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Table of Contents
Lathe machine......................................................................................................................................... 3
Parts of Lathe Machine: ...................................................................................................................... 3
Operations Performed by a Lathe Machine:....................................................................................... 4
Types of lathe Machine:...................................................................................................................... 8
Milling Machine .................................................................................................................................... 10
Type of Milling Machines: ................................................................................................................. 10
Classification of Milling Machine ...................................................................................................... 13
Main Parts of Milling Machine and their Functions: ........................................................................ 14
Milling Machine Holding Devices ...................................................................................................... 16
Milling Machine Operations ............................................................................................................. 17
Drilling Machine .................................................................................................................................... 21
Classification of Drilling Machine: ..................................................................................................... 21
Types of Drilling Machines ................................................................................................................ 22
Function and Operation of Drilling Machine: ................................................................................... 24
Drilling Operations ............................................................................................................................ 25
Shaper Machine .................................................................................................................................... 27
Construction of Shaper Machine ...................................................................................................... 27
Classification of Shapers ................................................................................................................... 27
Working Principle of Shaper Machine .............................................................................................. 28
Types of Shapers ............................................................................................................................... 28
Working and Parts of Shaper Machine ............................................................................................. 30
Main Parts of Shaper Machine.......................................................................................................... 30
Applications of Shaper Machine ....................................................................................................... 32
Planer .................................................................................................................................................... 33
Main Parts of Planer Machine .......................................................................................................... 33
Types of Planer Machine:.................................................................................................................. 34
Planer Operations ............................................................................................................................. 36
Planer Machine Tool Holder: ............................................................................................................ 37
Lubrication of Planer: ........................................................................................................................ 37

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Uses of Planer Machine: ................................................................................................................... 37
Applications of Planer Machine: ....................................................................................................... 37
Difference between Shaper and Planer: ........................................................................................... 38
Broaching: ............................................................................................................................................. 39
Principle of Broaching Machine: ....................................................................................................... 42
Types of Broaching Machines: .......................................................................................................... 42
Advantages and Disadvantages of Broaching: .................................................................................. 44
Grinding................................................................................................................................................. 45
Construction and Working of Tool and Cutter Grinding Machine: ................................................... 45
GRINDING OPERATIONS AND GRINDING MACHINES: ...................................................................... 48
Other Grinding Operations ............................................................................................................... 51
Lathe Machine Grinding of Cutting Tools: ........................................................................................ 52
Procedure for a Straight Cylinder ..................................................................................................... 52
Selection of Grinding Wheel ............................................................................................................. 53
Abrasive Process ................................................................................................................................... 54
Classification of Natural Abrasives:................................................................................................... 54
Difference between Natural and Synthetic Abrasives ...................................................................... 56
Related abrasive process: ................................................................................................................. 57
The main uses of grinding and abrasive machining: ......................................................................... 59
CNC MACHINE ....................................................................................................................................... 61
PARTS OF CNC MACHINE: ................................................................................................................. 61
Elements of a CNC System ................................................................................................................ 62
Applications of CNC Machines .......................................................................................................... 65
How CNC Works: ............................................................................................................................... 66
Features of CNC Lathe....................................................................................................................... 66
Tool Paths, Cutting and Plotting Motions: ........................................................................................ 66
Advantages and Disadvantages: ....................................................................................................... 67
Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................................ 67
All Experiments References.68

Lathe machine
Lathe machine:
Lathe machine is a power driven regular machine tool used to make cylindrical conical and
flat surfaces by a sharp edge single point tool which is fed next to a turning work piece
together held in the holding devices. Taper turning, straight turning, facing drilling, reaming
boring, thread cutting. Forming and knurling are several of the familiar operations perform on a lathe
machine.

Parts of Lathe Machine:

The lathe consist following parts.

1. Bed
It is the main body of the machine. All main components are bolted on it. It is usually made by cast
iron due to its high compressive strength and high lubrication quality. It is made by casting process
and bolted on floor space.

2. Tool post
It is bolted on the carriage. It is used to hold the tool at correct position. Tool holder mounted on it.

3. Chuck
Chuck is used to hold the workspace. It is bolted on the spindle which rotates the chuck and work
piece. It is four jaw and three jaw according to the requirement of machine.

4. Head stock
Head stock is the main body parts which are placed at left side of bed. It is serve as holding device
for the gear chain, spindle, driving pulley etc. It is also made by cast iron.

5. Tail stock
Tail stock situated on bed. It is placed at right hand side of the bed. The main function of tail stock to
support the job when required. It is also used to perform drilling operation.

6. Lead screw
Lead screw is situated at the bottom side of bed which is used to move the carriage automatically
during thread cutting.

7. Legs
Legs are used to carry all the loads of the machine. They are bolted on the floor which prevents
vibration.

8. Carriage
It is situated between the head stock and tail stock. It is used to hold and move the tool post on the
bed vertically and horizontally. It slides on the guide ways. Carriage is made by cast iron.

9. Apron
It is situated on the carriage. It consist all controlling and moving mechanism of carriage.

10. Chips pan

Chips pan is placed lower side of bed. The main function of it to carries all chips removed by the
work piece.

11. Guide ways

Guide ways take care of movement of tail stock and carriage on bed.

12. Speed controller

Speed controller switch is situated on head stock which controls the speed of spindle.

13. Spindle
It is the main part of lathe which holds and rotates the chuck.

Operations Performed by a Lathe Machine:

1. Turning
Turning operation occupies different process of removal of material as of the outer surface of
a work-piece to take finished surfaces, while the job rotates beside a single point cutting
tool. Surfaces might be of consistent stepped, diameter, Contoured or tapered.

2. Facing
Facing is process of finishing the ends of work. Work might be held on centers in a chuck, or
a faceplate. The ends of a correctly faced piece will be square. Surface might be tested by the
edging of a rule. Function of facing work in a chuck is similar as that of facing among centers
to take a true, flat surface and to cut the work to length.

3.Reaming
Drilled hole is constantly larger than diameter of the drill. While a rightly round hole of a sure
diameter by straight and smooth walls is required, the hole must first be drilled 0.5mm
smaller o than the final diameter of hole with after that reamed. To make the reaming
process on a lathe machine, a machine reamer is use. Speed for reaming must be-much
slower than for drill as lathe feed is generally faster than for drilling.

4.Grinding
The work-piece is held among the centres with the grinding process is passed out by
mounting the tool post grinder on compound slide. Grinding process is carried out after
irregular turning, to give an precise finish to the work-piece by removing a small quantity of
material.

5. Boring
Boring is cutting with enlarging of a around hole to create: More exact size, Hole that will not
tremble, Hole accurate with its alliance. Boring is complete by a boring tool. There are two
types of boring tools forged boring tool and boring bar. Tool bit is held in boring bar, which is
held in tool post of a lathe and cutting is complete. Work turns and the tool is held still other
than move similar to the axis of hole. Boring is able to also be done on a drill press, milling
machine or on a particularly build boring machine.

6.Counter Boring
The method of boring a hole extra than one diameter on similar axis is identified as counter boring.
Counter boring is required for receiving head of a socket head cap screw. This process is also carried
out by a boring tool.

7.Knurling
Handle on several tools and knob of screw is prepared rough in order to provide a improved grip. This
is identifying knurling and is made by knurling tool in lathe. Two small hardened
steel wheels or rolls, called knurls turn in the knurling tool when pressed into the rotating
work. There are common medium and line knurls. Use a slow speed with start at the tail
stock finish of work. Use plenty of oil while knurling.

8.Spinning
Spinning is the process of produce a thin circular equal article by pressing the rotary part by a
blunt tool. Parts might be formed also as of flat discs or as of previously drawn parts.

9.Threading
The method of cutting threads on a job is known as threading. Outside threading is the
process of cutting threads on outside surface of the work-piece. Internal threading is method
of cutting threads on the within surface or part of a hole.

10.Roll Forming
Roll forming is a different type of the spinning method in which a hard-bitten tool is use
below high pressure. In this method the material is greatly deformed and its depth reduced
by up to 80 per cent.

11.Spring Winding
Spring winding is process of make a coil spring is identified as spring winding. It is like to
threading with is completed by guiding the wire about a mandrel so that the turns are a fixed
space apart.

12.Milling
Milling cutter is held in headstock with the work-piece is clamped in changeable vice. Milling
process is carried out by a cutter rotating beside the work-piece. This process is use for
milling little work-piece simply, where a milling machine cannot be use.

Working:
Lathe machine is used to cut the metal from cylindrical work piece, and convert it into desire shape.
It turns the cylindrical work piece, and during turning a sharp edge cutting tool introduce, which cuts
the metal. Its working can be described as follow.

1. A cylindrical work piece fixed to the chuck. A chuck may have three jaw or for jaw according to the
requirement. The work piece is at the center or some eccentric according to the process perform.
2. The spindle starts to rotate and set it at desire speed. The spindle speed plays a huge role during
cutting. The spindle rotates the chuck and work piece.
3. Now check the work piece is turning properly. If it not set the work piece using dial gauge.
4. Now set the tool at desire feed by moving the tool post and carriage. The feed also play main role
during cutting. Large feed may cause unwanted temperature increase.
5. After it tool is introduce between moving work piece at desire feed rate. It cut the metal from work
piece. The feed rate is set at the cutting condition.

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6. Now all unwanted metal is removed by moving the carriage form horizontally and vertically as desire
according to the job requirement. After complete all process we got a well finished job.
7. Lathe can perform turning, boring, chamfering, shaping, facing, drilling knurling, grooving as shown
in figure.

Types of lathe Machine:

Usual Machine is one which is capable to deal through a variety of work with permit a sensibly wide,
range of process to be performing. Special reason machine is one which has been intended for several
specific purposes and only perform one, or a imperfect range of process on a single range of part.

Main types of lathe machines

1) Engine Lathe
2) Center Lathe
3) Turret Lathe

Engine Lathe
Engine lathe mostly not a manufacture lathe is originate in renovate shops, teaching
educate workshops, and tool-rooms. These lathes are classified into two types:
a) Bench Model
b) Floor Model

Bench Model
Bench model is use mainly for light function work and instruction. This is a small lathe
and mounts on a few type of bench or cabinet, by drawers, shelves and racks for tools
and accessories.

Floor Model
Floor model engine lathe is radiance duty floor model use in training shops and trade.
Larger floor model need a greatly better area in a shop with is use mainly for machining
long shafts of bigger length. Lathes of this type need extensive horsepower to take away
the quantity of metal required to whole the job.

Center Lathe
Center lathe is a usual machine tool use to make a wide range of work contains the
follow:
1. Boring process held on carriage by a boring bar held in spindle.
2. Turning, drilling, facing along with Boring in the chuck.
3. Turning, Boring also facing work held on a faceplate.
4. Turning among centers

Turret Lathe
Turret lathe is use to make sequence of process to create duplicate parts rapidly and
inexpensively. Turret lathe is prepared by a multisided tool post identify a turret to
which numerous different cutting tools might be mount. Different cutting tools are
working in a certain order to make a series of operations on every part. Similar cycle
may be frequent on a lot of parts with no having to modify or retune the cutting tools.

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Milling Machine
Milling Machine
Milling machine is the main machining operations. In this process workpiece is fed beside a
turning cylindrical tool. Turning tool has of several cutting edges. Milling process is notable
as of other machining operations on the foundation of direction between the tool axis with
the feed direction, though, in other operations similar to drilling, turning, and so on. The tool
is fed in way parallel to axis of rotation. Milling machine can also use for slotting, drilling,
make a circular profile with gear cutting by having proper attachments.

Type of Milling Machines:

There are various milling machines are used in mechanical industries. These are
described below.

1. Column and knee type milling machine:

It is the very common milling machine type. In this machine a vertical column is
attached to the bed which consist all gear drives which rotate the knee and saddle. A
knee is situated on the base which can provide vertical motion to the work piece or
which can move up and down. A saddle is attached to the upper section of the knee
which can move in transverse direction. The table is placed over the which can hold the
work piece by use of climbing bolts.

Vertical milling machine:

In is one of the types of knee and column milling machine. The spindle if this machine is in
vertical position. No arbor is required in this machine. The cutter tool has cylindrical shape
and the cutting edges are situated at the circumference of the cylindrical face.

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Horizontal milling machine:

As the name implies the spindle is situated horizontally. The spindle rotates
horizontally. A arbor is attached to the machine which holds the cylindrical disk shape
cutter which cuts the metal work piece.

Universal milling machine:

The universal milling machine is same as horizontal milling machine except there is a
arrangement of swing up the table to 45 degree in either direction.

2. Fixed bed milling machine:

In this milling machine the bed of the machine is fixed to the machine. There is no
arrangement of knee and saddle which can move vertically and transversally. The
worktable is direct situated at the fixed bed. The spindle of this machine is mountain
on a movable spindle head. It can move in vertical and horizontal direction and perform
the cutting operation.

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Simplex milling machine:

In the simplex machine spindle head or the spindle can travel only in one direction.
Mostly it travels in vertical direction.

Duplex milling machine:

In this machine the spindle can travel both in vertical and horizontal direction.

Triplex milling machine:

In triplex machine spindle can move in all three direction along X Y and Z axis.

3. Planner milling machine

Planner milling machine is mostly used for facing operation in mass production. These
machine are similar to the bed type milling machine except it can mounted with various
cutters and spindle heads to the machine. These cutters can perform the facing
operations simultaneously.

