1

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1-4

1.1

Objectives..................................................................................................................................................1-4

1.2

The Vibration Institute of South Africa................................................................................................1-4

1.3

Course Overview......................................................................................................................................1-5

2
2.1

MEASUREMENT CONVENTIONS .................................................................. 2-1

Why do we use conventions? ..................................................................................................................2-1

2.2
Signal Polarity Convention.....................................................................................................................2-1
2.2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................2-1
2.2.2 Signal Polarity in Velocity and Acceleration Transducers ..................................................................2-2
2.2.3 Signal Polarity in Eddy Current Transducers .......................................................................................2-3
2.3
Transducer / Sensor location identification..........................................................................................2-4
2.3.1 Viewpoint ..............................................................................................................................................2-4
2.3.2 Transducer Angular Location ...............................................................................................................2-4
2.3.3 Oscilloscope Conventions:....................................................................................................................2-5

EDDY CURRENT TRANSDUCER OPERATION ............................................. 3-1

3.1

Why do we use Eddy Current Transducers? .......................................................................................3-1

3.2

Principles of Operation ...........................................................................................................................3-1

3.3

Mounting Considerations: ......................................................................................................................3-2

PHASE MEASUREMENT ................................................................................ 4-1

4.1

Relative Phase Measurement .................................................................................................................4-1

4.2

Absolute Phase Measurement ................................................................................................................4-2

4.3

Bandpass and Tracking Filters???? .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

DATA PRESENTATION................................................................................... 5-1

5.1
Steady State Data Presentation ..............................................................................................................5-1
5.1.1 Timebase................................................................................................................................................5-1
5.1.2 Orbits .....................................................................................................................................................5-2
5.1.3 Amplitude and Phase versus Time........................................................................................................5-3
5.1.4 Shaft Centreline Position ......................................................................................................................5-3
5.1.5 Spectrum................................................................................................................................................5-3
5.1.6 Waterfall ................................................................................................................................................5-3
5.2
Transient Data Presentation...................................................................................................................5-4
5.2.1 Bode.......................................................................................................................................................5-4
5.2.2 Polar.......................................................................................................................................................5-5
5.2.3 Shaft Centreline Position ......................................................................................................................5-6
5.2.4 Multiple Orbits ......................................................................................................................................5-6
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5.2.5

Cascade..................................................................................................................................................5-6

FUNDAMENTAL SYNCHRONOUS ROTOR RESPONSE .............................. 6-1

6.1

Spring Force .............................................................................................................................................6-1

6.2

Mass Acceleration....................................................................................................................................6-1

6.3

Drag Force ................................................................................................................................................6-1

6.4

Synchronous Dynamic Stiffness .............................................................................................................6-2

6.5

Rotor Response at Speeds below Resonance ........................................................................................6-4

6.6

Rotor Response at Resonance ................................................................................................................6-4

6.7

Rotor Response at Speeds above Resonance ........................................................................................6-5

PRE-LOADS AND POSITION MEASUREMENTS .......................................... 7-1

7.1

Radial and axial Pre-loads......................................................................................................................7-1

7.2

The effects of Pre-load.............................................................................................................................7-1

7.3
Detecting Abnormal Pre-loads ...............................................................................................................7-2
7.3.1 Orbit Shape............................................................................................................................................7-2
7.3.2 Shaft Centreline Position ......................................................................................................................7-2
7.3.3 Abnormal ratio of Shaft to Casing Vibration .......................................................................................7-2
7.4

8
8.1

Applying Radial Position Measurements..............................................................................................7-2

DETECTING RUBS.......................................................................................... 8-1

The Character of Rubs............................................................................................................................8-1

8.2
The Dynamics of Rubs ............................................................................................................................8-1
8.2.1 Impact Forces ........................................................................................................................................8-1
8.2.2 Friction Forces.......................................................................................................................................8-1
8.3
Rub Types .................................................................................................................................................8-2
8.3.1 Full Annular Rubs .................................................................................................................................8-2
8.3.2 Partial Rubs ...........................................................................................................................................8-3

DETECTING CRACKED ROTORS.................................................................. 9-1

9.1
Cracked Rotor Symptoms ......................................................................................................................9-1
9.1.1 Increased Rotor Bow.............................................................................................................................9-1
9.1.2 Rotor Asymmetry..................................................................................................................................9-1
9.2
Types of Rotor Cracks ............................................................................................................................9-2
9.2.1 Transverse Cracks .................................................................................................................................9-2
9.2.2 Spiral Crack ...........................................................................................................................................9-2
9.2.3 Longitudinal Cracks ..............................................................................................................................9-2
9.2.4 Symmetric Transverse Cracks ..............................................................................................................9-2

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9.3
Diagnosing Rotor Cracks........................................................................................................................9-3
9.3.1 Using Transient Data (start-up/coast down).........................................................................................9-3
9.3.2 Using Operating Speed Data.................................................................................................................9-3

10

DETECTING FLUID INSTABILITIES.......................................................... 10-1

10.1
Vibration Types .....................................................................................................................................10-1
10.1.1
Free Vibration .................................................................................................................................10-1
10.1.2
Forced Vibration .............................................................................................................................10-1
10.1.3
Self Excited Vibration ....................................................................................................................10-2
10.2

Fluid Induced Resonance......................................................................................................................10-2

10.3
Whirl and Whip Vibration ...................................................................................................................10-3
10.3.1
Whirl Vibration...............................................................................................................................10-3
10.3.2
Whip Vibration ...............................................................................................................................10-3
10.3.3
Threshold of Stability .....................................................................................................................10-3
10.4

Detecting Whirl and Whip vibration...................................................................................................10-4

10.5

Curing Whirl / Whip problems............................................................................................................10-4

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1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
The objectives of this course is that you:

Have an understanding of how and why shaft vibration measurements are done and how
the data from such measurement are represented.

Form a basic understanding of the data analysis techniques used to interpret shaft
vibration data into useful information about the heath of a rotating machine.

