW
Wheat, US SRW
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
Other Food
Bananas, EU
Bananas, US
Meat, beef
Meat, chicken
Meat, sheep
Oranges
Shrimp
Sugar, EU
Sugar, US
Sugar, World
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
**
**
**
**
Food
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
38
APPENDIX A
TABLE A.1 Commodity prices

Commodity
2014
2015
Q1
2015
Q2
2015
Q3
2015
Q4
2015
Q1
2016
Jan
2016
Feb
2016
Mar
2016
$/cum
$/cum
**
/sheets
$/cum
$/cum
**
$/mt
465
282
517
789
898
877
389
246
451
733
833
875
395
250
458
726
826
875
387
245
450
734
835
875
389
244
447
743
845
875
383
245
450
727
827
875
386
258
474
686
780
875
380
252
462
691
786
875
388
259
476
686
780
875
389
264
484
681
775
875
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
**
**
1.83
1.96
1.71
1.55
1.56
1.37
1.52
1.73
1.42
1.59
1.79
1.52
1.56
1.46
1.34
1.53
1.26
1.20
1.48
1.31
1.15
1.52
1.22
1.08
1.47
1.26
1.09
1.44
1.45
1.28
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
**
**
**
**
**
472
110
297
388
316
459
117
303
385
273
483
115
305
400
296
469
115
307
380
277
464
117
303
380
268
419
123
297
380
251
367
116
283
328
209
385
118
290
380
214
355
115
282
329
209
360
115
277
275
203
$/mt
$/mt
$/dmt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
1,867
6,863
96.9
2,095
16,893
21,899
2,161
1,665
5,510
55.8
1,788
11,863
16,067
1,932
1,802
5,833
63.0
1,810
14,393
18,370
2,080
1,770
6,057
58.3
1,942
13,056
15,590
2,192
1,592
5,267
55.0
1,717
10,579
15,230
1,843
1,494
4,885
47.0
1,682
9,423
15,077
1,612
1,514
4,675
48.3
1,738
8,508
15,439
1,677
1,481
4,472
42.0
1,646
8,507
13,808
1,520
1,531
4,599
47.0
1,766
8,299
15,610
1,710
1,531
4,954
56.0
1,802
8,717
16,898
1,802
$/toz
$/toz
$/toz
***
***
***
1,266
1,384
19.07
1,161
1,053
15.72
1,219
1,193
16.75
1,193
1,127
16.42
1,124
986
14.91
1,107
907
14.80
1,181
914
14.91
1,098
855
14.11
1,200
919
15.17
1,245
968
15.47
118.3
97.0
102.7
101.8
107.4
109.0
103.9
108.4
91.9
104.9
77.8
100.5
84.8
89.0
101.1
64.9
82.4
89.3
93.5
90.9
85.2
88.8
100.3
83.2
96.1
69.2
95.4
66.9
73.6
90.6
67.3
86.7
92.9
93.4
96.5
91.3
95.4
104.3
84.0
95.7
71.1
99.3
72.7
79.5
95.6
75.5
84.8
90.2
93.6
91.6
86.7
89.9
99.7
85.1
96.2
73.1
95.6
72.4
79.9
93.5
62.7
80.6
88.0
94.0
88.8
83.1
85.7
99.2
83.1
96.9
67.9
94.4
63.9
70.0
87.4
54.2
77.6
85.9
93.1
86.6
79.6
84.1
98.0
80.7
95.4
64.5
92.3
58.8
65.0
86.1
43.0
76.2
84.7
86.2
86.7
79.9
84.3
97.6
79.2
92.2
65.0
81.6
58.0
63.8
90.9
40.5
74.6
83.5
85.7
85.1
77.3
84.3
96.1
78.3
92.1
63.2
86.0
55.2
61.4
84.7
41.2
75.8
84.4
84.6
86.5
80.0
84.3
97.1
79.2
92.2
64.8
81.5
57.7
63.6
92.3
47.4
78.0
86.2
88.2
88.3
82.5
84.4
99.6
80.1
92.1
67.0
77.2
61.2
66.5
95.6
Unit
Raw Materials
Timber
Logs, Africa
Logs, S.E. Asia
Plywood
Sawnwood, Africa
Sawnwood, S.E. Asia
Woodpulp
Other Raw Materials

Cotton
Rubber, RSS3
Rubber, TSR20
Fertilizers
DAP
Phosphate rock
Potassium chloride
TSP
Urea, E. Europe
Metals and Minerals

Aluminum
Copper
Iron ore
Lead
Nickel
Tin
Zinc
Precious Metals
Gold
Platinum
Silver
Commodity Price Indexes (2010=100)

Energy
Non-energy
Agriculture
Beverages
Food
Oils and Meals
Grains
Other Food
Raw Materials
Timber
Other Raw Materials
Fertilizers
Metals and Minerals
Base Metals
Precious Metals
****
Source: See Appendix C.

Notes: (*) Included in the energy index; (**) Included in the non-energy index; (***) Included in the precious metals index: (****) Metals and Minerals exluding iron ore.
APPENDIX A
TABLE A.2 Commodity price forecasts in nominal U.S. dollars

Commodity
Energy
Coal, Australia
Crude oil, avg, spot
Natural gas, Europe
Natural gas, US
Natural gas, Japan
Unit
Forecasts
2018
2019
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2020
2025
84.6
104.1
11.79
3.73
15.96
70.1
96.2
10.05
4.37
16.04
57.5
50.8
7.26
2.61
10.40
50.0
41.0
4.50
2.50
8.00
51.0
50.0
4.80
3.00
8.20
52.1
53.3
5.11
3.50
8.41
53.1
56.7
5.45
3.68
8.62
54.2
60.4
5.81
3.88
8.83
60.0
82.6
8.00
5.00
10.00
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
2.44
3.08
2.08
2.86
3.06
4.42
2.22
2.72
3.14
3.53
1.94
2.71
3.10
3.30
1.70
2.60
3.01
3.32
1.72
2.65
2.93
3.34
1.74
2.70
2.85
3.37
1.76
2.76
2.77
3.39
1.79
2.81
2.40
3.50
1.90
3.10
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
941
1,773
857
545
1,057
538
1,280
1,313
821
528
909
492
1,110
1,337
623
395
757
390
1,300
1,300
630
340
775
390
1,263
1,339
647
353
797
403
1,226
1,380
664
367
820
416
1,191
1,422
682
381
844
429
1,157
1,465
701
396
868
443
1,000
1,700
800
480
1,000
520
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
202
259
506
312
138
193
423
285
194
170
386
204
185
165
375
180
187
170
379
188
188
176
383
197
190
182
386
206
192
188
390
216
200
220
410
270
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
0.92
4.07
2.29
0.97
13.84
0.39
0.93
4.95
2.43
0.78
17.25
0.37
0.96
4.42
2.53
0.68
14.36
0.30
1.00
3.80
2.50
0.70
11.00
0.32
0.99
3.84
2.46
0.72
11.21
0.33
0.98
3.89
2.43
0.75
11.42
0.33
0.97
3.93
2.40
0.78
11.63
0.34
0.96
3.97
2.36
0.80
11.85
0.35
0.92
4.20
2.20
0.95
13.00
0.38
464
305
853
465
282
898
389
246
833
390
250
800
401
259
820
412
268
841
424
277
862
436
287
883
500
340
1,000
$/kg
$/kg
$/mt
1.99
2.79
4,589
1.83
1.96
4,991
1.55
1.56
4,908
1.55
1.35
5,000
1.61
1.43
4,942
1.68
1.52
4,884
1.74
1.61
4,827
1.81
1.71
4,771
2.20
2.30
4,500
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
445
148
379
382
340
472
110
297
388
316
459
117
303
385
273
360
120
285
310
220
368
119
288
315
226
376
118
290
320
232
385
117
293
326
238
394
115
296
331
245
440
110
310
360
280
$/mt
$/mt
$/dmt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
1,847
7,332
135.4
2,140
15,032
22,283
1,910
1,867
6,863
96.9
2,095
16,893
21,899
2,161
1,665
5,510
55.8
1,788
11,863
16,067
1,932
1,600
5,000
50.0
1,775
9,200
15,000
1,800
1,649
5,190
51.5
1,827
10,029
15,652
1,858
1,700
5,388
53.0
1,880
10,933
16,333
1,919
1,752
5,593
54.6
1,935
11,918
17,043
1,981
1,806
5,807
56.2
1,992
12,992
17,783
2,046
2,100
7,000
65.0
2,300
20,000
22,000
2,400
$/toz
$/toz
$/toz
1,411
23.85
1,487
1,266
19.07
1,384
1,161
15.72
1,053
1,150
15.00
950
1,132
15.11
999
1,115
15.22
1,051
1,098
15.33
1,106
1,081
15.44
1,164
1,000
16.00
1,500
$/mt
$/bbl
$/mmbtu
$/mmbtu
$/mmbtu
Non-Energy
Agriculture
Beverages
Cocoa
Coffee, Arabica
Coffee, robusta
Tea, average
Food
Oils and Meals

Coconut oil
Groundnut oil
Palm oil
Soybean meal
Soybean oil
Soybeans
Grains
Barley
Maize
Rice, Thailand, 5%
Wheat, US, HRW
Other Food
Bananas, EU
Meat, beef
Meat, chicken
Oranges
Shrimp
Sugar, World
Raw Materials
Timber
Logs, Africa
Logs, S.E. Asia
Sawnwood, S.E. Asia
Other Raw Materials
Cotton A
Rubber, RSS3
Tobacco
Fertilizers
DAP
Phosphate rock
Potassium chloride
TSP
Urea, E. Europe
Metals and Minerals
Aluminum
Copper
Iron ore
Lead
Nickel
Tin
Zinc
Precious Metals
Gold
Silver
Platinum
Next update: July 2016.
$/cum
$/cum
$/cum
39
40
APPENDIX A
TABLE A.3 Commodity price forecasts in constant U.S. dollars (2010=100)

Commodity
Unit
Forecasts
2018
2019
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
79.7
98.1
11.11
3.52
15.04
66.2
90.9
9.49
4.13
15.15
54.4
48.0
6.87
2.47
9.85
46.5
38.1
4.18
2.32
7.43
46.6
45.7
4.38
2.74
7.50
46.8
47.9
4.60
3.15
7.56
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
2.30
2.90
1.96
2.70
2.89
4.18
2.09
2.57
2.97
3.34
1.84
2.56
2.88
3.07
1.58
2.42
2.75
3.04
1.57
2.42
Oils and Meals

Coconut oil
Groundnut oil
Palm oil
Soybean meal
Soybean oil
Soybeans
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
887
1,672
808
514
996
508
1,209
1,240
776
499
859
464
1,050
1,265
589
374
716
370
1,208
1,208
585
316
720
362
Grains
Barley
Maize
Rice, Thailand, 5%
Wheat, US, HRW
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
191
245
477
294
130
182
399
269
184
161
365
194
Other Food
Bananas, EU
Meat, beef
Meat, chicken
Oranges
Shrimp
Sugar, World
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
$/kg
0.87
3.84
2.16
0.91
13.05
0.37
0.88
4.67
2.29
0.74
16.29
0.35
437
288
804
$/kg
$/kg
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
Energy
Coal, Australia
Crude oil, avg, spot
Natural gas, Europe
Natural gas, US
Natural gas, Japan
2020
2025
47.0
50.2
4.83
3.26
7.63
47.3
52.6
5.06
3.38
7.70
48.1
66.3
6.42
4.01
8.02
2.63
3.01
1.57
2.43
2.52
2.98
1.56
2.44
2.41
2.95
1.56
2.45
1.92
2.81
1.52
2.49
1,154
1,224
591
323
729
368
1,103
1,241
598
330
738
374
1,055
1,259
604
338
747
380
1,008
1,276
611
345
756
386
802
1,363
642
385
802
417
172
153
348
167
171
156
346
172
169
158
344
177
168
161
342
182
167
163
340
188
160
176
329
217
0.91
4.19
2.39
0.64
13.59
0.28
0.93
3.53
2.32
0.65
10.22
0.30
0.91
3.51
2.25
0.66
10.24
0.30
0.88
3.49
2.19
0.67
10.27
0.30
0.86
3.48
2.12
0.69
10.30
0.30
0.84
3.46
2.06
0.70
10.32
0.30
0.74
3.37
1.76
0.76
10.43
0.30
439
266
848
368
233
789
362
232
743
366
236
750
371
241
756
375
245
763
380
250
770
401
273
802
1.88
2.63
4,327
1.73
1.85
4,714
1.47
1.48
4,646
1.44
1.25
4,645
1.47
1.31
4,517
1.51
1.37
4,393
1.54
1.43
4,274
1.58
1.49
4,158
1.76
1.84
3,609
419
140
357
360
321
446
104
281
367
299
434
111
287
364
258
334
111
265
288
204
336
109
263
288
207
339
106
261
288
209
341
103
260
288
211
343
101
258
289
213
353
88
249
289
225
$/mt
$/mt
$/dmt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
$/mt
1,741
6,913
127.6
2,018
14,173
21,010
1,801
1,764
6,482
91.6
1,979
15,955
20,683
2,041
1,576
5,216
52.8
1,692
11,228
15,207
1,828
1,486
4,645
46.5
1,649
8,547
13,936
1,672
1,507
4,744
47.0
1,670
9,166
14,305
1,699
1,529
4,847
47.7
1,691
9,834
14,691
1,726
1,551
4,952
48.3
1,713
10,552
15,089
1,754
1,573
5,060
49.0
1,736
11,322
15,497
1,783
1,684
5,614
52.1
1,845
16,041
17,645
1,925
$/toz
$/toz
$/toz
1,331
22.49
1,402
1,195
18.01
1,307
1,099
14.88
997
1,068
13.94
883
1,035
13.81
913
1,003
13.69
946
972
13.57
979
942
13.45
1,014
802
12.83
1,203
$/mt
$/bbl
$/mmbtu
$/mmbtu
$/mmbtu
Non-Energy
Agriculture
Beverages
Cocoa
Coffee, Arabica
Coffee, robusta
Tea, avgerage
Food
Raw Materials
Timber
Logs, Africa
Logs, S.E. Asia
Sawnwood, S.E. Asia
Other Raw Materials
Cotton A
Rubber, RSS3
Tobacco
Fertilizers
DAP
Phosphate rock
Potassium chloride
TSP
Urea, E. Europe
Metals and Minerals
Aluminum
Copper
Iron ore
Lead
Nickel
Tin
Zinc
Precious Metals
Gold
Silver
Platinum
Sources and Notes: See Appendix C.