4. Special milling machine:

These machines are the modern milling machines which are developed to easy the
milling operations according to the jobs.

Tracer milling machine:

Tracer machine can perform all difficult die making job by synchronizing the tracing
unit. It can develop any difficult shape. It is mostly used in automobile and aerospace
industries.

CNC milling machine:

CNC is most versatile milling machine which is control by a computer. It is upgrade version of
bed type milling machine in which the spindle can move in all three direction and the table
can rotate 360 degree. These all movement is hydraulically controlled which is command by a
computer. Any difficult geometry can make on it. A sketch of the work piece is loaded to the
computer which is cut on work piece by the cutters automatically.

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Classification of Milling Machine

Milling machines are classified in a range of ways.

According to design, milling machines are classify as:

i.

Special milling machines, for example, profiling, duplicating and rotary table.
ii. Column and knee-type milling machine
iii. Fixed bed type milling machine
iv. Planer milling machine

According to drive, milling machines are classify as:

i. Individual motor drive.
ii. Cone pulley belt drive.

Depending upon the arrangement of spindle, milling machines are

classify as:

Vertical spindle milling machines

Horizontal spindle milling machines

Spindle of vertical milling machine, cutter can be raised or lower through a change of spindle head. In
every milling machine, worktable can be motivated to several places to perform operation. In a
horizontal milling machine is horizontal to worktable, as the spindle of vertical milling machine is at
right angles to worktable.

Machine Size
Milling machines are definite with the longitudinal travel of worktable, horse power of main
motor, the type of milling machine and its model.

Specification of Milling Machine:

Along by the type of milling machine, it has to be specifying with its size. Commonly size of
a typical milling machine is selected as given below:
1. Size of worktable with its movement range table length x table width like 900 x 275 mm.
Table movements: Longitudinal travel x Cross x Vertical like 600 x 200 x 400 mm.
Over travels point to maximum movement in a direction.
2. Maximum longitudinal movement and cross feed of the table.

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3. Number of feeds presented (give their values).

4. Number of spindle speeds (give their values).
5. Maximum distance the knee can travel.
6. Power of the main drive motor.
7. Number of spindle speeds.
8. Floor space necessary.
9. Total power existing.
10. Spindle nose taper.
11. Net weight

Main Parts of Milling Machine and their Functions:

All the parts of milling machine and However the functions of the main parts are explained in
the following lines.

1.The column
The column forms main body of the milling machine, providing supports for other parts such
as the knee, the saddle and the table. It is a hollow casting with the inner spaces, of the
modem machines used to house the driving motor which supplies the power, the gear trains
which provides speed changes and several of the spindle motion, and the over-arm which
supports the CUTTER ARBOR. The front face of the column is machined to provide a dovetail
slide which serves to keep the knee accurately aligned at right angles to the column. The
bearing surface, called ways, are usually hand scraped to a high degree of accuracy.

2. The Knee
The knee is unit that is attached to the front of the column and is designed to be moved up
or down on sliding ways. It also encloses the feed change gearing and attached to it are the
controls for operating the feed mechanism. It moves up and down by means of an elevating
screw.

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3. The Table
The table is attached to the top of the knee. It may be moved from left to right, and forward
and backward. On universal milling machine, the table may also be swiveled 450 to left or
right. The table is used to hold the work while it is being machined. The work may be
clamped directly to the surface of the table or held in a vice or other devices which, have
been attached to the table. On the surface of the table there are Tee-slots which are used to
clamp the work holding devices, such as vice, fixtures, dividing head etc. It is made of cast
iron.

4. The Saddle:
The saddle is placed between the table and the knee It has two purposes. First, the
dovetailed slide cut in kits underside or underneath engages slide on the top of the knee,
and provides the bearing surfaces which guides the saddle in its crosswise movement in
reflection to the column of the machine. Second, the longitudinal dovetailed slide in the top
of the saddle, which is machined at right angles to the lowered dovetailed slide., provides
the bearing surfaces which supports and guides the table in. its lengthwise movement,
parallel with the column.

5. The Spindle
The spindle is a large shaft that is located in the upper part of the column. In the front end of
the spindle is a tapered hole into which may be inserted various cutting tools, and arbors for
holding other cutting tools or cutters.

6. The Overarm
The overarm mounted and guided on top of the column, is used in plain and universal milling
machine. It provides for correct alignment and support of the arbor and various attachments.
It is adjustable and may be clamped in any position. The overarm I made of cast iron.

7. The Arbor
The milling machine arbor is located in position by means of the tapered portion. It is
secured in position with the draw-in bar and is driven by the lugs attached to the face of the
spindle. The pilot and bearing sleeve supports the arbor, and the spacing collars locate the
centre in position. The arbors are in different styles.

8. Arbor Support or Arbor Yoke

The arbor support is a casting which slides and clamps into the ways of the overarm and
extends down to the cutter arbor. Its lower end contains a bearing which supports the arbor
in one or two ways,. depending on its position on the arbor, the style of arbor used.

Milling Machine Work Holding Devices

Work piece have to hold firmly with tightly on milling machine table for precise milling
operation. The most generally use holding devices are various types of vices and holding
devices used on a milling machine.

Milling Machine Vises

Milling machine vise is mainly general type of work holding devise use on milling machine.
1. Plain Milling Machine Vise
2. Universal Angle Milling Vise

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1. Plain Milling Machine Vise

Plain vise is use for holding work which has parallel sides. Vise is bolt directly to table by Tslots in the
machine table. Plain vise can be accompanied through a swivel base. Swivel base
is graduated in degrees with allows vise to swivel in horizontal plane. Swivel base give vise a
greater degree of flexibility, but must be avoid while doing heavy irregular cutting operations
as it reduces the stiffness of setup.

2. Universal Angle Milling Vise

Universal angle vice is for machining operations relating compound angles is commonly
used. Universal vise allocate the operative to tilt the workpiece 90 in vertical plane too as
swivel it 360 in horizontal plane. In high production condition an air or hydraulically actuate
vise can used. These vises are rapid acting. They also uphold reliable clamping pressures as
of one part to next. Though, on mainly manual type milling machines vise is opened or
closed by handle. As tightening a plain type milling machine vise is not needed to strike
handle of the vise.

Milling Machine Holding Devices

The most generally use holding devices are various types of holding devices used on a
milling machine.
1. Circular Table
2. Collets
3. T-bolts and Clamps
4. Angle Plates
5. Parallels
6. Fixtures
7. Cutter Holding Devices
8. Direct Mounting to the Table
9. V-Blocks

1.Circular Table
Circular table are presented in market in dissimilar shapes, designs, and specifications,
except by the similar basic purpose. Circular tables are use for milling circular surfaces. On
boring machines, circular tables are use for boring a sequence of holes. Circular table can be
mount on machine table and use for make circular surfaces after centralization. Circular table
are now presented in different inclinable forms for angular work. Indexing principles of
circular tables are base on: (a) vernier principle, (b) dividing head index plate principles (C)
optical scale principle. Vernier principle circular tables are mainly plentifully use on milling
machines. These are calibrate accuracy tables use for precise work.

2.Collets
Collet is an exact, time-saving cutter holding device use on milling machines. It is presented
Extremely frequently, small cutters are giving by threaded holes at centre. These cutters are
mounting on threaded nose of an arbor. Arbor is mounting on spindle in common way and
the cutter is held on the other end for moving out milling operations

3. T-bolts and Clamps

T-bolts are use for hold work directly on milling machine. Milling machine table is providing
by T-slots with the workpiece is held by the help of T bolts. Clamps are also called straps, are

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mild steel flats commonly 12-20 mm broad and 45-75 mm wide. They are giving by a slot or
opening to allow T-bolt to pass through them.

4. Angle Plates
Angle plate is L shaped part of Cast Iron or Steel to have tapped holes or slots to make easy
the clamping of workpiece. Angle plates are use while parts require to contain machining
operations perform at a 90 angle to axis of the table.

5. Parallels
Parallels are part of steel bar stock precisely machines so that the opposite sides are parallel
to each other. Parallels are providing in sets of two by the same dimensions. Parallels are
use in order to provide clearance below the work so cutting tool does not break the machine
table or vise base.

6. Fixtures
Fixtures are particular work holding devices to be specially intended to hold an exacting
workpiece. Fixtures are required, in a few cases, to hold odd-shaped parts which cannot be
held any other method. Castings are generally a excellent example of parts which require to
be fixtured. Fixtures can use in high production position. Use of fixtures reduces loading,
locating, clamping with unloading time. Depending upon the intend requirements, different
types of fixtures are use on milling machines.

7. Cutter Holding Devices

Depending upon the devise of cutter, the following cutter devices are use on milling
machine.

Arbors
Cutting have a bore are mount on arbor of a milling machine. A simplify vied of a milling
cutter mounted on an arbor.
Some rules have to be followed as holding cutters on milling machine:
1. Turn cutter in correct direction with protect it as of breakage by using suitable speeds and
feeds.
2. Keep the milling spindle head and tapers on milling arbors as of break.
3. Use a accurate milling cutter equivalent to diameter of arbor.
4. Clean all fitting surfaces previous to assembly.

8. Direct Mounting to the Table:

Work that is as well big or has an odd pattern is generally bolted directly to table. This
process of work holding takes the most skill and capability. Direct Clamping using strap
clamps-Stop block is use to support the work as well as stop the part from slipping.

9. V-Blocks
V-Blocks hold and support encircling work for milling or drilling. V-Blocks come in various
different sizes. On milling machines, V-Blocks are in general clamped directly to table. V Block and a
strap clamp being use to clamp a round element to table.

Milling Machine Operations

Following different operations can be perform on milling machine:
1. Face Milling Operation
2. Straddle Milling Operation
3. Side Milling Operation

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4. Plain Milling Operation
5. Angular Milling Operation
6. Gang Milling Operation
7. Profile Milling Operation
8. Form Milling Operation
9. End Milling Operation
10. Slot Milling Operation
11. Gear Cutting Operation
12. Saw Milling Operation
13. Cam Milling Operation
14. Thread Milling Operation
15. Helical Milling Operation

1. Face Milling Operation

Face milling operation make flat surface at face on workpiece. Surface is perpendicular to
surface prepared in plain milling operation. This operation is performing by face milling
cutter mount on stub arbor of milling machine. Depth of cut is set according to require and
cross feed is given to work table.

2. Straddle Milling Operation:

Straddle milling operation is like to side milling operation. Two side milling cutters are
mount on equal arbor. Distance among them is so adjusted to equally sides of workpiece can
milled at the same time. Hexagonal bolt can create by this operation by turning workpiece
just two times as this operation produce two parallel faces of bolt at the same time.

3. Side Milling Operation

Side milling operation makes flat and vertical surfaces at sides of workpiece. In this
operation depth of cut is familiar through adjusting vertical feed screw of workpiece.

4. Plain Milling Operation

Plain milling operation is also called slab milling. These operations make flat surfaces on
workpiece. Feed and depth of cut are select, rotating milling cutter is motivated as of one
end of workpiece to other end to complete the one pairs of plain milling operation.

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5.

Angular Milling Operation

Angular milling operation is use to make angular surface on workpiece. The created surfaces
make an angle by the axis of spindle which is not right angle. Production of V shaped groove
is exemplar of angular milling opration.

6.

Gang Milling Operation

Gang milling operation makes several surfaces of workpiece concurrently using a gang of
milling cutters. Through this operation, workpiece mount on table is fed beside the revolving
milling cutters.

7.

Profile Milling Operation

Profile milling operation a pattern of difficult shape or master die is use. Tracer and milling
cutter are coordinated jointly by respect to their movements. Tracer reads pattern or master
die with milling cutter make the similar shape on workpiece. Profile milling is an operation
use to make shape of a pattern or die.

8.

Form Milling Operation

Form milling operation is produces irregular curve on work surface. These irregular curve can
be convex, concave, or of any other shape. This operation is completed fairly at very low
cutter speed than plain milling operation.

9.

End Milling Operation

End milling operation make flat vertical surfaces, flat horizontal surfaces and further flat
surfaces make an angle as of table surface by milling cutter name as end mill. This operation
is if possible carried out on vertical milling machine.

10. Slot Milling Operation

Slot milling operation make grooves, keyways, slots of unstable shapes with sizes is calling slot
milling operation. This operation can use any kind of milling cutter similar to plain milling
cutter, metal slitting saw or side milling cutter. Choose of a cutter depends upon kind
and size of slot or groove to be created. Right placement milling cutter is extremely main in
this operation as axis of cutter must be at middle of geometry of slot or groove to be
created.

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11. Gear Cutting Operation

Gear cutting operation is cutting of uniformly spaced, identical gear teeth on gear blank by
handling it on a universal dividing head with then indexing it. Cutter use for this process is
cylindrical type or end mill type. Cutter selection too depends upon tooth profile with their
spacing.

12. Saw Milling Operation

Saw milling operation make narrow slots or grooves in workpiece using saw milling cutter.
This operation is too use to cut workpiece into two equal or unequal pieces which cut is too
identified as parting off. Lest of parting off operation cutter with workpiece are set in way so
to the cutter is directly located above one of the T slot of worktable.

13. Cam Milling Operation

Cam milling operation is use to make the cam on milling machine. In this operation cam
blank is mount at the end of dividing head spindle with the end mill is held in vertical milling
attachment.