1.2 The Vibration Institute of South Africa

The Vibration Institute of South Africa (V.I.S.A.) was formed in 1988 and over the years has
presented numerous very successful training courses in Johannesburg, Durban and Cape
Town, with well over 2000 participants. V.I.S.A. covers courses presented by local or
overseas guest lecturers held at professional conference venues, as well as smaller,
tailormade, in-house courses held at your own plant. V.I.S.A. has expanded it's programme
to cover a wider variety of course in the areas of Reliability-Based Maintenance (RBM),
Vibration Analysis, Electric Motor Diagnostics, Alignment, Balancing and Oil Analysis.
V.I.S.A. is an independent training facility that is registered for trading as a closed
corporation, with the same name.
Our training goal is to make delegates become more confident and successful in using
maintenance technologies b means of instructors who inspire confidence because they bring
many years of combined experience to the classroom.
News about the activities of V.I.S.A. is kept up to date via regular, mailed brochures and the
Institute Website at:

http://www.vibrationinstitute.co.za

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1.3 Course Overview

Measurement Conventions:
Why do we use conventions?
Signal Polarity conventions
Transducer / Sensor location identification
Oscilloscope Conventions
Eddy Current Transducer operation:
Why do we use Eddy Current Transducers?
Principles of operation
Mounting Considerations

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2 Measurement Conventions
2.1 Why do we use conventions?

A convention is described as an agreement aimed at eliminating or reducing ambiguity in

communication with others.
Traffic laws are a good example of a convention. These laws are documented and taught to
all road users in order to ensure that they all use the road according to the same rules. By
means of convention we all know that a red traffic light means stop, green means go.
Conventions such as those used in vibration monitoring are fairly unique. It is therefore
vitally important that our vibration measurement conventions are well documented so that all
users of our convention can understand it clearly.
The remainder of this section will aim to establish a few conventions that will allow us to
understand each other when we refer to where and how we have done measurements on a
machine.

2.2 Signal Polarity Convention

2.2.1 Introduction

When using displacement, velocity or acceleration transducers / sensors to measure

vibration, all these transducers / sensors normally provide us with a voltage signal output
proportionate to the amplitude of vibration seen by the transducer / sensor.
In terms of vibration transducers, signal polarity refers to the direction of change (positive or
negative) in the output voltage signal from the transducer caused by movement toward or
away from the transducer along its sensitive axis. The common convention, applied to
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Transducers, is that Displacement, Velocity or
Acceleration change in a direction towards the transducer will result in a positive going
Voltage Output Signal.

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2.2.2 Signal Polarity in Velocity and Acceleration Transducers

Common convention is that Velocity or Acceleration in a direction towards the transducer will
result in a positive going output voltage change. Therefore, if we tap a Velocity or
Acceleration transducer in a direction towards the transducer, in its sensitive axis, a positive
going output voltage signal will be measured. Refer to the diagram below.

Time

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2.2.3 Signal Polarity in Eddy Current Transducers

As with Velocity and Acceleration transducers, the signal polarity convention for Eddy
Current Probes is that Displacement of the observed target material in a direction towards
the transducer will result in a positive going output voltage signal. With Eddy Current Probes
it is important to notice the importance of positive going output voltage. These probes
normally operate at a negative DC voltage. Therefore any displacement of the target
material will result in a less negative voltage output signal. Movement away from the
transducer therefore results in a more negative output voltage.

0 VDC
Driver/
Demodulator

VDC

Output
Voltage

-24
VDC
Target Material

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Distance from
Target

2-3

2.3 Transducer / Sensor location identification

2.3.1 Viewpoint
As part of our Measurement Convention it is important to establish a Viewpoint when
referring to transducer / sensor location along the shaft of a rotating machine. The common
convention is to establish a Viewpoint from the Driver to the Driven machine. Once a
Viewpoint is established it is easy to communicate positions along the machine train without
any confusion. It is especially useful when using bearing numbers. Using this convention it is
possible to refer to Bearing No. 3 knowing that everybody will count from the Driver-end.
Again this is not universal, and may get quite complicated on machines with the driver in the
middle etc. The best solution is to make a decision as to which end will be used as
reference, mark it clearly, document it and make sure you tell everybody who needs to
know.

2.3.2 Transducer Angular Location

Radial Transducer angular location is described in terms of degrees Left or Right from Top
Dead Centre (TDC) or Vertical. The location left or right is determined based on your choice
of Viewpoint. In other words when looking down the machine train from your chosen
viewpoint, i.e. Driver to Driven, a transducer in the true Horizontal plane on the left hand side
of the machine will be described a being at position 90 Left. The transducer in the true
Vertical plane will be at 0.
A typical location description may the read as follows: Bearing 3Y-probe (45L) or
Bearing 1X-probe (135 L). Note that these angular position descriptions are independent of
the direction of rotation of the machine.
Why are orthogonal radial transducers named X or Y? This is a legacy of the early days of
vibration monitoring. In those days the best way to view a signal from a transducer was by
means of an Oscilloscope. Transducers were then named Vertical and Horizontal according
to the relationship to the channels they represented on the Oscilloscope when it was in the
Orbit mode. The Vertical Axis Input (or Y axis Input) on the Oscilloscope therefore received
its signal from the Vertical / Y-transducer mounted above the rotor observing downwards.
This was also the case for the Horizontal Axis Input (or X axis Input) which received a signal
from the Horizontal / X-transducer mounted horizontally to the right of the rotor observing
towards the left.
Therefore, when referring to orthogonal probes (XY Eddy Current Probes mounted 90
apart) the Y-Probe is always 90 counter clockwise from the X-probe, irrespective of
direction of rotation and looking from your chosen Viewpoint. Even if the angular location of
the transducer pair changes, the transducer names remain the same (Y stays Y, X stays X)
If, looking form your chosen Viewpoint, you match the physical transducer angular locations
with the positive X and Y axis of the scope, you will end up with a display on the oscilloscope
that that matches your viewpoint. The display will however be rotated if the transducers are
not at true Vertical and Horizontal locations.

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Example of a simple sensor location machine diagram:

Note:

Speed Sensor
90 Left

View Point

All vibration Sensors are type 202L-01

shaft observing Eddy Current sensors
with 7.87mV/micron sensitivity.

Counter Clockwise
Rotation
BRG 1

BRG 2

Speed sensor is Type 302LL02 and is

observing a Key on the Generator shaft.