$/cum
$/cum
$/cum
APPENDIX A
41
TABLE A.4 Commodity price index forecasts (2010=100)

Commodity
Unit
Nominal US dollars (2010=100)
Energy
Non-energy commodities
Agriculture
Beverages
Food
Oils and meals
Grains
Other food
Raw materials
Timber
Other Raw Materials
Fertilizers
Metals and minerals *
Base Metals **
Precious Metals
2014
2015
2016
2017
127.4
101.7
106.3
83.3
115.6
115.9
128.2
103.9
95.4
102.6
87.6
113.7
90.8
90.3
115.1
118.3
97.0
102.7
101.8
107.4
109.0
103.9
108.4
91.9
104.9
77.8
100.5
84.8
89.0
101.1
64.9
82.4
89.3
93.5
90.9
85.2
88.8
100.3
83.2
96.1
69.2
95.4
66.9
73.6
90.6
52.4
78.2
86.2
89.2
87.8
82.3
84.1
98.3
80.8
93.3
67.1
82.8
61.4
67.7
89.1
62.9
80.0
87.8
88.8
89.6
84.7
86.5
98.8
82.7
95.9
68.4
84.0
63.7
70.3
88.1
67.2
81.9
89.4
88.4
91.5
87.3
88.9
99.3
84.8
98.5
69.8
85.2
66.1
73.0
87.2
Constant 2010 US dollars (2010=100), deflated by the MUV Index
Energy
Non-energy commodities
Agriculture
Beverages
Food
Oils and meals
Grains
Other food
Raw materials
Timber
Other Raw Materials
Fertilizers
Metals and minerals *
Base Metals **
Precious Metals
Inflation indexes, 2010=100
MUV index ***

% change per annum
US GDP deflator
% change per annum
Forecasts
2018
2019
2013
2020
2025
71.4
83.8
91.1
88.1
93.4
89.9
91.5
99.9
86.9
101.1
71.3
86.4
68.6
75.9
86.4
75.9
85.8
92.9
87.8
95.5
92.6
94.1
100.5
89.1
103.9
73.0
87.6
71.2
78.8
85.5
102.6
97.3
102.9
86.8
106.8
107.7
108.8
103.8
101.7
118.8
82.9
94.4
86.0
95.6
81.6
120.1
95.9
100.2
78.5
109.0
109.3
120.9
98.0
90.0
96.7
82.6
107.2
85.6
85.2
108.5
111.7
91.6
97.0
96.1
101.4
103.0
98.1
102.3
86.8
99.0
73.5
94.9
80.1
84.1
95.5
61.4
78.0
84.5
88.5
86.0
80.6
84.0
94.9
78.8
90.9
65.5
90.3
63.4
69.7
85.8
48.7
72.7
80.1
82.9
81.5
76.4
78.1
91.4
75.1
86.7
62.3
77.0
57.1
62.9
82.8
57.5
73.1
80.2
81.2
81.9
77.4
79.0
90.3
75.6
87.6
62.5
76.8
58.2
64.3
80.6
60.5
73.7
80.4
79.5
82.3
78.5
80.0
89.4
76.3
88.6
62.8
76.6
59.5
65.7
78.5
63.2
74.2
80.6
78.0
82.7
79.6
81.0
88.4
76.9
89.6
63.2
76.5
60.7
67.2
76.5
66.1
74.8
80.9
76.5
83.2
80.7
82.0
87.5
77.7
90.5
63.6
76.4
62.0
68.7
74.5
82.3
78.0
82.5
69.6
85.7
86.4
87.3
83.2
81.6
95.3
66.5
75.7
69.0
76.7
65.4
106.1
-1.4
105.4
1.5
105.9
-0.2
106.9
1.3
105.7
-0.2
108.5
1.6
107.6
1.9
110.7
2.0
109.4
1.7
113.0
2.0
111.2
1.6
115.3
2.0
112.9
1.6
117.6
2.0
114.8
1.6
120.0
2.0
124.7
1.7
132.6
2.0
Source: See Appendix C.

Notes: (*) Base metals plus iron ore; (**) Includes aluminum, copper, lead, nickel, tin and zinc; (***) MUV is the unit value index of manufacture exports. For other notes see
Appendix C.
Contents
Appendix B
Commodity Balances
Aluminum 45
Nickel 58
Coal 46
Nitrogen Fertilizers
59
Cocoa 47
Palm oil and Soybean oil
60
Coffee 48
Phosphate and Potash

Fertilizers 61
Copper 49
Cotton 50
Crude oil 51
Rice 62
Silver 63
Gold 52
Soybeans 64
Industrial roundwood and

Sawnwood 53
Sugar 65
Tin 66
Lead 54
Wheat 67
Maize 55
Wood-based panels and

Woodpulp 68
Natural gas 56
Natural rubber
57
Zinc 69
43
APPENDIX B
45
Aluminum
Monthly Prices (US$/mt)
Annual Prices (US$/mt)
3,500
3,500
3,000
3,000
Constant 2010
2,500
2,500
2,000
2,000
1,500
1,500
1,000
Jan-04
Nominal
1,000
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1980
1990
27,179
1,700
4,152
1,785
920
13,911
12,064
n/a
n/a
3,286
n/a
4,903
0
n/a
93,326
40,697
3,655
9,876
5,277
398
16,150
10,937
n/a
n/a
2,496
n/a
3,267
786
n/a
114,835
Refined Production (thousand metric tons)

China
Russian Federation
Canada
United Arab Emirates
India
Australia
United States
Norway
Bahrain
Saudi Arabia
Brazil
Iceland
South Africa
Others
World
358
n/a
1,075
35
185
304
4,654
662
126
0
261
75
87
n/a
16,036
854
n/a
1,567
174
433
1,233
4,048
867
212
0
931
88
157
n/a
19,362
Refined Consumption (thousand metric tons)

China
United States
Germany
Japan
India
Korea, Rep.
Turkey
Brazil
Others
World
550
4,454
1,272
1,639
234
68
45
0
296
6,754
15,312

Note: n/a implies data not available.
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Note: 2016-25 are forecasts.
Bauxite Production (thousand metric tons)

Australia
China
Brazil
India
Malaysia
Guinea
Jamaica
Russian Federation
Kazakhstan
Greece
Saudi Arabia
Surinam
Venezuela, RB
Others
World
500
1970
861
4,330
1,379
2,414
433
369
152
0
341
8,947
19,227
2000
2005
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
53,801
7,900
14,379
7,562
123
17,992
11,127
5,000
3,729
1,991
0
3,610
4,361
7,315
138,889
59,959
17,408
22,365
12,385
5
19,237
14,118
6,409
4,815
2,495
0
4,757
5,815
7,038
176,807
68,535
36,837
32,028
12,662
124
17,633
8,540
5,475
5,310
1,902
0
3,097
3,126
33,532
228,802
76,282
44,052
34,988
15,320
122
19,974
9,339
5,166
5,170
1,815
760
2,873
2,285
39,538
257,685
81,119
50,339
33,849
20,421
220
18,763
9,435
5,322
5,193
1,844
1,044
2,706
2,341
64,212
296,808
78,633
65,000
35,410
20,688
963
19,178
9,677
5,589
4,515
1,876
1,965
2,708
2,316
11,775
260,291
80,910
65,000
31,231
26,383
22,867
20,414
9,629
6,580
4,683
2,100
1,964
1,871
1,770
10,080
285,483
2,647
3,258
2,373
536
647
1,761
3,668
1,026
509
0
1,271
226
683
5,699
24,304
7,759
3,647
2,894
722
942
1,903
2,480
1,376
708
0
1,498
272
851
6,788
31,841
16,244
3,947
2,963
1,400
1,610
1,928
1,728
1,090
851
0
1,536
826
806
6,630
41,559
20,251
4,024
2,781
1,861
1,714
1,864
2,070
1,111
890
0
1,436
803
665
6,766
46,236
23,153
3,724
2,967
1,848
1,597
1,778
1,948
1,155
913
187
1,304
736
822
6,569
48,701
27,517
3,488
2,858
2,296
1,767
1,704
1,710
1,331
931
665
962
749
745
6,526
53,249
31,410
3,524
2,880
2,464
1,886
1,645
1,587
1,241
961
835
773
756
695
6,686
57,342
3,352
6,161
1,632
2,223
601
823
211
34
514
9,456
25,007
7,072
6,114
1,758
2,276
958
1,201
390
85
759
11,022
31,636
15,854
4,242
1,912
2,025
1,475
1,255
703
650
985
11,317
40,419
20,224
4,875
2,086
1,982
1,690
1,278
925
835
1,021
11,013
45,929
21,955
4,632
2,083
1,772
1,559
1,241
867
835
988
10,563
46,495
27,204
5,250
2,289
2,034
1,523
1,282
915
835
1,027
10,945
53,305
31,068
5,325
2,126
1,779
1,476
1,366
952
835
801
11,353
57,080
46
APPENDIX B
Coal
150
200
120
150
90
100
Constant 2010
60
50
30
Nominal
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1990
Production (million metric tons oil equivalent)
1990
2000
2010
2020
311
463
0
65
63
n/a
75
3
n/a
98
149
23
n/a
3
7
43
76
2
3
5
0
8
3
n/a
1,855
540
566
7
109
92
178
100
14
68
94
125
40
84
3
12
37
55
3
7
5
4
9
2
111
2,265
2000
2005
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
707
570
47
167
132
117
127
25
38
71
61
39
42
7
12
25
19
5
8
4
5
6
3
71
2,310
1,241
580
94
206
162
140
138
38
44
69
57
35
41
19
11
24
12
6
9
4
6
7
2
72
3,018
1,665
551
169
241
218
151
144
48
54
55
46
35
40
25
18
21
11
7
7
5
5
6
2
79
3,604
1,853
556
217
233
216
159
143
56
56
57
47
35
44
26
18
22
11
9
8
6
6
7
2
83
3,869
1,872
518
237
250
229
170
147
58
59
59
48
36
45
24
17
21
10
7
8
6
5
6
3
79
3,913
1,894
501
276
268
229
169
145
56
58
58
45
37
44
23
15
18
8
8
7
5
5
5
3
86
3,961
1,845
508
282
281
244
171
148
58
55
55
44
37
32
23
18
17
7
7
6
5
5
4
3
80
3,933
1,318
574
184
121
80
95
55
81
24
56
54
38
22
27
38
354
3,122
1,741
525
260
124
93
91
76
77
39
56
51
40
31
32
38
337
3,611
1,896
495
270
118
90
94
84
78
47
56
50
41
34
34
41
348
3,777
1,922
438
302
124
88
98
81
80
53
54
47
41
36
37
43
352
3,799
1,961
455
324
129
89
91
82
82
58
56
45
41
32
36
41
347
3,867
1,962
453
360
127
89
85
85
77
61
53
44
41
36
35
33
341
3,882
Consumption (million metric tons oil equivalent)

China
United States
India
Japan
South Africa
Russian Federation
Korea, Rep.
Germany
Indonesia
Poland
Australia
Taiwan, China
Turkey
Kazakhstan
Ukraine
Others
World
1980
Source: World Bank.

1981
China
United States
Indonesia
Australia
India
Russian Federation
South Africa
Colombia
Kazakhstan
Poland
Germany
Canada
Ukraine
Vietnam
Turkey
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
Mexico
Greece
Bulgaria
Thailand
Romania
Brazil
Others
World
0
1970
303
401
63
64
51
n/a
15
144
0
91
27
4
7
n/a
n/a
n/a
1,834
525
483
95
76
67
182
24
132
3
80
37
11
16
40
75
386
2,233
700
569
144
99
75
106
43
85
13
58
48
29
23
23
39
316
2,369

Notes: n/a implies data not available. Production includes crude oil and natural gas liquids but excludes liquid fuels from other sources such as biomass and derivatives of coal
and natural gas included in consumption.
46
APPENDIX B
Cocoa
Monthly Prices (US$/kg)
Annual Prices (US$/kg)
6
Constant 2010
1
Jan-04
0
1970
Nominal
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1970/71
1980/81
Production (thousand metric tons)

Cte dIvoire
Ghana
Indonesia
Ecuador
Cameroon
Brazil
Nigeria
Peru
Dominican Republic
Colombia
Others
World
179.6
406.0
1.7
71.6
112.0
182.4
304.8
2.0
34.6
21.0
212.3
1,528.0
Grindings (thousand metric tons)

Cte dIvoire
Netherlands
Germany
United States
Indonesia
Ghana
Others
World
34.7
116.4
150.7
278.7
1.2
48.0
801.3
1,431.0
Exports (thousand metric tons)

Cte dIvoire
Ghana
Ecuador
Nigeria
Cameroon
Indonesia
Others
World
138.0
347.6
46.5
215.5
74.6
0.6
296.2
1,118.9
Imports (thousand metric tons)

Netherlands
United States
Germany
Malaysia
Belgium
France
Spain
Italy
Turkey
Singapore
Others
World
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

116.2
269.0
154.7
0.9
18.4
41.7
33.8
41.2
1.2
2.6
459.7
1,139.4
1990/91
2000/01
2010/11
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
417.2
258.0
12.4
86.7
117.1
353.0
155.9
7.0
34.5
38.3
213.9
1,694.0
804.4
293.4
150.0
111.1
115.0
368.1
160.0
11.0
42.0
52.0
399.8
2,506.8
1,212.4
395.0
385.0
88.9
133.0
162.8
180.0
16.9
44.9
37.1
195.5
2,851.5
1,511.3
1,024.6
440.0
160.5
228.5
199.8
240.0
54.4
54.3
35.2
360.6
4,309.0
1,449.0
835.5
410.0
191.5
225.0
185.3
238.0
69.8
68.0
48.4
222.9
3,943.4
1,746.2
896.9
375.0
234.0
211.0
228.2
248.0
80.2
70.0
48.8
233.4
4,371.6
1,795.9
740.3
325.0
250.0
232.3
230.0
195.0
83.0
82.0
51.0
245.1
4,229.6
1,690.0
840.0
300.0
230.0
230.0
210.0
200.0
85.0
72.0
53.0
244.1
4,154.1
60.0
139.6
180.0
185.6
10.0
27.0
963.8
1,566.0
118.1
267.7
294.2
267.9
32.0
29.9
1,314.9
2,324.7
285.0
451.9
226.6
444.7
83.0
70.0
1,479.9
3,041.1
360.9
540.0
438.5
401.3
190.0
229.5
1,777.8
3,938.1
471.1
545.0
402.0
429.2
290.0
225.1
1,810.3
4,172.7
519.4
530.0
412.0
446.0
340.0
234.2
1,840.0
4,321.6
558.8
508.0
415.0
398.0
335.0
233.7
1,698.0
4,146.5
575.0
510.0
430.0
395.0
370.0
235.0
1,710.3
4,225.3
405.6
181.8
19.0
75.9
96.0
6.3
315.3
1,099.8
688.1
245.2
55.9
142.0
96.3
113.4
396.2
1,737.1
903.4
306.8
57.2
149.4
101.6
326.5
141.9
1,986.7
1,079.3
694.4
135.7
219.0
204.1
275.2
388.3
2,995.9
1,045.2
600.6
165.4
182.9
186.4
173.6
288.7
2,642.9
1,191.8
709.2
196.8
191.6
160.0
99.0
371.9
2,920.2
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
167.0
246.3
187.4
n/a
28.0
58.8
36.9
31.7
2.0
21.8
418.2
1,198.1
267.0
319.7
299.9
0.9
49.7
74.1
45.4
56.2
5.9
126.6
516.0
1,761.4
549.0
354.7
228.2
109.6
101.3
157.2
48.8
72.2
39.1
67.0
682.3
2,409.5
805.5
472.0
433.8
320.4
193.8
149.2
87.9
85.7
71.1
87.8
649.4
3,356.6
671.9
427.9
272.6
305.4
224.6
114.0
98.9
87.7
78.3
79.9
635.0
2,996.2
641.4
475.2
318.2
315.4
257.9
141.3
107.5
89.5
87.8
80.7
656.1
3,171.0
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Source: Quarterly Bulletin of Cocoa Statistics.

Notes: n/a implies data not available. 1970/71 data are average of 1968-1972.
47
48
APPENDIX B
Coffee
Annual Constant 2010 Prices (US$/kg)
12
Arabica
Arabica
Robusta
Robusta
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1970/71
1990
2000
2010
2020
1980/81
1990/91
2000/01
2010/11
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
21,500
77
13,500
5,365
3,264
1,265
1,977
2,133
3,862
2,702
1,170
971
88
2,140
6,090
1,060
201
880
1,568
16,361
86,174
31,000
1,200
14,500
7,480
3,500
1,685
2,970
2,700
4,550
3,282
1,170
460
75
2,565
3,300
763
785
964
1,455
15,777
100,181
34,100
15,333
10,500
6,495
2,768
2,821
5,020
3,097
4,800
4,564
2,824
1,610
700
2,502
5,100
809
1,692
1,041
864
10,577
117,217
54,500
19,415
8,525
9,325
6,125
3,975
5,035
3,212
4,000
3,960
4,100
1,740
1,100
1,575
1,600
1,050
850
865
710
8,755
140,417
57,600
26,500
9,927
10,500
6,325
4,725
5,303
3,600
4,650
4,010
4,300
1,925
1,400
1,675
1,750
1,180
850
825
660
7,053
154,758
57,200
29,833
12,075
9,500
6,345
4,400
5,075
3,850
3,950
3,515
4,250
2,000
1,500
1,450
1,675
800
850
855
850
5,698
155,671
54,300
27,400
13,300
8,800
6,475
5,000
5,440
3,550
3,300
3,365
2,900
2,100
1,750
1,400
1,400
800
900
810
780
5,765
149,535
49,400
29,300
13,400
10,605
6,500
5,900
5,300
3,800
3,400
3,315
3,000
2,200
1,800
1,350
1,325
900
900
850
840
6,037
150,122
n/a
n/a
7,975
n/a
n/a
432
n/a
1,228
1,600
35
n/a
n/a
1,500
n/a
n/a
118
n/a
1,825
887
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
9,000
n/a
n/a
810
n/a
1,295
1,900
100
n/a
n/a
1,400
n/a
n/a
160
n/a
1,615
1,224
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
13,100
n/a
n/a
900
n/a
1,335
1,667
417
n/a
n/a
978
n/a
n/a
500
n/a
1,530
959
n/a
n/a
41,350
22,383
19,420
7,015
4,245
2,825
4,355
1,690
2,860
1,337
1,910
1,815
2,470
965
1,445
683
1,570
1,120
1,231
13,698
134,387
43,275
23,027
20,110
7,505
4,230
4,405
4,130
2,670
3,055
1,825
1,825
1,945
2,030
1,560
1,660
1,130
1,500
1,200
1,100
14,089
142,271
41,475
23,811
20,210
7,750
4,605
3,630
4,230
2,790
3,120
2,008
2,160
2,300
2,331
1,705
1,615
1,260
1,410
1,300
1,200
13,843
142,753
43,630
23,577
20,330
7,825
4,505
4,265
4,050
3,050
2,985
2,217
2,305
2,155
1,776
1,940
1,775
1,700
1,445
1,515
1,200
13,276
145,521
43,850
24,067
20,330
8,125
4,800
4,600
4,075
3,090
2,972
2,600
2,350
2,280
2,173
1,925
1,800
1,550
1,450
1,350
1,250
13,630
148,267
11,000
56
8,000
2,330
2,589
545
1,914
2,667
3,200
1,965
1,114
641
66
1,295
3,996
909
19
401
999
15,496
59,202
Consumption (thousand 60kg bags)

European Union
United States
Brazil
Japan
Canada
Philippines
Russian Federation
Indonesia
Ethiopia
Vietnam
Korea, Rep.
Algeria
Mexico
China
Australia
Thailand
Switzerland
Colombia
India
Others
World
1980
Source: World Bank.