14. Thread Milling Operation

Thread milling operation make threads using thread milling centres. This process requires
three concurrent movements revolving movement of cutter, concurrent longitudinal
movement of cutter, feed movement to workpiece through table. For every thread, revolving
cutter is fed longitudinal with a distance equivalent to pitch of thread. Depth of cut is usually
adjusted equal to full depth of threads.

15. Helical Milling Operation

Helical milling operation is make helical flutes or grooves on the edge of cylindrical or
tapering workpiece. This is perform through swiveling table to necessary helix angle, then
rotating and feeding the workpiece beside revolving cutting edges of milling cutter. Drill,
helical gears and reamers are finished by this operation.

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Drilling Machine
Drilling Machine
Drilling is a process of make circular hole through removing a amount of metal as of the job
by cutting tool call drill. Drill is rotary end-cutting tool by one or more cutting lips with
generally one or more flutes for the way of chips and the entrance of cutting fluid. Drilling
machine is machine tool planned for drilling holes in metals. Its one of mainly important
and flexible machine tools in workshop. Besides drilling round holes, a lot of other process
can also present on drilling machine for example counter- boring, honing, reaming,
countersinking, sanding, lapping, etc.

Classification of Drilling Machine:

Drilling machines are classified on basis of their constructional features, or the type of work
they can handle.
(1) Portable drilling machine
(2) Sensitive drilling machine
(a) Bench mounting
(b) Floor mounting
(3) Upright drilling machine
(a) Round column section
(b) Box column section machine
(4) Radial drilling machine
(a) Plain
(b) Semi universal

22
(c) Universal
(5) Gang drilling machine
(6) Multiple spindle drilling machine
(7) Automatic drilling machine
(8) Deep hole drilling machine
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal

Types of Drilling Machines

There are various types and kind of drilling machines presented in market with a few of
mainly popular drilling machines use in mechanical workshops are as below:
1. Multiple Spindles Drill Press
2. Back Geared Upright Drill Press
3. Hand Feed Drill Press
4. Gang Drilling Machine
5. Hand Drill
6. Radial Drill Press
7. Portable Electric Drill

1. Multiple Spindles Drill press

Multiple spindles drill press is a drilling machine has a number of spindles fixed firmly to
major spindle by universal joints. Every of these spindles hold a drill with all the drills run at
one time, so drilling at one time as a lot of holes as there are drills. This machine is
moreover use in mass production. Its a huge time saver where a lot of pieces every have a
number of holes contain to be drilled. It does gone by setting lip the job several times. One
machine does work of many machines and space that these machines would or else occupy
is saving.

2. Back Geared Upright Drill Press

This machine is similar to sensitive drill press but that it is larger with more influential. It
has gears for changing speeds. These gears are calling back gears. Moreover also feeding by
hand as on the sensitive drill press, this machine has an automatic feed to uses power to
lower drill. Larger drills be able to use than in the sensitive drill.

23

3. Hand Feed Drill Press

Small light work might be drill on hand feed drill press. It is a small press in which just
smaller drills are use. It possibly single which sets on bench call a bench drill or it can be a
floor model. Its simplest drill press with perhaps call sensitive as one can feel how drill is
cutting with to control down reed pressure consequently.

4. Gang Drilling Machine

Gang drill is a drilling machine in which two or other drill presses are ganged through in to
one machine. Every spindle possibly runs unaccompanied. This machine is use in mass
production wherever dissimilar drill press process is finished one after another. Few works
possibly finished by one spindle with then passed to next spindle for next process and
almost immediately. One spindle can hold a small drill, a second may hold a large drill, a
third may hold a countersink, and so on the work is accordingly passed along table as of
spindle to next.

5. Hand Drill
Common drilling tool, which is use for extremely high work is recognized as hand drill. It is
held by the left hand as right hand turn back which causes drill to turn. The left hand have to
press hard sufficient to create drill cut.

6. Radial Drill Press

Radial drill press has a mutable arm on which spindle is mount. The spindle possibly moved
as set at unusual distance as of the post or column. The arm can also be swing
approximately to left or right. The arm possibly raises or lowers so that work of different
height might be drilled. Radial drill press is use for large and heavy work such as machine
frames, which can be motivated simply to drill numerous holes. It is, thus, required to shift
position of drill.

24

7. Portable Electric Drill

Small drilling machine, which be able to passed as of job to job basis is handy electric drill. It
can be run as of any electric light socket.

Function and Operation of Drilling Machine:

Drill press is a powerful machine tool use for drill holes in different materials. Two regular
types of drill presses are upright floor mounted and the bench type. Usual sizes variety as of
one third to three horsepower and a general machine shop drill press can drill holes able to
1 inch in diameter. The common of drill bits are prepared of high speed steel. Drill bits that
are tapered, fit directly in spindle of drill press. Regular non-tapered bits, assemble into key
or keyless chuck. Chuck is then located into spindle. Drill presses are usually powered
through an electric motor which is mounting at back of the head assembly. Power is
generally transmit as of motor to spindle using v-groove belts and gear box. Spindle speeds
are modify by place v-belt on unusual grooves atop spindle and motor drive pulleys, or
through use handles to adjust the gear ratio on gear box. Spindle is enforced down by a
handle placed on the right side of head assembly. Pull the handle forward and down move
about the spindle down, and release the handle returns spindle through spring action. This
handle must be pulled by slow stable pressure allow for irregular release in pressure to

25
decrease heat and prevent long strands of waste material as of interfering or injuring the
operator. Equally the head assembly and table can generally be adjusted up and down. A few
tables allow lifting action to suit work at hand.

Drilling Operations
Drilling Operations might also be finished on drill press such as:
1. Counter boring
2. Counter-Sinking
3. Tapping
4. Spot faring
5. Reaming
6. Drilling
7. Boring
8. Lapping
9. Core Drilling

1. Counter Boring
Counter boring is method of machining a cylindrically shaped hole in a before drill hole.
Counter bore provide a recess for cap-screws, bolt heads with fillister head screws. Slower
RPM is use with correct depth is important to make sure correct tit of fastener in hole.
Counter bores are presented in several sizes with straight or taper shank.

2. Counter Sinking
Countersinking is machining a conical shaped recess in a before drill hole. The majority
ordinary countersinks existing are 60, center holes machine screws with various rivets
contain an angle aircraft rivets have an angle of 10 and need countersink. Countersinking
speed is concerning one forth RPM of drill.

3.Tapping
Taping process on a drill press is prepared in two methods. Tapping attachments contain a
friction clutch to slips and stops rotation of tap in start to stick. They moreover contain a
reverse method that reverses rotation of tap this is prepared by reversing feed direction on
drill press while the hole has been tapped to finish length.

26

4. Spot Facing
Spot facers are like to counter bores with are use to machine surfaces upright to hole axis to
give a level seat for threaded fasteners.

5. Reaming
Drilled hole is constantly bigger than diameter of drill. While a round hole by straight with
flat walls is required. Reaming is a process of sizing, aligning and smooth a drilled hole
through use of a reamer.

6. Drilling
This operation of creation a circular hole by remove a volume of metal as of job through a
rotating cutting tool called drill. Drilling removes solid metal as of job to create a round hole.
Previous to drilling, hole is placed with drawing two lines at right angle with a center punch is
use to create an groove for drill point at center to facilitate the drill in getting happening. A
proper drill is held in drill machine with drill machine is used to to operate at right cutting
speed.

8. Boring
Boring is a process of enlarge a presented hole by a single point cutting tool. Boring
operation is frequently prefer as we can correct hole size, or alignment and can produce
smooth finish. Boring tool is held in boring bar which has shank. Accuracy of 0.005mm can
be achieve.

9. Lapping
Lapping is operation of sizing, finishing a hole through removing extremely small quantity of
material by means of an abrasive. Abrasive material is kept in contact by the sides of hole
that is designate lapped, with use of lapping tool.

10.

Core Drilling

Core drilling is a main operation, which is perform on radial drilling machine for create a
circular hole, which is deep in solid metal by means of revolving tool called drill.

27

Shaper Machine
Shaper Machine
Shaper machine is use to flat surfaces in horizontal, vertical or angular planes with simple
inside surfaces. Single point cutting tool is use on shaper. Cutting tool is fixed firmly in a tool
post attach to a ram. Ram respond, pushing the cutting tool back and forth crossways workpiece.
Forward stroke of the ram is cutting stroke. In return stroke tool make to the starting
point. When tool is return table and the work-piece are difficult. Common shaper is
Horizontal shaper with the shaper contain vertical movement of ram is call vertical shaper.

Construction of Shaper Machine

The major function of shaper machines is to generate flat surfaces in various planes. The
cutting movement gives with the linear forward movement of reciprocating tool and the
intermittent feed movement gives through the slow transverse motion of work piece along
with bed effect in produce a flat surface with gradual removal of excess material layer
through layer in type of chips. Vertical infeed is certain also by descending tool holder or
raise bed or equally. Straight grooves of different curved sections are too prepared in shaper
machine through using specific shape tools. Single point straight or form tool is clamped in
vertical slide which is mount at front face of reciprocating ram while the work piece is
directly or indirectly through a vice is build up on bed.

Classification of Shapers
Shapers are classifying in the follow way:
1. According to cutting stroke
(i) Push type shaper
(ii) Draw cut type shaper
2. According to the length of stroke
(i) 30 cm shaper
(ii) 45 cm shaper
(iii) 60 cm shaper
3. According to force
(i) Mechanical shapers
(ii) Crank-driven shapers
(iii) Geared shapers
(iv) Hydraulic shapers

28
4. According to movement of the ram
(i) Horizontal shaper
(ii) Vertical shaper or slotter
5. According to movement of table
(i) Simple shaper
(ii) Universal shaper
6. According to process of transmit power
(i) All geared shaper
(ii) Cone pulley belt-driven shaper

Working Principle of Shaper Machine

Work piece is held in a proper mechanism clamp firmly on machine table. Cutting tool is
held in tool post mount on the ram of shaper. Arm respond up and down with in doing so
cuts the material held in the vice through cutting stroke. Usually, cutting action takes place
in forward stroke, which is also identified as cutting stroke.

Types of Shapers
Concise explanations of different types of shapers are use in workshops as.
1. Contour shaper
2. Universal shaper
3. Standard shaper
4. Draw cut shaper
5. Horizontal shaper
6. Crank shaper
7. Vertical shaper
8. Hydraulic shaper
9. Geared shaper

1. Contour shaper
Contour shaper is usual shapers fixed by an additional tracer mechanism. This shaper has a
pattern and follower is use to make a contour like to shape of template. It is proper for
produce shapes that cannot be formed by shapers.

2. Universal shaper
Universal shaper is moreover a horizontal shaper by major dissimilarity that it has a special
kind of table to can be swung on horizontal axis parallel to the ram way. Top of table can too
be twisted on another horizontal axis which is normal to former axis. Its call a universal
shaper as job be able to tilted in any way during necessary angle by the help of a swivel vice.

29

3. Standard shaper
Standard Shaper mainly generally uses type of shaper. It has of plain table to can or cannot
contain vertical supports at its front. A few machines have a condition for the table to swivel
around a horizontal axis parallel to the ram. Material is cut in forward stroke of tool with
come back stroke is unused.

4. Draw cut shaper

Draw cut shaper comparable to a standard shaper in construction except is moderately
heavier. Its major disparity as of standard shaper is that it peels off metal chips through
backward stroke while a standard shaper does so through forward stroke.

5. Horizontal shaper
Horizontal shaper is the force reciprocates in horizontal plane with so do the tool. Its like to
standard shapers by an additional plain table provide in machine.

6. Crank shaper
Crank shapers whose ram reciprocate by help of a crank mechanism are known as crank
shapers.

7. Vertical shaper
Vertical shaper, the ram reciprocate in vertical way. This is also known as a slotter.

8. Hydraulic shaper
Hydraulic shaper the motion to the ram is give by hydraulic pressure. They are very helpful in
engineering workshops.

9. Geared shaper
Geared shaper the ram reciprocate by spur gear mechanism. This type of shaper carries a
rack under the ram fur up and down movement.

30

Working and Parts of Shaper Machine

Working
Work-piece is firmly fixed on machine table. Single point cutting tool held correctly on tool
post is mount on a reciprocate ram. Reciprocate movement of ram is obtain by a fast return
motion machinery. Because the ram reciprocates, tool cuts the material during its forward
stroke. Through go back, there is no cutting action and this stroke is call the idle stroke. Forward and
return strokes form one working cycle of shaper.

Main Parts of Shaper Machine

The main parts of horizontal shaper are as below:
1. Ram
2. Table
3. Clapper box
4. Tool head
5. Column
6. Cross Rail
7. Stroke Adjustment
8. Table supports
9. Base

1. Ram
Ram is a heavy casting that responds on ways of column. Ram movement is obtaining also
mechanically, on crank type shapers, pivoted rocker, which is fixed firmly during linkage to
ram, or reciprocates the ram hydraulically. Hydraulically driven shapers are like to crank type
but that hydraulic oil pressures developed by a pump drive the ram. Hydraulic shapers
contain the advantages of wider angle of speed and feeds and consistent motion.