30 MW
Generator

Steam
Turbine

X-probe
TDC

y-probe
90 Left

X-probe
TDC

y-probe
90 Left

BRG 1

BRG 4

BRG 3

y-probe
90 Left

y-probe
90 Left

BRG 2

X-probe
TDC

X-probe
TDC

BRG 3

BRG 4

2.3.3 Oscilloscope Conventions:

All reference to an Oscilloscope refers to a normal two channel analogue instrumentation
scope. Note that the scope is a time domain device, i.e. it displays amplitude versus time.
When displaying the timebase signal on an Oscilloscope, the Vertical (Y) is displayed above
the Horizontal (X). The direction of increasing time is from left to right.
With the Oscilloscope in the Orbit or X vs Y mode, observing signals from a vertical
transducer @ 0 and a Horizontal transducer @ 90 Right the following will result:

A positive going Horizontal / X signal will move the trace to the right.
A positive going Vertical / Y signal will move the trace to the top.

If a once per revolution pulse signal is connected to the Z-axis of the Oscilloscope the timing
relationship between the Vertical and Horizontal signals can be established. Depending on
the polarity of such a pulse, a blank/bright or bright/blank will appear on the time trace during
the once per revolution pulse event.
Normal convention is to trigger of the leading edge of the once per revolution pulse with a
polarity to create a blank/bright on the trace.

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3 Eddy Current Transducer Operation

3.1 Why do we use Eddy Current Transducers?
An Eddy Current Transducer measures the distance between the Transducer tip and a
conductive surface. By virtue of its principles of operation, an Eddy Current Transducer can
provide very accurate distance measurements over a wide range of frequencies ranging
from 0Hz or DC up to 10kHz or 600 kcpm. This type of transducer can therefore provide
distance and vibration measurements relative to the transducer tip without being in contact
with a machine rotor. This provides extremely powerful data to the analyst because not only
can he measure machine vibration, but he can also measure the position of the machine
rotor within the bearing or relative to seals, casing, etc.
This type of transducer has also found applications in distance measurement for determining
Casing to Rotor Relative Expansion, measuring Absolute Casing Expansion, measuring
Thrust Position and measuring Rotor Bow conditions.
Eddy Current Probes are normally used in machines where the transmissibility of vibration
from the machine rotor to the casing is very low. This is normally the case with Turbo
machinery such as steam turbines, compressors, gas turbines, etc. where the ratio between
casing mass and rotor mass can typically be in the region of 10:1 or the support stiffness is
high. Apart from this obvious low transmissibility due to mass the fact that these machines
normally run on fluid film bearings further complicates matters. The fluid film in the bearing
converts some of the vibration energy to heat and isolates the rotor from the bearings and
casing, further reducing the transmissibility of vibration. There are several documented
cases on these types of machines where excellent vibration levels were measured on the
casing by using seismic transducers or accelerometers, while shaft relative vibration levels
were close to or exceeding bearing and internal clearances. Without the added data from
shaft observing Eddy Current Transducers these machines would have run to destruction
without any warning.
In these applications Eddy Current Probes are ideal as it looks directly at the rotor which is
the source of vibration excitation. Vibration amplitudes excited by the rotor are normally
related to the lower orders of running speed and is therefore better observed from the
displacement behaviour.

3.2 Principles of Operation

The Eddy Current Transducer consists of three components:

The probe
A probe extension lead
Driver / De-Modulator

The probe tip contains a precision wound coil. A high frequency oscillating electromagnetic
field, in the order of 100kHz to 2MHz, is established in the probe tip. When the tip is brought
into the proximity of a conductive metallic surface, this oscillating magnetic field induces
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eddy currents within the surface of the target material. These eddy current results in a power
loss from the transducer system which is relative to the distance between the target and the
probe tip. This power loss is detected by the driver / de-modulator and converted to a DC
output voltage. The output is influenced by the frequency of the field, the conductivity of the
target material as well as the magnetic permeability of the target material. As the entire
transducer system contributes toward determining the frequency of the field in the probe tip,
it is essential that the system is made up of matched components. It is also manufactured to
observe a specific material.
The output voltage is relative to the distance between the probe tip and target, and is linear
over a large displacement range.

3.3 Mounting Considerations:

As these transducers are normally permanently installed, great care and planning is required
to ensure a proper installation.
If Eddy Current Transducers are installed in an X-Y orthogonal configuration, they should
ideally be mounted in the same axial position. It is also useful to place these transducers in a
position where the can be correlated with casing measurements.
As the probe looks directly at the surface of the target material, great care should be taken
in avoiding scratches, dents etc in the area that the transducer observes. This should also
be considered for those areas of the shaft which may only be observed by the transducer
once the machine rotor has expanded axially due to heat.

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The transducer system is solid state and therefore the mounting orientation has no effect on
the response of the transducer. When using mounting brackets, care should be taken that
the bracket mounting is stiff enough to prevent bracket resonance. The bracket resonant
frequency should be well above the highest frequency you anticipate measuring.

These transducers can be subject to side-view. Care should be taken when mounting
these probes to avoid any metallic surface within a distance of one probe tip diameter from
the side of the transducer. This can significantly influence the scale factor of the transducer
system.

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If these transducers are mounted to close to each other their flux lines may cross, resulting
in a condition called cross-talk. This will result in erroneous measurements.

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4 Phase Measurement
4.1 Relative Phase Measurement
Relative Phase Measurement describes the difference in time between two events and
expresses this relationship in terms of degrees.
There are 5 rules for making relative phase measurements between vibration signals:

You need two vibration signals.

These signals must have the same frequency.
These signals must be measured in the same units (mm/s, gs etc.).
Either signal can be used as the reference signal.
Relative phase is described between 0 and 180 leading or lagging.

ONE CYCLE

Signal A
(Y)

Amplitude

RELATIVE
PHASE

Signal B
(X)
ONE CYCLE

Time
When using orthogonal transducers it is possible to determine the direction of precession
(direction of vibration) b means of relative phase. Relative phase is also useful in
determining rotor deflection shapes.

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4.2 Absolute Phase Measurement

Absolute Phase describes the time relationship between the occurrence of a once per
revolution reference pulse and the first positive peak of a frequency filtered vibration signal.
This relationship is described in terms of degrees of vibration cycle.
There are 4 rules for making absolute phase measurements:

You need two signals a vibration signal filtered to a single frequency and a reference
pulse.
The filtered signal must be an integer multiple of the reference pulse frequency.
Absolute phase is described as a lagging angle between 0 and 360, as it is the time
measured after the reference pulse event.
The 0 location is that point of the shaft under the vibration transducer of interest at the
time when the reference pulse event occurs.

