The Grammar Rules by Shaalan

Sentence Structure and Mechanics
A sentence comprises of a group of words which express a complete idea or thoughts.

The sentences can be distinguished into Clause or phrase.
The Clause is constructed by a group of words which always requires the presence of a subject and a verb to
express a complete thought.
The complete sentence which is a group of words requires to have a subject and a verb in order to express an
understandable idea or thought. Otherwise missing subject or verb from the constructed sentences will be
considered phrases or fragments of sentences (In Kurdistan. In that country. If Sardar walks home.).
When a subject is missing from a sentence the reader wonders who is performing the action. (Studies English in
three months. Will direct you to the room.)
Similarly, if there is no verb in the sentence, the reader will wonder what subject has been done or
performed. (Sara at school. Duhok city in Kurdistan. Sardar my best friend.)
In fact, missing the two of the subject and the verb from a sentence will confuse the reader and the listener in
the same time regarding who did and what action is being carried on.
When a group of words having more than one independent clause and not correctly punctuated will creat run on
sentence. Having more than one independent clause in a single sentence that is not connected by conjunction
will consider run on sentence.
Clauses might come as an independent clause expressing a complete thought and can stand alone (Azad is a
student at Duhok University.) while dependent clause requires the presence of a clause in order to express a
complete thought (Because Sara loves reading.).
Phrases are a group of words lacking either subject or verb and it does not give a complete thought.
Subordinate Clauses
1- Adjective (Relative) Clause
2- Adverb Clause
3- Noun Clause
Adjective Clause is a dependent clause acting as an adjective to modify the doer of the independent clause
where the relative pronoun introduces the adjective clause to bridge the subject into the adjective.
The student who failed the exam dropped out of the school.
Adverb Clause is a dependent clause acting as an adverb to modify the verb of the sentence. Sara works
because she wants to support her family. Because Sara wants to support her family, she works.
Noun Clause is a dependent acting as a subject or an object of the sentence. Whenever you come is fine
with my family. You do whatever you want.
aldoskys@yahoo.ca 009647502108166
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Sentence structures
1- Simple sentences are constructed of one independent clause. Sam is a student.
2- Compound sentences are constructed of more than one independent clause. Azad came to our party,
but his father went to the funeral.
3- Complex sentences are constructed of a subordinate clause and an independent clause. Azad did not
come to our party because his father wanted him to study for the exam.
4- Compound-Complex sentences are constructed of at least two independent clauses and at least having
one more subordinating clause. The little boy cried because the dog scared him, and the dog owner
apologized right away.
Present simple
Subject: is a noun might come as one word or more than one word, could be a sentence acting as a subject.
Verb either a Be Verb= am, is, are at the present time, and was, were in past time.
Verb of action= work, study, go,..
Present simple. Indicates about a present action of a state of affairs, general idea, a habitual behaviour take
place regularly, and indication for future timetables when ensued or followed by a time frame.
Present simple having direct object.
S + be verb+ O
I + am + O.
I am a student.
Be verb+ S+ O?
Am +S + O?
Am I a student?
S+ be Verb+ not+ O.
I + am + not+ O.
I am not a student
He/she/it is + O.
He is a student.
Is +he/she/it+ O?
Is he a student?
He/She/It+ is + not+ O.
He is not a student.
They/we/you/ 1+1 + are+ O.

They are engineers.
You are a student.
Are/they/we/you/1+1 +O?
Are they engineers?
Are you a student?
They/We/You/ 1+1 + are+ not+O.

They are not engineers.
You are not a student.
Present simple having complement.

S+ be verb+ C.
I am from Duhok.
Im from Duhok.
He is from Erbil.
Hes from Erbil.
They are from Sulimani.