2. Table
Table is mounting on way to moves on horizontal way of cross rail. Table is void container
casting by machined T-slots on the top and sides. Vise is generally fixed firmly to top of table
to hold work piece. There are two kind of tables Plain and Universal. Plain table is able of
horizontal and vertical actions only and universal table, in addition to affecting horizontally
and vertically be able to swivel to machine angles on job.

3. Clapper box
Clapper box is hanged to tool slide. It can be rotate a small sum in each direction. Clapper
box have to be correctly placed while make vertical or angular cuts so tool will swing out with

31
away as of the work piece to give the clearance on swing out and away as of the work piece to
give clearance on return stroke. For horizontal cuts, clapper box is generally positioned
vertically. Shaper cutting tool is held in tool post on clapper box on cutting stroke the
pressure as of the cutting tool holds clapper box resolutely beside the tool head.

4. Tool head
Tool head is fixed to front of ram and be able to swivel for make angular nuts. It has tool post
with tool holder that hold cutting tool. Tool slide is moved lip or down by a feed screw to
regulate for correct depth of cut.

5. Column
Column is void casting mount directly on base housing the working, mechanism to force the
ram. Upper surface of column has two precision machined conducts on which ram respond.
Front face of column has to be machined at right angles to ram conduct on top of column.

6. Cross Rail
Cross rail permit vertical and horizontal movement of table. Cross feed mechanism is attached to
cross rail.

7. Stroke Adjustment
Reciprocate movement of ram of a shaper is gain by the mechanism. Drive pinion rotate the
bull wheel at consistent speed. On the side of bull wheel is a rocker arm have a slot by a
diabolic, which is free to slide. Die block is attached by a crank pin to bull wheel. Radius of
revolution of crank pin which manages length of the stroke is too changeable as it is fixed to
a block sliding in a dovetail slot on bull wheel.

8. Table supports
Table supports extend as of outer surface of table to the base and is use on some larger
shapers to support the weight of table.

9. Base
Base is a heavy casting to supports all main element parts of machine.
Job Holding Devices Used on a Shaper
The majority of jobs on a shaper machine are held in vice, except frequently job is also fixed
on table. Usually, following job holding devices are used on a shaper:
1. Swivel base vice
2. Universal machine vice
3. Plain vice
4. Precision angle vice
5. Compound machine vice
6. Vertical vice

1. Swivel base vice

Swivel base vice have of a rotate base which is mount on a cast iron base. Body of vice is
mount on a swivel base and be able to clamped in any angular place by way of clamping bolt.
Graduate scale is providing on rotate base which helps in adjust body at any preferred angle
relative to base and swivel base this vice is like to a plain vice in construction. Vice is
mounting on table by the help of slots and T-bolts provide on base.

32

2. Universal machine vice

Universal machine vice separately as of being swiveled in the horizontal plane preserve also
be slanted in vertical plane to preferred angles. Therefore this vice is fit for milling with
shaping of compound angles. It allows machining of different surfaces that are diverse
inclinations, with no remove the job as of the vice.

3. Plain vice
Plain Vice most generally use used for all engineering process is plain vice. It has of a solid
cast iron fundamental that carry an unchanging jaw at one end. Other end carry an important
projection which is threaded within and acts as a nut for screwed spindle, which as rotary in
it move the changeable jaw. Plain vice is generally using for hold work for shaping, milling
with grinding process.

4. Precision angle vice

Precision angle vice has of a cast iron base that carry two small vertical projection. One end
of body is hinged over one projection and other end can be familiar in a vertical way to
necessary angle. One end by the hinge carries a vernier scale for making accurate and rapid
angular adjustment of job in an upright plane.

5. Compound machine vice

Compound machine vice is an extremely functional accuracy vice that carries a compound
slide similar to compound slide use on a lathe. Work piece is held among the jaws of vice,
which is fixed on the table.

6. Vertical vice
Vertical vice is like to a plain vice in creation. The simply dissimilarity is in the position of
jaws. Vertical vice carry jaws in a vertical position and is particularly use for holding jobs that
are to be machined at the ends.

Applications of Shaper Machine

Shaping machines are neither productive nor versatile. Shaper machine is a cutting machine
to cuts a linear tool trail using is linear relative motion among single point cutting tool with
the piece of work. This form of machine is generally use to machine flat, straight surfaces,
though it is also able to present more difficult operation with the machining of gear teeth,
dovetail slides, and internal spline, keyways in boss of also gears or pulleys with various
other forms of work that take benefit of the machines linear relative motion. Machining flat
surfaces in different planes show flat surfaces are formed in shaping machines by single
point cutting tools in (a) horizontal, (b) vertical and (c) inclined planes.

33

Planer
Planer
Planer machine is a very big machine that is planned for make flat surfaces on a piece of
work. Planer is large machine tool use for machining flat surfaces by way of single point
cutting tools. Work to be machined is fixed steadily to planer table by proper holding
devices. Table contains a reciprocating motion and length of stroke is 3-5 cm longer than
length of surfaces designate planed. A Cutting process on planer is carrying out through the
stationary cutting tool alongside the reciprocating work piece.

Main Parts of Planer Machine:

The main parts of Planer machine are as below:
1. Saddle
2. Cross rails
3. Tool head
4. Table
5. Housing
6. Bed

1. Saddle
Saddle is a part to be fixed to ways of cross rail. On its front surface are ways to which tool
head is fixed jointly by a vertical feed screw that give for a vertical movement of tool head.
There are two saddles, one for the left tool head, and other for the right tool head. Every one
might be operate separately of other.

2. Cross rails
Cross rail is a part that is mounting in a horizontal position of vertical way of the housing. Its
function is to take the vertical tool heads which by means of feed screws might be moved as
of left to right. Cross rail is moved up or down through means of moving screws that are
placed in the ways of housing.

34

3. Tool head
Tool head is a component attach to saddle, which contain the tool post, which in turn hold
cutting tools. Tool post is hinged to head so that on come back movement of table the
cutting tool force is raise with ride on top of job. This saves the cutting edge of tool as of
being damage and permits the automatic saves supply to function with no intrusion.

4. Table
The table is a huge rectangular casting to mount on top of bed, on sliding V ways. Its function
is to hold the job. Upper surface has T slots in it to make easy clamp of job or vises with
particular fixtures by T bolts.

5. Housing
Housing is huge vertical casting to straddle the table and bed of planer with supports
machinery for the process of tool heads.

6. Bed
Bed is a big box similar to casting which acts as groundwork of the machine. Other parts are
attaching to or supported by the bed. It is prepared out of cast iron.

Types of Planer Machine:

Planers are commonly separated into 5 types:
1. Pit Type Planer
2. Divide Type Planer
3. Double Housing Planer
4. Edge Type Planer
5. Open Side Planer

1. Pit Type Planer

Pit type planer change as of other planer in logic that, the table and work piece resting on it
continue motionless and tool reciprocates crossways the work surface. This type of machine
is preferred for extremely large work, where weight of work piece and tool necessary table
would make respond movement difficult. Job is also mounting on a motionless table, or on
floor in a pit, and thus the name pit type planer. One or two tool heads can mount on cross
rail with two side tool posts housings, if necessary. The whole unit travels beside the
horizontal ways and fro and, therefore the tool moves past the work surface through process.

35

2. Divide Type Planer

Divide type planer is also call tandem planer, consists of two worktables, which might be
reciprocal jointly or singly. It is reasonably well known that, rising and setting of work pieces
on worktable use more time thus restrict the machine for nonstop mass production function.
In such cases, separated table planer can use, where in, one worktable can be use for setting
up a latest workpiece, as the second worktable moving workpiece is being machined. Two
tables can fix jointly to hold large workpieces.

3. Double Housing Planer

Double housing planer is the major type of planer. It consists of mostly a massive bed on
which work table respond, and two vertical columns or housing, one on every side of bed.
Every column carry a tool head to can be move up and down on column. Cross rail fixed
among the two columns might carry one or two tool heads that can slide horizontally on
cross rail. Every one tool heads can be clamp in position, and can use jointly or separately
depending on the necessities.

4. Edge Type Planer

Edge type planer is use for machining the edges of weighty work pieces. The workpiece is
clamp on the bed with the side mount carriage supporting the cutting tool is reciprocal along
edging of the workpiece. Cutting can take place during equally directions of carriage move.

5. Open Side Planer

Open side planer have of just one vertical column or housing on which cross rail is mount.
Column and the cross rail take single and double tool heads in that order. This kind of
machine permit machining of extensive work pieces.

36

Planer Operations:
By first every planning operation, work-piece is clamp tightly on planer table with different
clamping devices. Different operations present on a planer is given below:
1. Planing Curved Surfaces
2. Planing Vertical Surfaces
3. Planing Horizontal Surfaces
4. Planing Slots and Dovetails
5. Planing at an Angle and Grooving

1. Planing Curved Surfaces

Planing Curved surfaces be created on a planer through use particular fixtures. Fixture have
of a radius arm pivot by bracket. Bracket is attached to cross part attach to housing. Slide is
fixed to radial arm after remove feed screw. As planing cross-feed is occupied. These reason
saddle to navigate to cross-rail with the tool more a guide radius to make a curved in surface.

2. Planing Vertical Surfaces

Planing with use a side head is belier. Bolts of tool holder are loosen with tool holder is
swivel also to left or the right place. Swiveling stop the tool as of exhausted over planed
surface. By enchanting a cut it requirements to be ensure to sliding of tool is vertical to
horizontal surface. Tool is bring into place with the cut is started. Tool is fed down through
necessary feed with next cut is in use. Process is repeat till the entire of surface is
machined.

3. Planing Horizontal Surfaces

Work-piece is held tightly on table with cross-rail is set to proper height. Roughing tool is
located in tool holder such to it is vertical to work-piece. Deepness of cut speed with supply
is familiar and equally the rail heads are motivated at the same time for removal of metal, by
cutting tool next to reciprocate job. Process is continuous turn over roughing cuts are ended.
Finishing of job is finished by the help of a finishing tool by pleasing beam cuts.

37

4. Planing Slots and Dovetails

Planing Slots are created by use a slot tool in equal method as on a shaper. The way of
cutting dovetail is comparable to that of grooving.

5. Planing at an Angle and Grooving

Planing of job at an angle is finished by swivel toot head assembly about the centre axis by
respect to saddle. Protractor is set at a preferred angle with clamped to table of planer.
Reading are in use through placing gauge at dissimilar place. Comparable readings mean that
tool holder is accurately put. Work-piece is set tightly on planer bed with planing of surface is
finished by feed the tool. Dial gauge is use for precise setting of tool holder at an angle.
Cutting at angle with groove process be able to understand simply through planing V-block.
Past set tool with clamp job the tool cuts reciprocate part. Following every cut the tool is
higher through the necessary feed to replicate the Cut. Method is continuous till finish.

Planer Machine Tool Holder:

As using tool bits, the general practice is to use a heavy tool shank of plain carbon steel or of
high strength treated alloy steel by High speed steel. Cast alloy or Carbide tip clamped or
brazed to shank.
High speed steel or cast alloy tools use for heavy roughing cuts. Carbide tools are use for
finishing cuts. Care has to be exercise in using carbide tools on machines not prepared by an
automatic lifting device for tool on return stroke. If tool is allowable to rub work, the cutting
edge is probable to chipped.

Lubrication of Planer:
The bases of planer machine contain generally a hollow/reservoir at one side to fill oil used
for lubrication during a pump. Oil pump is generally motivated by main drive shaft. Pump
supply the lubricant to all affecting parts through copper tubing.

Uses of Planer Machine:

Planers machines are use by smaller tool with die shops in bigger assembly facilities to
continue and repair large stamp dies and plastic injection moulds. Other uses contain any
other task where an unusually large block of metal have to be square as a horizontal grinder
or floor mill is occupied too costly, or unreasonable to use. While not as precise as grinding,
planer can eliminate a great quantity of material in one pass by high accuracy.

Applications of Planer Machine:

The common and feasible machining applications of planing machines are:
Machining the most important features like principal surfaces and guideways of beds and
tables of different machines like lathes, grinding machines, milling machines and planing
machines itself, raise machines etc. are general applications of planing machine as indicate
where the numerous parallel surfaces of usual machine bed and guideway are surfaced
through a number of single point HSS or carbide tools. Also that long parallel T-slots, Vee and
inverted Vee type guideways are too machined in planing machines.

38

Difference between Shaper and Planer:

Shaper

Planer

01

Cutting stroke is
slower than inactive
stroke.

Cutting stroke is remain

slower.

02

Shaper machine is
use for small
workings.

Planer machine use for

large workings.

03

Through machining a
single cutting tool is
use.

Two or extra cutting tools

be able to use through
machining.

04

Cutting tool move up

and down in
horizontal
direction as make a
cutting process.

Cutting tool remains

motionless.

05

Stroke length is small.

Stroke length is
considerably bigger than
that of a
shaper.

06

Stroke length is
regulated through
the stroke
adjust screw.

Distance of table travel is

keeping pace by stops
with dogs.

07

Cutting rate through

the cutting stroke
differ.

Planer has nearly stable

cutting speeds.

08

Work-piece is held
tightly on a stable
bed.

Work-piece is held firmly

on a horizontally moving
table.