Production (thousand 60kg bags)

Brazil
Vietnam
Colombia
Indonesia
Ethiopia
Honduras
India
Uganda
Mexico
Guatemala
Peru
Nicaragua
Malaysia
Costa Rica
Cte dIvoire
Tanzania, United Rep.
Thailand
Papua New Guinea
Kenya
Others
World
0
1970
n/a
n/a
8,890
n/a
n/a
496
n/a
888
1,170
31
n/a
n/a
1,512
n/a
n/a
93
n/a
1,349
665
n/a
n/a
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture (April 2016 update).

APPENDIX B
49
Copper
10,000
10,000
8,000
8,000
6,000
6,000
4,000
4,000
2,000
2,000
Constant 2010
Nominal
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1980
1990
1,068
367
177
1,181
460
244
596
n/a
716
59
n/a
175
343
n/a
7,864
1,588
318
296
1,587
356
327
496
n/a
794
169
n/a
291
370
n/a
8,997

China
Chile
Japan
United States
Russian Federation
India
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Zambia
Germany
Korea, Rep.
Poland
Australia
Spain
Others
World
314
811
1,014
1,686
n/a
23
144
607
425
79
357
182
154
n/a
9,390
562
1,192
1,008
2,017
n/a
39
173
479
533
187
346
274
171
n/a
10,809

China
United States
Germany
Japan
Korea, Rep.
Italy
India
Turkey
Taiwan, China
Others
World
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Mine Production (thousand metric tons)

Chile
Peru
China
United States
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Australia
Zambia
Russian Federation
Canada
Indonesia
Kazakhstan
Mexico
Poland
Others
World
0
1970
286
1,868
870
1,158
85
388
77
33
85
n/a
9,385
512
2,150
1,028
1,577
324
475
135
103
265
n/a
10,780
2000
2005
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
4,602
553
549
1,440
33
832
249
580
634
1,006
433
365
454
1,476
13,207
5,321
1,010
639
1,157
98
930
441
805
595
1,064
436
391
523
1,619
15,029
5,419
1,247
1,180
1,129
378
870
732
703
522
871
404
270
425
1,985
16,135
5,434
1,299
1,552
1,196
608
914
782
720
580
398
491
500
427
2,088
16,989
5,776
1,376
1,681
1,279
817
999
839
720
632
494
538
480
429
2,251
18,311
5,750
1,380
1,632
1,383
996
965
756
720
696
366
501
514
421
2,399
18,478
5,764
1,705
1,669
1,373
1,039
957
754
720
697
580
566
540
426
2,517
19,308
1,312
2,669
1,437
1,802
824
265
29
226
709
471
486
484
316
3,731
14,761
2,566
2,824
1,395
1,257
968
518
3
465
639
527
560
471
308
4,135
16,635
4,540
3,244
1,549
1,093
900
647
254
767
585
556
547
424
347
3,640
19,094
5,879
2,902
1,516
1,001
880
689
453
700
534
590
566
461
408
3,627
20,207
6,667
2,755
1,468
1,040
874
619
643
629
680
604
565
480
351
3,737
21,112
7,959
2,729
1,554
1,095
874
764
742
710
673
604
577
511
428
3,707
22,927
7,964
2,688
1,483
1,135
874
792
775
710
678
604
574
489
426
3,905
23,097
1,869
2,979
1,309
1,351
862
674
246
248
628
4,929
15,096
3,621
2,264
1,115
1,229
868
680
397
319
638
5,516
16,649
7,385
1,760
1,312
1,060
856
619
514
369
532
4,932
19,340
8,896
1,758
1,114
985
721
570
456
429
432
4,772
20,133
9,830
1,826
1,136
996
722
552
423
453
437
4,626
21,002
11,303
1,767
1,162
1,072
759
622
434
453
465
4,774
22,811
11,451
1,792
1,219
993
705
611
491
475
471
4,529
22,736

Notes: n/a implies data not available. Refined production and consumption include significant recyled material.
50
APPENDIX B
Cotton
0
1970
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
1970/71 1980/81
909
1,995
2,219
543
594
n/a
19
400
8
n/a
110
84
n/a
11,740
Stocks (thousand metric tons)

China
India
Brazil
United States
Turkey
Pakistan
Others
World
412
376
321
915
24
55
2,502
4,605

United States
India
Brazil
Australia
Uzbekistan
Burkina Faso
Others
World
848
34
220
4
n/a
9
n/a
3,875

Vietnam
Bangladesh
China
Turkey
Indonesia
Thailand
Pakistan
Korea, Rep.
Others
World
Nominal
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Source: World Bank.

India
China
United States
Pakistan
Brazil
Uzbekistan
Australia
Turkey
Burkina Faso
Turkmenistan
Greece
Argentina
Others
World
Constant 2010
33
0
108
1
36
46
1
121
3,741
4,086
1990/91
2000/01
2010/11
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
2016/17
1,322
2,707
2,422
714
623
1,671
99
500
23
n/a
115
84
n/a
13,831
1,989
4,508
3,376
1,638
717
1,593
433
655
77
437
213
258
3,141
18,951
2,380
4,505
3,742
1,816
939
975
804
880
116
187
421
167
2,688
19,524
5,865
6,400
3,942
1,948
1,960
910
898
611
141
380
180
295
1,896
25,425
6,770
6,929
2,811
2,076
1,734
940
890
760
274
329
296
302
2,190
26,300
6,630
6,444
3,549
2,300
1,509
940
470
847
285
327
274
302
2,459
26,337
6,150
5,166
2,817
1,611
1,500
855
560
682
271
300
218
240
2,091
22,461
6,447
4,572
3,162
2,074
1,446
884
696
672
287
286
258
235
2,056
23,075
476
491
391
581
112
131
2,969
5,151
1,589
539
231
510
150
313
3,428
6,761
3,755
922
755
1,306
283
608
2,984
10,614
2,087
1,889
1,400
566
453
316
2,775
9,486
12,088
1,714
1,230
651
440
416
2,986
19,523
12,447
2,257
1,128
1,078
655
742
3,498
21,806
12,021
2,078
1,030
816
798
496
3,298
20,537
10,854
2,094
1,030
925
798
562
3,221
19,484
1,290
140
21
53
n/a
22
n/a
4,414
1,697
255
167
329
n/a
73
n/a
5,069
1,467
24
68
849
750
112
2,535
5,805
3,130
1,085
435
545
600
136
1,798
7,729
2,293
2,014
485
1,037
650
274
2,133
8,886
2,330
1,048
785
560
605
188
1,957
7,473
2,199
1,013
825
545
526
275
1,990
7,373
2,267
1,085
702
608
524
303
2,189
7,678
40
45
773
0
106
86
1
332
3,172
4,555
31
80
480
46
324
354
0
447
3,458
5,220
84
248
52
381
570
342
101
304
3,682
5,764
350
843
2,609
729
471
383
314
230
1,797
7,726
691
987
3,075
876
651
337
402
280
1,437
8,735
844
965
1,625
773
734
362
385
266
1,518
7,473
1,098
1,078
1,078
755
782
312
418
270
1,582
7,373
1,356
1,131
1,015
896
769
315
291
284
1,621
7,678
Source: International Cotton Advisory Committee (January-February 2016 update).

APPENDIX B
51
Crude oil
Monthly Prices (US$/bbl)
Annual Prices (US$/bbl)
150
150
120
120
90
90
60
60
30
30
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
0
1970
Jan-16
1970
1980
Production (thousand barrels per day)

11,297
3,851
n/a
1,473
616
762
3,848
1,549
3,036
487
3,754
1,084
167
363
0
103
n/a
1,052
226
332
140
854
4
n/a
48,056
10,170
10,270
n/a
1,764
2,122
1,745
1,479
2,658
1,757
2,129
2,228
2,059
188
476
528
150
n/a
1,139
131
285
193
1,577
1,676
n/a
62,959
Consumption (thousand barrels per day)

United States
China
Japan
India
Brazil
Russian Federation
Saudi Arabia
Korea, Rep.
Germany
Canada
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Mexico
Indonesia
France
United Kingdom
Others
World
Nominal
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Source: World Bank.

United States
Saudi Arabia
Russian Federation
Canada
China
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Iraq
Kuwait
Mexico
Venezuela, RB
Nigeria
Brazil
Qatar
Norway
Angola
Kazakhstan
Algeria
Colombia
Oman
India
Indonesia
United Kingdom
Others
World
Constant 2010
14,710
556
3,876
391
523
n/a
408
162
2,774
1,472
222
412
138
1,867
2,030
n/a
45,348
17,062
1,690
4,905
644
1,163
n/a
607
476
3,020
1,898
591
1,048
396
2,221
1,647
n/a
61,233
1990
2000
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
8,914
7,105
10,342
1,968
2,778
2,283
3,270
2,149
964
2,941
2,244
1,870
650
434
1,716
475
571
1,347
446
695
715
1,539
1,933
8,037
65,385
7,732
9,470
6,583
2,703
3,257
2,660
3,852
2,613
2,244
3,456
3,097
2,159
1,271
853
3,346
746
740
1,549
687
961
726
1,456
2,714
10,051
74,925
7,556
10,075
10,366
3,332
4,077
2,895
4,352
2,490
2,562
2,959
2,838
2,509
2,137
1,655
2,136
1,863
1,672
1,689
786
865
882
1,003
1,361
11,128
83,190
7,861
11,144
10,516
3,515
4,074
3,325
4,373
2,801
2,915
2,940
2,734
2,450
2,193
1,850
2,040
1,726
1,684
1,642
915
885
916
952
1,116
9,413
83,980
8,904
11,635
10,640
3,740
4,155
3,406
3,742
3,116
3,172
2,911
2,704
2,395
2,149
1,968
1,917
1,784
1,662
1,537
944
918
906
918
949
9,977
86,150
10,069
11,393
10,777
3,977
4,216
3,648
3,525
3,141
3,135
2,875
2,687
2,302
2,114
1,998
1,838
1,799
1,720
1,485
1,004
942
906
882
867
9,280
86,579
11,644
11,505
10,838
4,292
4,246
3,712
3,614
3,285
3,123
2,784
2,719
2,361
2,346
1,982
1,895
1,712
1,701
1,525
990
943
895
852
850
8,857
88,673
16,988
2,320
5,240
1,213
1,478
5,042
1,158
1,042
2,689
1,747
1,070
1,580
653
1,895
1,754
20,868
66,737
19,701
4,766
5,542
2,261
2,056
2,542
1,578
2,263
2,746
2,043
1,457
1,965
1,137
1,994
1,704
23,112
76,868
19,180
9,266
4,442
3,319
2,701
2,895
2,793
2,370
2,445
2,316
1,874
2,014
1,458
1,763
1,588
27,442
87,867
18,882
9,791
4,439
3,488
2,813
3,096
2,838
2,394
2,369
2,404
1,910
2,043
1,567
1,730
1,532
27,679
88,974
18,490
10,231
4,688
3,685
2,860
3,137
2,991
2,458
2,356
2,372
1,928
2,063
1,599
1,676
1,520
27,789
89,846
18,961
10,664
4,521
3,727
3,048
3,179
3,000
2,455
2,408
2,383
2,038
2,020
1,615
1,664
1,494
28,065
91,243
19,035
11,056
4,298
3,846
3,229
3,196
3,185
2,456
2,371
2,371
2,024
1,941
1,641
1,615
1,501
28,320
92,086

Notes: n/a implies data not available. Production includes crude oil and natural gas liquids but excludes liquid fuels from other sources such as biomass and derivatives of coal
and natural gas included in consumption.
52
APPENDIX B
Gold
Monthly Prices (US$/toz)
Annual Prices (US$/toz)
1,800
1,800
1,500
1,500
1,200
1,200
900
900
600
600
300
300
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

Production (metric tons)

China
Australia
Russian Federation
United States
Canada
Peru
South Africa
Mexico
Ghana
Uzbekistan
Indonesia
Argentina
Kazakhstan
Papua New Guinea
Colombia
Tanzania
Mali
Brazil
Chile
Others
World
Fabrication (metric tons)

India
China
Turkey
United States
Japan
Italy
Russian Federation
South Korea
Switzerland
Indonesia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Malaysia
Saudi Arabia
Germany
South Africa
Canada
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Singapore
Others
World
0
1970
Constant 2010
Nominal
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

1995
2000
2005
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
136
247
128
317
152
56
522
20
53
70
63
1
11
52
22
0
8
64
44
206
2,174
175
296
144
353
156
134
428
24
72
88
125
26
27
73
37
15
29
61
54
242
2,560
209
263
163
256
121
206
297
30
67
84
158
28
18
67
36
48
44
38
40
291
2,464
341
260
201
231
91
164
191
79
93
90
106
64
30
67
54
39
39
62
39
352
2,594
361
258
185
234
100
164
187
89
88
91
77
59
37
62
56
37
36
65
45
404
2,635
403
252
183
235
105
162
154
103
99
93
69
55
40
58
66
40
41
67
50
439
2,713
428
267
230
230
125
151
169
120
95
98
60
52
42
63
56
43
41
80
49
482
2,881
452
274
249
210
152
141
152
118
136
102
69
72
49
56
57
41
45
78
46
563
3,061
450
285
249
213
159
145
144
125
113
102
97
71
64
62
58
46
44
42
41
519
3,027
426
217
126
245
189
458
n/a
82
47
133
61
78
156
71
30
12
28
37
22
877
3,294
704
213
228
277
161
522
34
107
54
99
107
86
153
64
50
14
25
46
26
791
3,761
695
277
303
219
165
290
61
83
56
87
71
74
125
52
55
10
27
41
30
605
3,325
783
523
109
179
158
126
61
68
41
39
43
44
47
41
33
25
44
39
25
401
2,827
761
651
136
167
147
103
66
62
48
39
30
37
37
39
28
27
45
37
24
373
2,858
736
698
114
147
126
96
72
54
48
44
39
35
33
36
28
27
32
37
22
344
2,767
716
1,058
178
160
124
92
74
49
48
52
42
45
41
37
38
31
45
42
25
373
3,269
771
731
156
152
119
96
70
61
44
49
42
41
37
36
36
25
32
36
26
334
2,891
812
668
112
164
102
94
51
56
41
43
39
36
41
36
39
31
40
30
26
331
2,790
Sources: World Bureau of Metal Statistics and Thomson Reuters.