Theyre from Sulimani.
Is he in this class?
Are they in our class?
Be ver +S+ C?
Am I in this class?
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Contraction of the (Be verb & NOT)

S + be ver + not + O.
I am not a student.
He is not a student.
They are not students.
You are not students.
You are not a student.
S + be ver + nt + O.
S be ver + not + O.
I amnt a student.
Im not a student.
He isnt a student.
Hes not a student.
They arent students.
Theyre not students.
You arent students.
Youre not students.
You arent a student.
Youre not a student.
Contraction of the (Be verb & NOT)

Be ver + S + not + O?
Be ver +S + nt + O?
Am I not a student?
Am I nt a student?
Is he not a student?
Is he nt a student?
Are they not students?
Are they nt students?
Are you not a student?
Are you nt a student?
Are you not students?
Are you nt students?
Be ver nt + S + O?
Amnt I a student?
Isnt he a student?
Arent they students?
Arent you a student?
Arent you students?
Present simple with action verbs ( work, play, read..etc)

I/They/We/You/ 1+1 (do)
He/She/It (does)
I/They/We/You+ver+ O, C.
I read a newspaper.
They eat the dinner.
We help our parents.
You submit your assignments.
She and I work in the office.
You complete your work.
Do+I/they/we/you+ Ver+ O, C?
Do I read a newspaper?
Do they eat the dinner?
Do we help our parents?
Do you submit your assignments?
Do she and I work in the office?
Do you complete your work?
I/They/We/You+do+not+ver+ O,C.
I dont read a newspaper.
They dont eat the dinner.
We dont help our parents.
You dont submit your assignments.
She and I dont work in the office.
You dont complete your work.
I have an exam.
They do their jobs.
He and I have a work.
We have a trip.
Do I have an exam?
Do they do their jobs?
Do he and I have a work?
Do we have a trip?
I dont have an exam.

They dont do their jobs.
He and I dont have a work.
We dont have a trip.
She/He/It+ does + ver + O

Sara helps her mother.
She assists my sister.
The train stops at the station.
Does+she/he/it+ ver+O, C?
Does Sara help her mother?
Does she assist my sister?
Does the train stop in the station?
She/He/It+does+ not+ver+O,C.
Sara doesnt help her mother.
She doesnt assist my sister.
The train doesnt stop in the station.
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Sardar has a car.

Sara does her homework.
Honda has a strong engine.
Does Sardar have a car?

Does Sara do her homework?
Does Honda have a strong engine?
Sardar doesnt have a car.

Sara doesnt do her homework.
Honda doesnt have a strong engine.
Why-questions with be
S + Be Ver +O or C.
Be V+ S + O or C?
Wh + Be Ver +
S + O or C?
Sardar is in his office.
Is Sardar in his office?
Where is Sardar?
Sardar is a teacher.
Is Sardar a teacher?
What is Sardar?
Sardar and Sara are Kurdish.
Are Sardar and Sara Kurdish?
What are they?
Azad and Maria are from Duhok.
Are Azad and Maria from Duhok?
Where are Azad
and Maria from?
S + Verb + O or C.
Auxi Ver + S+ Ver + O or C?
Wh + Auxi
Ver+ S + Ver + O or C?
Sara lives in Duhok.
Does Sara live in Duhok?
Where does Sara
live?
Simple present Why-Question and Statements
S + Be Ver + O or C.
Be Verb + S + O or C.?
What+ Be
Verb + S?
I am a driver.
Am I driver?
What am I?
Sardar is my classmate.
Is Sardar my classmate?
What is Sardar?
S + Verb + O or C.
Do or dose + S + O?
What do or dose
+ S + O?
He works in a factory.
Does he work in a factory?
Where does he
work?
I do my homework.
Do I do my homework?
What do I do?
She likes her coffee cold.
Does she like her coffee cold?
How does she
like her coffee?
Saras father is doctor.
Is Shreens father a doctor?
Whose father is a
doctor?
Azad works from 8 to 4 pm.
Does Azad work from 8 to 4 pm.
When does Azad
work?
Sara prefers to drink tea or coffee.
Does Sara prefer to drink tea or coffee? Which
drink does Sara prefer?
Zakho is 60km far from Duhok.
Is Zakho 60km far from Duhok?
How far is
Zakho from Duhok?
Erbil is 3 hours driving from Duhok.
Is Erbil 3 hours driving from Duhok?
How
long driving is Erbil from Duhok?
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Sara works in the hospital.

the hospital?
Does Sara work in the hospital?
Who works in
Who does work in the

hospital?
Time expressions
At = time
On= day
In= week, month, season,
year,
at 10am, at midnight, at midday
on Sunday, on Christmas day
in two weeks, in
July, in summer,
at night,
on March 21st , on the new year eve
Sara goes to bed at 10pm.
Sara born on March 1st , 2000.
Sara born
in March, 2000.
Sara born at midnight of March 1st , 2000. Sara born in the first week of March, 2000.
Sara born in Spring of 2000.
Demonstrative: one, Ones

This + Be Verb + O or C.
ones? Which+ one?
This is my friend.
one?
That is my car.
Which one?
These are your friends.
ones?
Which ones?
Those are my books.
Which ones?
Which + one + Be verb + O or C?

