WATER DISINFECTION NEED FOR APPROPRIATE TYPE AND DOSES

A SEMINAR REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the award of the degree
Of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
In
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
By
AASHISH MANI LAMICHHANE

Enrollment No.: 15548001

Under the guidance of

Dr. M. L. Kansal
Professor, WRDM
IIT ROORKEE
DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE-247667 (INDIA)
April, 2016

CANDIDATES DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work which is presented out in this seminar entitled, WATER
DISINFECTION NEED FOR APPROPRIATE TYPE AND DOSES, in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Technology in Water Resource
Development submitted to the Department of Water Resource Development and Management,
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work carried out
during a period from January 2016 to April 2016 under the supervision and guidance of
Dr.M.L.Kansal, Professor ,WRDM,IIT Roorkee, India.

Date: __ April, 2016

Place: DWRD&M, IIT Roorkee

Aashish Mani Lamichhane

Enrollment No.:15548001

CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge and belief.

Dr.M.L.Kansal
Professor, WRD&M
IIT, Roorkee
Uttarakhand, India

Table of Contents
1. Disinfection in General..............................................................................................................- 1 1.2 Necessity of disinfection......................................................................................................- 1 1.3 Mechanism of disinfection...................................................................................................- 1 1.4 Requirements of disinfectants..............................................................................................- 2 1.5 Properties of an ideal disinfectant........................................................................................- 2 1.6 Methods of disinfection........................................................................................................- 2 2. History of Disinfectants.............................................................................................................- 3 3. Disinfection by heat...................................................................................................................- 4 4. Disinfection by Ultra violet........................................................................................................- 5 4.1 How does UV treat works?..................................................................................................- 5 4.2 Dosage..................................................................................................................................- 6 4.3 Advantages of UV ray as disinfectant..................................................................................- 6 4.4 Disadvantages of UV ray as disinfectant.............................................................................- 6 4.5 Cost......................................................................................................................................- 6 5. Treatment by Copper-Silver Ionization......................................................................................- 7 5.1 Copper Silver Ionization Working Principle......................................................................- 7 5.2 Dosage..................................................................................................................................- 7 5.3 Advantages of Copper Silver Ionization............................................................................- 8 5.4 Disadvantages of Copper Silver Ionization........................................................................- 8 5.5 Cost......................................................................................................................................- 8 6. Treatment with Iodine................................................................................................................- 9 6.1 How Iodine works?..............................................................................................................- 9 6.2 Dosage..................................................................................................................................- 9 6.3Cost.......................................................................................................................................- 9 6.4 Forms of Iodine Available..................................................................................................- 10 6.5 Advantages of Iodine..........................................................................................................- 10 6.6 Disadvantages of Iodine.....................................................................................................- 10 7. Treatment with Ozone..............................................................................................................- 11 7.1 Production..........................................................................................................................- 11 -

7.2 Ozone treats:.......................................................................................................................- 12 7.3 Dosage................................................................................................................................- 12 7.4 Advantages.........................................................................................................................- 12 7.5 Disadvantages....................................................................................................................- 12 7.6 Cost....................................................................................................................................- 12 8. Treatment with Potassium Permanganate................................................................................- 13 8.1 How it works?....................................................................................................................- 13 8.2 Dosage................................................................................................................................- 13 8.3 Note:...................................................................................................................................- 13 8.4 Cost....................................................................................................................................- 13 9. Chlorination..............................................................................................................................- 14 9.1Discovery of chlorine..........................................................................................................- 14 9.2 Reaction mechanism:.........................................................................................................- 14 9.3 Disinfecting action of chlorine...........................................................................................- 15 9.4 Factors affecting bacterial efficiency of chlorine...............................................................- 15 10. Various forms in which chlorine is applied as disinfectant....................................................- 17 10.1. Chloramines (NH2Cl)......................................................................................................- 17 10.1.1 Acting as a disinfectant.............................................................................................- 17 10.1.2 Dosage.......................................................................................................................- 17 10.1.3 Advantages................................................................................................................- 17 10.1.4 Disadvantage.............................................................................................................- 17 10.2. Bleaching powder............................................................................................................- 18 10.2.1 Dosage.......................................................................................................................- 18 10.2.2 Cost...........................................................................................................................- 19 10.2.3 Advantages................................................................................................................- 19 10.2.4 Disadvantages...........................................................................................................- 19 10.3 Gaseous Chlorine/Liquid chlorine...................................................................................- 20 10.3.1 Dosage.......................................................................................................................- 20 10.3.2 Advantages of chlorine gas.......................................................................................- 21 10.4 Form of Chlorine-Dioxide Gas......................................................................................- 22 10.4.1 Dosage.......................................................................................................................- 22 -

10.4.2 Cost...........................................................................................................................- 23 10.4.3 Advantages................................................................................................................- 23 10.4.4 Disadvantages...........................................................................................................- 23 10.5 In the Form of Chlorine Tablets.......................................................................................- 24 10.5.1 Dosage.......................................................................................................................- 24 10.5.2 Cost...........................................................................................................................- 24 10.5.3 Note:..........................................................................................................................- 24 11. Concept of Booster Chlorination............................................................................................- 25 12. Common Disinfectants with Salient Features........................................................................- 26 13. References..............................................................................................................................- 27 -

1. Disinfection in General
Water to be supplied for domestic use must be safe to drink as the water obtained from different
sources usually contains pathogenic organisms and diseases causing bacteria. At least, water
sources must be protected from contamination by human and animal wastes, which can contain a
variety of bacterial, viral, protozoa and pathogens. The treatment processes/water purification
methods like sedimentation, coagulation or filtration nor combination of them can be relied on to
remove all the bacteria from water all of the time. Also, there is always a chance of contamination
of water while passing through distribution system. For the assurance of safer water while
delivered to the distribution mains from treatment plant, water should be necessarily disinfected
.The filtered water which is obtained from filters (slow sand/rapid gravity) generally contain some
toxic disease causing bacteria (pathogens) in it. These infective bacteria must be killed to make
water safe to the user for drinking. The chemicals or substances which are used for killing the
bacteria are known as disinfectants, and the process of killing the bacteria is known as
disinfection of water. Generally the terms disinfection and sterilization used synonymous to each
other in water supply engineering. But they do have different meanings too. Disinfection is a
process where a significant percentage of pathogenic organisms are destructed or controlled.
Disinfection is aimed at killing the microbes to a level that the infection does not get transmitted
and it does not necessarily kills all the microorganisms. However, sterilization is a process of
decontamination wherein all the microorganisms present on the surface of the equipment is killed
and the object is called as sterile. Disinfection does not mean total destruction of all living things in
the medium treated, because sterilization means total destruction.