It is important to note that the reference pulse must be a once per revolution event. This
signal is normally obtained from an Eddy Current probe looking at a slot or a key on the
rotor. This reference pulse can also be obtained from an optical pickup using reflective tape,
a strobe light or a magnetic pickup.

Timing (in degrees) between two (2) points on a vibration signal,

the Keyphasor pulse and positive peak in vibration.

Vibration
Signal

Keyphasor
Signal

Degrees of
Rotation

360

NOTE: Frequency must be the same or harmonically related.

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1.
A. Proximity
Vertical
Inboard

B. Proximity
Vertical
Outboard

Relative
Phase:

Absolute A:
Phase: B:

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5 Data Presentation
5.1 Steady State Data Presentation
5.1.1 Timebase
A Timebase plot traces the Amplitude of a vibration signal over time. By comparing the time
relationship between this Timebase and a once per revolution reference pulse on an
oscilloscope, the following can be determined:

Vibration amplitude.
Vibration frequency (F = 1/T).
Relative and Absolute Phase relationships.
RPM.
Signal shape and form
Gap voltage (For Eddy Current Transducers)
Direction of Precession (For orthogonal transducers)

0.2

2.0

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5.1.2 Orbits
When using a pair of orthogonal shaft observing Eddy Current Transducers in the same
plane, the Orbit plot gives a two dimensional representation of the shaft motion within the
bearing. It is essentially a graph of the Y vibration amplitude vs the X vibration amplitude
over time, starting from the moment the once per revolution reference pulse fires. These
plots can be produced for filtered as well as overall vibration amplitudes.
From an Orbit plot the following information can be determined (provided a once per
revolution reference pulse is available):

Vibration amplitude (for Y and X transducers).

Relative Phase.
Absolute Phase. (for Y and X transducers).
Relative Frequency ( for Y and X transducers) versus machine running speed as well as
Fy versus Fx.
Shape and form (an indication of preload condition).
Direction of Precession (For orthogonal transducers).
Orbit Plots for different bearings can give an indication of rotor deflection.

Amplitude

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5.1.3 Amplitude and Phase versus Time

This plot is also commonly referred to as nX and Phase trend plot. The main purpose of this
plot is to determine whether any changes in filtered amplitudes and their phase angles are
happening over time. For the steady state condition there should be only small changes in
these values.
These plots are very useful in diagnosing problems such as blade loss, deposit build-up,
crack rotors etc.

Degrees

0
90
180

2 70

270
360

1 80

Amplitude

Time
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0

90

5.1.4 Shaft Centreline Position

This plot displays the Shaft Centreline Position within the bearing clearance over time. This
position is calculated from the DC gap voltage from two orthogonal shaft observing Eddy
Current Transducers. Changes in the shaft position over time can give an indication of
bearing wear, abnormal thermal growth, rubs etc.

5.1.5 Spectrum
The Spectrum displays Frequency versus Amplitude. The frequency components identified
in a Spectrum help to determine the type and source of a vibration problem. Spectrums help
to identify changes in frequency components over time.

5.1.6 Waterfall
The Waterfall plot displays various Spectrums for a specific measurement point over time. In
other words it is a trend of Spectrums.

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5.2 Transient Data Presentation

In Shaft Vibration Monitoring, Transient refers to the Start-up and Coast Down vibration
behaviour of a machine. Transient Data plots present Overall, nX, phase, frequency and
position values versus the change in running speed of the machine.

5.2.1 Bode
A Bode plot can be drawn for any vibration vector which is filtered to a single order of shaft
speed. (i.e. 1X, 2X, 3X, nX) The Bode plot uses two sets of axis. First is the filtered vibration
amplitude versus the machine speed. Second is the phase lag angle plotted versus machine
speed. Bode plots are very useful in determining Slow Roll Vectors, identifying balance
resonances, calculating amplification factors, balancing etc.

Slow Roll
Phase

180
240
300
360
60
120

Slow Roll Vector

180
240

Amplitude: 1.0 mils pp

Phase: 225 Deg. Lag

4
3
2

Slow Roll
Amplitude

1
0
0

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Slow roll speed range (no dynamic data).

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5.2.2 Polar
A polar plot presents the exact same data as that of the Bode Plot, the only difference being
that the vibration vectors are plotted as a function of machine speed in polar coordinates.
Bode and Polar plots render the following information:

Slow Roll speed.

Slow Roll runout vector.
Amplitude, Phase and Frequency of resonances.
Synchronous Amplification Factor.
High / Heavy spot relationship.
Structural and Split resonances.
Rotor deflection shape.
Frequency relationships.

2310

270

* 2280
2250
*
2205
*
2145

*
1845
*
300 *
3615 *
2985 * 2775
*
2610
2685 *
*

2370

2385

2400

* 2415
* 2430
* 2445

90

* 2460

* 2475
*2505

180

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5.2.3 Shaft Centreline Position

This plot displays the Shaft Centreline Position within the bearing clearance with changing
speed. This position is calculated from the DC gap voltage from two orthogonal shaft
observing Eddy Current Transducers. Changes in the shaft position compared to a baseline
condition, can give an indication of bearing wear, abnormal thermal growth, rubs etc.

3.0

2.0

* 9500
* 9400
* 9200
* 8700
* 8000
7600
*
1200
*
* 4500
*500
*5500

1.0

0.0

* 300
-1.0

0.0

1.0

5.2.4 Multiple Orbits

Overall or nX Filtered Orbits plotted at different speeds during the Run-up or Coast down
give an indication of how Orbits change at different machine speeds.

5.2.5 Cascade
A Cascade Plot presents the relationship of vibration frequencies to machine speed.
Horizontal, vertical and diagonal frequency relationships often give clues to the problem.

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6 Fundamental Synchronous Rotor Response

In this section we will aim to predict the behaviour of the synchronous (1X) vibration
Amplitude and Phase of a simple Rotor System due to the influence of an unbalance mass.
This is called the Fundamental Synchronous Rotor Response.
To help us better understand the equation that will describe the motion of our simple rotor
system, lets first re-cap some of the basics.