Which one is my friend?
This one? which
Which one is my car?
That one?
Which ones are your friends?

Which ones are my books?
Preferences: comparisons with adjectives

Which + noun + Aux V+ S + prefer? S+ prefer+ O + one.
+comparison+ than+ O +one.
Which T-shirt do you prefer?
I prefer the blue T-shirt.
than the green one.
Which+noun+Aux Ve+S+like+to+V? S+ like + O or C.
compar +than +O +one.
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Which +
These
Those ones?
S+ Be
The blue is nicer
S + Aux Ver +
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Which book does Sara likes to read?

Sara likes science books ones.
Sara likes
the science book more.
Sara does like the science book more.
Which shirt does Azad like better? Azad likes the blue shirt one.
Azad likes the
blue shirt one better.
Simple present questions: short answers
Aux+ S+ verb+ O or C?
What+ noun+ Auxiliary+ S+ Verb+ O or C?
Subje Object
Do you like classic music?
What music do you
ct
like?
1
Me
Yes, I do. No, I do not.
I like classic music.
He
Him
Do you work in the hospital?
Where does he work?
She
Her
Yes, I do. No, I dont.
He works in the
It
It
hospital.
They
Them
He does work in the hospital.
We
Us
Does she have a house?
Who dose Sara live
You
you
with?
Yes, she does. No, she doesnt
Does Sara live with him?
Yes, she does. No, she doesnt.
S + Ver + C.
Azad lives with me.
Sara goes with him.
They give us a place.
We live with them.
She does her homework.
Sara has a car.
They have an exam.
Wh + Auxi + S + Ver?
Where does Azad live?
Who does Sara go with?
What do they give us?
Who do we with?
What does she do?
Who has a car?
Who does have a car?
What do they have?
Would : Verb + to + Verb

Refusing an invitation in a nice way.
Would + S + Verb+ to + Verb + O or C?
S + would like to + Verb + but
+ S + Verb + to + Verb + O.
Would you like to drink a coffee?
I would like to drink, but I have to go home.
Yes, I would. Yes, I would like to drink.
No, I would not.
Would you like to come to the party?
I would like to come, but I have an exam.
Yes, I would. Yes, I would like to come.
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No, I wouldnt. No, I would not like to come.

Quantifiers
All of my friends came to the party.
Nearly all my friends came to the party.
Most of my friends came to the party.
Many of my friends came to the party.
A lot of my friends came to the party.
Some of my friends came to the party.
Not many of my friends came to the party.
Few of my friends came to the party.
No one of my friends came to the party.
%100
%95
%80
%75
More than %75
%50
Less than %50
%10
%0
Adverbs of Frequency
How + adverb + Aux Ver + S + O or C?
Aux + S+ adverb + Verb + O or
C?
How often do you write a letter?
Do you ever go to the cinema?
I write a letter every day.
I always go to the cinema. % 100
I write every day a letter.
Sara writes a story once a week.
Sara almost always goes to the cinema. %95
They go to party once a week.
I write a letter once a month.
She is usually busy in the work. %90

They normally get good results. %80
She goes to the gym occasionally.

She doesnt often write a letter.
Sardar isnt very much good in writing.
Sardar writes an essay once a year.
They are usually working in the garden.
%10
We are never mad at you.
Usually, they work in the garden.
I often go to the cinema. %75

Sara is sometime not in her office. %50
Sara seldom goes to the cinema. %10
Azad is hardly ever working late. %25
My father is almost never home before 8pm.
She never drinks a hot coffee. % 0
Never, she drinks a hot coffee.
Questions with how; short answers

How + often , well, long, good, far, tall + Auxi Ver + S+ Ver + O or C?
How often does Sara go the market?
Every day. Twice a week. Not very much. Not
often.
How well do they sing a song?
Pretty well. Not very well. Pretty well. About an
average.
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How long does Sara spend in watching TV? One hours a day. Not too much. A very little.
How good are you in swimming? Pretty good. Okay. Not very good. Not a bad. Not so
good
For more insurance we might construct a sentence with (do, does) in the present to have an extra
emphasis.
I/They/We/You+do+ver+O.
I/They/We/You+do+not+ver+ O.
I dont work in this factory.
They do help him.
Azad & his wife do have a house.
house.
She/He/It+ does + V +O.
She does help her mother.
She does have a car.
Do+I/they/we/you+ ver+ O?
I do work in this factory.
Do I work in this factory?
Do they help him?