1.2 Necessity of disinfection can be described as follows:

Subsequently after the filtration process, water is found to carry pathogenic bacteria
organisms, more particularly bacteria, of intestinal origin which are responsible for water
borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentery etc. Disinfection is necessary to destroy or
inactivate these organisms.
Water may get contaminated by the leakage of pipe line or in some other way in
distribution system. Disinfection is necessary to such degree that water may remain safe all
along the distribution system and up to the consumer which is prevented by residual
quantities of the disinfectant used.
Disinfection is necessary to protect the citizens from health hazard to assure a healthy
atmosphere to all.

1.3 Mechanism of disinfection

A disinfectant destroys or inactivates the pathogens by destroying the cellular structure of
microorganisms, alters the cell permeability, interferes with growth by changing colloidal nature of
cell protoplasm and inactivation of critical enzyme systems responsible for energy yielding
1

metabolism. Also, they oxidize the iron, manganese and sulfides into solid particles and controls
odor and taste.

1.4 Requirements of disinfectants

They should be able to destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogenic organisms potentially
present in water.
They should be able to accomplish this work within
o the time available for disinfection;
o the range of temperatures usually encountered;
o variations in the composition, concentration and condition of water commonly
available in nature.
After the treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.
They should be available at reasonable cost, be safe and easy to handle and method of
application should be simple.
Their dose should be such that it leaves some residual concentration for protection against
contamination in the water during its conveyance and retention.

1.5 Properties of an ideal disinfectant

Broad spectrum: active against all microbes

Fast acting: produces rapid inactivation
Effective in the presence of organic matter, suspended solids and other matrix or sample
constituents
Nontoxic; soluble; non flammable
Compatible with various materials/surfaces
Stable or persistent for the intended exposure period
Easy to generate and apply
Provides a residual sterilizing effect for a long period, thus affording some protection
against recontamination.

1.6 Methods of disinfection

The disinfection of water can be done by following common methods:

By boiling of water
By UV rays
By the use of iodine
By the use of ozone
By using potassium permanganate
By using chlorine
By using copper-silver ionization

2. History of Disinfectants
Early humans thought that the taste and look of the water determined its purity, and they did not
consider that even the best tasting, clearest water could contain disease-causing organisms. The
disinfection of water probably has been produced for millennia, but obviously with little or no
understanding at the principle involved in its improvement of water quality. Some historians
suggest that purification probably had been employed from beginning of civilization.

Ancient civilization (from 4000 BC)

Treatment of drinking water at earlier times concentrated only on aesthetic qualities. So, in
4000 B.C. attempts were made to improve the taste and odor of drinking water.

Earlier period: clear water = clean water.

Egypt: chemical alum to remove suspended solids in water.

China: filters to remove suspended solids in water.

India: heat foul water by boiling and exposing to sunlight and by dipping seven
times into a piece of hot copper, then to filter and cool in earthen pots. (Susruta
Sanhita, Sanskrit writings about medical concerns at around 2000 BC).

India: Stored the water in brass vessel and filtering with the help of charcoal and
preserving it in copper pots was seen in ancient Indian civilization.

The Roman Empire (27 BC 476 AD)

o

extensive aqueduct system to bring in fresh water from far away from city

no major treatment was provided (other than the incidental mild disinfection effect
of sunlight on water in open aqueducts)

1854, Dr. John Snow (Physician)

o

Studied the Broad Street cholera (London, England) outbreak and concluded that
contaminated water, not air, is spreading Cholera.

He prevented a spread of the epidemic by shutting down the contaminated water

pump by using chlorine

1897, Sims Woodhead

o

One of the publicly approved use of chlorine for water disinfection

1903
o

Middlekerke, Belgium

First use of chlorine in gaseous form for drinking water (earlier chlorination was
with bleaching powder, hydrated lime).

1906
o

Used "bleach solution" temporarily to sterilize the potable water distribution mains
during a typhoid outbreak. (Kent, England)

Ozone was used as disinfectant in Nice, France.

1908
o Cities like Chicago and Jersey in US started routinely treating drinking water using
chlorine

3. Disinfection by heat
The important waterborne disease are not known to be caused by spore-forming bacteria or other
heat resistant organisms, this is a safe and commendable practice where drinking water safety is
suspect. So water can be disinfected by subjecting it to heat. Emergency boil water orders by
health and water authorities in times of water borne epidemics is done on the fact that water can be
purified by subjecting it to boiling temperature for about 15 to 20 minutes. It is very effective
though energy consuming method to kill bacteria, viruses, spores, pathogenic microbes, and worm
eggs etc. The method is, however, impractical on a routine or large scale basis.
In developing countries like in south Asia and Africa where proper sanitation is not done and there
is every chance of using contaminated water, it is wised to drink water only after boiling in houses
itself. If boiling is the only type of treatment available, it is recommended to let the water settle
before, filter it through a fine-meshed cloth so as to remove coarse impurities and suspended
particles. The water is then brought to a strong boil which is maintained for at least 10, preferably
15-20 minutes. For storing, it must not be transferred to a different vessel, but left in the former
one and covered, so as to protect it from recontamination.
Boiling, together with the associated release of gases, especially CO 2 alters the taste of water. But
through stirring while boiling and by letting the water sit in the partially filled vessel for a few
hours afterward, the water picks up air and loses its bland taste. To improve the taste of the water,
flavoring plant materials may be added during boiling.
If done properly, boiling is a very effective and simple disinfection method. Since it requires a
significant amount of energy, this method is only recommended in exceptional cases. If it is not
4

possible for any reason to apply a different method, the most energy-efficient way of boiling
should be employed which is a method of physical disinfection.

4. Disinfection by Ultra violet

Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) is a physical disinfection method that uses shortwavelength ultraviolet light to kill or inactivate microorganisms by destroying nucleic acids and
disrupting their DNA, leaving them unable to perform vital cellular functions. Ultraviolet
disinfection of water is a purely physical, chemical-free process. Even parasites such as
cryptosporidium or giardia, which are extremely resistant to chemical disinfectants, are efficiently
reduced. UV can also be used to remove chlorine and chloramine species from water; this process
is called photolysis, and requires a higher dose than normal disinfection. Its wavelength is between
that of visible light and x-rays and it has been found to be an effective method for eradicating
germs in a water supply .Ultraviolet (UV) light has long been known to have germicidal properties,
but equipment and methods using it effectively in water supply systems are quite new. UV
radiation was one of the earliest recognized methods of disinfection; however its use was
discontinued around the turn of the century because of the arrival of chlorination and ozonation.
Recently, there has been a renewed interest in UV radiation as an alternative to chemical
treatments largely as a result of concern over toxic chemical byproducts

4.1 How does UV treat works?

Ultraviolet or UV energy is found in the electromagnetic spectrum between visible light and x-rays
and can best be described as invisible radiation. UV light occupies the spectral range of 400012000 angstroms, which is just below visible light to soft X-rays. In order to kill microorganisms;
the UV rays must actually strike the cell. UV energy penetrates the outer cell membrane, passes
through the cell body and disrupts its DNA preventing reproduction. UV treatment does not alter
5

water chemically; nothing is being added except energy. The sterilized microorganisms are not
removed from the water. UV disinfection does not remove dissolved organics, inorganics or
particles in the water.
Fig: UV Light Disinfection of Water

4.2 Dosage
UV dose requirements (mJ/cm2) (source: USEPA)
Target pathogens
Cryptosporidium
Giardia
Virus

Log inactivation
1
2.5
2.1

2
5.8
5.2

3
12
11

4
22
22

58

100

143

186

According to BIS (14724:1999) for 99.99 % inactivation of E.colithe UV dose is required is 7

mJ/cm2.Similiar reduction of Salmonella Typhimurium requires a dose of 15.2 mJ/cm2 .For polio
virus; UV dose of 21 mJ/cm2 is required.