39

Broaching
Broaching:
Broaching is a process in which a particular tool call broach is required across or through workpiece,
with also pushing or pulling, form a shaped surface. Broach has sequence of teeth which augment in
size gradually as of one end to other. In doing so, every tooth of tool takes a little cut during workpiece
to be broached. Broaching is very fast and accurate metal cutting process, which combines both
roughing and finishing in one process. Though, no individual broach tooth completes equally
functions. Every successive tooth removes simply a prearranged quantity of stock and remains in
cutting contact just for a short time. Cutting process in broaching is perform through a single push or
pull motion of broaching tool and not with a back or forth motion. The majority of broaching
operations are carried out with pull way. Broaches use in pull broaching are greatly longer than those
use in push broaching. Push broach is forced through material while a pull broach is drawn through
material.

Broaching is classified in two wide categories:

1. Internal broaching
2. Surface broaching

1. Internal Broaching:
Internal broaching means make a hole of every preferred shape in workpiece already have a round
hole. Such as: Making splines, keyway and square holes.

40

2. Surface Broaching;
In surface broaching, external surfaces on workpieces are generating. Surface broaching machines
not just produce flat surfaces but various other ruled surfaces with those of difficult contours.
Examples consist of the outside surfaces of major bearings of engine cylinder blocks, major
bearing caps, connecting rods, and so on.

Principal Parts of Broach:

The main parts of Broach machine are given below:
1. Pitch
2. Neck
3. Land
4. Front Pilot
5. Roughing Teeth
6. Pull End
7. Finishing Teeth
8. Rear Pilot and Follower Rest
9. Height of the Teeth

1.

Pitch:

Pitch is distance among two corresponding points on two successive teeth of broach. Usually pitch
of finishing teeth broach is kept moderately smaller than rough cutting teeth.

2.

Neck:

Neck is necessary so that broach, as inserted into workpiece, can be simply attached to puller head
by latter in position adjacent to faceplate or platen of broaching machine. Front taper helps
workpiece to be extra easily put on front pilot of broach. Its length ranges as of 5 to 20 mm.

3.

Land:

Land is width of flank face of broach usually it is kept slightly inclined to give relief angle to flank
face of broach.

4.

Front Pilot:

This centres broach in the hole to finished just before initiate of processing.

5.

Roughing Teeth:

These are cutting edges which eliminate larger quantity of stocks through cutting. Bigger amount
removal generates poor quality of surface finish but create operation faster.

6.

Pull End:

Pull end is made to fasten the broach to broaching machine through puller head.

7.

Finishing Teeth:

These are cutting edges remove lesser stock of material. These are use for finishing of surfaces
and their precise sizing.

8.

Rear Pilot and Follower Rest:

It is supporting device to broach as it is possible to complete its process of broaching.

41

9.

Height of the Teeth :

Height of roughing and final teeth steadily increases from shank to finishing teeth. This increase is
call the cut per tooth, it depends on material being machined. Usually cut per tooth is taken as of
0.01 or 0.2 mm for finishing teeth and it might go up 0.2 mm for cutting teeth.

Parts of Broaching Machine:

Broaching machine is machine planned for machining, or finishing, surface of metal parts. It
consists of work table or various other fixtures to hold part in position, a broaching tool with
drive mechanism.
1. Drive Mechanism
2. Broaching Tool
3. Work Table
4. Broaching Fixtures
5. Component tray
6. Guide ways
7. Stroke adjustments
8. Safety

1.

Drive Mechanism:

Drive mechanism of broaching machine is usually hydraulic or electromechanical. In also case, its
function is to push or pull broaching tool across surface of part. Part, itself, remains motionless.

2.

Broaching Tool:

Broaching tool is cutting tool by graduated cutting teeth set in a row. Each one of cutting teeth
removes just a fraction of an inch as of surface of metal, but, as teeth become increasingly higher,
more metal is removed.

3.

Work Table:

Work table, or fixture, provides to tilt and grip part in place for broaching. The center of the part
and the center of the broaching tool are typically aligned with an offset of 1 degree, which creates
a scalloping effect on the metal surface.

4.

Broaching Fixtures:

These are use where workpieces require fixing or where a exact position of broach is necessary.

42

5.

Component tray :

The component tray has a provision to drain oil on broached components back into the machines.

6.

Guide ways:

Pull bridge is guided with the guide bars. These bars are toughened hard crome plated with are
finished by close tolerance to give jerk free movement.

7. Stroke adjustments:
Positioning of stroke is adjusted with two limit switches. Two additional limit switches at upper
and lower turnaround point of machine can be providing for security reasons.

8.

Safety:

Machine in process requires the two push buttons mount on front of machine. To be pushed by
both hands. This avoids the danger of hand of operator to be in machine as in motion. Thus risk
accident is completely avoided.

Principle of Broaching Machine:

A broaching is a machining process for elimination of a film of material of preferred width and
depth generally in one stroke by a slight rod or bar type cutter having a sequence of cutting edges
by gradually improved protrusion. In shaping, attain full depth need a number of strokes to
remove material in thin layers slowly through gradually infeeding the single point tool. While,
broaching enables remove complete material in one stroke simply by the gradually rising teeth of
cutter call broach.

Types of Broaching Machines:

Broaching can be done by use of hand or hydraulically operate arbor press. These presses are easy
and low-cost and are use for a range of inside broaching process similar to keyway cutting, and so
on. A set of broaches is use on these arbor presses. Commonly, broaching machines are classified:
1. Vertical
2. Horizontal

1. Vertical Machines:
In vertical broaching machines, move of broach is vertical. Vertical machines can be more
classified as:
a. Vertical Pull up Machines
b. Vertical Pull down machine
c. Vertical Surface Broaching Machine

43

a.

Vertical Pull up Machines:

In pull up type machine, workpiece is located under the worktable. Pulling mechanism is over the
worktable and broach handle carriage is below it. Workpiece is located above front pilot of broach.
Broach is raise until it engages puller head. While the broach is raise, workpiece come to have a
rest against the underside of worktable. Broach is then pulling through workpiece to entire
operation. The workpiece then falls free and is prevent into a container. Pull up broaching is
beneficial while no work holding fixture is use, when the broached parts fall off through gravity
and can be collect through a trough, so make simpler unloading. The majority of broaching
machines use in industry are of vertical type, by their chief benefit of economy of floor space.

b.

Vertical pull down machine:

This machine is optional for elevated creation internal broaching process. In this machine,
broaching operation is performing on top of worktable. Top end of broach is held through an
upper carriage. The process consists of passing front pilot of broach through hole to broach. This
is followed by automatic attachment of the lower end of the broach to a pulling mechanism in the
base of the machine and disengagement at the top. The broach is then pulled through the hole to
whole the broaching process. At end of cutting stroke, part is detached and broach is motivated
up to engage by upper carriage. For high production, it is preferred to have various arrangements
for fast loading and unloading of machine when one or more tools are use. This vertical machine
can simply adapt to use of a shuttle table for fast loading and unloading.

Vertical Surface Broaching Machine:

The broaching is able with downward stroke of ram that carries broach downward for cut and
then returns to top place. Workpiece is held in fixture which is fastened to horizontal sliding table.
Table recedes as of cutting position on completion of stroke and as ram is moving upward to its
initial place the machinist can remove the workpiece with reload the fixture by one more
workpiece. Table returns to position in time for next cutting stroke of ram. Double ram machine
has two ram with fixture sets, alongside. One ram move down by its fixture in cutting place. At
equal time the other returns as its fixture is unload, hence making a constant operation.

2. Horizontal Machines:
In horizontal broaching machines, broach travel along a horizontal directly pathway. These
machines can be more classified as:
a. Continuous Broaching Machine
b. Horizontal Pull Broaching Machine
c. Rotary Broaching Machine
d. Horizontal Surface Broaching Machine

44

a.

Continuous Broaching Machine:

Continuous broaching machine are use for external broaching of parts that need recurring cutting,
for example gear teeth. This machine has a nonstop chain travelling in horizontal plane above
sprockets. Fixtures for locate and clamping workpieces are mounting at interval on chain. Broach
is set horizontally above chain under the bracket. Workpieces are loaded into fixtures with
clamping them manually or automatically. These workpieces pass under the broach as chain
rotate. After workpieces are broached, they are automatically unclamped and evicted to drop into
hopper of machine.

b.

Horizontal Pull Broaching Machine:

In this machine, broach is pulled throughout workpiece with a draw head which is actuating
hydraulically. These machines are generally use for inside broaching process. This type of machine
is preferred as stroke requisite is large and ceiling height is imperfect. Lifting of heavy broaches is
avoided, but these machines occupy a lot more floor space than a vertical machine.

c.

Rotary Broaching Machine:

Rotary broaching machine, workpiece are mounted on fixtures on rotary table. Broaches are made
in short sections for simple sharpening and are mount on central column and rotary table is rotate
past the broaching position. These machines are use just for surface broaching of little parts.

d.

Horizontal Surface Broaching Machine:

Horizontal surface broaching machines are presented by stroke able to 9 metre and capability up
to 100 tons. In this machine, broach is mounting on a ram driven slide with is pulled above
workpiece surface to be broached. Workpiece is held in fixture.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Broaching:

Advantages
1. Broaching makes the valuable uses of cutting fluids as it make easy the flow of cutting fluid
into cuts.
2. When the machining cycle is fairly easy, broaching process does not require an extremely
skilled operator.
3. Broaching is faster than further machining process, resulting in high rate of production by
better finish and more precision.
4. It is also able to process internal and external surface including complex shaped cavities.
5. Due to faster operation and longer tool life, it is comparatively cheaper.
6. Broach makes both roughing and finishing process.

Disadvantages
1. Broaching machine is an extremely costly machine tool. Then the operation is necessary only
for mass production.
2. Broach sharpening is a costly and complex process and requires a separate sharpening
process.
3. Surface having a difficulty in way of broach travel cannot be machined.
4. Blind holes cannot be simply formed through broaching.
5. Subtle and very light jobs are hard to broach.
6. Initial cost of broach is extremely high.

45

Grinding
Grinding:
Grinding is a material removal process accomplished by abrasive particles that are contained in a
bonded grinding wheel rotating at very high surface speeds. The grinding wheel is usually disk shaped,
and is precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.

Construction and Working of Tool and Cutter Grinding Machine:

The universal tool and cutter grinder, can be setup for a wide variety of grinding operations. With
various attachments, it can do internal, gear cutter, cylindrical and surface grinding. It is designed to
support milling cutters, taps and reamers while they are sharpened to specified tolerances. Special
attachments permit straight, spiral and helical cutters to be sharpened. Many attachments and
specially formed grinding wheels are available. The wheel shapes most frequently used for tool and
cutter grinding. Because of the wide variety of work performed, no attempt will be made to cover
completely all the possible setups.

Construction/Main parts of Universal Tool and Cutter Grinder:

The machine is constructed with a heavy, rugged box-type bed or base. A saddle is mounted directly
on top of the bed. It moves on antifriction ball bearings on hardened ways. Mounted on the saddle is
the column supporting the wheel-head. The column is movable up and down and swivel to either side.
The wheel angles required for various kinds of work are thus made possible. The saddle also provides
the means for moving the wheel-head forward and back. The grinding wheel, can then be brought in
contact with the work. Over the saddle is mounted the top base containing the gears and mechanism
which control the table movement. The top base supports the ways for the bearings on which the
table rests and moves. The sib-tab1e moves longitudinally on the ways and provides the traverse of
the work before the grinding wheel. The function of the main parts of the universal tool and cutter
grinder is explained below.

1.

Table:

The worktable is mounted on the sub-table. It has T-slots for mounting the work and the
attachments used on the machine. The worktable is designed to swivel. With the table slightly

46
turned, the operator can grind tapers. Traverse of the table is controlled by a hand vhee1. Handwheels also control the movement of the column and saddle. TI table carries the headstock and
tailstock, which, in turn, hold the work-piece.

2.

Headstock and Tailstock;

A headstock and tailstock similar to those on an ordinary lathe are mounted on the table. For
cylindrical grinding, the work-piece is positioned between the centers and driven exactly as in the
ordinary lathe. The work rotates toward the operator, and the grinding wheel also turns toward
the operator. At the point of contact, the wheel and the work are moving in opposite directions.
The headstock rotates a chuck for internal grinding operations.:

3.

Wheel head;

Back of the headstock and tailstock is the wheel-head. The abrasive wheel or wheels, are driven
by a separate motor in the wheel-head. The wheel head can be swiveled and positioned on the
base for varied setups.

4.

Cutter Grinding Wheels:

Wheel shape depends on the cutter to be sharpened.

THE GRINDING WHEEL

A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material. The bonding material
holds the particles in place and establishes the shape and structure of the wheel. These two
ingredients and the way they are fabricated determine the five basic parameters of a
grinding wheel:
(1) abrasive material,
(2) grain size,
(3) bonding material,
(4) wheel grade,
(5) wheel structure.
To achieve the desired performance in a given application, each of the parameters must be
carefully selected.

Abrasive Material:
Different
abrasive
materials
are
appropriate
for
grinding
different
work materials. General properties of an abrasive material used in grinding wheels include
high hardness, wear resistance, toughness, and friability. Hardness, wear resistance, and
toughness are desirable properties of any cutting-tool material. Friability refers to the

47
capacity of the abrasive material to fracture when the cutting edge of the grain becomes
dull, thereby exposing a new sharp edge. The development of grinding abrasives is described in
our historical note. Today, the abrasive materials of greatest commercial importance are
aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, cubic boron nitride, and diamond. They are briefly described in
Table 25.1, together with their relative hardness values.