Notes: n/a implies data not available. Fabrication includes the use of scrap. Fabrication of "Saudi Arabia" includes Saudi Arabia and Yemen in 1995 and 2000.
APPENDIX B
53
Industrial roundwood and Sawnwood

Annual Constant Prices (US$/mt)

1,200
1,000
800
800
600
Sawnwood
700
400
600
500
Jan-04
Sawnwood, constant 2010
1,000
900
Sawnwood, nominal
200
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
0
1970
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1970
1980
1990
312.7
n/a
42.2
117.5
23.9
56.7
12.7
37.5
673.4
1,276.4
327.1
n/a
79.2
150.8
61.7
44.8
30.9
43.0
708.4
1,446.0
2.0
5.2
0.6
2.0
0.0
2.3
n/a
2.1
69.0
83.1
8.3
3.8
3.1
3.7
0.0
3.8
n/a
3.0
69.7
95.4
Sawnwood: production (million cubic meters)

United States
China
Canada
Russian Federation
Germany
Sweden
Brazil
Finland
Others
World
63.7
14.8
19.8
n/a
11.6
12.3
8.0
7.4
251.6
389.1
65.3
21.2
32.8
n/a
13.0
11.3
14.9
10.3
252.1
420.9
Sawnwood: imports (million cubic meters)

China
United States
Japan
United Kingdom
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Germany
Italy
Uzbekistan
Others
World
2000
2010
2020
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
420.6
145.6
96.0
198.9
103.0
57.4
48.8
50.1
563.9
1,684.4
336.1
161.6
161.8
138.8
128.4
66.3
54.1
46.0
609.4
1,702.5
354.7
175.6
160.9
146.7
140.0
66.0
60.7
45.5
618.1
1,768.3
347.1
177.5
159.6
146.7
146.8
63.6
62.6
44.6
617.8
1,766.3
354.9
180.4
168.7
147.8
142.6
63.7
62.6
49.3
624.5
1,794.5
356.8
188.3
162.5
149.9
149.5
66.8
62.6
50.7
649.4
1,836.5
7.2
2.0
2.0
4.4
1.3
5.2
n/a
1.5
58.9
82.6
15.7
3.5
11.7
8.5
2.2
9.9
4.0
6.5
53.2
115.3
35.4
7.7
6.3
8.0
5.3
6.3
4.2
4.7
32.0
109.9
43.3
7.0
6.7
7.4
6.3
5.7
4.3
4.3
35.5
120.6
38.7
6.6
6.9
7.3
6.5
5.5
4.3
4.5
32.5
112.8
45.9
8.4
7.5
8.2
6.5
6.7
4.5
4.9
33.5
126.1
53.7
8.3
8.1
7.3
6.5
6.3
4.5
4.3
35.0
133.9
86.1
23.6
39.7
n/a
14.7
12.0
13.7
7.5
265.6
463.0
91.1
6.7
50.5
20.0
16.3
16.2
21.3
13.4
149.4
384.8
60.0
37.2
38.7
28.9
22.1
16.8
17.5
9.5
145.1
375.6
63.2
44.6
38.9
31.2
22.6
16.5
16.2
9.8
145.5
388.5
67.5
55.7
40.6
32.2
21.1
16.3
15.2
9.4
146.1
404.0
71.1
63.0
42.8
33.5
21.5
16.2
15.4
10.4
148.7
422.7
74.8
68.4
43.4
33.9
21.8
17.8
15.2
10.9
152.6
438.7
1.3
22.5
9.0
10.7
1.6
6.1
6.0
n/a
27.3
84.5
6.1
34.4
10.0
7.9
2.0
6.3
8.4
0.0
40.6
115.6
16.2
16.6
6.4
5.7
4.8
4.4
6.1
1.7
46.5
108.4
23.1
16.4
6.8
4.9
4.7
4.6
6.0
2.0
48.1
116.7
22.0
17.4
6.6
5.2
4.5
4.4
4.9
2.1
46.6
113.6
25.5
20.5
7.5
5.5
4.4
4.5
4.7
2.7
46.9
122.1
27.4
22.2
6.8
6.4
4.7
4.7
4.6
2.8
50.0
129.5
427.2
n/a
91.2
156.0
74.3
49.1
38.4
40.2
832.9
1,709.2
Industrial roundwood: imports (million cubic meters)

China
Germany
Sweden
Austria
India
Finland
Belgium
Canada
Others
World
1990
2000
Industrial roundwood: production (million cubic meters)

United States
Russian Federation
China
Canada
Brazil
Sweden
Indonesia
Finland
Others
World
1980
Source: World Bank.

0.1
10.6
3.0
9.0
0.4
6.0
4.0
n/a
19.6
52.6
0.3
17.0
5.6
6.6
1.6
6.9
5.8
n/a
27.8
71.5
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Notes: n/a implies data not available. Industrial roundwood, reported in cubic meters solid volume underbark (i.e. exclusing bark), is an aggregate comprising sawlogs and
veneer logs; pulpwood, round and split; and other industrial roundwood except wood fuel. Sawnwood, reported in cubic meters solid volume, includes wood that has been
produced from both domestic and imported roundwood, either by sawing lengthways or by a profile-chipping process and that exceeds 6mm in thickness.
54
APPENDIX B
Lead
4,000
3,000
2,500
Constant 2010
3,000
2,000
2,000
1,500
1,000
1,000
500
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
0
1970
Jan-16
1980
1990

160
398
562
189
146
n/a
15
72
16
48
8
125
12
n/a
3,595
364
570
493
188
174
n/a
26
84
20
45
18
70
9
n/a
3,150

China
United States
Korea, Rep.
India
Germany
United Kingdom
Mexico
Canada
Japan
Australia
Italy
Spain
Brazil
Others
World
175
1,151
15
26
392
325
149
231
305
234
134
121
85
2,083
5,424
297
1,291
80
39
394
329
238
184
327
229
171
124
76
1,683
5,460

China
United States
Korea, Rep.
India
Germany
Japan
Italy
Spain
Brazil
Others
World
1980
1990
2000
2010
Source: World Bank.

Source: World Bank.

China
Australia
United States
Peru
Mexico
Russian Federation
India
Sweden
Bolivia
Poland
Turkey
Korea, Dem. Peoples Rep.
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Others
World
Nominal
210
1,094
54
33
433
393
275
111
83
2,663
5,348
244
1,275
80
147
448
416
258
115
75
2,290
5,348
2000
2005
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
660
678
447
271
138
13
38
107
10
51
16
26
17
610
3,080
1,142
767
437
319
134
36
60
61
11
51
19
20
22
372
3,453
1,981
712
356
262
192
97
91
68
73
48
39
27
32
396
4,374
2,613
639
336
249
238
151
115
64
81
73
54
38
36
427
5,115
2,697
711
343
266
253
165
106
60
82
74
78
59
40
384
5,317
2,853
728
385
278
250
194
105
71
76
77
65
45
45
388
5,561
2,340
689
375
316
254
188
139
79
79
77
77
48
46
352
5,059
1,100
1,431
222
57
387
328
332
284
312
223
237
120
86
1,582
6,701
2,359
1,293
254
56
342
304
272
230
275
267
211
110
121
1,572
7,665
4,157
1,255
321
366
405
301
317
273
267
210
150
163
115
1,531
9,832
4,591
1,221
460
461
426
312
334
279
259
206
138
160
165
1,572
10,585
4,935
1,308
522
462
400
296
321
284
252
233
180
160
152
1,675
11,180
4,740
1,120
670
477
380
267
313
282
240
226
210
162
160
1,670
10,917
3,858
1,127
616
442
377
351
310
269
232
223
210
162
160
1,768
10,106
660
1,660
309
56
390
343
283
219
155
2,416
6,491
1,974
1,490
376
139
330
291
262
279
189
2,447
7,777
4,171
1,430
382
420
343
224
245
262
201
2,130
9,807
4,618
1,360
429
524
381
273
195
244
238
2,126
10,388
4,927
1,750
550
428
392
252
235
257
234
2,195
11,222
4,718
1,670
601
521
337
254
258
245
229
2,121
10,955
3,816
1,608
536
484
357
263
232
228
224
2,227
9,976

2020
APPENDIX B
Maize
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
Constant 2010
Nominal
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Source: World Bank.

1970/71
105.5
33.0
14.1
29.8
9.9
8.9
n/a
7.5
2.6
n/a
2.8
2.0
1.3
80.4
297.9
Stocks (million metric tons)

China
United States
Brazil
European Union
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Others
World
8.9
16.8
2.0
2.3
n/a
8.4
38.4
Exports (million metric tons)

United States
Brazil
Argentina
Ukraine
Russian Federation
Paraguay
Serbia
Others
World
12.9
0.9
6.4
n/a
n/a
0.0
n/a
11.9
32.2
Imports (million metric tons)

European Union
Japan
Mexico
Korea, Rep.
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Vietnam
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Others
World
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Production (million metric tons)

United States
China
Brazil
European Union
Argentina
Mexico
Ukraine
India
Canada
Russian Federation
Indonesia
Philippines
Nigeria
Others
World
0
1970
Jan-16
18.9
5.2
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.0
22.6
47.3
1980/81
1990/91
2000/01
2010/11
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
168.6
62.6
22.6
42.5
12.9
10.4
n/a
7.0
5.8
n/a
4.0
3.1
1.7
110.1
451.3
201.5
96.8
24.3
36.6
7.7
14.1
4.7
9.0
7.1
2.5
5.0
5.1
5.8
98.4
518.6
251.9
106.0
41.5
51.9
15.4
17.9
3.8
12.0
7.0
1.5
5.9
4.5
4.0
68.5
591.8
315.6
177.2
57.4
58.3
25.2
21.1
11.9
21.7
12.0
3.1
6.8
7.3
8.8
109.1
835.5
273.2
205.6
81.5
58.9
27.0
21.6
20.9
22.3
13.1
8.2
8.5
7.3
7.6
113.9
869.5
351.3
218.5
80.0
64.6
26.0
22.9
30.9
24.3
14.2
11.6
9.1
7.5
7.7
121.9
990.5
361.1
215.6
85.0
75.5
28.7
25.5
28.5
24.2
11.5
11.3
9.0
7.7
7.5
121.8
1,012.8
345.5
224.6
84.0
57.5
28.0
24.0
23.3
21.0
13.6
13.2
9.4
7.5
7.0
113.6
972.1
42.8
35.4
1.3
4.8
0.1
22.9
107.4
82.8
38.6
0.8
3.7
0.0
19.1
145.1
102.4
48.2
2.7
3.2
0.9
17.8
175.3
49.4
28.6
6.3
5.2
2.8
31.2
123.6
67.6
20.9
9.2
5.1
3.2
27.4
133.4
81.3
31.3
14.0
6.8
4.5
37.1
175.0
100.5
44.0
7.9
9.3
5.8
40.1
207.6
109.5
47.3
6.5
6.4
5.5
33.8
208.9
60.7
0.0
9.1
n/a
n/a
0.0
n/a
10.5
80.3
43.9
0.0
4.0
0.4
0.4
0.0
n/a
9.8
58.4
49.3
6.3
9.7
0.4
0.0
0.6
n/a
10.5
76.7
46.5
8.4
16.3
5.0
0.0
1.6
2.0
11.4
91.3
18.5
24.9
18.7
12.7
1.9
2.8
0.6
14.9
95.1
48.8
21.0
17.1
20.0
4.2
2.4
1.7
15.9
131.1
47.4
34.5
18.9
19.7
3.2
3.3
3.0
11.8
141.7
41.9
28.0
19.0
15.7
4.1
2.3
1.7
9.6
122.3
26.6
14.0
3.8
2.4
1.0
0.1
0.4
52.6
100.9
5.7
16.3
1.9
5.6
1.9
0.0
0.8
32.0
64.3
3.7
16.3
6.0
8.7
5.3
0.1
1.3
33.5
74.9
7.4
15.6
8.3
8.1
5.8
1.3
3.5
42.6
92.6
11.4
14.4
5.7
8.2
5.1
1.7
3.7
49.7
99.8
16.0
15.1
11.0
10.4
8.7
2.4
5.5
54.9
124.0
8.6
14.7
11.3
10.2
7.8
3.5
6.2
61.2
123.5
15.0
14.7
12.0
10.0
8.3
5.0
5.0
60.0
130.0

Notes: n/a implies data not available. The trade year is January-December of the later year of the split. For example, 1970/71 refers to calendar year 1971.
55
56
APPENDIX B
Natural gas
Monthly Prices (US$/mmbtu)
Annual Constant 2010 Prices (US$/mmbtu)
20
20
Japan
Japan
15
15
10
10
Europe
Europe
5
US
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Source: World Bank.

1970
595
n/a
1
4
57
3
0
2
3
1
n/a
0
11
1
n/a
27
2
0
0
2
3
0
10
n/a
992
Consumption (billion cubic metres)

United States
Russian Federation
China
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Japan
Saudi Arabia
Canada
Mexico
Germany
United Kingdom
Italy
Thailand
India
Uzbekistan
Others
World

1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Production (billion cubic metres)

United States
Russian Federation
Qatar
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Canada
China
Norway
Saudi Arabia
Algeria
Indonesia
Turkmenistan
Malaysia
Mexico
Uzbekistan
Netherlands
Australia
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Thailand
Trinidad & Tobago
Pakistan
Nigeria
United Kingdom
Others
World
US
0
1980
Jan-16
599
n/a
3
3
3
2
36
10
15
1
11
14
0
1
n/a
n/a
980
1980
1990
2000
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
549
n/a
5
5
75
15
25
10
14
19
n/a
2
26
8
n/a
76
11
2
0
3
7
2
35
n/a
1,435
504
590
6
26
109
16
25
34
49
44
79
17
27
20
37
61
21
8
7
5
12
4
45
236
1,983
543
529
24
60
182
28
50
50
84
70
43
47
38
38
51
58
31
21
20
16
22
12
108
293
2,416
604
589
126
152
160
99
107
88
80
86
42
63
58
51
54
71
46
61
36
45
42
37
57
448
3,203
649
607
161
160
160
109
101
92
83
81
60
62
58
52
57
64
47
61
37
43
42
41
45
443
3,316
681
592
170
166
156
114
115
99
82
77
62
62
57
54
57
64
52
61
41
43
44
43
39
450
3,380
689
605
176
164
156
125
109
100
82
72
62
67
58
55
57
69
53
56
42
43
43
36
36
454
3,409
728
579
177
173
162
134
109
108
83
73
69
66
58
58
57
56
55
49
42
42
42
39
37
464
3,461
563
n/a
15
5
24
10
52
23
57
5
45
25
0
1
n/a
n/a
1,436
543
408
16
24
48
34
67
28
60
17
52
43
7
12
36
565
1,958
661
360
25
63
72
50
93
41
79
31
97
65
22
26
46
686
2,418
682
414
110
153
95
88
95
72
83
61
94
76
45
63
41
1,021
3,194
693
425
135
162
105
92
101
77
75
63
78
71
47
64
48
1,030
3,265
723
416
151
162
114
99
100
80
78
66
74
69
51
59
47
1,057
3,346
740
413
171
159
114
100
104
85
82
67
73
64
52
51
47
1,058
3,381
759
409
185
170
112
108
104
86
71
69
67
57
53
51
49
1,042
3,393
APPENDIX B
Natural rubber
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1970
250
991
86
568
283
25
8
20
26
37
796
3,090
279
790
1,304
23
11
413
2,820

China
European Union
India
United States
Japan
Malaysia
Korea, Rep.
Brazil
Others
World
1990
2000
2010
2020
1990
2000
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
501
822
46
113
155
1,530
23
28
632
3,850
1,275
1,261
94
264
324
1,291
69
31
376
4,985
2,346
1,501
291
445
629
928
123
88
461
6,811
3,252
2,736
752
687
851
939
231
136
811
10,395
3,569
2,990
789
727
893
996
234
166
853
11,217
3,778
3,012
877
802
919
923
254
171
893
11,629
4,170
3,237
949
865
796
827
289
187
931
12,251
4,324
3,153
954
857
705
668
317
185
908
12,070
340
1,007
171
585
427
46
28
45
118
81
932
3,780
600
1,012
358
808
677
108
99
184
255
124
845
5,068
1,150
1,293
638
1,195
752
139
243
364
332
227
975
7,306
3,668
1,136
944
926
749
421
459
458
384
378
1,268
10,792
3,622
1,242
957
1,029
772
460
487
402
402
382
1,242
10,997
3,857
1,077
988
950
728
465
505
441
396
343
1,271
11,020
4,210
1,060
962
913
710
509
521
434
396
409
1,264
11,388
4,760
1,139
1,012
932
709
540
541
447
402
413
1,264
12,159
457
976
1,482
33
23
299
3,270
1,151
1,077
1,322
80
69
263
3,962
2,166
1,380
978
273
121
359
5,277
2,866
2,369
1,245
782
226
533
8,022
2,890
2,566
1,239
817
234
582
8,327
3,024
2,525
1,291
1,023
255
589
8,707
3,649
2,770
1,332
1,076
285
661
9,773
3,615
2,662
1,192
1,067
323
814
9,672
242
1,068
1
576
458
43
118
56
673
3,235
340
1,072
61
820
663
136
254
95
1,328
4,769
820
1,474
11
1,192
801
548
331
139
1,065
6,380
2,590
1,427
187
931
747
706
388
249
1,157
8,382
2,665
1,664
158
1,049
785
667
402
223
1,170
8,784
3,176
1,459
250
969
700
871
397
181
1,310
9,314
3,652
1,451
336
927
722
1,005
396
224
1,235
9,948
3,809
1,546
402
946
689
914
403
230
1,263
10,202
287
815
28
46
90
1,269
11
25
569
3,140

Thailand
Indonesia
Malaysia
Vietnam
Cote dIvoire
Others
World
1980
1980
Consumption (thousand metric tons)

China
European Union
India
United States
Japan
Indonesia
Thailand
Malaysia
Korea, Rep.
Brazil
Others
World
Nominal
Source: World Bank.