4.3 Advantages of UV ray as disinfectant

Not extensive contact time is required in this process thus making a time efficient operation
Has no danger of overdosing
No requirement of hazardous material
Betters the taste of water due to destruction of some organic contaminants and
microorganisms
No onsite smell and no smell in the final product
6

No chemicals required and doesnt produce toxic byproducts

4.4 Disadvantages of UV ray as disinfectant

No residual for treatment beyond the device

If contaminants enter after treatment another disinfectant is needed to treat the water like
chlorination
During power cut it is of no use.
Technically complex, requires training to operate

4.5 Cost
According to USAID funded program in India, the one-time installation cost of UV method is
US$300 which also includes material, fittings and labor. Assuming the system operates for 12
hours per day and the price of electricity is 8/kWh, the annual electricity cost of operating a UV
system is expected to be approximately $14.In online shopping website (unitechwaterindia.com)
the price of UV system is Rs.25000 /piece which filtered fresh water at a rate of 4 m3/hr.

5. Treatment by Copper-Silver Ionization

From ancient times, it is known that copper is bactericidal and strongly algicidal. Other metals like
mercury and silver are also effective in small concentrations. After detailed investigations,
particularly with silver and silver salts; Van Nageli gave the nameoligodyanmic to describe the
process. Copper-silver ionization is primarily used to control Legionella, the bacteria responsible
for Legionnaires' disease (Legionellosis). Aside from being an effective method for combating
Legionella, copper silver ionization is also the most environmentally friendly solution as well, with
no chemicals or harmful by-products.

5.1 Copper Silver Ionization Working Principle

As water passes through the flow cell, a direct current is applied across the electrodes to stimulate
the controlled release of ions. The rate at which the ions are released is automatically maintained
by a solid-state, microprocessor-based control unit that is both reliable and easy to operate.

Copper-silver ionization disperses positively charged copper and silver ions into the water system
The ions bond electro statically with negative sites on bacterial cell walls and denature proteins.
Over the long term, the presence of copper and silver ions destroys bio films and slimes that can
harbor Legionella, the bacteria responsible for Legionnaires disease (Legionellosis). Silver ions
penetrate the core of the microorganism and immobilized all life support systems

5.2 Dosage
According to Australian standards Copper ion concentrations of just 0.2 0.4 mg/l and Silver ion
concentrations of just 0.02 to 0.04 mg/L have proven to be effective. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set a maximum level for drinking water of 1.3 mg/l
for copper & 0.1 mg/l for silver.

5.3 Advantages of Copper Silver Ionization

Growth of certain algae and fungi is inhibited

Powerful, long lasting residual bacteriostatic action is provided.

because of copper-silver ionization, drinking water could be produced safely in space

without the use of chlorine

It is widely used in the hospitals to deactivate Legionella bacteria.

When copper-silver ionization is combined with chlorine disinfection, it is an excellent

disinfection mechanism to deactivate viruses and bacteria.

Copper-silver is non-corrosive so it causes less strain on the distribution system.

When copper-silver ionization is applied, there are no transport and storage difficulties.

5.4 Disadvantages of Copper Silver Ionization

Copper-silver affectivity depends on the pH value of the water. At a pH value of 9, only one
tenth of all Legionella bacteria are removed. When dissolved solid concentrations are high,
silver will precipitate. This means silver ions are no longer available for disinfection.

Treatment is costlier so public utilities like hospitals can only bear the cost.

Some species of microorganisms can become resistant to silver ions. They can remove
metal from their systems or convert it to a less toxic product. These microorganisms can
become resistant to copper-silver ionization.

5.5 Cost
The cost of installation of the Copper-Silver ionization units range from $50000 to $100000
depending upon the size of hospital in US. Yearly maintenance costs ranges around $1500-$4000
to replace electrode. In India, no actual cost is shown in the online shopping websites. However,
the actual unit price of treatment plant can be available on request.

6. Treatment with Iodine

Commercial iodine is a volatile, purplish-black, crystalline solid which is corrosive to most
common metals and which sublimates slowly at normal atmospheric conditions. When heated, it
forms a violet, toxic vapor that is less hazardous than other halogens used in water treatment.
Iodine is an effective, simple, and cost-efficient means of water disinfection for people who
vacation, travel, or work in areas where municipal water treatment is not reliable. Iodine is a
chemical treatment alternative to chlorine and is considered more reliable than chlorine for highly
polluted water and what travelers may encounter during their travels. Iodine is less sensitive to the
pH and organic content of water and is effective in lower doses. It appears safe for short and
intermediate length use (3-6 months), but query remain about its safety in lengthy usage.
Compared to chlorine, it works faster, is effective over a wider range of pH, resists inactivation by
organic matter and comes in several more stable preparations. The disinfection of water with
iodine is suitable for small water supplies and also for troops in field. They are now used for
disinfection of swimming pools also.

6.1 How Iodine works?

It isn't completely clear exactly how iodine works against microbes but is seems to be able to
rapidly penetrate them and attack key protein groups (cysteine and methionine), nucleotides, and
fatty acids which leads to the destruction of the organism. In viruses, it may attack the surface
proteins of enveloped viruses and destabilize membrane fatty acids.

6.2 Dosage
Iodine is generally used in doses of 8 mg/l (PPM) to treat clear water at 10 minute contact time.
Cloudy water needs twice as much iodine or twice as much contact time. In cold water(less than
5C) the dose (to 16mg/l) or time must also be doubled. Iodine can treat bacteria and viruses in low
doses (0.5 mg/l). Some literature suggests a double dosage (16mg/l) of iodine and contact time of
greater than 60 minutes is required to treat Giardiaas it is hardest to kill. Iodine is not reasonably
effective against Cryptosporidium and requires very high doses (1,015 mg min/l) in laboratory
conditions to treat 99% of crypto in water. An iodine residual of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/l should be
maintained after iodine treatment if continued protection against pathogens is desired. The mean
concentration of total iodine in drinking-water in the USA is 4 g/liter, and the maximum
concentration is 18 g/liter.