Grain Size:
The grain size of the abrasive particle is important in determining surface
finish and material removal rate. Small grit sizes produce better finishes, whereas larger
grain sizes permit larger material removal rates. Thus, a choice must be made between these
two objectives when selecting abrasive grain size. The selection of grit size also depends to
some extent on the hardness of the work material. Harder work materials require smaller
grain sizes to cut effectively, whereas softer materials require larger grit sizes.
The grit size is measured using a screen mesh procedure.
In this procedure, smaller grit sizes have larger numbers and vice versa. Grain sizes used in
grinding wheels typically range between 8 and 250. Grit size 8 is very coarse and size 250 is
very fine. Even finer grit sizes are used for lapping and superfinishing.

Bonding Materials:
The bonding material holds the abrasive grains and establishes the shape and structural integrity of
the grinding wheel. Desirable properties of the bond material include strength, toughness, hardness,
and temperature resistance. The bonding material must be able to withstand the centrifugal forces
and high temperatures experienced by the grinding wheel, resist shattering in shock loading of the
wheel, and hold the abrasive grains rigidly in place to accomplish the cutting action while allowing
those grains that are worn to be dislodged so that new grains can be exposed.

Wheel Structure and Wheel Grade:

Wheel structure refers to the relative spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel. In addition to the
abrasive grains and bond material, grinding wheels contain air gaps or pores.

Grinding Wheel Specification:

The preceding parameters can be concisely designated in a standard grinding wheel marking system
defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) [3]. This marking system uses numbers
and letters to specify abrasive type, grit size, grade, structure, and bond material.

APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS IN GRINDING:

In this section, we attempt to bring together the previous discussion of wheel parameters
and theoretical analysis of grinding and consider their practical application. We also
consider grinding fluids, which are commonly used in grinding operations.

Application Guidelines:
There are many variables in grinding that affect the performance and success of the operation.

Grinding Fluids:
The proper application of cutting fluids has been found to be effective
in reducing the thermal effects and high work surface temperatures described previously.
When used in grinding operations, cutting fluids are called grinding fluids. The functions performed
by grinding fluids are similar to those performed by cutting fluids Reducing friction and removing heat
from the process are the two common functions. In addition, washing away chips and reducing
temperature of the work surface are very important in grinding.
Types of grinding fluids by chemistry include grinding oils and emulsified oils. The
grinding oils are derived from petroleum and other sources. These products are attractive

48
because friction is such an important factor in grinding. However, they pose hazards in
terms of fire and operator health, and their cost is high relative to emulsified oils. In
addition, their capacity to carry away heat is less than fluids based on water. Accordingly,
mixtures of oil in water are most commonly recommended as grinding fluids. These are
usually mixed with higher concentrations than emulsified oils used as conventional cutting
fluids. In this way, the friction reduction mechanism is emphasized.

GRINDING OPERATIONS AND GRINDING MACHINES:

Grinding is traditionally used to finish parts whose geometries have already been created
by other operations. Accordingly, grinding machines have been developed to grind plain
flat surfaces, external and internal cylinders, and contour shapes such as threads. The
contour shapes are often created by special formed wheels that have the opposite of the
desired contour to be imparted to the work. Grinding is also used in tool rooms to form
the geometries on cutting tools. In addition to these traditional uses, applications of
grinding are expanding to include more high speed, high material removal operations.
Our discussion of operations and machines in this section includes the following types:

Surface Grinding:
Surface
grinding
is
normally
used
to
grind
plain
flat
surfaces.
It
is
performed using either the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel.
Because the work is normally held in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is
performed by rotating the wheel about a horizontal axis, and face grinding is performed by
rotating the wheel about a vertical axis .In either case, the relative motion of the work part is
achieved by reciprocating the work past the wheel or by rotating it. These possible
combinations of wheel orientations and work part motions provide the four types of surface
grinding machines.

Cylindrical Grinding
As its name suggests, cylindrical grinding is used for rotational parts. These grinding operations divide
into two basic types.
(a)external cylindrical grinding and
(b) internal cylindrical grinding.

49

External cylindrical grinding:

External cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding to distinguish it from
centreless grinding) is performed much like a turning operation. The grinding machines
used for these operations closely resemble a lathe in which the tool post has been replaced
by a high-speed motor to rotate the grinding wheel.
External cylindrical grinding is used to finish parts that have been machined to
approximate size and heat treated to desired hardness. The parts include axles, crankshafts, spindles,
bearings and bushings, and rolls for rolling mills. The grinding operation
produces the final size and required surface finish on these hardened parts.

Internal cylindrical grinding:

Internal cylindrical grinding operates somewhat like a boring operation. The workpiece is usually held
in a chuck and rotated to provide surface speeds of 20 to 60 m/min (75 to
200 ft/min) [16]. Wheel surface speeds similar to external cylindrical grinding are used. The
wheel is fed in either of two ways: traverse feed, or plunge feed. Obviously, the
wheel diameter in internal cylindrical grinding must be smaller than the original bore hole.
This often means that the wheel diameter is quite small, necessitating very high rotational
speeds in order to achieve the desired surface speed. Internal cylindrical grinding is used to
finish the hardened inside surfaces of bearing races and bushing surfaces.

50

Center less Grinding Operation:

Center-less grinding is a form of cylindrical grinding. It produces accurately: ground parts without
requiring them to be mounted between centers. Parts are held in position on a work-rest blade which
is located between a grinding wheel and a regulating wheel. The regulating wheel rotates the work
which rests on the work-rest blade. At the same time, the grinding wheel grinds the surface. Straight
or tapered objects may be ground in this manner. Lathe centers, piston pins, roller bearings, and
similar objects without center, holes are examples of objects ground by the center-less grinding
method.
In Center-less grinding the work passes between the wheels, one a grinding wheel and other the
regulating wheel. The grinding wheel rotates at high speed. Its purpose is to grind material off the
surface of the cylindrically shaped work-piece. The regulating wheel is opposite the grinding wheel
and it rotates at a low speed. The regulating wheel has three functions: (1) to rotate the work so the
grinding wheel can grind over the entire surface, (2) to support the work against the horizontal thrust
of the grinding wheel, and (3) to feed the work between the grinding and regulating wheels as it rests
on the work rest blade.

1.

Through Feed Grinding:

This method can be only be used to produce simple cylindrical shapes. Work, is fed continuously
by hand, or from a feed hopper, into the gap between the grinding wheel and the regulating
wheel. The pieces drop off the work support blade when the grinding operation is completed.

2.

In-feed Grinding:

Work is fed into the wheel gap until it reaches a stop in this centreless technique. The piece is
ejected at the completion of the grinding operation. Work diameter is controlled by regulating the
width of the gap between regulating wheel and grinding wheel. Work with a shoulder can be
ground using this method.

3.

End Feed Grinding:

This form of center-less grinding is ideally suited for grinding short taper and spherical shapes.
Both wheels are dressed the required taper or shape and the work is fed in from the side of the
wheel to an end stop. The finished piece is ejected automatically. Center less grinding is used when
large quantities of the same part are required. Production is high and costs are relative because
there is no need t drills center holes or to mount the work in a holding device. Almost any material
can be ground using this technique.

Internal Grinding Operation;

Internal grinding produces a smooth and accurate surface in a cylindrical hole. The surface may
be straight, tapered, or irregular. Internal grinding is a form of cylindrical grinding. This type of

51
grinding may be done on universal grinding machines, internal grinding machines, and with tool
post grinders mounted on lathe.
In this grinding operation, the work is mounted in a chuck and rotates. During the grinding
operation the revolving grinding wheel moves in and out of the hole. A special grinding machine
which finishes holes in pieces too large to be rotated by the conventional machine. The hole,
diameter is controlled by regulating the diameter of the circle in which the grinding head moves.

Form Grinding operation:

Form grinding produces a smooth and accurate surface of a special shape. it is done with a grinding
wheel which is usually is shaped to conform to the contour of the surface it is designed to produce.
An example of form grinding is the grinding of a thread form solid stock. A form or template is
used to guide the cemented demand practice wheel as it dress the wheel which grinds the
required thread shape. The grinding of fillets, round or irregular shapes is an oilier example. Form
grinding may be performed with various types of grinding machines. Including surface grinders,
cylindrical grinders, internal grinders, and special grinding machines.

Other Grinding Operations:

Several other grinding operations should be briefly mentioned to complete our review. These
include tool grinding, jig grinding, disk grinding, snag grinding, and abrasive belt grinding.

Tool grinder:
Tool grinders are special grinding machines of various designs to sharpen and recondition
cutting tools. They have devices for positioning and orienting the tools to grind the
desired surfaces at specified angles and radii. Some tool grinders are general purpose
while others cut the unique geometries of specific tool types. General-purpose tool and
cutter grinders use special attachments and adjustments to accommodate a variety of tool
geometries. Single-purpose tool grinders include gear cutter sharpeners, milling cutter
grinders of various types, broach sharpeners, and drill point grinders.

Jig grinder:
Jig grinders are grinding machines traditionally used to grind holes in hardened
steel parts to high accuracies. The original applications included press working dies and
tools. Although these applications are still important, jig grinders are used today in a
broader range of applications in which high accuracy and good finish are required on

52
hardened components. Numerical control is available on modern jig grinding machines to
achieve automated operation.

Disk grinder:
Disk grinders are grinding machines with large abrasive disks mounted on either end of
a horizontal spindle The work is held (usually manually) against the flat surface of the wheel to
accomplish
the
grinding
operation
.Some
disk
grinding
machines
have
double opposing spindles .By setting the disks at the desired separation, the work part can be
fed automatically between the two disks and ground simultaneously on opposite sides.
Advantages of the disk grinder are good flatness and parallelism at high production rates.

snag grinder:
The snag grinder is similar in configuration to a disk grinder. The difference is that
the grinding is done on the outside periphery of the wheel rather than on the side flat
surface. The grinding wheels are therefore different in design than those in disk grinding.
Snag grinding is generally a manual operation, used for rough grinding operations such as
removing the flash from castings and forgings, and smoothing weld joints.

Lathe Machine Grinding of Cutting Tools:

In work shop extensive quantity of capital is locked up in variety of tools. As the price of cutting
tools is twenty times superior to the price of common steel, the yearly cost incur on the former is
important. As a effect of working, lb edge steadily become dull and requirements re-sharpening.
Re-sharpening of tool is passed out on a grinding wheel. Used for this reason the tool is held up
to the grinding wheel with grinding is made on both the edge and the side or face of grinding
wheel. Grinding on the edge of grinding wheel is faster. While a tool is ground, a large quantity of
hear is generate. To take the heat away and enhance tool life, a constant stream of coolant must
flow over Ii. Grinding a tool with quenching it frequently in water is not a good observe. First, the
side rake and side consent surfaces are ready in preferred shapes. After that all tool angles are
ready to the essential precision.

Procedure for a Straight Cylinder

1. Obtain the work-piece and a suitable chuck.
2. Mount the chuck on the headstock spindle.
3. Determine the desirable work-piece rpm and make the necessary adjustments.
4. Determine the desirable wheel rpm and make the necessary adjustments.
5. Determine the desirable rate of table travel, if any. Make adjustments accordingly.
6. Position the internal grinding spindle, and clamp or bolt securely.
7. Mount the flat belt from the motor to the internal grinding spindle drive pulley.
8. On machines equipped with a motor selector knob, turn the knob to the internal position, so that
the internal grinding motor will be operative.
9. On machines equipped with an internal-external grinding selector knob, turn the knob to the
internal grinding position.

Grinding Wheel:
Grinding like milling, drilling, sawing, planning and turning, is a cutting operation. However, instead of
having one, two or a multiple of cutting edges working, grinding makes use of an abrasive tool
composed of thousands of cutting edges.
The grinding wheel might be compared to a many toothed milling cutter as each of the abrasive
particles is .actually separate cutting edge. Take any grinding wheel and examine it, with a magnifying

53
glass. It will be observed that the wheel is made up of a great many particles of abrasive bounded
together. There are various materials used to hold. The crystals of abrasives together. They are called
Bonds. Some wheels are much coarser than others, the size of the p partials of abrasive determines
the coarseness or fineness of the wheel, as similarly, the size of the tooth determines the coarseness
or fineness of a file.
To do a good job of grinding, one must understand abrasives and grinding wheels, Here natural and
here natural and manufactured/synthetic abrasives are described and the bonds and abrasives used
in making grinding wheels, the different grades and shapes or grinding wheels, and the selection of
the proper grinding wheel for different types of work.

Selection of Grinding Wheel:

The following factors must be taken into consideration in recommending and selecting a wheel for a
particular job.
1. Type of grinding operation: offhand grinding, surface grinding, tool grinding, cylindrical grinding.
Internal grinding, etc.
2. Material to be ground.
3. Type of abrasive and bond to be used.
4. Amount of stock to be removed.
5. Finish required.
6. Area of wheel in contact with work: a wide wheel face may require a soft grade wheel.
7. Wheel speed, rate of feed or grinding pressure.
8. Work speed: for surface grinding and cylindrical grinding.
9. Whether grinding is wet or dry.
10. Machine condition: capacity and rigidity.
11. Abrasive grain size, grade, and structure.
12. The knowledge and skill of the machine operator.