6.1 Spring Force

Let first look at a simple coil spring. A coil spring has Stiffness (K). When compressing this
spring a reaction force (F) is created that bushes back against the applied compression
force. This force is proportionate to the distance to which the spring is compressed
(displacement or d). This reaction force is produced even if the system is static.
The equation of this force:

F = Kd

6.2 Mass Acceleration

Some forces are only present when a system is in motion. Once such force is Mass
Acceleration, which is the reaction force due to the inertia of a mass during acceleration. The
reaction Force (F) due to acceleration of a Mass (M) is proportionate to the Acceleration (a)
applied to the object.
The equation of this force:

F = Ma

6.3 Drag Force

Moving an object through a viscous medium, a drag force is created which is proportionate
to the speed of the object. The reaction Force (F) is created when an object is moved at a
velocity (v) through a viscous fluid with viscous damping (D) characteristics.
The equation for this force:

F = Dv

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6.4 Synchronous Dynamic Stiffness

When looking at the three forces above, we should note that Spring Stiffness is a Static
force, while the Drag and Mass Acceleration forces are dynamic forces. It should also be
noted that each of these forces relate to one of the three properties of Motion, which are
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration.
From simple harmonic motion we also know that there is a definite Phase relationship
between Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration. The relationship between Displacement
and Acceleration is 180, while velocity leads displacement b 90.
As our simple rotor model will have Displacement, Acceleration and Velocity as it vibrates
under the influence of an applied unbalance Force (Fu), we can describe the Reaction
Forces (Dynamic Stiffness) of our rotor system in terms of these three forces.
The forces on our rotor system can therefore be described by:

K Mra + Dv = Muru 2
If we then write Acceleration and Velocity in terms of Displacement:

a = -2 d

AND

v = jd

we can say that

Kd Mr 2 d + Djd = Muru 2
Reaction Forces

Applied Force

However when operating with fluid film bearings, we need to add the fluid film tangential
stiffness term as well. Therefore:
Spring Stiffness

Rotor Mass Acceleration

K Mr2 +jD jD = Muru 2

Viscous Damping

Tangential fluid film stiffness

Further manipulating the formula:

(K Mr2 +jD(1-))d = Muru 2

Dynamic Stiffness

Note: These forces are all vectors i.e. they have Magnitude and Direction and can be drawn
in a vector diagram.

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We can draw these Dynamic Stiffness Vectors into a vector diagram:

To calculate the Displacement of our rotor system, we can say:

Synchronous Response
Motion (d)

Muru 2
(K Mr2 +jD(1-))

Unbalance Force
Synchronous Dynamic Stiffness

In other words:
Synchronous Response
Motion

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6.5 Rotor Response at Speeds below Resonance

At turning speeds well below resonance, the terms which are proportional to speed (i.e.
mass stiffness and quadrature stiffness) are extremely small compared to the Spring
Stiffness. Therefore the response of the rotor system is dominated b the spring stiffness.
The response equation can be written as:
Synchronous Response
Motion (d)

Muru 2
K

As the system stiffness is virtually constant, the response changes proportionate with the
2
square of speed. ( Muru ) The Heavy Spot and the High Spot (the response) are almost
in phase.

6.6 Rotor Response at Resonance

As rotor speed increases, the speed dependant terms, Mass Stiffness and Quadrature
Stiffness, becomes larger. At resonance speed the Mass Stiffness term becomes equal to
and opposite the Spring Stiffness and they cancel each other out. Only Quadrature Stiffness
remains as the only restraining sriffness.
Now the response equation is:
Synchronous Response
Motion (d)

Muru 2
jD(1-)

At resonance the response lags the Heavy Spot by 90.

Seeing that the Mass Stiffness and Spring Stiffness is equal and opposite at resonance, the
following relationship is revealed:

K Mr 2 = 0
Thus

res = K
M

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6.7 Rotor Response at Speeds above Resonance

At speed well above resonance the Mass Stiffness term becomes much larger than the
Spring and Quadrature Stiffness terms, as Mass Stiffness increases to the square of speed.
Mass Stiffness now dominates the response, and the response equation can be written as:
Synchronous Response
Motion (d)

Muru 2
- Mr 2
Thus

Synchronous Response
Motion (d)

Muru
- Mr

The response is constant and opposite the Heavy Spot (i.e. lags the Heavy Spot by 180).
The rotor now operates around its Mass Centre.

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7 Pre-loads and Position Measurements

7.1 Radial and axial Pre-loads
A Radial or Axial Pre-load constitutes a static, unidirectional radial or axial force applied to a
rotor system.
Pre-loads can be categorised as:

Gravity pre-loading shaft bow of a rotor due to gravity

Fluid Force pre-loading side force in a single volute pump
Bearing related pre-loading bearing geometry and configuration causing pre-loading as
in a pressure dam bearing.
Internal Misalignment pre-loading cocked or offset bearings and/or seals.
Misalignment of Rotors.
Pipe strain on machine casing.
Thermal distortion improper expansion.
Axial pre-loading - due to process thrust or differential expansion.

7.2 The effects of Pre-load

Pre-load can have a varied influence on the running behaviour of a machine. As these preload conditions do not always remain stable throughout all operating regimes, the same preload may at a certain point in time act to destabilise the running behaviour of the machine,
while, under different operating conditions, it may contribute to improving the running
behaviour.
A good example of this is thermal offset alignment. While under cold conditions the machine
is essentially misaligned, resulting in high vibration levels, running behaviour will improve as
the misalignment pre-loads are reduced by the machine growing into position under normal
operating conditions.
Another example of stabilising pre-load conditions can be found in fans and pumps. Where
the fan or pump may tend to run with high vibration levels during low flow/pressure
conditions, the increased bearing loading due to process pre-loading on the impeller under
normal running condition, will act to stabilise running behaviour.
A good example of destabilising pre-load conditions are found in cases of thermal detortion
of the machine case. This is often seen on steam turbines where lack of maintenance and
dirt plant conditions often result in a sticky front bearing pedestal. The pedestal should be
able to move outward as the heat and steam pressure causes the machine case to expand.
Often this pedestal moves up to a point and then gets stuck or tends to crab. This results in
abnormal pre-loads on the bearings, often unloading the gravitational force on a bearing or
pushing the rotor into an unstable condition.