10

6.3Cost
In international market basically in US, bottle weighing 150 gram of iodine is about $20.

6.4 Forms of Iodine Available

Iodine Preparations
Preparation

Iodine

Amount/ Liter

Iodine Topical Solution

2%

8 drops

Iodine Tincture

2%

8 drops

Lugol Solution

5%

4 drops

Povidone Iodine (Betadine)

10%

4 drops

8mg

1 tablet

Tetraglycinehydroperiodide
(Globaline, Potable Aqua)
(Note: 1 drop = 0.05 ml)

Disinfecting Contact Times

Water Clarity

Water Temperature
5 C

15 C

Clear

30 min

15 min

cloudy

60 min

30 min

6.5 Advantages of Iodine

Effective against more pathogenic organisms (including spores, cysts, viruses, etc.) within
short times and at relatively low dosages.
Action depends less on contact time and temperature than for chlorine.
Ammonia and organic nitrogenous impurities have little effect one germicidal efficiency.
11

Complaints of tastes, odors and eye, ear and skin irritations are infrequent when properly
used for disinfection of pools.

6.6 Disadvantages of Iodine

Organic color and other reducing materials substantially effect germicidal action.
It can also present health concerns for those allergic to iodine, pregnant women and people
with thyroid conditions if used for longer than 2 weeks.
Costlier; about 20-25 times higher than chlorine per unit of germicidal effectiveness.
Taste and slight color produced can affect palatability and aesthetic quality.

7. Treatment with Ozone

Ozone, (O3) discovered by Van Marum (Dutch Scientist) in 1783 is an allotropic form of oxygen
occurring naturally in the upper layer of the earths atmosphere, where it is formed by ultra-violet
radiation on the oxygen present in those layers. It is an unstable isotope of oxygen which has
strong bactericidal action and can be used effectively in disinfecting water supplies. Ozone was
first used as a disinfectant in the Netherlands in 1893.A few years later; a permanent installation
for a continuous ozonator was built in Nice, France, until the outbreak of cryptosporidium in 1993
in Milwakee.
The gas is highly oxidizing and very unstable and has such an irritating pungent odor and blue in
color when liquefied. It is unstable on heating and decomposes slowly at ordinary temperatures.
Ozone has a powerful oxidizing effect causing rapid and complete sterilization of clear water.
Because of its instability, ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen and releases nascent
oxygen. The nascent oxygen, so obtained, is a powerful oxidizing agent and removes the organic
matter as well as the bacteria from the water. It has additional advantages of reducing color, taste
and odor of a water and increasing palatability. In spite of its instability it can be bottled and stored
in small quantities.
3O2
O3

under high electric voltage

2O3

O2 +O (Nascent oxygen)

7.1 Production
It can be produced artificially by subjecting dry air to the silent electrical discharge of high tension
electric current and Siemens devises the first electrical machine to manufacture the gas in 1857. A
voltage of between 4000 and 2000 volts is applied to dielectric plates spaced about 0.25 inches
apart, through which dry air is blown. Ozone is produced at the frequency of 500-1000 cycles, per
second. High voltage and high frequency give higher efficiency of ozone production. The
concentration of ozone in the air blown through the plates is of the order of 2 to 6 grams per cubic
meter of air. The ozone containing air is then introduced to the water by injecting it into the base of
a deep contact tank or tower. The volume of ozonized air to be handled is very large and may
approach one-third the volume of water treated at normal dosage rates.
12

7.2 Ozone treats:

Being most powerful disinfectant; the following contaminants or problems can all be potentially
treated with ozone;

Bacteria - all known, including iron bacteria

Minerals - inorganic, dyes and others
Metals - Iron, Manganese and many other
Protozoans - all known, including Cryptosporidium, Giardia and all Amoebae
Viruses - all known

7.3 Dosage
In US typical dosages are between 8 to 50 lb. (0.45 kg) of ozone per million US gallons (1US
gallon=3.78 liters) of water. Adequate disinfection will be obtained with a brief residual of 0.1 ppm
or more. Tests have shown that 10 ppm of chlorine was required for a contact period of 3minutes to
kill an aqueous suspension of bacillus spores. With ozone, the same results were achieved in 14
minutes using only 0.35 ppm of ozone.

7.4 Advantages

Good bactericide as complex taste, odor and color problems is effectively reduced.
Being a powerful oxidant, organic matter in water is oxidized.
Disinfecting action is effective over a wide temperature and pH range.
Removal of Iron and Manganese.
Improves taste, appearance, quality and acceptability of drinking water.
The treatment process does not add chemicals to the water.
Bactericidal and sporicidal action is rapid and only short contact periods are required (300
to 3000 times quicker than chlorine).

7.5 Disadvantages

Electrical energy requirements and capital and operating costs are high (10-15 times higher
than chlorine)
Ozone must be manufactured on site itself & is very reactive and corrosive nature thus
requiring corrosion-resistant material such as stainless steel.
13

Due to its short half-life, generally less than 30 minutes, a residual is not maintained in
downstream processes; so, it can only be used as a primary disinfectant. A secondary
disinfectant such as chlorine or chloramines must be added to maintain a disinfectant
residual within the distribution system.

7.6 Cost
For ozonation dose of 1 mg/l, estimated cost for a plant with capacity of 100m 3 was US
$0.844(based on USEPA, 1996). Now in India, various online websites sell whole ozonation
treatment plant from 2 to 5 lakhs per piece (dir.indiamart.com). They are also expensive as they
required energy so electricity charges are also to be considered.

8. Treatment with Potassium Permanganate

Potassium permanganate is a very versatile inorganic chemical compound with the chemical
formula KMnO4. It is a salt consisting of K+ and MnO4 ions. It can be used for disinfection,
removing hardness, removing iron and manganese. Earlier it was known as permanganate of
potash or Condy's crystals. This chemical is a very powerful oxidizer and it should not be stored
anywhere near acids or fuel sources or it could result in fires, explosions and/or toxic gases being
formed. Though it is a strong oxidant it is rarely applied for treatment of water in urban areas. It is
sufficiently effective against cholera bacteria, but not against other pathogenic germs. But well
water supplies in villages which are generally contaminated with lesser amounts of bacteria, it is
used extensively. It is used as a regeneration chemical to remove iron and hydrogen sulfide (rotten
egg smell) from well water via a "Manganese Greensand" Filter. Potassium permanganate is
available as a dry, purplish solid.