Thailand
Indonesia
Vietnam
China
India
Malaysia
Cote dIvoire
Brazil
Others
World
0
1970
Constant 2010
178
1,071
3
543
292
45
26
11
641
2,810
Source: International Rubber Study Group (January 2016 update).
57
58
APPENDIX B
Nickel

50,000
60,000
Constant 2010
40,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
20,000
10,000
Nominal
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1980
1990
38
n/a
189
74
87
41
11
3
26
38
0
7
0
n/a
749
16
n/a
196
67
85
69
33
13
30
41
0
0
0
n/a
888

China
Russian Federation
Japan
Canada
Australia
Norway
New Caledonia
Brazil
Madagascar
Finland
United Kingdom
Korea, Rep.
Colombia
Others
World
11
n/a
109
145
35
37
33
3
0
13
19
n/a
0
n/a
743
28
n/a
103
127
43
58
32
13
0
17
27
n/a
18
n/a
858

China
Japan
United States
Taiwan, China
Korea, Rep.
Italy
Germany
India
Belgium
Others
World

1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.


Philippines
Russian Federation
Canada
Australia
New Caledonia
Indonesia
China
Brazil
South Africa
Cuba
Madagascar
Guatemala
Colombia
Others
World
0
1970
18
122
142
0
0
27
78
12
4
n/a
717
28
159
127
18
24
27
93
14
21
n/a
842
2000
2005
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
17
266
191
170
129
117
51
32
37
71
0
0
28
82
1,191
27
289
200
186
112
156
59
38
42
74
0
0
53
120
1,356
184
274
160
170
130
216
80
54
40
65
0
0
49
95
1,518
318
269
212
244
132
622
93
90
46
65
6
2
52
117
2,266
316
264
223
256
150
811
93
74
51
62
25
9
49
118
2,504
411
264
235
245
178
146
92
86
55
50
37
36
41
131
2,006
317
264
235
220
186
106
92
83
57
49
47
46
37
145
1,884
52
242
161
134
112
59
44
23
0
54
38
0
28
164
1,110
97
264
164
140
122
85
47
30
0
41
38
0
53
208
1,288
314
263
166
105
102
92
40
28
0
49
32
23
49
174
1,437
591
254
170
152
129
92
45
59
6
46
39
24
52
200
1,858
711
242
178
153
142
91
48
56
25
44
42
28
49
194
2,005
644
239
178
151
138
91
62
73
37
43
39
25
41
186
1,946
575
233
193
163
128
91
78
72
47
43
39
37
37
181
1,916
58
192
153
106
91
53
102
23
32
342
1,150
197
180
128
84
118
85
116
16
50
344
1,317
489
177
119
73
101
62
100
27
21
257
1,427
805
159
126
57
108
65
89
33
19
275
1,734
909
159
123
53
107
59
66
37
26
259
1,798
761
157
152
66
100
60
62
27
29
285
1,700
964
159
152
87
83
60
60
37
35
295
1,933
APPENDIX B
59
Nitrogen Fertilizers

800.0
800
600.0
600
Urea
400.0
400
200.0
200
Urea, constant 2010
0.0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1970
1980
1,200
838
8,161
n/a
726
45
140
n/a
n/a
118
31
0
1,030
957
1,900
0
594
82
n/a
16,868
32,690
9,993
2,164
12,053
n/a
1,755
958
572
295
n/a
401
72
138
1,290
1,624
2,380
15
743
600
n/a
27,900
62,951
Consumption (thousand tonnes nutrients)

China
India
United States
Brazil
Pakistan
Indonesia
Canada
France
Germany
Turkey
Russian Federation
Thailand
Ukraine
Australia
Vietnam
Mexico
Poland
Bangladesh
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Others
World
Urea, nominal
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Production (thousand tonnes nutrients)

China
India
United States
Russian Federation
Canada
Indonesia
Pakistan
Qatar
Ukraine
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Saudi Arabia
Poland
Netherlands
Germany
Vietnam
Belgium
Turkey
Belarus
Others
World
0
1970
2,987
1,310
7,363
276
264
184
323
1,425
1,642
243
n/a
50
n/a
123
166
406
785
99
331
13,446
31,423
11,787
3,522
10,818
886
843
851
946
2,146
2,303
782
n/a
136
n/a
248
129
878
1,344
266
554
22,054
60,493
1990
2000
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
14,637
6,993
10,816
n/a
2,683
2,462
1,120
350
3,004
678
376
568
1,233
1,928
1,165
18
770
1,026
747
21,389
71,964
22,175
10,943
8,352
5,452
3,797
2,853
2,054
748
2,130
1,441
726
1,278
1,497
1,300
1,558
227
935
400
574
18,185
86,624
36,009
11,924
9,722
6,052
3,509
3,261
2,594
1,379
2,154
2,779
1,311
1,619
1,320
1,216
1,165
431
884
557
670
17,017
105,573
35,678
12,178
9,587
6,544
3,364
3,207
2,629
1,556
2,312
2,761
1,524
1,695
1,509
1,175
1,289
479
947
747
740
18,195
108,116
36,323
12,288
9,414
6,917
3,565
3,375
2,534
1,480
2,985
2,709
1,904
1,737
1,445
1,322
1,275
503
956
929
773
18,739
111,170
36,056
12,237
10,150
6,605
3,344
3,313
2,232
2,095
3,072
2,474
2,058
1,923
1,529
1,293
1,326
861
932
905
832
18,344
111,580
36,810
12,409
9,280
6,819
3,225
3,173
2,589
2,535
2,489
2,308
1,975
1,920
1,466
1,381
1,326
999
911
865
862
18,126
111,468
19,233
7,566
10,239
797
1,472
1,610
1,158
2,493
1,787
1,200
4,344
577
1,836
439
425
1,346
671
609
745
18,231
76,777
22,720
10,911
10,467
1,998
2,265
1,964
1,592
2,317
1,848
1,276
960
922
350
951
1,332
1,342
896
996
1,084
15,880
82,070
33,600
15,582
11,117
2,554
3,476
3,215
1,901
2,069
1,569
1,412
1,494
1,228
700
849
1,190
1,113
1,113
1,149
1,193
15,928
102,453
32,599
16,558
11,737
2,855
3,143
3,045
1,990
2,337
1,786
1,344
1,483
1,311
650
982
1,250
1,166
1,090
1,237
1,159
16,800
104,522
33,800
17,300
12,231
3,366
3,209
2,940
2,297
2,020
1,640
1,259
1,577
1,386
1,159
1,099
1,300
1,168
1,095
1,122
1,207
16,660
107,835
34,294
16,821
12,050
3,435
2,853
3,063
2,479
2,140
1,648
1,432
1,576
1,382
1,254
1,099
1,407
1,201
1,204
1,112
1,087
17,006
108,543
34,250
16,731
12,247
3,699
3,179
2,820
2,457
2,191
1,675
1,584
1,537
1,480
1,382
1,315
1,261
1,246
1,172
1,133
1,114
17,665
110,136
Sources: International Fertilizer Industry Association (http://ifadata.fertilizer.org/ucSearch.aspx).

Notes: n/a implies data not available. The statistics are based on the nutrient content. All production statistics are expressed on a calendar-year basis, while consumption
statistics are expressed either on a calendar- or on a fertilizer-year basis (see www.fertilizers.org for details).
60
APPENDIX B
Palm oil and Soybean oil

Annual Constant 2010 Prices (US$/mt)
2,200
1,800
1,800
Soybean oil
1,400
1,400
Soybean oil
1,000
1,000
600
Palm oil
600
Palm oil
200
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Source: World Bank.

248
589
0
36
432
0
5
21
0
0
591
1,922
752
2,692
19
80
520
45
44
19
18
0
707
4,896
Palm oil: consumption (thousand metric tons)

India
Indonesia
European Union
China
Malaysia
Pakistan
Others
World
2000
2010
2020
1
29
595
53
8
1
1,707
2,394
431
561
607
16
420
231
3,104
5,370
2010/11
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
2,650
6,031
200
252
600
145
150
24
64
6
912
11,034
8,300
11,937
580
520
730
336
222
108
148
124
1,234
24,239
23,600
18,211
1,832
753
971
488
380
426
320
231
2,021
49,233
28,500
19,321
2,135
974
970
520
540
471
425
365
2,183
56,404
30,500
20,161
2,000
1,041
970
500
565
493
460
434
2,244
59,368
33,000
19,879
1,800
1,110
970
520
485
495
470
448
2,222
61,399
33,000
19,500
2,200
1,174
970
580
510
500
490
470
2,285
61,679
259
1,330
1,509
1,194
914
800
6,658
12,664
4,100
3,263
2,790
2,028
1,571
1,245
8,618
23,615
7,090
6,414
5,110
5,797
2,204
2,077
18,940
47,632
8,250
7,851
6,560
6,389
2,451
2,285
21,383
55,169
8,452
9,019
6,850
5,700
2,868
2,490
22,906
58,285
9,100
7,327
6,730
5,750
2,941
2,890
23,507
58,245
9,800
8,520
6,630
5,600
3,280
3,185
24,559
61,574
181
3,749
0
n/a
1,260
2
10
52
2,205
7,459
183
5,112
158
2,601
2,478
69
6
255
4,191
15,053
3,240
8,355
3,190
4,333
3,033
805
174
795
2,887
26,812
9,840
8,568
7,181
6,970
2,318
1,646
300
648
3,915
41,386
11,626
8,990
6,364
6,760
2,375
1,752
564
653
3,993
43,077
12,335
9,131
6,785
7,070
2,546
1,478
640
720
4,415
45,120
13,347
9,706
7,687
7,760
2,584
1,211
697
745
5,303
49,040
14,655
9,857
8,740
7,680
2,622
1,086
783
760
5,913
52,096
3,542
7,401
2,932
2,080
247
2,186
863
873
6,335
26,459
11,409
7,506
5,205
2,610
2,520
2,400
840
620
7,409
40,519
12,545
8,522
5,534
2,950
2,275
1,900
860
600
7,482
42,668
13,650
8,576
5,705
3,300
2,729
1,950
890
630
7,774
45,204
14,200
8,600
6,275
4,000
2,501
1,950
1,001
720
8,627
47,874
15,450
8,891
6,365
4,750
2,560
1,950
1,036
800
9,398
51,200
599
6,082
1,179
2,669
2,317
425
56
330
4,425
18,082
Soybean oil: consumption (thousand metric tons)

China
United States
Brazil
India
Argentina
European Union
Mexico
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Others
World
1990
2000/01
Soybean oil: production (thousand metric tons)

China
United States
Argentina
Brazil
European Union
India
Paraguay
Mexico
Others
World
1980
Source: World Bank.

1970/71 1980/81 1990/91

Palm oil: production (thousand metric tons)
Indonesia
Malaysia
Thailand
Colombia
Nigeria
Papua New Guinea
Ecuador
Ghana
Honduras
Guatemala
Others
World
200
1970
Jan-16
179
2,854
n/a
79
0
1,170
52
95
2,699
7,128
256
4,134
1,490
708
56
1,926
305
343
5,120
14,338
1,055
5,506
2,075
445
101
1,879
404
431
5,417
17,313

Notes: The trade year is January-December of the later year of the split. For example, 1970/71 refers to calendar year 1971.
APPENDIX B
61
Phosphate and Potash Fertilizers


1200.0
1,000
1000.0
800
DAP
800.0
DAP
600
600.0
400
400.0
0.0
Jan-04
200
Potassium chloride
200.0
Potassium chloride
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
0
1970
Jan-16
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

Source: World Bank.

1970
1980
1990
Phosphate: production (thousand tonnes nutrients)
2000
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
China
United States
India
Russian Federation
Morocco
Brazil
Saudi Arabia
Tunisia
Others
World
907
n/a
228
n/a
99
169
0
177
14,102
15,682
2,607
7,437
854
n/a
174
1,623
n/a
408
20,574
33,677
4,114
8,105
2,077
4,943
1,180
1,091
n/a
664
14,244
36,417
6,759
7,337
3,751
2,320
1,122
1,496
159
885
8,915
32,744
14,374
5,817
4,390
2,578
1,288
1,813
71
859
6,787
37,977
15,998
6,297
4,378
2,926
1,875
2,004
119
997
8,102
42,697
17,631
6,123
4,370
3,070
2,242
2,011
298
398
8,323
44,466
16,387
6,456
3,825
2,940
2,433
2,183
826
528
8,171
43,749
16,620
6,055
3,973
2,929
2,198
2,100
919
631
8,036
43,460
China
India
Brazil
United States
Canada
Pakistan
Indonesia
Australia
Others
World
907
305
416
4,671
326
31
45
757
13,743
21,202
2,952
1,091
1,965
4,926
634
227
274
853
18,990
31,912
5,770
3,125
1,202
3,811
578
389
581
579
19,887
35,920
8,664
4,248
2,544
3,862
634
675
263
1,107
10,815
32,812
11,000
7,278
3,342
3,719
630
860
450
641
9,556
37,477
12,100
8,050
3,384
3,890
723
767
500
817
10,343
40,574
12,300
7,914
3,860
3,946
799
633
584
873
10,642
41,551
12,400
6,653
4,325
4,215
831
747
695
803
10,732
41,401
11,480
5,695
4,641
4,335
886
881
849
816
11,405
40,988
Phosphate: consumption (thousand tonnes nutrients)
Potash: production (thousand tonnes nutrients)

Canada
Russian Federation
China
Belarus
Germany
Israel
Chile
Jordan
Others
World
3,179
n/a
n/a
n/a
4,824
576
21
n/a
8,871
17,471
7,337
n/a
20
n/a
6,123
797
23
n/a
13,307
27,608
7,005
n/a
46
4,992
4,967
1,296
41
842
3,649
22,838
9,174
3,716
275
3,372
3,409
1,748
408
1,162
2,878
26,141
4,414
3,691
2,600
2,485
1,789
1,653
662
672
1,801
19,767
10,289
6,128
3,101
5,223
2,962
1,944
850
1,166
2,043
33,706
9,919
6,526
3,390
5,332
3,106
1,700
964
1,355
2,482
34,775
9,877
5,403
4,007
4,831
3,056
2,100
1,244
1,094
2,409
34,022
9,461
6,086
4,565
4,229
2,968
2,150
1,187
1,047
2,604
34,297
China
Brazil
United States
India
Indonesia
Malaysia
Belarus
Viet Nam
Others
World
25
307
3,827
199
18
61
n/a
38
11,289
15,764
527
1,267
5,733
618
91
250
n/a
39
15,302
23,826
1,761
1,210
4,537
1,309
310
494
986
29
13,685
24,320
3,364
2,760
4,469
1,565
266
650
450
450
8,121
22,095
4,300
3,149
4,044
3,632
801
700
663
300
6,011
23,601
5,200
3,894
4,165
3,514
1,250
1,150
660
400
7,243
27,477
5,700
4,431
4,186
2,576
1,401
1,250
787
440
7,369
28,140
6,000
4,844
4,461
2,062
1,490
1,290
720
552
7,531
28,950
6,500
5,094
4,717
2,058
1,580
1,290
683
570
7,874
30,365
Potash: consumption (thousand tonnes nutrients)
Sources: International Fertilizer Industry Association (http://ifadata.fertilizer.org/ucSearch.aspx).