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7.3 Detecting Abnormal Pre-loads

7.3.1 Orbit Shape
With man pre-load conditions the bearing will tend to resist the applied pre-load force. As a
result the Orbit of the shaft within the bearing will become more elliptical. It is even possible,
with the presence of sufficient pre-load, to see 1X, 2X and sometimes even reverse
precession of vibration.
Insert circular elliptical and figure 8 orbits.

7.3.2 Shaft Centreline Position

The presence of abnormal pre-loads can also be detected b monitoring the Shaft Centreline
position within the bearing. If any changes are noted in the shaft position under steady
operating conditions, this is normally a good indication that the forces acting on a machine
has changed. For this reason it is also very important to always record a good condition
baseline that can be compared, should machine behaviour change.
Insert mormal abnormal shaft position diagram

7.3.3 Abnormal ratio of Shaft to Casing Vibration

Under extreme pre-load conditions the fluid film bearing system may restrict the shaft
vibration to such an extent, that the transmissibility is significantly increased. In some cases
the casing vibration may be significantly higher than the shaft vibration.

7.4 Applying Radial Position Measurements

By utilising the DC voltage output from a pair of orthogonal Eddy Current Transducers, it is
possible to calculate and trend the position of a shaft within its bearing.
By measuring the DC output and using the transducer sensitivity, the distance of the shaft
relative to the transducer probe tip can be calculated. With the machine stationary and the
shaft resting in the bottom of the bearing a reference voltage is recorded. All movement of
the rotor can then be calculated relative to this bottom of the bearing reference position. If
the diametral clearance of the bearing is known, the shaft position can be plotted within this
clearance circle. If at any point the shaft position exceeds this clearance circle it would be an
indication of a damaged bearing.

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The shaft position can also be correlated with the vibration behaviour of the machine. It is
however possible to have position changes without vibration changes and vice versa. All
changes in shaft position should however be investigated.
Insert plots to explain diametral clearance circle and position changes

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8 Detecting Rubs
8.1 The Character of Rubs
Rubs do not occur by themselves but are a secondary symptom of other machinery faults. A
rub is often caused by excessive shaft displacement due to a rotor bow or unbalance.
Abnormal shaft position due to misalignment, insufficient seal clearances or casing distortion
is often the cause of rubs.
Rubs are characterised by a wide range of divergent and different symptoms. Often many of
these symptoms may be present in one case while in another none of them are distinctive.
This reason for this changing in character are influenced by the following:

Rubs are usually a symptom of other machine problems :- Each machine problem
produces different primary symptoms and as a result also influences the symptoms
observed from a rub as a secondary malfunction. A rub caused by excessive unbalance
will display different symptoms to a rub caused by pipe stain on the same machine.
Vibration response due to rubs are highly nonlinear, often causing chaotic symptoms :Many system parameters influence the vibration response due to a rub, therefore a small
change in any of these parameters may significantly change the vibration behaviour
observed.
Rubs have a transient nature :- A rub can cause changes in those parameters which
determine the vibration response we observe. A heavy rub can remove seal material and
become a light rub.

8.2 The Dynamics of Rubs

During a rub condition, two forces act on the rotor:

8.2.1 Impact Forces

Impact forces cause rebounding motion of the Shaft. This motion of bouncing of the wall
contributed to the highly non-linear rub vibration response. This repetitive process produces
periodic vibration components. Due to the short transient impact process, a wide frequency
bandwidth is produced.

8.2.2 Friction Forces

Friction forces acts against the direction of shaft rotation. The magnitude of these friction
forces are determined by the material characteristics at the point of contact, as well as the
lubrication conditions i.e. dry, partially lubricated and lubricated. These friction forces are the
main contributor towards surface wear at the point of contact. The surface wear resulting
from these forces results in lost machinery efficiency by increasing internal clearances, but
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also provides the opportunity for clearing a rub, once sufficient material has worn away.
These friction forces are also responsible for localised heating effects and increased torsion
loads.

8.3 Rub Types

8.3.1 Full Annular Rubs
A full annular rub occurs when rotor to stationary part contact is maintained throughout the
entire 360 degrees of rotation. There are two type of full annular rubs.
The first is characterised by forward precession of vibration. This type is normally well
lubricated. The second is characterised by reverse vibration precession and is not often
seen. This second type is highly destructive.
Full annular rubs can be identified from the following vibration characteristics:

Vibration amplitudes increase to the limit of the clearance.

When forward precession is present, the frequency response is mainly at 1X. When
reverse precession is present the frequency response appears at a modified natural
frequency, independent of any machine speed changes.
The shaft average position move towards the centre of the clearance.
For a lubricated rub the Orbit shape will be round and follows the clearance limits.
The rotor system natural frequency will increase due to increased stiffness resulting from
the rotor to stationary part contact.

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8.3.2 Partial Rubs

Partial rubs are the most frequently observed type of rub. Partial rubs are characterised by
occasional contact with a stationary part and is therefore normally dominated by impact
effects.
Partial rubs can be identified from the following vibration characteristics:

Vibration amplitudes may remain constant or increase only slightly for light rubs. In the
case of heavy rubs amplitudes may actually decrease as the shaft gets pushed to the
side of the bearing.
During start-up conditions with a light rub, the phase lag of the rotor system through
resonance is delayed, as the rub increases the system natural frequency. During coast
down only small amplitude and phase changes are noted as the speed is moving away
from the modified resonance frequency.
During steady state condition continuous change of phase, often greater than 360
degrees can occur. This is the result of thermal bow modification at constant speed.
When a rub occurs the timebase is often distorted and/or clipped, resulting in additional
frequency components being generated. For a stead state rub condition harmonics are
generated, but they may be insignificant for light rubs. The heavier the rub the more
significant the harmonics. Subharmonics can only be generated if the machine run at a
speed which is more than twice the first balance resonance.
During a rub that keeps changing 1X, its harmonics and/or subharmonics and modified
natural frequencies may be generated due to the chaotic behaviour of the rub.
Shaft position may change significantly.
If the frictional forces are high enough, the shaft may vibrate opposite the direction of
rotation for part of the vibration cycle.
During a rub the extra support at the point of contact may increase the system stiffeness,
thus increasing the system natural frequency.
For machines with tight bearing clearances, the following frequencies can be expected:
Running speed < 2X FRes