8.1 How it works?

While treating well water supplies little amount of Potassium Permanganate dissolved in a bucket
of water and is thoroughly mixed with water. After the solution is added in the well, continuous
agitation will help loosen and disintegrate sediment and organic material produced by the bacteria,
thus enhancing treatment effectiveness. Pink color is obtained after addition of KMnO4 .If pink
color disappears then presence of organic matter is showed and more amount of Potassium
Permanganate should be added till the pink color stands. Extraction of water from wells should not
be done for at least 48 hours.

8.2 Dosage
The normal doses of Potassium Permanganate may vary between 1 to 2 mg/l with a contact period
of 4 to 6 hours. A concentration of 3.8 to 7.6 grams per gallon has been found to be very effective
in various experiments. The potassium permanganate dose needed for oxidation is 0.94mg per
milligram of iron and 1.92mg per milligram of manganese. Potassium permanganate is sensitive to
temperature extremes and performs best between 50 and 72 degrees Fahrenheit. Well water should
be approximately 55 degrees Fahrenheit.
14

8.3 Note:
KMnO4though cheaper, handy and quite useful but it cannot assure 100% removal of bacteria. It
can possibly remove 100% organisms causing cholera, but is of little use against other disease
organisms. Moreover, it creates a purple brown precipitate which coats the walls of the tank and
cannot be removed easily. In recent years, potassium permanganate has gained steadily in the
application in pretreatment since it has proved effective at removing objectionable odor and taste
by means of oxidation of organic material, hydrogen sulfide, prevents algal growth, removes iron
and manganese compounds by means of oxidation and filtration.

8.4 Cost
As in the price list of online shopping website (www.indian-exim.com) the price of potassium
permanganate is Rs134/kg and it is available in 50 kg pack.

9. Chlorination
The deodorizing and disinfectant properties of chlorine and chlorine compounds have been known
for many years. In 1897, Sims Woodhead was responsible for the first practical application of
chlorination to public water supplies in England. As an emergency measure, following an outbreak
of typhoid fever at Kent, the public water supply was treated with bleaching powder. It is to be
emphasized that chlorine, as normally applied, may not kill all pathogenic organisms. It will not
kill cysts of E.histolytica and it is ineffective against certain microscopic organisms. It is however,
an effective barrier against water-borne pathogenic organisms under normal conditions.
Chlorine is almost the universal disinfectant for water supplies. It is powerful oxidizing
disinfectant which will inactivate most bacteria providing it can get into contact, but normal
dosages are not effective against many viruses. . Chlorination is a relatively simple and cost
effective process which does not require extensive technical expertise and which is capable of
dealing with supply systems of varying size by altering dosing systems or storage for chemical
contact accordingly. Chlorine is reliable, easy to handle, easily measurable and most important; it
is capable of providing residual disinfecting effects for long periods, thus affording complete
protection against future recontamination of water in the distribution system. Chlorine may be
added to water in the form of chlorine gas, hypochlorite, or chlorine dioxide. All types of chlorine
will kill bacteria and some viruses, but only chlorine dioxide will effectively kill Cryptosporidium,
Giardia, protozoans, and some viruses. Chlorine gas is compressed into a liquid and stored in
metal cylinders. The gas is difficult to handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant. At
high concentrations, chlorine gas can even be fatal

9.1Discovery of chlorine
The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride (NaCl), has been known since ancient
times; archaeologists have found evidence that rock salt was used as early as 3000 BC and brine as
early as 6000 BC. Around 1630, chlorine was recognized as a gas by the chemist and physician Jan
Baptistvan Helmont. Elemental Chlorine was discovered in the thirteenth century. Chlorine (Cl2)
was first developed in pure form by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1774. Scheele
heated brown stone (manganese dioxide; MnO2) with hydrochloric acid (HCl). When these
substances are heated the bonds are broken, causing manganese chloride (MnCl 2), water (H2O) and
chlorine gas (Cl2) to form which is yellow-green gas under standard conditions
15

9.2 Reaction mechanism:

MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl2 + Cl2+ H2O

9.3 Disinfecting action of chlorine

As a strong oxidizing agent, chlorine kills pathogenic organisms via the oxidation of organic
molecules. Chlorine when added with water, it forms hypochlorous acid (hypochlorite ions), which
have an immediate and disastrous effect on most forms of microscopic organisms. The
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) dissociates by a reversible equation into hydrogen ions and
hypochlorite ions. It is able to disintegrate the lipids that compose the cell wall and react with
intracellular enzymes and proteins, making them nonfunctional. Microorganisms then either die or
are no longer able to multiply.
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
Chlorine + Water Hypochlorous Acid + Hydrochloric Acid
HOClH+OCL
Hypochlorous Acid Hydrogen Ion + Hypochlorite Ion

9.4 Factors affecting bacterial efficiency of chlorine

The bacterial efficiency of chlorine under ideal conditions depends on following factors:

Contact time: number of organisms destroyed per unit of time is proportional to the
number of organisms remaining. Different experiments have proven that the destruction
rate goes on decreasing with time
Concentration of disinfectants: the time required to affect a constant percentage of
bacteria or other microbes by any disinfectant depends on the concentration of the
disinfectant. It has been found that two disinfectants that are equally strong at one
concentration may have quite different efficiencies at some other concentration of the
disinfectant.
16

pH value of water: reduction in efficiency of chlorine is increased with the pH value of

water. It has been seen that at lower pH values, a smaller contact period is required for the
same percentage of kill.
Turbidity: the effect of turbidity in water is to make hard to obtain residual chlorine. So,
application of chlorine is preferred after filtration when water will be free from turbidity.
Number of organism: the higher the number of organism, the greater the percentage
destruction.
Presence of different chemicals: Various chemicals present in water will react with the
chlorine, which is added for disinfection and will thus reduce the concentration of chlorine
available for direct disinfection.

Disinfection time for several different types of pathogenic microorganisms with chlorinated
water, containing a chlorine concentration of 1 mg/l (1 ppm) when pH = 7.5 and T = 25 C
(Source: www.lenntech.com)
Disinfection time of fecal pollutants with chlorinated water
E. coli 0157 H7 bacterium

< 1 minute

Hepatitis A virus

about 16 minutes

Giardia parasite

about 45 minutes

Cryptosporidium

about 9600 minutes (6,7 days)

Chlorine required for treating different viruses (source: A text book of water supply
engineering.S.K.Garg)