54

Abrasive Process
Defination:
Abrasive comes from the word ABRADE which means to rub off. An abrasive substance is a very
hard, tough material which has many sharp edges or cutting points, when crushed and ground
into grains like sand. An abrasive is any material that can wear away substance softer than itself.
Sand and sandstone are perhaps the oldest abrasives known to mankind. Prehistoric man used
sand and sandstone to form or shape edges of tools. As tools became more and more important
for preservation of life, he became more dependent on natural abrasives for the maintenance of
sharp tools.

Abrasives must possess three common properties:

(1) Hardness (2) Fracture resistance (3) Wear resistance

Classification of Natural Abrasives:

The following are some common natural abrasive:

1.

Flint:

It comes from the mineral quartz a crystalline rocklike material. It is used, in making the familiar
yellowish coloured abrasive paper called Sandpaper. It is one of the oldest kinds of abrasive paper
and is used in woodworking.

2.

Garnet:

It is radish coloured glasslike mineral which is crushed into fin abrasive grains. It is harder and
sharper than flint and is widely used for woodworking.

3. Emery:
Emery is one of the oldest kinds of natural abrasives used for metalworking. It is black in colour
and is composed of a combination of corundum and iron oxide. Corundum is aluminium oxide,
A1203. Emery, used for making an emery cloth for polishing metals, is about 60 % corundum.
Emery grains are not as sharp as artificial abrasives. The cutting action of emery is slight; therefore,
it is used largely as a polishing abrasive.

55

4.

Crocus:

It is a fine, soft, red abrasive of iron oxide, or iron rust. It may be produced artificially or naturally
and is used to clean and polish metal surfaces to a high glass. It is available in the form of Crocus
Cloth or as a polishing compound.

5.

Diamond:

It is the hardest substance known. It is used in the form of abrasive grains which are bonded
together to form a thin layer of abrasive. The layer of abrasive is bonded to a wheel, thus forming
a grinding wheel. Diamond grinding wheels are used for grinding very hard materials, such as
cemented-carbide cutting tools, ceramic cutting tools, glass, and stone. The diamonds used for
this purpose are industrial diamonds in the form of chips or grains. They are much less expensive
than the diamonds used for jewellery.
A diamonds chips may be brazed on the end of a soft steel bar to make tool for dressing or truing
softer grinding wheels. Diamonds used in industry have been produced artificially during recent
years. However, they are still almost as expensive as natural diamonds. Fine diamond dust is also
used in lapping compound for lapping hardened steel and other very hard materials.

Bonding Methods:
Bond is the material which holds the abrasive grains together to form the grinding wheel. There
are five basic types of bond used in grinding wheels: vitrified, silicate, shellac, rubber and resinoid.
Here we explain the different bonding methods/processes which are used to manufacture the
grinding wheels by using the above mentioned bonds.

Vitrified Process/Method:
In the vitrified process, glass, flint or other ceramic substances are mixed with the abrasive and
subjected to heat, which causes the bond to form a glass like structure between each abrasive
particle. In the paddling process sufficient water is added to form a thick smooth mixture. It is
then poured into a steel mould and allowed to form thick smooth mixture and to dry for several
days in a room with controlled temperature. The dry press process requires the addition of little
water. In this case the wheels are shaped in metal moulds under a hydraulic press. The time for
burning varies with the wheels size, being anywhere from 2 tol4 days. The process is similar to
burning tiles or pottery.

Silicate Process/Method:
In this process silicate of soda is mixed with the abrasive grin sand the mixture is tempted in metal
molds. After drying several hours the wheels are baked at 500F from one to three days.

Shellac Process/Method:
Shellac-bonded wheels are made by mixing the abrasive and bond in a heated machine which
mixes and completely coats the abrasive with the bonding material. The material is then placed in
heated steel moulds and rolled or pressed. Finally, the wheels are baked a few hours at a
temperature around 300F.:

Rubber Process Method:

In this process;: pure rubber with sulphur (sulfur) as a vulcanizing agent is mixes with the abrasive
by running the material between heated mixing rolls. After it is finally rolled to thickness, the
wheels are cut out with proper shaped dies and then vulcanized under pressure.

Resinoid Process Method:

Resinoid-bonded wheels are made by mixing powder (synthetic-resin powder) with the abrasive
particles and then adding a plastic substance so that the wheels can be molded .The mould is then
placed in an electric oven and heated at approximately 300F for a period ranging from a few

56
hours to 3 or 4 days, depending on the size of the wheel Upon cooling the wheel becomes very
hard. resinoid, metal, and vitrified. Each gives the wheel unique characteristics. The diamond
wheel with the resinoid bond has a very cool and fast cutting action.

Diamond Wheels Bonded:

Diamonds wheels are made in three kinds of bonds: The metal bonded wheel has unusual
durability and a high resistance to grooving. The vitrified-bonded diamond wheel has the fast
cutting action of the resinoid bonded wheel and the durability of the metal-bonded wheel.

Grinding Wheels Material:

Grinding wheels are containing out of abrasive with bond in a proper shape and size.

Abrasive:
Abrasive is some material which has capability to wear away other material. Abrasives can be
alienated into two categories.
a)Natural
b) Artificial

a) Natural abrasives:
Natural abrasives for example sandstone garnet flint emery quartz with corundum are use former
to the early part of 20th century.

b) Artificial/Manufactured Abrasives:
Artificial Abrasive is also known as Manufactured Abrasive, use expansively as their grain size,
shape and cleanliness can be strictly controlled. This equality of grain size and shape which make
certain that each ruin does its share of work is not feasible by natural abrasive. There is numerous
type of manufactured abrasives.
1.Aluminum oxide
2. Silicon carbide
3. Boron carbide
4. Cubic boron nitride
5. Manufactured diamond

Difference between Natural and Synthetic Abrasives:

1. Natural Abrasives:
Natural abrasives generally are minerals which come from nature. They occur either in the form
of grains, like sand or in the form of large rocklike chunks. The large chunks must be ground or
crushed into small abrasive grains. Emery and corundum are two natural abrasives which were
commonly used in industry for the purposes of sharpening edged tools. They occur .as mineral
deposit in the earths crust. These abrasives formed into wheels, were superior to the old
grindstones in that they were capable of faster cutting and could be made coarser or fine. Inspite
of this, they could not meet the demands of industry because they contained impurities which
were difficult to extract and because the percentage of important cutting elements, aluminium
oxide, was not constant. The only other element known to be harder than emery or corundum is
the diamond, but its cost was prohibitive for industrial usage.

2. Synthetic/Manufactured Artificial Abrasives:

The artificial man-made abrasives are also called as synthetic or manufactured abrasives With the
exception of diamond, artificial or synthetic abrasives are harder thin the natural abrasives.
Diamond is the hardest abrasive material. About the same time that Dr. Acheson Was
experimentally producing Silicon Carbide, Charles P. Jacobs was attempting to produce a better

57
grade of emery. He used a small electric furnace to extract the impurities of sand, iron, and
titanium oxides from clay deposits rich in aluminum oxide. The result was a product that consisted
of about 95percnt pure Aluminum Oxide (chemical symbol A1203).

Related abrasive process:

HONING
Honing is an abrasive process performed by a set of bonded abrasive sticks. A common
application is to finish the bores of internal combustion engines. Other applications
include bearings, hydraulic cylinders, and gun barrels. Surface finishes of around 0.12 mm (5 min) or slightly better are typically achieved in these applications. In addition, honing
produces a characteristic cross-hatched surface that tends to retain lubrication during
operation of the component, thus contributing to its function and service life.
The honing tool consists of a set of bonded abrasive sticks .Four sticks are used on the tool
shown in the figure, but the number depends on hole size. Two to four sticks would be
used for small holes (e.g., gun barrels), and a dozen or more would be used for larger
diameter holes. The motion of the honing tool is a combination of rotation and linear
reciprocation, regulated in such a way that a given point on the abrasive stick does not
trace the same path repeatedly. This rather complex motion accounts for the cross hatched
pattern on the bore surface. Honing speeds are15to 150m/min(50to500 ft/min)
[4]. During the process, the sticks are pressed outward against the hole surface to produce
the desired abrasive cutting action. Hone pressures of 1 to 3 MPa (150 to 450 lb/in2) are
typical. The honing tool is supported in the hole by two universal joints, thus causing the
tool to follow the previously defined hole axis. Honing enlarges and finishes the hole but
cannot change its location.

LAPPING
Lapping is an abrasive process used to produce surface finishes of extreme accuracy and
smoothness. It is used in the production of optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, gages,
and other parts requiring very good finishes. Metal parts that are subject to fatigue loading
or surfaces that must be used to establish a seal with a mating part are often lapped.
Instead of a bonded abrasive tool, lapping uses a fluid suspension of very small
abrasive particles between the workpiece and the lapping tool. The process is illustrated
in Figure 25.17 as applied in lens-making. The fluid with abrasives is referred to as the
lapping compound and has the general appearance of a chalky paste. The fluids used to

58
make the compound include oils and kerosene. Common abrasives are aluminum oxide
and silicon carbide with typical grit sizes between 300 and 600. The lapping tool is called a
lap, and it has the reverse of the desired shape of the work part. To accomplish the
process, the lap is pressed against the work and moved back and forth over the surface in
a figure-eight or other motion pattern, subjecting all portions of the surface to the same
action. Lapping is sometimes performed by hand, but lapping machines accomplish the
process with greater consistency and efficiency.

SUPERFINISHING
Superfinishing is an abrasive process similar to honing. Both processes use a bonded abrasive
stick moved with a reciprocating motion and pressed against the surface to be finished.
Superfinishing differs from honing in the following respects [4]: (1) the strokes are shorter,
5 mm (3/16 in); (2) higher frequencies are used, up to 1500 strokes per minute; (3) lower
pressures are applied between the tool and the surface, below 0.28 MPa (40 lb/in2);
(4) workpiece speeds are lower, 15 m/min (50 ft/min) or less; and (5) grit sizes are generally
smaller. The relative motion between the abrasive stick and the work surface is varied so that
individual grains do not retrace the same path. A cutting fluid is used to cool the work
surface
and
wash
away
chips.
In
addition,
the
fluid
with
surface
roughness values around 0.025 mm (tends to separate the abrasive stick from
the work surface after a certain level of smoothness is achieved.

59

POLISHING AND BUFFING

Polishing is used to remove scratches and burrs and to smooth rough surfaces by means of
abrasive grains attached to a polishing wheel rotating at high speedaround 2300 m/min
(7500 ft/min).The wheels are made of canvas, leather, felt, and even paper; thus, the wheels
are somewhat flexible. The abrasive grains are glued to the outside periphery of the wheel.
After the abrasives have been worn down and used up, the wheel is replenished with new
grits. Grit sizes of 20 to 80 are used for rough polishing, 90 to 120 for finish polishing, and
above 120 for fine finishing. Polishing operations are often accomplished manually.
Buffing is similar to polishing in appearance, but its function is different. Buffing is
used to provide attractive surfaces with high lustre. Buffing wheels are made of materials
similar to those used for polishing wheelsleather, felt, cotton, etc.but buffing wheels
are generally softer. The abrasives are very fine and are contained in a buffing compound
that is pressed into the outside surface of the wheel while it rotates. This contrasts with
polishing in which the abrasive grits are glued to the wheel surface. As in polishing, the
abrasive particles must be periodically replenished. Buffing is usually done manually,
although machines have been designed to perform the process automatically. Speeds are
generally 2400 to 5200 m/min (8000 to 17,000 ft/min).

The main uses of grinding and abrasive machining:

1. To improve the surface finish of a part manufactured by other processes:
(a)A steel injection molding die is machined by milling. The surface finish must be improved for
better plastic flow, either by manual grinding using shaped grinding tools, or by electro-grinding.

(b) The internal surface of the cylinders of a car engine are turned on a lathe. The surface is then
made smooth by grinding, followed by honing and lapping to get an extremely good, mirror-like
finish.

(c) Sand-paper is used to smooth a rough cut piece of wood.

60

2. To improve the dimensional tolerance of a part manufactured by other processes:

(a)ball-bearings are formed into initial round shape by a forging process; this is followed by a
grinding process in a specially formed grinding die to get extremely good diameter control (
15m).

(b) Knives are made from forged steel; the steel is then hardened; finally, a grinding operation is
used to give a sharp cutting edge.

3. To remove unwanted materials of a cutting process:

(a)Drilling and milling often leave tiny, sharp chips along the outer edges of the surface created
by the tool these are called burrs. Tapered grinding wheels are used to remove the burr (the
process is called deburring).

4. To cut hard brittle materials:

(a)Most semiconductor IC chips are made from silicon; the starting point is a long bar of a crystal
of silicon (the diameter is usually 8cm, 15cm or 30cm, and length up to 200 cm). This rod must by
sliced into thin circular slices; each slice is used to make a large number of ICs. A diamond abrasive
wheel is used to cut the rod into slices.

61

CNC MACHINE
CNC MACHINE:
A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical
data at some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some portion of this data.
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is one in which the functions and motions of a machine tool
are controlled by means of a prepared program containing coded alphanumeric data. CNC can
control the motions of the workpiece or tool, the input parameters such as feed, depth of cut,
speed, and the functions such as turning spindle on/off, turning coolant on/off.