Do Azad & his wife have a house?
They dont help him.

Azad & his wife dont have a
Does+she/he/it +V+O?
Does she help her mother?
Does she have a car?
She/He/It+does+not+V +O
She doesnt help her mother.
She doesnt have a car.
I/They/We/You+do+ver+ C.
They do work in a factory.
Do+I/they/we/you + ver+ C?
Do they work in a factory?
She/He/It+ does + ver + C.

She does work in an office.
office.
Does+ she/he/it+ ver + C?

Does she work in an office?
S+ have/has+ got+ O.
Have/has+s+ver+O?
I/They/We/You/1+1+have got+O. Have+I/they/we/you+got+O?
I have got an exam.
Have I got an exam?
They have got an exam.
Have they got an exam?
She/He/It+ has got+O.
He has got an exam.
Has+ she/he/it+got+O?
Has he got an exam?
I/They/We/You+do+not+ver+C.
They dont work in a factory.
She/He/It+ does + ver + C.
She doesnt work in an
S+have/has+not+ got+ O.
I/They/We/You+have+not+got+O.
I havent got an exam.
They havent got an exam.
She/He/It+has+not+got+O.
He hasnt got an exam.
Present Progressive. I= am
He, She, It= is
They, We, You, 1+1= are
In a present continue or progressive the verb following the (Be Ver/ am , is, are) will end with (ing) form a
gerund.
The progressive time is an action taking place at the moment of speaking or an activity takes places over a
period of time.
I + am + ver ing + O.
He/She/It+ is + ver ing +O.
They/We/You + are + ver ing +O.
I am helping my father.
She is helping her mother.
They are helping their parents.
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Am +I + ver ing + O?
Am I helping my father?
Is + he/she/it+ ver ing +O?

Is he helping his father?
Are +they/we/you + ver ing +O?

Are they helping their parents?
I+ am+ not+ ver ing + O.

I am not helping my father.
He/She/It+ isnt + ver ing + O.

She isnt helping her mother.
They/We/Youre+not+v ing + O.
Theyre not helping their parents.
Be ver+ S+ not+ ver ing + O?

Am I not helping my father?
Is she not helping her mother?
Are they not helping their parents?
Be ver + S+ nt + ver ing + O?

Be ver nt +S + ver ing + O?
Am I nt helping my father?
Amnt I helping my father?
Is she nt helping her mother?Isnt she helping her mother?
Are they nt helping their parents? Arent they helping their parents?
Having a sentence with out auxiliary verb.

S+ Ver+ O.
Aux +S+ Ver+O?
Yes, S+ Aux. No, S+Aux +Negative
They play a game.
Do they play a game?
Yes,they do. No, they dont.
She plays a game.
Does she play a game?
They have an exam.
Do they have an exam?
Yes,they do. No, they dont.
Sara has a car.
Does Sara have a car?
Yes, Sara does.No, Sara doesnt.
They do their homework.
Do they do their homework? Yes, they do. No, they dont.
Azad does his homework.
Does Azad do his homework? Yes, he does. No, he doesnt.
Present continue Be Verb (am, is, are)
S + Be verb + V ing
I am playing a game.
He is playing the game.
They are playing the game.
Am I playing the game?

I am not playing the game.
Is he playing the game?
He is not playing the game.
Are they playing the game? They are not playing the game.
Simple past Be verb (was, Were)

S + Be ver + object
I/She/He/It+ was+ O.
Sam was a doctor.
I was a student.
Be Ver+S+ O?
Was+I/she/he/it+O?
Was Sam a doctor?
Was I a student?
S+Be ver+ not+ O.