17

Type of virus to be killed

Quantity of free chlorine required

in mg/l with about 30 minutes
contact period for water of pH
lower than 7 or so

Poliomyelitis virus

0.1

Hepatitis virus

0.4

Cysts of E. histolytic, i.e. the organism

causing amoebic dysentery

3.0 or even lower

Tuberculosis organisms

3.0

Coxsaickie Virus

Very huge dose varying from 21 to

138 mg/l

10. Various forms in which chlorine is applied as

disinfectant
10.1. Chloramines (NH2Cl)
Chlorine alone is not stable in water but when Cl 2 is mixed in water with ammonia(NH3), it forms
compounds known as chloramines .They are formed when water containing ammonia is
chlorinated or when ammonia is deliberately administered prior to the addition of chlorine.
Chloramines are less active oxidizing and germicidal agents than chlorine but they are more stable,
and hence an active residuum remains for a much longer period (several days) in the treated water.
This is an advantage where the water is retained for long periods in reservoirs and mains before
delivery to the consumers since they can provide greater safety against future contamination. This
treatment is useful where the raw water contains traces of impurities, which produces taste-forming
substances on the addition of chlorine alone. The use of ammonia avoids the formation of such
tastes, and sterilizes the residual of free chlorine in the water. The particular type of chloramines
used in drinking water disinfection is called mono-chloramine. Mono-chloramine is mixed into
water in levels that kill germs but are still safe to drink.
NH3 +HOClH2O+NH2Cl
10.1.1 Acting as a disinfectant
Chloramines are as effective as chlorine for the deactivation of bacteria and other microorganisms;
however the reaction mechanism is slower. Chloramines can kill bacteria by penetration of the cell
wall and blockage of the metabolism. Mono-chloramine is the most effective disinfectant and it

18

reacts directly with amino acids in the bacterial DNA. During deactivation of microorganisms
chloramines destroy the shell which protects a virus.
10.1.2 Dosage
Ammonia is added to the filtered water before adding chlorine by separate machine called
ammoniator .According to BIS 10500:2009, the maximum acceptable limit of chloramines is
0.2mg/l. Beyond these dose eyes and nose irritation, anemia, stomach discomfort can occur.
USEPA has sets maximum residual disinfectant level goals (MRDLG) for chloramines and is 4
mg/l. 75% of utilities are using water with chloramines residual levels between 1.0 and 3.0 mg/liter
after entering the distribution system. The water, after treatment is completed, should be supplied
to consumers after an interval of about 20 to 60 minutes.
10.1.3 Advantages
Inexpensive and simpler process.
Less irritation to nose and eyes so it is more useful in treating pool water.
No danger of overdose and imparts a good taste to water.
10.1.4 Disadvantage
Chloramines must be produced on site and they dont oxidize iron and manganese.

10.2. Bleaching powder

The chemical expression for the bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite is Ca(OCl 2).This is
chlorinated lime which is in available in market in solid form.. Bleaching powder may be used for
chlorinating small public supplies. Following reaction occurs when bleaching powder is mixed
with water:
Ca(OCl2) Ca + 20Cl
The hypochlorite ions(20Cl) may further combine with the hydrogen ions present in water to form
hypochlorous acid.The process is called hypochlorination.The hypochlorite ions as well as the
hypochlorous acid both causing disinfection of water.
OCl + H HOCl
The bleaching powder is a white powder with a pungent smell .Bleaching powder is an unstable
compound and when exposed to air, light or moisture and rapidly loses its chlorine content and
becomes ineffective. It contains about 30 -35% of active chlorine. Bleaching powder is added as
part of the drinking water treatment process. However, bleaching powder also reacts with the
organic matter, naturally present in water, such as decaying leaves. This chemical reaction forms a
group of chemicals known as disinfection by-products. Current scientific data shows that the
benefits of bleaching our drinking water (less disease) are more than any health risks from THMs
(Trihalomethanes) and other by-products.In many areas where gaseous and liquid chlorine is not
19

available;bleaching powder remains the most commonly used drinking water disinfectant, and the
disinfectant for which we have the most scientific information. When used with modern water
filtration methods, chlorine is effective against virtually all microorganisms. Bleaching powder is
easy to apply and small amounts of the chemical remain in the water as it travels in the distribution
system fromthe treatment plant to the consumers tap, this level ofeffectiveness ensures that
microorganisms cannot recontaminates the water after it leaves the treatment.
10.2.1 Dosage
Different experiments have shown different amount and dose of bleaching powder while treating
the water. Some says that 2.3 grams of bleaching powder is required to disinfect one cubic meter of
water. According to the USEPA, the maximum allowable ppm (parts per million) of chlorine
bleach in drinking water is apparently 4 ppm. While treating in water supply plants, a solution of
chlorine of sufficient stability is prepared and a constant dosing rate is fixed from dosing unit..For
this generally 1% chlorine solution is prepared. To prepare 1 % chlorine solution from bleaching
the following process is applied normally. Bleaching powder contains about 30 -35 % of chlorine.
In various parts of India the usual quantity of bleaching powder required for normal water is 0.5 to
2.5 kg per million liters of water.

Generally,
1% Chlorine Solution = 1g chlorine in 100 ml water
= 10g chlorine in 1000ml or 1L water
= 10

100
33

bleaching powder in 1L water

= 33.3g Bleaching powder /L of water

20

Bleach Powder in gram =

Volume of Solution ( L ) 1000

of Chlorine Bleaching Powder

Water Bleach Ratio

Volume of Water
1 Quart

Bleach
2 drops

1 Gallon
5 Gallons
10 Gallons

1/8 teaspoon ( 8 drops)

teaspoon
1 teaspoon

50 Gallons

5 teaspoon

Note: 1 US Gallon=3.78 liters

1 teaspoon=0.0049 liters=76 drops
1 drop= 0.05 ml
1 quart=946.35 ml
10.2.2 Cost
The cost of bleaching powder is very low. One kg of bleaching powder cost is only Rs.40.

10.2.3 Advantages

They are available in the powder form in small packings.

Their chlorine content does not decrease with storage

They can be applied to water in dry condition or as solution.

21

10.2.4 Disadvantages

Bleaching powder is unstable during storage.

Hardness of water increases due to the increase in calcium contents.

Its excess in water gives unpleasant smell and disagreeable taste.

10.3 Gaseous Chlorine/Liquid chlorine

For almost 100 years now, chlorine is applied in gaseous form has been the primary disinfectant
used in treating municipal water supplies worldwide. Today in many countries even with
alternative methods being widely available, chlorine gas is still chosen as the primary disinfection
method for more than 50 % of all drinking water. Using chlorine gas for disinfection is a wise
choice as it is very effective and economical, and easy to operate and maintain. . Chlorine gas is
the least expensive form of chlorine to use. Chlorine gas is widely regarded as the safest
disinfection method due to the fact that is it now almost always fed under vacuum, greatly
reducing any chance of leaks. Although chlorine gas is a hazardous substance, most people do not
know the facts and safety statistics of its use in water disinfection. Without this information many
tend to overestimate the hazards of chlorine gas when comparing it to alternative disinfection
methods such as sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite.