Notes: n/a implies data not available. The statistics are based on the nutrient content. All production statistics are expressed on a calendar-year basis, while consumption
statistics are expressed either on a calendar- or on a fertilizer-year basis (see www.fertilizers.org for details).
62
APPENDIX B
Rice
1,000
1,500
800
1,200
600
900
400
600
200
300
Constant 2010
Nominal
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

China
India
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Thailand
Burma
Philippines
Japan
Brazil
Pakistan
United States
Cambodia
Others
World
2000
2010
2020
1990/91
2000/01
2010/11
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
77.0
42.2
13.1
11.1
6.4
9.0
5.1
3.4
11.5
3.7
2.2
2.8
2.5
22.9
213.0
97.9
53.6
22.3
13.9
7.7
11.5
6.7
5.0
8.9
5.9
3.1
4.8
1.1
27.6
269.9
132.5
74.3
29.0
17.9
12.4
11.3
7.9
6.4
9.6
6.8
3.3
5.1
1.6
33.3
351.4
131.5
85.0
33.0
25.1
20.5
17.1
10.8
8.1
8.6
6.9
4.8
5.9
2.5
39.4
399.3
137.0
96.0
35.5
31.7
26.4
20.3
11.1
10.5
7.8
9.3
4.8
7.6
4.2
48.3
450.4
143.0
105.2
36.6
33.8
27.5
20.2
11.7
11.4
7.9
8.0
5.5
6.3
4.7
50.4
472.4
142.5
106.6
36.3
34.4
28.2
20.5
12.0
11.9
7.9
8.3
6.8
6.1
4.7
52.2
478.4
144.6
105.5
35.6
34.5
28.2
18.8
12.6
11.9
7.8
8.5
6.9
7.1
4.7
52.2
478.8
145.8
103.0
35.3
34.5
28.1
15.8
12.2
11.4
7.7
7.6
6.7
6.1
4.4
52.2
470.6
11.0
6.0
1.2
0.6
6.1
0.6
3.4
28.8
28.0
6.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
1.5
7.6
52.6
94.0
14.5
0.9
2.1
1.0
1.8
12.4
126.7
93.0
25.1
2.2
4.6
2.6
2.8
16.4
146.7
42.6
23.5
5.6
7.1
2.9
2.5
15.9
100.0
46.8
25.4
12.8
6.5
2.9
1.5
14.7
110.6
46.8
22.8
11.7
5.5
3.0
1.7
15.9
107.4
47.6
17.8
10.1
4.0
2.8
2.2
19.1
103.6
47.8
13.3
5.2
3.2
2.5
2.3
16.0
90.2
1.6
0.0
0.0
0.2
1.5
5.2
8.5
3.0
0.9
0.0
1.2
3.1
4.2
12.4
4.0
0.7
1.0
1.3
2.3
2.8
12.1
7.5
1.7
3.5
2.4
2.6
6.2
24.0
10.6
2.8
7.0
3.4
3.5
7.8
35.1
6.7
10.9
6.7
3.6
3.4
8.1
39.4
11.0
10.6
6.3
3.2
3.0
8.1
42.2
9.8
12.2
6.6
4.0
3.2
8.1
44.0
10.0
9.0
7.0
4.4
3.2
8.0
41.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.9
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.0
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.7
0.5
0.3
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.2
1.0
0.5
2.4
1.3
3.1
1.4
1.1
3.2
2.8
1.4
0.7
1.4
1.3
4.0
2.8
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.4
4.7
3.5
1.8
1.2
1.7
1.4
5.0
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.6
1.5
0.1
0.6
0.6
0.8
2.0
2.1
1.6
1.4
1.5
0.1
6.8
8.6
0.4
8.8
11.8
0.3
8.3
11.3
1.0
13.7
22.1
1.2
20.0
33.0
1.4
22.4
36.7
1.0
23.7
38.4
1.2
24.2
41.1
1.2
22.4
39.6

China
India
Thailand
Indonesia
Japan
Philippines
Others
World

Thailand
India
Vietnam
Pakistan
United States
Others
World
Iraq
Others
World
1990
1980/81
Iran, Islamic Rep.
1980
Source: World Bank.

1970/71
China
Nigeria
Philippines
Indonesia
European Union
Saudi Arabia
0
1970

APPENDIX B
63
Silver
Monthly Prices (US$/toz)
Annual Prices (US$/toz)
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
Constant 2010
10
10
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

Production (metric tons)

Mexico
Peru
China
Australia
Chile
Russian Federation
Bolivia
Poland
United States
Kazakhstan
Argentina
Guatemala
Canada
Sweden
India
Morocco
Turkey
Finland
Dominican Republic
Others
World
Fabrication (metric tons)

China
India
United States
Japan
Canada
Italy
South Korea
Germany
Russian Federation
United Kingdom
Thailand
Mexico
Taiwan, China
Australia
Belgium
France
Indonesia
Turkey
Brazil
Others
World
0
1970
Nominal
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

1995
2000
2005
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2,334
1,881
1,000
920
1,036
250
425
1,001
1,565
371
48
0
1,285
268
38
204
70
29
21
1,436
14,183
2,483
2,418
1,600
2,060
1,245
400
434
1,164
2,017
927
78
0
1,204
329
40
290
110
24
n/a
1,372
18,194
2,894
3,193
2,500
2,417
1,400
1,350
420
1,262
1,230
883
264
7
1,124
310
32
186
80
47
n/a
1,099
20,697
3,554
3,854
2,900
1,633
1,301
1,313
1,326
1,207
1,250
618
533
129
631
289
138
210
352
70
19
1,002
22,328
4,411
3,640
3,085
1,880
1,276
1,145
1,259
1,183
1,280
552
723
195
596
302
165
243
348
65
23
1,069
23,440
4,778
3,414
3,232
1,725
1,311
1,134
1,214
1,167
1,120
651
641
273
572
302
203
227
292
73
19
1,042
23,389
5,358
3,481
3,639
1,728
1,151
1,400
1,207
1,149
1,060
963
750
205
705
309
374
230
236
128
23
1,088
25,185
5,821
3,674
3,673
1,840
1,174
1,412
1,287
1,403
1,050
964
768
284
618
341
367
255
187
101
80
1,061
26,362
5,766
3,777
3,673
1,847
1,572
1,412
1,345
1,200
1,160
982
905
857
493
401
338
277
187
148
128
954
27,422
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
4,307
3,116
5,891
3,860
126
1,577
794
1,260
795
1,330
1,150
693
380
210
846
381
159
309
232
2,025
29,441
5,843
1,793
5,297
2,145
404
1,095
763
1,028
854
588
967
504
397
368
614
299
166
221
199
3,216
26,761
6,792
2,823
4,147
3,050
667
1,117
929
1,193
944
634
957
556
486
450
556
346
199
201
241
5,770
32,058
7,534
4,477
3,705
2,806
816
894
941
1,052
864
694
808
689
510
535
453
325
225
181
219
5,703
33,431
7,711
3,119
4,155
2,404
644
815
927
856
845
631
673
657
463
387
419
298
245
184
216
4,311
29,960
8,448
5,756
3,293
2,440
1,011
828
895
818
832
641
702
517
471
471
374
277
254
209
236
6,126
34,599
7,808
6,676
4,022
2,329
1,032
882
820
803
793
629
622
501
488
430
358
273
243
241
218
4,011
33,179
Sources: World Bureau of Metal Statistics and Thomson Reuters.

Notes: n/a implies data not available. Fabrication: jewelry and silverware including the use of scrap.
64
APPENDIX B
Soybeans
800
1,000
800
600
600
Constant 2010
400
400
200
200
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
0
1970
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

Nominal
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

1970/71 1980/81 1990/91 2000/01 2010/11 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16

United States
Brazil
Argentina
China
Paraguay
India
Canada
Ukraine
Uruguay
Bolivia
Others
World
Crushings (million metric tons)

China
United States
Argentina
Brazil
European Union
India
Mexico
Paraguay
Russian Federation
Bolivia
Others
World

Brazil
United States
Argentina
Paraguay
Canada
Others
World

China
European Union
Mexico
Japan
Taiwan, China
Turkey
Thailand
Others
World
30.7
0.0
0.0
8.7
0.1
0.0
0.3
n/a
0.0
0.0
2.4
42.1
48.9
15.2
3.5
7.9
0.6
0.4
0.7
n/a
0.0
0.0
3.5
80.9
52.4
15.8
11.5
11.0
1.3
2.6
1.3
0.1
0.0
0.4
7.9
104.3
75.1
39.5
27.8
15.4
3.5
5.3
2.7
0.1
0.0
1.2
5.4
175.8
90.7
75.3
49.0
15.1
7.1
10.1
4.4
1.7
1.9
2.3
6.7
264.3
82.8
82.0
49.3
13.1
8.2
12.2
5.1
2.4
3.7
2.6
7.3
268.6
91.4
86.7
53.4
12.0
8.2
9.5
5.4
2.8
3.3
2.4
7.6
282.6
106.9
97.2
61.4
12.2
8.1
8.7
6.0
3.9
3.1
2.7
9.4
319.5
106.9
100.0
59.0
11.8
8.8
7.5
6.2
3.9
3.1
3.1
9.7
320.2
1.5
20.7
0.0
0.0
7.3
0.0
0.3
0.1
n/a
0.0
12.7
42.5
1.5
27.8
0.9
13.8
14.1
0.4
1.5
0.0
n/a
0.0
23.8
83.9
3.9
32.3
7.0
14.2
13.0
2.4
1.9
0.3
0.4
0.3
24.1
99.7
18.9
44.6
17.3
22.7
16.8
4.5
4.5
0.9
0.4
0.9
15.0
146.4
55.0
44.9
37.6
36.3
12.2
9.3
3.6
1.6
2.1
1.8
16.5
220.9
65.0
46.0
33.6
35.2
12.5
9.9
3.7
3.0
2.2
2.2
16.3
229.5
68.9
47.2
36.2
36.9
13.4
8.3
4.0
3.4
3.4
2.3
17.5
241.3
74.5
51.0
40.2
40.4
13.6
6.8
4.2
3.7
3.7
2.5
21.6
262.1
81.8
50.9
45.7
40.0
13.8
6.1
4.3
4.1
4.0
2.7
24.4
277.7
0.0
11.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
12.3
1.8
19.7
2.7
0.6
0.1
0.4
25.3
2.5
15.2
4.5
1.0
0.2
2.1
25.4
15.5
27.1
7.3
2.5
0.7
0.7
53.8
30.0
41.0
9.2
5.2
2.9
3.4
91.7
41.9
36.1
7.7
5.5
3.5
6.0
100.8
46.8
44.6
7.8
4.8
3.5
5.2
112.7
50.6
50.2
10.6
4.5
3.9
6.3
126.0
59.5
46.4
11.4
4.6
4.2
6.3
132.4
0.0
7.4
0.1
3.2
0.5
0.0
0.0
8.8
20.0
0.5
13.6
1.4
4.2
1.1
0.0
0.0
19.0
39.8
0.0
13.2
1.4
4.4
2.2
0.0
0.0
17.6
38.8
13.2
17.7
4.4
4.8
2.3
0.4
1.3
9.0
53.1
52.3
12.5
3.5
2.9
2.5
1.4
2.1
11.6
88.8
59.9
12.5
3.4
2.8
2.3
1.2
1.9
12.1
96.1
70.4
13.3
3.8
2.9
2.3
1.6
1.8
15.7
111.9
78.4
13.4
3.8
3.0
2.5
2.2
2.4
16.4
122.1
83.0
13.2
4.0
3.1
2.6
2.4
2.4
19.3
129.8

APPENDIX B
Sugar
0.8
2.0
0.6
1.5
0.4
1.0
0.2
0.5
0.0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

0.0
1970
Constant 2010
Nominal
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

1970/71 1980/81 1990/91 2000/01 2010/11 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16

Brazil
India
European Union
Thailand
China
United States
Mexico
Pakistan
Australia
Russian Federation
Guatemala
Turkey
Others
World

India
China
Thailand
United States
Pakistan
Mexico
Others
World

Brazil
Thailand
Australia
India
Guatemala
European Union
Others
World

China
Indonesia
United States
European Union
Malaysia
Bangladesh
Korea, Rep.
Others
World
5.1
4.5
15.4
0.5
2.1
5.6
2.5
0.0
2.7
n/a
0.2
0.6
46.5
85.7
8.5
6.5
19.0
1.7
3.2
5.6
2.5
0.9
3.3
n/a
0.5
0.9
54.8
107.6
7.9
13.7
23.2
4.0
6.8
6.3
3.9
2.1
3.6
2.6
1.0
1.9
60.6
137.6
17.1
20.5
22.1
5.1
6.8
8.0
5.2
2.6
4.2
1.6
1.6
2.8
55.3
152.9
38.4
26.6
15.9
9.7
11.2
7.1
5.5
3.9
3.7
3.0
2.0
2.3
33.0
162.2
38.6
27.3
16.7
10.0
14.0
8.1
7.4
5.0
4.3
5.0
2.8
2.1
36.3
177.6
37.8
26.6
16.0
11.3
14.3
7.7
6.4
5.6
4.4
4.4
2.9
2.3
35.9
175.6
36.0
30.2
16.8
10.8
11.0
7.8
6.3
5.2
4.7
4.4
2.9
2.1
36.9
175.1
35.0
28.5
16.1
10.8
10.6
8.0
6.4
5.4
5.0
4.7
3.0
2.3
36.3
172.1
1.8
0.3
0.0
2.9
0.0
0.7
14.4
20.2
1.1
0.7
0.2
1.4
0.1
0.7
13.4
17.6
3.6
1.4
0.2
1.4
0.3
2.4
13.2
22.4
12.0
1.0
0.6
2.0
0.4
1.5
22.4
39.9
6.3
1.6
3.0
1.3
1.5
0.8
15.1
29.5
9.4
6.8
3.6
2.0
0.9
1.5
18.3
42.5
8.2
8.8
5.3
1.6
1.3
0.9
17.7
43.8
9.9
7.3
5.5
1.6
1.2
0.9
17.1
43.6
8.9
5.8
4.9
1.7
1.6
1.0
15.6
39.6
1.2
0.2
1.8
0.3
0.1
2.7
17.7
24.0
2.3
1.0
2.6
0.1
0.2
6.5
22.2
34.9
1.3
2.7
2.8
0.2
0.7
8.1
26.1
42.0
7.7
3.4
3.1
1.4
1.2
7.3
21.6
45.6
25.8
6.6
2.8
3.9
1.5
1.1
12.2
53.9
27.7
6.7
3.1
1.3
1.9
1.7
13.2
55.5
26.2
7.2
3.2
2.8
2.1
1.6
14.6
57.6
24.0
8.0
3.6
2.4
2.2
1.6
12.4
54.1
23.8
8.8
3.7
2.5
2.4
1.5
12.1
54.7
0.4
0.1
4.8
5.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
12.0
22.7
1.1
0.6
4.4
3.8
0.1
0.5
0.0
0.8
20.8
32.0
1.1
0.2
2.6
4.1
0.1
0.9
0.0
1.2
25.9
36.2
1.1
1.6
1.4
3.3
1.1
1.3
0.8
1.6
31.4
43.6
2.1
3.1
3.4
3.8
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.7
29.7
49.1
3.8
3.6
2.9
3.8
2.6
2.0
1.5
1.8
30.0
52.0
4.3
3.6
3.4
3.3
2.1
1.9
2.1
1.9
28.7
51.2
5.1
3.1
3.2
2.6
2.4
2.1
2.0
1.9
28.2
50.4
5.5
3.2
3.1
2.8
2.5
2.1
2.1
1.9
29.0
52.2

65
66
APPENDIX B
Tin

40,000
30,000
Constant 2010
30,000
20,000
20,000
10,000
10,000
Nominal
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Source: World Bank.