PARTS OF CNC MACHINE:

VICE:
This holds the material to be cut or shaped. Material must be held securely otherwise it may 'fly'
out of the vice when the CNC begins to machine. Normally the vice will be like a clamp that holds
the material in the correct position.

GUARD:
The guard protects the person using the CNC. When the CNC is machining the material small pieces
can be 'shoot' off the material at high speed. This could be dangerous if a piece hit the person
operating the machine. The guard completely encloses the dangerous areas of the CNC.

CHUCK:
This holds the material that is to be shaped. The material must be placed in it very carefully so
that when the CNC is working the material is not thrown out at high speed.

MOTOR:
The motor is enclosed inside the machine. This is the part that rotates the chuck at high speed.

62

LATHE BED:
The base of the machine. Usually a CNC is bolted down so that it cannot move through the
vibration of the machine when it is working.

CUTTING TOOL:
This is usually made from high quality steel and it is the part that actually cuts the material to be
shaped.

Open Loop Systems

Open loop systems have no access to the real time data about the performance of
the system and therefore no immediate corrective action can be taken in case of
system disturbance. This system is normally applied only to the case where the
output is almost constant and predictable. Therefore, an open loop system is
unlikely to be used to control machine tools since the cutting force and loading of
a machine tool is never a constant. The only exception is the wirecut machine for
which some machine tool builders still prefer to use an open loop system because
there is virtually no cutting force in wirecut machining.

Close Loop Systems

In a close loop system, feed back devices closely monitor the output and any
disturbance will be corrected in the first instance. Therefore high system accuracy
is achievable. This system is more powerful than the open loop system and can be
applied to the case where the output is subjected to frequent change. Nowadays,
almost all CNC machines use this control system.

Elements of a CNC System

A CNC system consists of the following 6 major elements:
a. Input Device
b. Machine Control Unit
c. Machine Tool
d. Driving System
e. Feedback Devices
f. Display Unit

Input Devices

a. Floppy Disk Drive

Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data input. It has been the
most common storage media up to the 1970s, in terms of data transfer speed,
reliability, storage size, data handling and the ability to read and write.
Furthermore, the data within a floppy could be easily edited at any point as long
as you have the proper program to read it. However, this method has proven to be
quite problematic in the long run as floppies have a tendency to degrade
alarmingly fast and are sensitive to large magnetic fields and as well as the dust
and scratches that usually existed on the shop floor.

b. USB Flash Drive

A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard drive with compact
size and bigger storage size than a floppy disk. Data stored inside the flash drive are impervious to
dust
and
scratches
that
enable
flash
drives
to
transfer
data
from
place to place. In recent years, all computers support USB flash drives to read and

63
write data that make it become more and more popular in CNC machine control
unit.

c. Serial communication
The data transfer between a computer and a CNC machine tool is often
accomplished through a serial communication port. International standards for
serial communications are established so that information can be exchanged in an
orderly way. The most common interface between computers and CNC machine
tools is referred to the EIA Standard RS-232. Most of the personal computers and
CNC machine tools have built in RS232 port and a standard RS-232 cable is used
to connect a CNC machine to a computer which enables the data transfer in
reliable way. Part programs can be downloaded into the memory of a machine
tool or uploaded to the computer for temporary storage by running a
communication program on the computer and setting up the machine control to
interact with the communication software.

d. Ethernet communication
Due to the advancement of the computer technology and the drastic reduction of
the cost of the computer, it is becoming more practical and economic to transfer
part programmes between computers and CNC machines via an Ethernet
communication cable. This media provides a more efficient and reliable means in
part programme transmission and storage. Most companies now built a Local Area
Network (LAN) as their infrastructure. More and more CNC machine tools provide
an option of the Ethernet Card for direct communication within the LAN.

e. Conversational Programming
Part programmes can be input to the controller via the keyboard. Built-in
intelligent software inside the controller enables the operator to enter the required
data step by step. This is a very efficient way for preparing programmes for
relatively simple workpieces involving up to 2 axis machining.

Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The machine control unit is the heart of the CNC system. There are two sub-units
in the machine control unit: the Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loop
Unit (CLU).

a. Data Processing Unit

On receiving a part programme, the DPU firstly interprets and encodes the part
programme into internal machine codes. The interpolator of the DPU then
calculate the intermediate positions of the motion in terms of BLU (basic length
unit) which is the smallest unit length that can be handled by the controller. The
calculated data are passed to CLU for further action.

b. Control Loop Unit

The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals in the CLU to control
the driving system to perform the required motions. Other functions such as
machine spindle ON/OFF, coolant ON/OFF, tool clamp ON/OFF are also controlled
by this unit according to the internal machine codes.

Machine Tool
This can be any type of machine tool or equipment. In order to obtain high
accuracy and repeatability, the design and make of the machine slide and the

64
driving leadscrew of a CNC machine is of vital importance. The slides are usually
machined to high accuracy and coated with anti-friction material such as PTFE and
Turcite in order to reduce the stick and slip phenomenon. Large diameter
recirculating ball screws are employed to eliminate the backlash and lost motion.
Other design features such as rigid and heavy machine structure; short machine
table overhang, quick change tooling system, etc also contribute to the high
accuracy and high repeatability of CNC machines.

Driving System
The driving system is an important component of a CNC machine as the accuracy
and repeatability depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the
driving system. The requirement is that the driving system has to response
accurately according to the programmed instructions. This system usually uses
electric motors although hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine
tools. The motor is coupled either directly or through a gear box to the machine
leadscrew to moves the machine slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical
motors are commonly used.

a. DC Servo Motor
This is the most common type of feed motors used in CNC machines. The principle
of operation is based on the rotation of an armature winding in a permanently
energised magnetic field. The armature winding is connected to a commutator,
which is a cylinder of insulated copper segments mounted on the shaft. DC current
is passed to the commutator through carbon brushes, which are connected to the
machine terminals. The change of the motor speed is by varying the armature
voltage and the control of motor torque is achieved by controlling the motor's
armature current. In order to achieve the necessary dynamic behaviour it is
operated in a closed loop system equipped with sensors to obtain the velocity and
position feedback signals.

b. AC Servo Motor
In an AC servomotor, the rotor is a permanent magnet while the stator is
equipped with 3-phase windings. The speed of the rotor is equal to the rotational
frequency of the magnetic field of the stator, which is regulated by the frequency
converter.

65
AC motors are gradually replacing DC servomotors. The main reason is that there
is no commutator or brushes in AC servomotor so that maintenance is virtually not
required. Furthermore, AC servos have a smaller power-to-weight ratio and faster
response.

c. Stepping Motor
A stepping motor is a device that converts the electrical pulses into discrete mechanical rotational
motions of the motor shaft. This is the simplest device that can be applied to CNC machines since
it can convert digital data into actual mechanical displacement. It is not necessary to have any
analog-to-digital converter nor feedback device for the control system. They are ideally suited to
open loop systems.

d. Linear Motor
A linear electric motor is an AC rotary motor laid out flat. The same principle used to produce
torque in rotary motors is used to produce force in linear motors. Through the electromagnetic
interaction between a coil assembly and a permanent magnet assembly, the electrical energy is
converted to linear mechanical energy to generate a linear motion. As the motion of the motor is
linear instead of rotational, therefore it is called linear motor. Linear motors have
the advantages of high speeds, high precision and fast response.

Feedback Device
In order to have a CNC machine operating accurately, the positional values and speed of the axes
need to be constantly updated. Two types of feed back devices are normally used, positional feed
back device and velocity feed back device.

a. Positional Feed Back Devices

There are two types of positional feed back devices: linear transducer for direct
positional measurement and rotary encoder for angular or indirect linear measurement.

b. Velocity Feedback Device

The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage generated from a tachometer
mounted at the end of the motor shaft. DC tachometer is essentially a small generator that
produces an output voltage proportional to the speed. The voltage generated is compared with
the command voltage corresponding to the desired speed. The difference of the voltages can is
then used to actuate the motor to eliminate the error.

Display Unit
The Display Unit serves as an interactive device between the machine and the
operator. When the machine is running, the Display Unit displays the present status such as the
position of the machine slide, the spindle RPM, the feed rate, the part programmes, etc.
In an advanced CNC machine, the Display Unit can show the graphics simulation of the tool path
so that part programmes can be verified before the actually machining. Much other important
information about the CNC system can also displayed for maintenance and installation work such
as machine parameters, logic diagram of the programmer controller, error massages and
diagnostic data.

Applications of CNC Machines

CNC machines are widely used in the metal cutting industry and are best used to
produce the following types of product:
Parts with complicated contours
Parts requiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability

66
Parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced on conventional machines
Parts that may have several engineering changes, such as during the development stage.
In cases where human errors could be extremely costly
Parts that are needed in a hurry
Small batch lots or short production runs.

Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in industry are as
following:
Drilling Machine
Lathe / Turning Centre
Milling / Machining Centre
Turret Press and Punching Machine
Wirecut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)
Grinding Machine
Laser Cutting Machine
Water Jet Cutting Machine
Electro Discharge Machine
Coordinate Measuring Machine
Industrial Robot

Linear Interpolation (G01)

This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target
point along a straight line at the speed designated by the F address.

Circular Interpolation (G02/G03)

This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target
point along a circular arc in clockwise direction (G02) or counter clockwise
direction (G03).
In this case, beside the target point, the radius or the centre of the arc is also
required. Most of the CNC systems nowadays still require the data of the arc
centre rather than the radius.

How CNC Works:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Controlled by G and M codes.

These are number values and co-ordinates.
Each number or code is assigned to a particular operation.
Typed in manually to CAD by machine operators.
G&M codes are automatically generated by the computer software.

Features of CNC Lathe:

The tool or material moves.

Tools can operate in 1-5 axes.
Larger machines have a machine control unit (MCU) which manages operations.
Movement is controlled by a motors .
Feedback is provided by sensors.
Tool magazines are used to change tools automatically.

Tool Paths, Cutting and Plotting Motions:

Tool paths describes the route the cutting tool takes.

67

Motion can be described as point to point, straight cutting or contouring.

Speeds are the rate at which the tool operates e.g. rpm.
Feeds are the rate at which the cutting tool and work piece move in relation to each other.
Feeds and speeds are determined by cutting depth, material and quality of finish needed. e.g.
harder materials need slower feeds and speeds.
Rouging cuts remove larger amounts of material than finishing cuts.
Rapid traversing allows the tool or work piece to move rapidly when no machining is taking
place.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:

High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts.

Volume of production is very high.
Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. Etc.
Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap.
More safe, higher productivity, better quality.
Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times.

Disadvantages:

Costly setup, skilled operators.

Computers, programming knowledge required.
Maintenance is difficult

Conclusion:

CNC mean computer numerical control machine its a form of programmable automation
drill drawings on wood use g coding consist of 3 motors and their drivers and pic with its
basic circuit.
Its body made of wood hold on motors and drill and the wood we want to draw on it
We tried to make cheap fast safety CNC machine that drill on wood piece according to any
drawing we draw to it.

68

All Experiments References:

1. http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/lathe_safety.htm
2. http://www.sherline.com/grinding.htm

3. http://itdc.lbcc.edu/cps/machineTool/machiningOperations/machiningOperationsALT/machiningOpe
rations.htm

4. http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Operation/Facing/facing.htm
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathe_(metal)
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning
7. http://www.mini-lathe.com/Mini_lathe/Operation/Drilling/drilling.htm
8.

Roe 1916, Chapter V: Inventors of the Planer, pp. 506

9.

Shaper Mechanism Types

10. Jump up^ https://books.google.co.uk/books?

11. "Linear Broaching Made Simple With Benz LinA/LinS". www.cutwel.co.uk. Cutwel.
12. Jump up^ "Rotary Broaching on a Bridgeport" (Video). Polygon Solutions Inc. 15 December
13. Somma: Offset Rotating Broach, Somma Tool Company, Inc., retrieved 2010-06-08.
14. "A Complete Guide To the CNC Milling Machine". CNC Machine HQ. 2014-10-20.
15. "How to use a Milling Machine". American Machine Tools Co.
16. Roe 1916, Chapter V: Inventors of the Planer, pp. 5062.
17. Jump up^ Woodbury 1972, pp. 2426.
18. "Abrasives engineering glossary". Archived from the original on 2 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-0406.
19. Jump up^ Grinding Stresses, Grinding Wheel Institute, 1964
20. Jump up^ "Care of laminate surface". Archived from the original on 24 February 2007.
Retrieved 2007-04-07.
21. Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 637638.
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23. Jump up^ Milling Operations Broaching, retrieved 2009-04-12.
24. "About CNC Machining". www.thomasnet.com. Retrieved 2016-06-04.
25. Jump up^ "Computerized Numerical Control". www.sheltonstate.edu. Shelton State Community
College. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
26. "Horizontal CNC Milling Machines | Ardel Engineering". www.ardelengineering.com.
Retrieved 2016-01-11.
27. Jump up^ "Vertical CNC Milling Machines | Ardel Engineering". www.ardelengineering.com.
Retrieved 2016-01-11.
28. Jump up^ "What Is a Wheel Lathe? (with picture)". wiseGEEK. Retrieved 2016-01-11.
29. Jump up^ "Bar Feeds : Production Machining". www.productionmachining.com. Retrieved 201601-11.
30. Arthur R. Meyers,Thomas J. Slattery. Basic Machining Reference Handbook. Second Edition. Industrial Press Inc., 2001, p. 58