The gaseous chlorine is absolutely pure and has 100% available chlorine. Chlorine is available in
amount of 50, 75,100 kg cylinders stored under a pressure of 7 to 11 kg/cm 2 in seamless steel
cylinders. Chlorine gas is greenish yellow in color and toxic in nature. It is heavier than air and
will therefore sink to the ground if released from its container. The gaseous form of chlorine gets
converted into the liquid form, when subjected to pressure about 7 kg/cm2.The liquid chlorine so
formed is an amber colored oily fluid, which is 1.5 times heavier than water. The toxic effect of
chlorine gas that makes it a good disinfectant, but it is toxic to more than just waterborne
pathogens; it is also toxic to humans. It is a respiratory irritant and it can also irritate skin and
mucus membranes. Exposure to high volumes of chlorine gas fumes can cause serious health
problems, including death. However, it is important to realize that chlorine gas, once entering the
22

water, changes into hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions, and therefore its human toxic
properties are not found in the drinking water we consume.

Chlorine gas, which is actually sold as an amber-colored compressed liquid, is the least expensive
form of chlorine and is, consequently, the preferred type for municipal water systems.. Chlorine, as
a liquid, is heavier (more dense) than water. If the chlorine liquid is released from its container it
will quickly return back to its gas state.

10.3.1 Dosage
Chlorine levels up to 4 mg/l are considered safe in drinking water. At this level, no harmful health
effects are likely to occur. Eye/nose irritation; stomach discomfort can occur if chlorine levels are
increased. The dosage of chlorine will depend on the impurities present in water. The typical
amount of chlorine gas required for water treatment is 1-16 mg/l of water. The chlorine gas may
first be dissolved in a small quantity of water and the solution so prepared is fed to the point of
application. Different amounts of chlorine gas are used depending on the quality of water that
needs to be treated. If the water quality is poor, a higher concentration of chlorine gas will be
required to disinfect the water if the contact time cannot be increased.
10.3.2 Advantages of chlorine gas

It can be stored for a long time without any scope of deterioration.

Occupies less space for storage.

Chlorine dosage is precise and there are minimal chances of overdose or under dose

The cost of transport is not more.

The results obtained are uniform in nature and reliable in practice

The working principle of plant is simple and skilled supervision is not essential.
23

Liquid chlorine is available in pure form.

No sludge is formed in its application, as may be formed by using hypochlorites or

chloramines.

Being a powerful disinfectant and remain in water as residual for enough time.

Liquid chlorine can be used at all temperatures viz. low, mild and even at extreme
temperatures.

It does not introduce any other impurities and salts in water.

Handling cost and operational safety issues as it is extremely volatile

Produces toxic disinfection by products like THM and halo acetic acids poses cancer risk.

Found to be ineffective against Giardia lamblia cysts and some strains of Cryptosporidium.

Organoleptic issues such as taste and odor.

Fig: Chlorine gas production

24

10.4

Form of Chlorine-Dioxide Gas

Chlorine-dioxide gas (ClO2) is found to be more effective in the removal of bacteria chlorine.ClO 2
is an effective and powerful disinfectant. It is capable of inactivating bacteria and viruses.
Inactivation of Giardia is also possible with low doses. Chlorine -dioxide has the chemical formula
ClO2 and is a yellow to brown colored gas at room temperature and pressure. It is a highly reactive
oxidant and for all practical areas of water disinfection, it must be generated on site using
proprietary reaction and dosing equipment. It can be produced by passing chlorine gas through
sodium chlorite. The reaction forms sodium chloride and chlorine dioxide gas as follows:

2NaClO2 +Cl22NaCl + 2ClO2

25

Chlorine dioxide is a very strong oxidizer and it effectively kills pathogenic microorganisms such
as fungi, bacteria and viruses. It also prevents and removes bio film. Maintaining a continuous free
residual of just 0.1 0.5 mg/l of ClO2 in a water supply has been shown to be effective in
controlling a wide range of harmful bacteria and problematic microbes. As a disinfectant and
pesticide it is mainly used in liquid form. Chlorine dioxide can also be used against anthrax;
because it is effective against spore-forming bacteria.

10.4.1 Dosage
The common dosage of chlorine dioxide usually ranges from 0.2 to 1.5 mg/l. According to USEPA,
maximum residual disinfectant level is 0.8 mg/l. According to the Australian standards, drinking
water may need to be dosed at 1 to 1.25mg/l chlorine dioxide to achieve a residual concentration of
0.4mg/l. Different microbes needs different amount of chlorine dioxide which can be seen in
following table:

Bacterial Reduction Using Chlorine Dioxide

Micro-organisms

ppm (mg/l)of
ClO2

Contact Time
(s)

Inactivation in %

Staphylococcus aureus

60

99.999

Eschericia Coli

0.15

300

99.9

Eschericia Coli

0.25

60

>99.999

Streptococcus

15

>99.999

Lactobacillus Brevis

0.15

300

99.9
26

Lactobacillus Brevis

300

>99.999

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

60

>99.999

Source (USEPA)
10.4.2 Cost
The cost for commercially available chlorine dioxide (as in amazon.in) as liquid chlorine dioxide
water treatment drops is Rs.1800 for 60 ml bottle which can treat more than 100 liters of water.

10.4.3 Advantages

Very effective as bacterial disinfectant than chlorine.

Effectively deactivates the chlorine resistant pathogens Giardia and Cryptosporidium..

It works better than chlorine for treating spores.

It needs little contact time.

No corrosion is produced at high concentrations, thus reducing maintenance costs.

It does not react to ammonia or ammonium salts.

It improves coagulation.

It is better than chlorine for removing iron and manganese.

27

10.4.4 Disadvantages

Costlier process.

Chlorine dioxide gas is very unstable and has to be used immediately after its production

High dose of chlorine dioxide can affect the blood of human beings and cause neurological
effects in the developing nervous system.

Utilization of chlorine dioxide implies formation of chlorite and chlorate.

Adjustment of installations is difficult and over-dosage can lead to formation of halogen

byproducts.

Chlorine dioxide decomposes in sunlight.

Chlorine dioxide must be produced onsite.

28

10.5 In the Form of Chlorine Tablets

Use of chlorine tablets are used to disinfect small quantities of water and are relatively expensive.
For timely purification of drinking water, under the various schemes of protected water supply in
rural areas, chlorine tablets are highly effective. This is the easiest method of disinfection and
purification of water. Chlorine tablets are available in the market under various trade names, such
as halazone tablets. Halazone tablets have outstanding status among water purification tablets for
ensuring wholesome quality of water with its effective bactericidal activity in water. They are
effective against viruses, microbes (bacteria), and cysts such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium.

These tablets are used by campers, militaries, navies, households, schools, hospitals for
purification of drinking water. Halazone tablets provide instant purification; hence it is very useful
in case of water borne epidemics, floods and cyclones.