1990

16.0
32.5
1.2
22.5
1.1
6.9
11.6
61.4
0.4
3.2
2.5
1.5
0.6
69.7
231.1
42.2
39.3
0.6
17.3
4.8
39.1
7.4
28.5
0.8
1.6
0.3
0.7
0.3
41.6
224.5

China
Indonesia
Malaysia
Peru
Bolivia
Brazil
Thailand
Belgium
Vietnam
India
Poland
Japan
Nigeria
Others
World
15.0
30.5
71.3
0.0
17.5
8.8
34.8
3.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
1.3
2.7
n/a
244.6
35.8
38.0
49.0
0.0
13.1
37.6
15.5
6.1
1.8
0.3
0.0
0.8
0.3
n/a
248.0

China
United States
Japan
Germany
Korea, Rep.
India
Vietnam
Netherlands
Spain
Others
World
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

1980
China
Indonesia
Myanmar
Bolivia
Peru
Brazil
Australia
Malaysia
Vietnam
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Nigeria
Rwanda
Lao PDR
Others
World
0
1970
Jan-16
12.5
46.5
30.9
19.0
1.8
2.3
0.0
5.0
4.6
100.3
222.9
25.5
36.8
34.8
21.7
7.8
2.3
0.0
6.9
4.0
97.8
237.6
2000
2005
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
87.7
51.6
1.6
12.5
36.4
14.2
9.1
6.3
1.8
0.0
2.0
0.4
0.4
10.4
234.5
113.1
120.0
0.7
18.6
42.5
11.7
2.7
2.9
5.4
7.6
0.9
3.3
0.6
3.1
333.1
129.6
84.0
0.8
20.2
33.8
10.4
18.6
2.7
5.4
7.4
1.3
2.9
0.4
0.6
318.1
115.7
90.0
2.1
19.7
26.1
13.7
6.2
3.7
5.4
2.5
2.4
3.5
0.6
0.5
292.0
149.0
84.0
9.0
19.3
23.7
13.8
6.5
3.7
5.4
5.2
2.6
3.6
0.5
0.6
326.9
177.3
69.6
17.5
19.8
23.1
13.8
7.2
3.8
5.4
4.1
2.5
4.2
0.8
0.5
349.6
146.6
68.4
24.0
20.2
19.5
13.8
7.1
3.7
3.6
3.0
2.1
2.0
0.8
0.6
315.5
109.9
46.4
26.2
17.4
9.4
13.8
17.2
8.5
1.8
3.6
0.0
0.6
0.1
7.4
262.3
112.2
78.0
39.2
38.3
15.6
9.0
29.4
7.7
1.8
3.6
0.0
0.8
0.6
4.4
340.5
149.0
64.2
38.7
36.4
15.0
9.1
23.5
9.9
3.0
3.6
0.6
0.8
0.6
2.0
356.6
147.9
79.8
37.8
24.8
14.3
12.0
22.8
11.4
4.8
3.6
1.4
1.1
0.6
1.8
364.0
159.6
63.0
32.7
24.2
14.9
12.0
23.0
10.3
5.5
3.8
1.9
1.8
0.6
0.5
353.7
186.9
64.8
36.7
24.5
15.4
12.0
16.3
9.7
5.5
4.2
2.3
1.7
0.6
0.1
380.8
166.9
67.4
31.2
20.4
15.1
12.0
10.5
8.8
5.5
4.2
2.1
1.7
0.6
0.1
346.4
49.1
51.0
25.2
20.7
15.3
6.4
0.8
3.6
4.1
100.6
276.9
108.7
42.3
33.2
19.1
17.9
8.4
1.2
3.5
7.0
97.4
338.6
154.3
32.0
35.7
17.4
17.4
10.7
2.0
5.4
6.1
87.7
368.8
176.2
30.7
27.7
17.6
16.2
10.0
2.0
4.5
2.9
70.0
357.8
169.3
29.2
28.3
18.0
14.5
10.4
3.6
7.4
4.7
69.7
355.1
192.6
28.8
27.1
18.8
13.8
11.9
5.5
7.2
6.4
66.8
378.8
176.4
31.3
26.8
17.9
13.1
12.9
6.0
6.0
5.7
67.2
363.1

APPENDIX B
Wheat
500
500
400
400
300
Constant 2010
300
200
200
100
Jan-04
100
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
0
1970
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.


62.5
29.2
20.1
n/a
36.8
9.0
n/a
7.3
7.9
8.0
3.8
n/a
4.9
1.5
178.0
369.1

China
United States
European Union
India
Russian Federation
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Others
World
7.2
22.4
8.6
5.0
n/a
0.7
45.2
89.1

European Union
Russian Federation
Canada
United States
Australia
Ukraine
Others
World
6.7
n/a
11.8
20.2
9.1
n/a
15.3
63.2

Egypt, Arab Rep.
Indonesia
Algeria
European Union
Brazil
Japan
Others
World
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
Source: World Bank.

1970/71
European Union
China
India
Russian Federation
United States
Canada
Ukraine
Pakistan
Australia
Turkey
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Kazakhstan
Argentina
Egypt, Arab Rep.
Others
World
Nominal
2.8
0.5
0.6
18.9
1.7
4.8
45.3
74.7
1980/81
1990/91
2000/01
2010/11
2012/13
2013/14
2014/15
2015/16
93.3
55.2
31.8
n/a
64.8
19.3
n/a
10.9
10.9
13.0
5.9
n/a
7.8
1.8
214.5
529.2
125.0
98.2
49.9
49.6
74.3
32.1
30.4
14.4
15.1
16.0
8.0
16.2
11.0
4.3
169.4
713.8
132.7
99.6
76.4
34.5
60.6
26.5
10.2
21.1
22.1
18.0
8.1
9.1
16.3
6.4
41.7
583.3
136.7
115.2
80.8
41.5
58.9
23.3
16.8
23.3
27.4
17.0
13.5
9.6
17.2
7.2
60.9
649.3
133.9
121.0
94.9
37.7
61.3
27.2
15.8
23.5
22.9
16.0
13.8
9.8
9.3
8.5
62.7
658.3
144.6
121.9
93.5
52.1
58.1
37.5
22.3
24.2
25.3
18.8
14.5
13.9
10.5
8.3
69.4
714.9
156.8
126.2
95.9
59.1
55.1
29.4
24.8
26.0
23.1
15.3
13.0
13.0
12.5
8.3
67.1
725.4
160.0
130.2
86.5
61.0
55.8
27.6
27.3
25.1
24.5
19.5
14.0
13.7
11.3
8.1
68.4
733.1
31.7
26.9
13.0
4.0
n/a
1.2
48.8
125.6
49.9
23.6
22.5
5.8
16.4
3.2
72.2
193.7
91.9
23.8
17.9
21.5
1.5
2.9
47.0
206.5
59.1
23.5
11.9
15.4
13.7
2.9
72.1
198.7
54.0
19.5
10.7
24.2
4.9
5.1
58.5
176.9
65.3
16.1
9.9
17.8
5.2
7.2
72.4
193.9
76.1
20.5
13.8
17.2
6.3
7.8
73.1
214.8
96.3
26.6
19.3
13.2
8.0
7.1
68.7
239.3
17.5
n/a
16.3
41.2
9.6
n/a
23.1
107.6
23.8
1.2
21.7
29.1
11.8
2.0
38.0
127.7
15.7
0.7
17.3
28.9
15.9
0.1
22.6
101.3
23.1
4.0
16.6
35.1
18.6
4.3
31.0
132.7
22.8
11.3
19.0
27.5
18.6
7.2
31.1
137.5
32.0
18.6
23.3
32.0
18.6
9.8
31.6
165.9
35.4
22.8
24.1
23.2
16.6
11.3
30.6
164.1
32.0
23.0
22.0
21.1
17.0
15.5
32.5
163.1
5.4
1.2
2.3
26.6
3.9
5.8
70.8
116.1
5.7
2.0
4.4
5.7
4.4
5.6
76.9
104.7
6.1
4.1
5.6
3.7
7.2
5.9
67.0
99.5
10.6
6.6
6.5
4.6
6.7
5.9
91.1
132.0
8.3
7.1
6.5
5.3
7.4
6.6
104.0
145.2
10.1
7.4
7.5
4.0
7.1
6.1
116.2
158.4
11.1
7.5
7.3
6.0
5.4
5.9
115.8
158.8
11.0
8.1
8.1
6.3
6.0
5.7
115.3
160.5

Notes: n/a implies data not available. The trade year is January-December of the later year of the split. For example, 1970/71 refers to calendar year 1971.
67
68
APPENDIX B
Wood-based panels and Woodpulp


1,000
1,200
800
900
Woodpulp, constant 2010
Woodpulp
600
600
Woodpulp, nominal
400
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
1970
1980
1990
0.9
23.0
n/a
3.3
5.8
0.8
0.2
1.0
34.7
69.8
2.3
26.4
n/a
4.8
8.3
2.5
0.4
2.0
54.6
101.3
2.5
1.0
0.6
0.1
2.0
n/a
0.2
0.1
3.5
10.0
2.1
2.3
0.3
0.3
2.4
n/a
0.2
0.8
7.1
15.7
Woodpulp: production (million metric tons)

37.3
16.6
0.8
8.1
6.2
1.2
8.8
n/a
22.5
101.6
46.2
19.9
3.4
8.7
7.2
1.3
9.8
n/a
29.1
125.7
Woodpulp: imports (million metric tons)

China
United States
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Korea, Rep.
France
Japan
Others
World
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
19.3
45.7
4.8
15.0
14.1
5.8
2.4
4.6
74.7
186.3
109.2
32.6
10.1
9.9
12.6
10.2
6.6
8.2
88.8
288.3
134.0
32.0
12.1
10.5
12.1
11.1
7.4
8.4
89.5
317.2
149.3
31.5
12.8
11.1
12.1
12.1
8.1
8.5
89.3
334.7
177.0
33.5
12.7
11.7
12.2
11.7
8.8
9.0
90.9
367.4
191.2
34.0
13.1
12.4
12.3
11.8
9.6
9.4
93.8
387.6
4.2
3.3
3.8
3.2
3.3
1.2
0.5
0.9
9.9
30.3
13.9
4.1
6.2
6.6
3.3
2.1
1.5
1.7
20.4
59.9
7.7
4.6
4.2
3.0
2.7
2.6
2.8
2.4
36.6
66.7
7.9
5.1
5.0
3.0
2.8
2.3
2.9
2.1
39.3
70.5
8.8
5.3
4.8
2.8
2.6
2.3
2.9
2.2
40.7
72.5
8.8
5.1
5.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.4
42.1
74.5
9.6
5.1
4.9
3.4
3.3
2.9
2.8
2.8
43.1
77.8
57.2
23.0
4.3
10.2
8.9
2.1
11.3
n/a
37.8
154.8
57.8
26.7
7.3
11.5
12.0
3.7
11.4
5.8
34.9
171.3
50.9
18.9
14.5
11.9
10.5
7.5
9.5
7.4
39.5
170.6
51.1
18.3
14.3
11.9
10.4
8.9
9.1
7.9
41.8
173.6
50.2
17.8
14.3
12.0
10.2
8.8
8.7
7.7
42.6
172.5
49.1
18.1
15.5
11.7
10.5
9.6
8.8
7.2
41.4
171.9
47.8
17.7
16.8
11.5
10.5
10.4
9.1
7.5
41.7
172.9
0.9
4.4
3.7
2.1
0.6
1.1
1.9
2.9
7.6
25.2
4.0
6.6
4.1
3.2
0.9
2.1
2.4
3.1
11.4
37.8
12.1
5.6
5.1
3.4
1.2
2.5
1.9
1.8
14.1
47.9
15.2
5.5
5.0
3.5
1.6
2.5
1.9
1.9
14.4
51.4
17.2
5.2
4.8
3.3
1.6
2.4
2.0
1.8
15.4
53.7
17.6
5.5
5.0
3.5
2.5
2.4
2.1
1.7
16.3
56.6
18.7
5.8
4.8
3.4
2.4
2.3
2.0
1.8
16.9
57.8
3.0
37.0
n/a
6.4
9.6
2.9
0.8
1.4
67.9
129.0
Wood-based panels: imports (million cubic meters)
United States
Canada
Brazil
Sweden
Finland
China
Japan
Russian Federation
Others
World
1999
2000
Wood-based panels: production (million cubic meters)
United States
Germany
Japan
China
United Kingdom
Korea, Rep.
Canada
Italy
Others
World
1989
Source: World Bank.

Source: World Bank.

China
United States
Russian Federation
Canada
Germany
Brazil
Turkey
Poland
Others
World
300
1979
0.1
3.2
1.8
1.4
0.6
0.2
1.3
0.9
7.0
16.6
0.4
3.7
2.6
1.8
0.6
0.5
1.8
2.2
7.0
20.6
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Notes: n/a implies data not available. Wood-based panels, reported in cubic meters solid volume, is an aggregate comprising veneer sheets, plywood, particle board and
fiberboard. Woodpulp, reported in metric tons air-dry weight (i.e. with 10% moisture content), is an aggregate comprising mechanical woodpulp; semi-chemical woodpulp;
chemical woodpulp; and dissolving woodpulp.
APPENDIX B
Zinc
5,000
5,000
4,000
4,000
3,000
3,000
2,000
2,000
1,000
1,000
0
Jan-04
Jan-06
Jan-08
Jan-10
Jan-12
Jan-14
Jan-16
Source: World Bank.

1980

1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
150
495
488
32
349
243
50
n/a
1,059
167
229
n/a
70
n/a
6,172
2000
2005
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
763
940
584
70
571
307
108
n/a
1,203
160
167
n/a
110
n/a
7,176
1,780
1,420
910
208
829
401
149
322
1,002
177
263
132
100
1,129
8,823
2,061
1,367
1,202
447
748
476
160
364
667
216
429
186
168
1,079
9,569
3,842
1,480
1,470
740
748
570
411
405
649
199
354
214
211
1,163
12,457
4,859
1,507
1,281
725
738
660
390
371
612
188
338
189
164
1,253
13,274
5,188
1,523
1,351
817
784
643
407
417
426
177
327
193
152
1,251
13,655
5,200
1,560
1,319
729
832
660
449
386
353
222
283
217
193
1,306
13,708
4,750
1,691
1,422
826
810
677
480
384
278
247
236
236
193
1,142
13,372
155
76
44
592
735
152
301
64
n/a
145
147
170
n/a
n/a
6,159
1,957
473
176
780
654
386
489
200
263
337
223
217
241
2,757
9,153
2,725
650
266
724
638
501
457
166
357
334
282
225
206
2,587
10,119
5,209
750
701
690
574
517
498
223
319
322
307
264
260
2,275
12,909
4,881
877
691
649
571
528
496
319
320
324
315
257
247
2,086
12,561
5,280
895
773
652
587
529
492
346
320
323
312
275
262
2,012
13,058
5,827
915
700
648
583
529
482
336
325
321
302
290
265
2,030
13,553
6,155
978
817
678
567
529
479
335
324
318
306
291
267
1,930
13,975
1,402
1,315
419
224
532
674
394
193
138
3,599
8,889
3,040
1,080
448
389
514
602
256
239
166
3,662
10,396
5,350
907
540
538
494
516
321
225
203
3,432
12,526
5,396
892
553
561
474
479
239
104
222
3,139
12,059
5,962
935
578
640
479
498
222
180
265
3,195
12,954
6,420
962
644
638
477
503
388
174
242
3,314
13,762
6,487
924
633
612
479
457
442
289
255
3,334
13,911
552
248
79
592
688
253
309
118
n/a
199
175
208
n/a
n/a
6,698

China
United States
Korea, Rep.
India
Germany
Japan
Belgium
Australia
Russian Federation
Others
World
Nominal
1990

China
Korea, Rep.
India
Canada
Japan
Spain
Australia
Peru
Kazakhstan
Mexico
Finland
Netherlands
Russian Federation
Others
World
0
1970
Constant 2010
Source: World Bank.