1X and Harmonics

Running speed 2X FRes

1/2X or 1X

Running speed 3X FRes

1/3X, 1/2X or 1X

For machines with oversize bearings or loose bearing foot, the following frequencies can
be expected:
Running speed 2X FRes

1/2X or 1X

Running speed 3X FRes

1/3, 1/2X or 1X

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9 Detecting Cracked Rotors

Machine rotors are today much more likely to suffer fatigue cracking. There are a few basic
reasons for this.
Today machines are running much past their original life expectancy due to various life
extension programmes. There are many machines in service today that has been running for
30 to 40 years, or even longer. Just by virtue of the number of thermal and speed cycles
these machines have been exposed to, they are at risk of shaft cracks.
Today there are more machines used in peaking service. Most of these machines were
designed for baseline duty, running for months on end. However, now these machines are
started up and shut down every day. These machine now see more thermal cycles in a week
than they would have been exposed to in a year of normal service.
New design techniques allow machine rotors to be lighter, thinner and longer than ever
before.
Vibration monitoring has proven itself to be effective in the early detection of rotor crack.
Transverse crack can be detected for the operating speed condition with diametral crack
propagations of 25%. With the use of start-up and shutdown data, early warning can be
improved to 20% diametral crack propagation.

9.1 Cracked Rotor Symptoms

9.1.1 Increased Rotor Bow
If a rotor is cracked, it is almost certainly bowed. A shaft crack reduces the shaft area at the
crack location, resulting in a large bow away from the crack. This has the following effect:

The increased bow results in changing 1X vibration levels at speed.

Attempts at balancing renders erratic and unexpected results.
The slow roll vectors change due to increased bow.

In most cases only 1X vibration changes are noted for the at speed condition.

9.1.2 Rotor Asymmetry

The presence of a crack will result in asymmetric shaft stiffness at the location of the crack.
Gravity, or any other radial side load, will force this crack closed when it is at the top, and
open when it is at the bottom of a rotating rotor. This can excite a high 2X component and
2X phase shift. This 2X component will however only be noticeable if the rotor is operating at
a speed near to half of any shaft resonance frequency. In most cases the 2X component
does not appear at operating speed, but is only noted during transients.
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9.2 Types of Rotor Cracks

9.2.1 Transverse Cracks
This type of crack is the most commonly observed. It often originates from a stress raiser
such as a keyway, retaining pin hole or a groove in the shaft. This type of crack is also often
found under shrink fitted components. The shaft tends to lengthen due to bending as a result
of gravity, however the shrink fit prevents the shaft from returning to its original position. This
ratchet effect causes a tension crack to form.

9.2.2 Spiral Crack

These cracks are much less common, but are identified using the same diagnostic
techniques.

9.2.3 Longitudinal Cracks

This type of crack is also rare. This is fortunate, as a longitudinal crack needs to be much
larger than a transverse crack before it shows the same symptoms.

9.2.4 Symmetric Transverse Cracks

This type of crack is rare. Due to the fact that this crack maintains the shaft symmetry, there
could be no classical cracked rotor symptoms noted. The only symptom will be reduced
stiffness, which may result in higher amplitudes and a slight frequency shift a resonance.

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9.3 Diagnosing Rotor Cracks

9.3.1 Using Transient Data (start-up/coast down)
Transient data reveals very important information on the relationships of machine running
speed to the various shaft resonance excited by the change in speed during these transient
events.
Remembering that a crack will likely produce an asymmetric stiffness of the rotor, we need
to look for any signs of shaft resonances being excited by the 2X component due to
asymmetry. This can normally be best identified from a Cascade plot. A vertical relationship
of the 1X resonance peak (with machine at resonance speed) with a 2X peak (with the
machine at resonance speed), is a strong indicator of a rotor crack. 2X vibration at speed
and at resonance are not conclusive. Horizontal relationships between 1X and 2X are
merely indicators of nonlinear stiffness.
In the start-up/coast down Polar plots we need to look for any indications of abnormal
directions of phase change and large increases in 2X amplitudes.
It is also vitally important to document changes in Slow Roll Vectors, changes in the
amplitude and phase for 1X during the observed Rotor Resonance Frequency, Balancing
Effects, machine reaction to changes in load/process conditions etc. Although these
changes on their own will not be conclusive, they can all supply very important supporting
evidence towards diagnosing a rotor crack.

9.3.2 Using Operating Speed Data

As mentioned earlier, in most shaft crack cases only the 1X vibration changed for the
operating speed condition. It is therefore important to monitor the 1X vibration and phase for
any changes over time that do not coincide with load / process changes.
Depending on the machine design, changes in operating speed 2X amplitude and phase can
be an indicator of shaft cracks. Polar plots that trend the 1X and 2X vibration vectors are an
invaluable tool for this type of monitoring. Although movement is often noted in the 1X and
2X vectors due to process changes, a region can be drawn around what is considered to be
normal changes. Any change outside of these normal regions can then be flagged and
investigated.

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10 Detecting Fluid Instabilities

Fluid Induce Instabilities (whirl and whip) in rotating machinery occur as self-excited, limited
cycle vibrations when the system mechanical resonance coincides with the fluid induced
resonance.
What is self-excited vibration? How does a fluid induce resonance? To better understand
Fluid Instabilities, let us first answer these questions.

10.1 Vibration Types

10.1.1 Free Vibration
Free vibration is of a passing nature and follow after an energy impulse is applied to the
system. For lightly damped systems the dominant frequency of free vibration occurs at the
lowest natural resonance frequency of the system.
A good example of this is the cantilever beam. With an impulse force applied to the beam,
the beam vibrates in its first bending mode, at the natural frequency of the system. Although
the system is only lightly damped, vibration levels decrease and eventually stop.

10.1.2 Forced Vibration

Forced vibration occurs as the result of an periodic force applied to a system. The frequency
of vibration corresponds to the frequency of the periodic applied force.
A good example of forced vibration is an unbalanced disk between bearings. If we run this
disk at a set speed the vibration will occur a frequency equal to the speed of rotation, i.e. 1X,
due to the rotating unbalance force.