I/She/He/It+ was+not+O.
Sam wasnt a doctor.
I wasnt a student.
They/We/You/1+1/ were+O.
They were engineers.
We were officers.
You were soldiers.
You were a soldier.
Were+they/we/you/1+1/+O?
Were they engineers?
Were we officers?
Were you soldiers?
Were you a soldier?
They/We/You/1+1+were+O.
They werent engineers.
We werent officers.
You werent soldiers.
You werent a soldier.
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Sam & Azad were there.
Were Sam & Azad there?
Sam & Azad werent there.
There are two forms of past verb (regular ed & irregular)

When regular verb ends with e add d only to the verb to make it in the past. If the verb ends with y and
there is no vowel before Y change y to ie and then add d to the regular verb.
S + Verb+ed +O.
I played the game.
Sara worked in the office.
They studied Kurdish.
Sardar payed the bill.
Did +S+ Verb+ O?

Did I play the game?
Did Sara work in the office?
Did they study Kurdish?
Did Sardar pay the bill?
S+did+not+ Ver+O.
I did not play the game.
Sara did not work in the office.
They didnt study Kurdish.
Sardar didnt pay the bill.
S + Verb irregular+ O.
She went to the hospital.
He saw you at the party.
They broke the deal.
They cut the tree.
Did +S+ Verb+ O?

Did she go to the hospital?
Did he see you at the party?
Did they break the deal?
Did they cut the tree?
S+did+ not+ Ver+O.

She did not go to the hospital.
He did not see you at the party.
They didnt break the deal.
They didnt cut the tree.
For more esurance we might construct a sentence with (did) in the past to have an extra stress.
Having difficulty to distinguish the regular verb from the irregular verb we might use the axiuliary verb of did
to have a sentence in the past.
I did play the game.
Did I play the game?
I did not play the game.
He did see you at the party.
Did he see you at the party?
He did not see you at the party.
They did cut the tree.
Did they cut the tree?
They didnt cut the tree.
Azad did break the contract.
Did Azad break the contract?
Azad didnt break the contract.
Past continue I, He, She, It= was
They, We, You, 1+1= were
S+ be verb + V ing+O.
I/She/He/It +was+ V ing +O.
Azad was going home.
I was sleeping on my bed.
Sara was eating her dinner.
Be Ver+S+ V ing+ O?
Was+ I/he/she/it+ V ing+O?
Was Azad going home?
Was I sleeping on my bed?
Was Sara eating her dinner?
S+Be ver+ not+V ing+ O.

I/She/He/It +was+ not+V ing +O.
Azad was not going home.
I wasnt sleeping on my bed.
Sara was eating her dinner.
They/We/You/were+ V ing+O.
Were+ they/we/you/V ing+O?
They/We/You/were+not+Ving+O.
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They were going home.

. We were studying Kurdish.
Were they going home?

Were we studying Kurdish?
They werent going home

We werent studying Kurdish.
Future Tense
When using will within the sentence the action about %50 may take place.
S+ will + verb + O.
Will+ S+ Ver+ O?
S+ will+ not+ Ver+ O.
He will speak to the student.
Will he speak to the student?
He will not speak to the student.
I will defend my country.
Will I defend my country?
I will not denfend my country.
They will travel to Erbil.
Will they travel to Erbil?
They wont travel to Erbil.
Sara & Azad will have an exam.
Will Sara & Azad have an exam?
Sara & Azad wont have an exam.
When planning in an advance for an activity, it is obligated to use going to for a commitment or plege to take
place and the action will happen %100.
S + be ver + going to + Ver+O.
Be ver+S + going to + Ver+O?
S +be ver+ not+ going to + Ver+O.
She is going to go to Erbil.
Is she going to go to Erbil?
She is not going to go to Erbil.
He is going to talk to her.
Is he going to talk to her?
He is not going to talk to her.
We are going to work tomorrow.
Are we going to work tomorrow?
We arent going to work tomorrow.
The future continues
S+will +be +v ing+ O.
Will+s+ be+ v ing+O?
S+will+not+be +v ing+ O.
He will be talking to her.

They will be studying all the day.
Will he be talking to her?

He will not be talking to her.
Will they be studying all day?They wont be studying all the day.
S+ be V+going to+ be+V ing+O. Be V+S+going to+be+ V ing+O? S+be Ve+not+going to+be+V
ing+O.
She is going to be working all the day. Is she going to be working all day?
She isnt going to be working all the day.
They are going to be dancing all the night. Are they going to be dancing all the night?
They arent going to be dancing all the
night.
Present perfect.
already, yet
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I, they, we, you, any plural

noun
She , he, it
Have+ PP
Has+ PP
S+ has, have + PP + O or C.
Sardar has already taken the exam.
Has, have +S+ PP+ O or C?