China
Australia
Peru
India
United States
Mexico
Bolivia
Kazakhstan
Canada
Sweden
Ireland
Russian Federation
Brazil
Others
World
69
200
810
68
95
474
752
155
100
n/a
n/a
6,131
369
992
230
135
530
814
178
114
n/a
n/a
6,568
Appendix C
Description of price series
Technical notes
Description of Price Series

ENERGY
Coal (Australia). Thermal, f.o.b. piers, Newcastle/
Port Kembla, 6,700 kcal/kg, 90 days forward delivery.
Coal (Colombia). Thermal, f.o.b. Bolivar, 6,450
kcal/kg, (11,200 btu/lb), less than .8% sulfur, 9% ash,
90 days forward delivery.
Coal (South Africa). Thermal, f.o.b. Richards Bay,
6,000 kcal/kg, 90 days forward delivery.
Crude oil. Average price of Brent (38 API), Dubai
Fateh (32 API), and West Texas Intermediate (WTI,
40 API). Equally weighed.
Natural Gas Index (Laspeyres). Weights based on
five-year consumption volumes for Europe, U.S. and
Japan (LNG), updated every five years.
Natural gas (Europe). Average import border price
with a component of spot price, including U.K.
Natural gas (U.S.). Spot price at Henry Hub,
Louisiana.
Natural gas (Japan). LNG, import price, cif; recent
two months' averages are estimates.
NON-ENERGY
Beverages
Cocoa (ICCO). International Cocoa Organization
daily price, average of the first three positions on the
terminal markets of New York and London, nearest
three future trading months.
Coffee (ICO). International Coffee Organization
indicator price, other mild Arabicas, average New
York and Bremen/Hamburg markets, ex-dock.
Coffee (ICO). International Coffee Organization
indicator price, Robustas, average New York and Le
Havre/Marseilles markets, ex-dock.
Tea. Average three auctions, average of quotations at
Kolkata, Colombo, and Mombasa/Nairobi.
Tea (Colombo). Sri Lankan origin, all tea, average of
weekly quotes.
Tea (Kolkata). leaf, include excise duty, average of
weekly quotes.
Tea (Mombasa/Nairobi). African origin, all tea,
average of weekly quotes.
Oils and meals

Coconut oil (Philippines/Indonesia). Bulk, c.i.f.
Rotterdam.
Copra (Philippines/Indonesia). Bulk, c.i.f. N.W.
Europe.
APPENDIX C
Groundnuts (U.S.). Runners 40/50, shelled basis,

c.i.f. Rotterdam.
Groundnut oil (any origin). C.i.f. Rotterdam.
Fishmeal (any origin). 64-65%, c&f Bremen, estimates based on wholesale price.
Palm oil (Malaysia). 5% bulk, c.i.f. N. W. Europe.
Palmkernel Oil (Malaysia). C.i.f. Rotterdam.
Soybean meal (any origin), Argentine 45/46% extraction, c.i.f. Rotterdam.
Soybean oil (any origin). Crude, f.o.b. ex-mill
Netherlands.
Soybeans (U.S.). C.i.f. Rotterdam.
Grains
Barley (U.S.). Feed, No. 2, spot, 20 days to-arrive,
delivered Minneapolis.
Maize (U.S.). No. 2, yellow, f.o.b. US Gulf ports.
Rice (Thailand). 5% broken, white rice (WR), milled,
indicative price based on weekly surveys of export
transactions, government standard, f.o.b. Bangkok.
Rice (Thailand). 25% broken, WR, milled indicative
survey price, government standard, f.o.b. Bangkok.
Rice (Thailand). 100% broken, A.1 Super, indicative
survey price, government standard, f.o.b. Bangkok.
Rice (Vietnam). 5% broken, WR, milled, weekly
indicative survey price, minimum export price, f.o.b.
Hanoi.
Sorghum (U.S.). No. 2 milo yellow, f.o.b. Gulf ports.
Wheat (U.S.). No. 1, hard red winter (HRW),
ordinary protein, export price delivered at the US
Gulf port for prompt or 30 days shipment.
Wheat (U.S.). No. 2, soft red winter (SRW), export
price delivered at the U.S. Gulf port for prompt or 30
days shipment.
Other food
Bananas (Central and South America). Major brands,
free on truck (f.o.t.) Southern Europe, including
duties.
Bananas (Central and South America). Major brands,
US import price, f.o.t. US Gulf ports.
Meat, beef (Australia/New Zealand). Chucks and
cow forequarters, frozen boneless, 85% chemical lean,
c.i.f. U.S. port (east coast), ex-dock.
Meat, chicken (U.S.). Broiler/fryer, whole birds,
2-1/2 to 3 pounds, USDA grade "A", ice-packed,
Georgia Dock preliminary weighted average,
wholesale.
Meat, sheep (New Zealand). Frozen whole carcasses
Prime Medium (PM) wholesale, Smithfield, London.
73
74
APPENDIX C
Oranges (Mediterranean exporters). Navel, EEC

indicative import price, c.i.f. Paris.
Shrimp (Mexico). West coast, frozen, white, No. 1,
shell-on, headless, 26 to 30 count per pound,
wholesale price at New York.
Sugar (EU). European Union negotiated import price
for raw unpackaged sugar from African, Caribbean,
and Pacific (ACP), c.i.f. European ports.
Sugar (U.S.). Nearby futures contract, c.i.f.
Sugar (world). International Sugar Agreement (ISA)
daily price, raw, f.o.b. and stowed at greater Caribbean
ports.
Timber
Logs (West Africa). Sapele, high quality (loyal and
marchand), 80 centimeter or more, f.o.b. Douala,
Cameroon.
Logs (Southeast Asia). Meranti, Sarawak, Malaysia,
sale price charged by importers, Tokyo.
Plywood (Africa and Southeast Asia). Lauan, 3-ply,
extra, 91 cm x 182 cm x 4 mm, wholesale price, spot
Tokyo.
Sawnwood (West Africa). Sapele, width 6 inches or
more, length 6 feet or more, f.a.s. Cameroonian ports.
Sawnwood (Southeast Asia). Malaysian dark red seraya/meranti, select and better quality, average 7 to 8
inches; length average 12 to 14 inches; thickness 1 to
2 inches; kiln dry, c. & f. UK ports, with 5% agents
commission including premium for products of certified sustainable forest.
Woodpulp (Sweden). Softwood, sulphate, bleached,
air-dry weight, c.i.f. North Sea ports.
Other raw materials

Cotton (Cotton Outlook "CotlookA index").
Middling 1-3/32 inch, traded in Far East, C/F.
Rubber (Asia). RSS3 grade, Singapore Commodity
Exchange Ltd (SICOM) nearby contract.
Rubber (Asia). TSR 20, Technically Specified Rubber,
SICOM nearby contract.
Fertilizers
DAP (diammonium phosphate). Standard size, bulk,
spot, f.o.b. US Gulf.
Phosphate rock (Morocco). 70% BPL, contract,
f.a.s. Casablanca.
Potassium chloride (muriate of potash). Standard
grade, spot, f.o.b. Vancouver.
TSP (triple superphosphate). Bulk, spot, granular,

f.o.b. Tunisia.
Urea (Black Sea). Bulk, spot, f.o.b. Black Sea (primarily
Yuzhnyy).
Metals and minerals

Aluminum (LME). London Metal Exchange,
unalloyed primary ingots, standard high grade,
physical settlement.
Copper (LME). Standard grade A, cathodes and wire
bar shapes, physical settlement.
Iron ore (any origin). Fines, spot price, c.f.r. China,
62% Fe.
Lead (LME). Refined, standard high grade, physical
settlement.
Nickel (LME). Cathodes, standard high grade,
Tin (LME). Refined, standard high grade, physical
settlement.
Zinc (LME). Refined, standard special high grade,
PRECIOUS METALS
Gold (U.K.). 99.5% fine, London afternoon fixing,
average of daily rates.
Platinum (U.K.). 99.9% refined, London afternoon
fixing.
Silver (U.K.). 99.9% refined, London afternoon
fixing.
Technical Notes
Definitions and explanations
Constant prices are prices which are deflated by the
Manufacturers Unit Value Index (MUV).
MUV is the unit value index in U.S. dollar terms of
manufactures exported from fifteen countries: Brazil,
Canada, China, Germany, France, India, Italy, Japan,
Mexico, Republic of Korea, South Africa, Spain, Thailand,
United Kingdom, and United States.
Price indexes were computed by the Laspeyres formula.
The Non-Energy Price Index is comprised of 34
commodities. U.S. dollar prices of each commodity is
weighted by 2002-2004 average export values. Base year
reference for all indexes is 2010. Countries included in
indexes are all low- and middle-income, according to World
Bank income classifications.
Price index weights. Trade data as of May 2008 comes
from United Nations' Comtrade Database via the World
Bank WITS system, Food and Agriculture Organization
FAOSTAT Database, International Energy Agency
Database, BP Statistical Review, World Metal Statistics,
World Bureau of Metal Statistics, and World Bank staff
estimates. The weights can be found in the table on the
next page.
Reporting period. Calendar vs. crop or marketing year
refers to the span of the year. It is common in many
agricultural commodities to refer to production and other
variables over a twelve-month period that begins with
harvest. A crop or marketing year will often differ by
commodity and, in some cases, by country or region.
Abbreviations
$ = U.S. dollar
bbl = barrel
bcf/d = billion cubic feet per day
cif = cost, insurance, freight
cum = cubic meter
dmt = dry metric ton
f.o.b. = free on board
f.o.t. = free on track
kg = kilogram
mb/d = million barrels per day
mmbtu = million British thermal units
mt = metric ton (1,000 kilograms)
toz = troy oz
Acronyms
AMIS
DAP
EIA
EMDE
FAO
GDP
ICMM
IEA
Agricultural Market Information System

diammonium phosphate
Energy Information Administration
emerging and developing economies
Food and Agriculture Organization
gross domestic product
International Council on Mining and Metals
International Energy Agency
APPENDIX C
IER
IGC
ITRC
LIC
LME
LNG
OECD
Institute for Energy Research

International Growth Centre
International Tripartite Rubber Council
Low-income country
London Metal Exchange
liquefied natural gas
Organization of Economic Cooperation and
Development
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
TSP
triple superphosphate
UN
United Nations
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for
Africa
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
WTI
West Texas Intermediate
Data sources
Baker Hughes
Bloomberg
BP Statistical Review
Concensus Forecast
Cotton Outlook
FAO
Fertilizer Week
INFOFISH
INTERFEL Fel Actualits Hebdo
International Cocoa Organization (ICCO)
International Coffee Organization (ICO)
International Cotton Advisory Committee
International Energy Agency (IEA)
International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)
International Rubber Study Group (IRSG)
International Tea Committee (ITC)
International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)
International Sugar Organization (ISO)
ISTA Mielke GmbH Oil World
Japan Lumber Journal
MinEx Consulting
MLA Meat & Livestock Weekly
Platts International Coal Report
Quarterly Bulleting of Cocoa Statistics
Singapore Commodity Exchange
Sopisco News
Sri Lanka Tea Board
Thomson Reuters
U.S. Department of Agriculture
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
U.S. NOAA Fisheries Service
World Bureau of Metal Statistics
World Gas Intelligence
75
76
APPENDIX C
Weights for commodity price indexes

Commodity group
ENERGY
Coal
Crude Oil
Natural Gas
NON-ENERGY
Agriculture
Beverages
Coffee
Cocoa
Tea
Food
Grains
Rice
Wheat
Maize (includes sorghum)
Barley
Oils and Meals
Soybeans
Soybean Oil
Soybean Meal
Palm Oil
Coconut Oil
Groundnut Oil (includes groundnuts)
Other Food
Sugar
Bananas
Meat, beef
Meat, chicken
Oranges (includes orange junice)
Agricultural Raw Materials
Timber
Hardwood
Logs
Sawnwood
Other Raw Materials
Cotton
Natural Rubber
Tobacco
Fertilizers
Natural Phosphate Rock
Phosphate
Potassium
Nitogenous
Metals and Minerals
Aluminum
Copper
Iron Ore
Lead
Nickel
Tin
Zinc
PRECIOUS METALS
Gold
Silver
Platinum
Share of
energy and non-energy indexes
100.0
4.7
84.6
10.8
100.0
64.9
8.4
3.8
3.1
1.5
40.0
11.3
3.4
2.8
4.6
0.5
16.3
4.0
2.1
4.3
4.9
0.5
0.5
12.4
3.9
1.9
2.7
2.4
1.4
16.5
8.6
8.6
1.9
6.7
7.9
1.9
3.7
2.3
3.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
1.5
31.6
8.4
12.1
6.0
0.6
2.5
0.7
1.3
Notes: Index weights are based on 2002-04 developing countries' export values. Precious metals are not included in the non-energy index.
Share of
sub-group indexes
100.0
4.7
84.6
10.8
100.0
45.7
36.9
17.4
100.0
30.2
25.3
40.8
3.7
100.0
24.6
13.0
26.3
30.2
3.1
2.8
100.0
31.5
15.7
22.0
19.2
11.6
100.0
100.0
22.1
77.9
100.0
24.7
46.7
28.7
100.0
16.9
21.7
20.1
41.3
100.0
26.7
38.4
18.9
1.8
8.1
2.1
4.1
100.0
77.8
18.9
3.3
ost commodity prices rebounded from their January lows
on improved market sentiment and a weakening dollar. Still,

average prices fell in the first quarterenergy down 21 percent
and non-energy down 2 percent. The crude oil price forecast has
been raised to $41/bbl for 2016 (up from $37/bbl in January)
on expected supply tightening in the second half of the year,
but represents a 19 percent drop from 2015. Metals prices are
projected to decline 8 percent on weak demand and increases
in new capacity. Agriculture prices are projected to decline 4
percent in 2016 on early signs of good harvests for next season.
Looking to 2017, a modest price recovery is expected for most
commodities. Crude oil price is projected to rise to $50/bbl
as supply tightens. The Special Focus of this edition examines
the implications of resource development in an era of cheaper
commodities, and concludes that ambitious improvements in
governance and sounder macroeconomic policies are required to
mitigate delays and risks.
The World Banks Commodity Markets Outlook is published
quarterly, in January, April, July, and October. The report
provides detailed market analysis for major commodity groups,
including energy, metals, agriculture, precious metals, and
fertilizers. Price forecasts to 2025 for 46 commodities are also
presented, together with historical price data. Commodity price
data updates are published separately at the beginning of each
month.
The report and data can be accessed at:

www.worldbank.org/commodities

Worldbank - Commodity Price Forecast

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Resource development in an era of

Commodity price indexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Crude oil price for 2016. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Global metal and hydrocarbon production (change from 2000 to 2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Global investment spending on exploration and production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Mining exploration spending and discoveries during 2003-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Giant oil and gas discoveries during 2000-09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Number of years from discovery to production for gold and copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Rig counts in Africa and Latin America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Distribution of discovery-to-production time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Reductions in lead times for copper mines under two scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Crude oil prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

World oil demand growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

U.S. crude oil production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

U.S. oil rig count and oil prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

OPEC crude oil production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

OECD crude oil stocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Coal and natural gas prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Agriculture price indexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Changes in nominal commodity price indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Global grain production and consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Global production of key edible oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Energy intensities, cost of energy component in 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

China's stocks of key commodities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Global nutrient consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Metal and mineral prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

World refined metal consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

World metal consumption growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Zinc price and LME stocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Precious metal prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Global gold production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Nominal price indexes (actual and forecasts) and forecast revisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Global metal, ore and hydrocarbon production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

COMMOD I T Y M A R KETS O U TLOOK | a p ri l 2 0 1 6

The World Banks Commodity Markets Outlook is

Cost reductions, largely stemming from lower energy

Non-energy commodity prices fell 2 percent in the

FIGURE 1 Commodity price indexes

FIGURE 2 Crude oil price for 2016

US$ indexes, 2010=100

Source: World Bank.

Source: World Bank, Consensus Forecast, Bloomberg.

market and developing economies (EMDE). Energy

Non-energy prices are expected to fall 5 percent in

grains and beverages (-5 percent each) and oils and

Special Focus on resource development in an era of

Price Indexes (2010=100)

Oils and meals

Source: World Bank.

Resource development in an era

How did resource development

FIGURE F1 Global metal and hydrocarbon

FIGURE F2 Global investment spending on

Source: BP Statistical Review, World Bureau of Metal Statistics.

Source: International Energy Agency, MinEx Consulting.

With oil and metals price declines of 50-70 percent

Discoveries. Several major discoveries transformed

depending mainly on the accessibility of the deposit.

Oil and gas. Conventional discoveries can take

Mining. The time to develop resources ranges

FIGURE F4 Giant oil and gas discoveries

Offshore East Africa