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10.1.3 Self Excited Vibration

Self excited vibration is induced by a constant force and maintained by a constant energy
supply. The system needs an internal energy supply which delivers energy to the system
through in a periodic manner. The frequency at which the energy is supplied normally
coincides with the natural frequency of the system.
The Rod and Bushing device illustrates this concept very well. The bushing carries a flat
spring with a weight on the end. With the bushing stationary at the top of the rod, the friction
forces between the rod and the bushing are in equilibrium. However the bushing has
potential energy due to its height. If one now applies an impulse to the weight it vibrates and
causes the bushing to alternate its position allowing the bushing to move down the rod. The
downward movement is then arrested by friction and the energy of the moving bushing is
transferred to the sprung weight, repeating the cycle. This cycle continues until the bushing
reaches the end of the rod. The bushing and weight oscillates at a frequency close to the
natural frequency of the bushing / sprung weight system.

10.2 Fluid Induced Resonance

Fluid induced resonances can occur when there is a cylinder rotating within a cylinder and
the space between these cylinders is filled with a fluid. For rotating machinery this can be a
fluid film bearing, a rotor within a seal, an impeller in a volute casing etc. The fluid filling the
space can be air, oil, steam, water etc.
When looking at a rotating fluid film bearing there are two major forces at work. The first is
the Radial Load on the bearing, be it gravity loading or a combination of gravity, process and
alignment pre-loads. The second force, opposite and equal to the radial loading, is the Fluid
wedge support force. The fluid wedge is created by the shaft rotating and dragging the fluid
around with it. These balance forces hold the rotor in a stable position within the bearing. If
the radial load changes, the position of the rotor within the bearing will change to where
these forces are again balanced.
This bearing system, like all mechanical systems, has a natural resonance frequency which
is determined by its stiffness and damping characteristics. These characteristics depend on
the stiffness and damping of the rotor, the bearing assembly and the oil film, as well as the
dynamic stiffness and damping characteristics of the fluid wedge.
The dynamic characteristics of the fluid wedge are in turn very dependant on the fluid
properties (density, viscosity), the thickness of the oil wedge (radial load) and the average
circumferential velocity ratio of the fluid (Lambda).
Lambda () is the ratio of the average rotation velocity of the fluid in the direction of shaft
rotation, divided by the rotational speed of the shaft. Lambda is typically less than 50% of
shaft speed, but can vary widely from as little as 5% to 100% and above in the case of preswirling bearings.

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Based on the above, it therefore translates that with a certain combination of fluid properties,
bearing radial load and average circumferential velocity, which is to a large extent
determined by the design of the bearing, we can have a situation where the bearing system
natural frequency can be close to or at shaft rotation speed.

10.3 Whirl and Whip Vibration

Rotor vibrations caused by fluid interaction are known as whirl and whip. Whirl and whip
vibration occur when the system mechanical resonance frequency and the fluid induced
resonance frequency coincide i.e. the machine operates at both its mechanical resonance
and fluid induced resonance simultaneously. Whirl and whip are self-excited vibration modes
and occur close to the natural frequencies of the system.
But what is the difference between whirl and whip, if any?

10.3.1 Whirl Vibration

The frequency of whirl vibration is proportional to the rotational speed of the rotor. This
proportionality is close to the value of Lambda. In other words the whirl frequency is
approximately equal to Lambda X Rotation speed. Due to this the frequency of vibration
observed for whirl vibration is normally less than X Running speed. Whirl happens at a
frequency close to the fluid resonance frequency.

10.3.2 Whip Vibration

The frequency of whip vibration approaches the rotor natural resonance frequency. This
frequency is normally slightly modified as a result on fluid film nonlinearities. As this vibration
occurs at a frequency close to the mechanical resonance frequency, it is not proportionate to
rotational speed of the rotor.

10.3.3 Threshold of Stability

This is also called the Bently & Muszynska Threshold. This Threshold of Stability is the
lowest rotational speed at which self-excited vibration, such as whirl and whip, can occur.
This threshold speed is controlled by the dynamic stiffness of the system and can be
increased by decreasing the fluid average circumferential velocity ratio (Lambda) or
increasing the fluid film stiffness, i.e. increasing the static or dynamic radial load on the
bearing.
To guarantee stability, the Threshold of Stability should be higher than the highest rotational
speed of the machine.

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10.4 Detecting Whirl and Whip vibration

The best way to identify whirl and whip vibration is by means of Orbit and Cascade plots.
By looking at the Cascade plots the onset of instability can be identified. From this plot it can
be seen whether the sub-synchronous frequency is proportional to speed or not. Any
relationship to the rotor resonance of the machine can also be identified.
To further prove that it is fluid instability causing these sub-synchronous frequencies, we
need to look at the Orbit plots. Whirl and whip vibration always have forward precession and
circular orbit shapes with an amplitude close to the total diametral clearance of the bearing.
In whirl the rotor responds as a rigid body, and therefore amplitudes are normally the highest
at the location of the instability. However, in whip the rotor exhibits modal response as would
happen under the influence of 1X. In this case it is important to note that due to the changing
mode shape vibration displacement elsewhere along the rotor may be higher than that
observed at the bearing.

10.5 Curing Whirl / Whip problems

As stated previously the threshold of stability is controlled by the dynamic stiffness of the
system and can be increased by decreasing the fluid average circumferential velocity ratio
(Lambda) or increasing the fluid film stiffness, i.e. increasing the static or dynamic radial load
on the bearing.

Decrease Lambda by applying anti-swirl techniques such as injecting fluid against the
direction of rotation (this is the most common cure for seal instabilities).

Decrease Lambda by grooves or non-circular shapes in the bearing. This creates

vortices or pockets of turbulence in the fluid circumferential flow. Tilting pad bearings
have little or no circumferential flow.

Increase the Static or Dynamic radial bearing loading. This can be achieved by friendly
misalignment or adding unbalance to the rotor. These techniques are however not

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recommended.

Changing the fluid temperature may occasionally resolve instability problems. In most
cases reducing temperature has a better effect than increasing temperature.

In exceptional cases where fluid instability is a chronic problem during the design phase,
it may even be necessary to increase the rotor stiffness by making it shorter or larger in
diameter, thus moving the mechanical resonance frequency higher.

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