The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur has formulated a tablet,
which is 15 times better than the ordinary halazone tablets and are manufactured in various
strengths.
29

10.5.1 Dosage

Halazone Tablets are available in the following strengths:

4 mg to treat 1 liter water.

20 mg to treat 5 liter water

40 mg to treat 10 liters water

80 mg to treat 20 liters water

100 mg to treat 25 liters water.

They require a 4 hour treatment time for effectiveness.

10.5.2 Cost

The price of chlorine tablets is Rs.650/kg (as in www.indiamart.com) which can treat more than
50000 liters.
10.5.3 Note:

Though it can treat water in effective way but using these chlorine tablets is that we have to wait
for 3-4 hours after adding a tablet for drinking. They dissolve slowly releasing small amount of
chlorine in water over a long period of time.

30

11. Concept of Booster Chlorination

The chlorination process is generally carried out the supply source .But chlorine may depart in
some locations or at distant points within the network. So, to observe detectable chlorine residual
at all levels of branching booster chlorination stations must be built in the network. The required
level of chlorine residual varies with type of water supply and local conditions. In water supplies
which are chlorinated there should always be a minimum of 0.5mg/l residual chlorine after 30
minutes contact time in water. Areas where there is little risk of a cholera outbreak, there should be
a chlorine residual of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/l at all points in the supply. So chlorine residual of about 1mg/l
is needed when water leaves the treatment plant. If there is a risk of cholera or an outbreak and
epidemic has occurred the following chlorine residuals should be maintained:
At all points in a piped supply: 0.5mg/l
At stand posts and wells: 1.0mg/l
In tanker trucks, at filling: 2.0mg/l
Booster chlorination is best way to maintain minimum (adequate) residual in which chlorine is
applied at critical strategic locations within the distribution system as chlorine residual may get
reduce during storage and distribution which prevents re growth of pathogenic bacteria. Probable
causes for the low residual can be long residence time of water (stagnant water), treated water
quality, pipe age and the existence of storage tanks. So the chlorine concentrations should be
increased at the purification plant or at strategic locations in the distribution system. They are also
called secondary chlorination.
Likely problems of conventional method of disinfection with chlorine in a water supply system
are:

Lack of chlorine residuals in the remote points

Carcinogenic disinfection byproducts formation
high dosages of chlorine residuals immediate points

The objectives of booster facility are

to minimize the total disinfectant dose

to maximize the volume of water supplied to consumers with chlorine residuals within
specified limits

The booster chlorination point must be located at a node with higher reachability.

31

12. Common Disinfectants with Salient Features

Disinfectants

1. UV ray

2. Boiling

3. Copper-Silver
Ionization

4. Iodine

5. Ozone

6. Potassium
Permanganate

Salient Features
No use of chemical feeds and doesnt produce toxic byproducts (pure physical
process).
Effective against Bacteria, Giardia & Cryptosporidium (pathogens carrying
diarrhea).
Has no residual disinfection.
Effective method by heating water to a high temp.(100c) for 20 minutes to kill
most of pathogenic organisms causing waterborne diseases.
Non-conventional methods of heat generation may be needs in areas where
electricity/fossil fuels are not available.
Best available technology for controlling Legionella bacteria in hotels, large
buildings and especially nursing homes / hospitals.
Residual effect ensures long term disinfection and reduced recontamination of
systems
Effective, simple and cost efficient means for people who travels &vacation.
For prolonged period of time, use of iodine needs monitoring of thyroid
function.
Easily available in the forms of pills and very handy.
Most powerful disinfectant used as it is highly efficient for killing virus &
protozoa.
Assists in filtration due to oxidation of inorganic and organic impurities like
iron, manganese, sulfides.
Consistency monitoring should be done due to its toxicity nature.
Need to add secondary disinfectant such as chlorine to maintain residual.
Common disinfectant used in village for disinfection of dug well water, pond
water to kill the bacteria and oxidizes the organic matter.
Addition of KMnO4 makes the water light pink and makes water more
corrosive.

7. Chlorine
a).Chloramines

b).Bleaching
powder

c).Gaseous/Liquid
Chlorine
d).Chlorine
Dioxide Gas
e).Chlorine Tablets

Remain in water as residuals for long period, so can provide greater safety
against future contamination.
Dont causes bad tastes and odors even when their residuals are present.
It contains 30-35% of available chlorine and is unstable and goes on losing
when exposed to atmosphere.
Generally not used nowadays due to raising pH value of water on account of
their lime contents and low amounts of chlorine.
Universally adopted as they are effective for most microorganisms & can
oxidize iron and manganese.
May remain in water as residual for good enough time.
No sludge formation as in chloramines and hypo chlorites.
Effective and 2.5 times stronger than chlorine & is used for waters containing
larger amounts of organic impurities.
Used for treating highly alkaline waters with pH range from 8-10.
Costlier and extensively used in epidemics, ground water supplies.

32

 No aftertaste improves the taste and odor of water.

Requires a 4-hour treatment time for effectiveness..

13. References
1) American Water Works Association, Water Quality and Treatment, 4th Edition, McGrawHill, New York, 1990.
2) NSF International Standard/American National Standard, Drinking Water Treatment
Chemicals-Health Effects, NSF/ANSI 60, USA, 2005.
3) US EPA (1999). Alternative disinfectants and oxidants guidance manual. EPA 815-R-99014,
EPA
815-R-99-014,
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
USA.
http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/mdbp/alternative_disinfectants_guidance.pdf.
4) WHO (1993) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Second Edition, Volume 1
5) Faust Samuel D. , Osman M. Aly Chemistry of Water Treatment, Second Edition
6) Kansal, M.L.,Verma ,Shuchi Use of chemical disinfectants in drinking water - need for
cautious approach.
7) Fair,G.M., and J.C.Geyer, Water supply and waste-water disposal, Wiley, New York,1954
8) Steel,E.W., Water supply and sewerage,4thEdition., McGraw-Hill, New York,1960
9) Holdern,W.S., Water Treatment and Examination, J.&A. Churchill,London,1970
10) Rangwala,S.C., Fundamentals of Water Supply & Sanitary Engineering,2nd
Edition,India,1971
11) Taylor,E.W., The Examination of Waters & Water Supplies,6th Edition, J.&A.
Churchill,London,1949
12) Garg,S.K., Water Supply Engineering,27th Edition, Khanna Publishers,2015
13) Birdie,G.S. and Birdie,J.S., Water Supply & Sanitary Engineering, 5th Edition, 1992
14) Disinfection, http://www.lenntech.com/processes/disinfection/disinfection.htm
15) Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. 3rd
Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies. New York.
16) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. Design Manual: Municipal
Wastewater Disinfection. EPA Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, Ohio.
EPA/625/1-86/021
17) USEPA. Design Manual: Municipal Wastewater Disinfection, EPA/625/1-86/021, October,
1986

33