Has Sardar already taken the exam?
Yes, he has. No, he has not.
Students have not finished their exam yet.
Have students not finished their exam
yet?
Yes, they have not. No, they have.
S+ has or have + PP
Has or have+S+ PP+O?
S+ has or have + PP+O.
He/She/It+has+PP+O.
Has+she/he/it+PP+O?
He/She/It+has+ not+PP+O.
He has gone home.
Has he gone home?
He has not gone home.
Azad has written a letter.
Has Azad written a letter?
Azad hasnt written a letter.
Sara has gotten an exam.
Has Sara gotten an exam?
Sara has not gotten an exam.
They/We/You+have+pp+O.
They have gone home.
We have done our job.
Have+they/we/you+pp+O?
Have they gone home?
Have we done our job?
They/We/You+have+not+pp+O.
They have not gone home.
We havent done our job.
Using the present perfect when the time of the action is not important and in
indefinite time in the past.
S+ has, have+ PP+ O+ indefinite time.Has, have+ S+ PP+ O+ indefinite time?
Sara has studied English for five years.Has Sara studied English for five years? Yes, she
has. No, she hasnt.
Using the simple past when the time of the action happened in a specific time in the
past.
Sara studied English in 2014.
Has Sara studied English in 2014?
For and since
For = specific period of time
since= know the start point and not
the ends
Sardar has studied English for five years. Sardar has studied English since 2009.
Has Sardar studied English for five years? Has Sardar studied English since 2009?
How long has Sardar Studied English?
When has Sardar studied English?
How long have they lived in London?
How long have they been living in
London?
They have lived in London for five year.
They have been living in London since
2009.
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Adverbs before adjectives

Adverbs= extremely, very, really, partially, pretty, fairly, somewhat, too,
obviously, nearly, totally, completely
S+ Aux + adverb + adjective.
Kurdistan is a very nice country. It is really nice.
Kurds are extremely patriotisms. They are extremely loving their nation.
Present perfect continues
He/She/It= has+pp
They/we/you/I+have+pp
S+ has/have + been + v ing+ O.

Has/Have+s+been+V ing+O?
S+has/have+not+been+V ing+O.
She/He/It+has+been+V ing+O.
Has+he/she/it+been+V ing+O?
He/She/It+has+not+been+V
ing+O. He has been talking for two hours. Has he been talking for two hours? He hasnt been talking for two
hours.
Sara has been reading for two days. Has Sara been reading for two days? Sara hasnt been reading for two
days.
I/They/We/You+have + been + v ing+ O. Have+I/they/we/you+been+V ing+O?
I/They/We/You+have+not+been+V ing+O.
I have been exercising since June. Have I been exercising since June? I have been exercising since June.
They have been singing for 5 hours. Have they been singing for 5 hours? They havent been singing for 5
hours.
Past perfect simple
I/He/She/It/They/We/You/1+1=had+pp
S+ had + pp+ O, C.
I had seen the movie.
He had gone home.
They had eaten the dinner.
Had+s+ pp+ O, C?
Had I seen the movie?
Had he gone home.
Had they eaten the dinner?
S+had+pp+C, O.
I hadnt seen the movie.
He hadnt gone home.
They hadnt eaten the dinner.
Two actions took place the nearest action happen in the past while the first had taken place before the one
happen in the known-one-past.
When I went to see Azad, he had already left the home. Azad had already left the house when I went to see
him.
Past perfect continues
S+ had+ been +V ing+O.
They had been eating for one day.
I had been studying for two days.
had+S+been+V ing+O?
Had they been eating for one day?
Had I been studying for two days?
13
S+had+not+been+V ing+O.
They hadnt been eating for one day.
I hadnt been studying for two days.
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Future perfect
S+ will+have +PP+O.
Will+s+have+pp+O?
He will have talked to her for two hours. Will he have talked to her?
S+will+not+have+pp+O.
He wont have talked to her.
Future perfect continues

S+will+have been+V ing+ O.
ing+O.
They will have been talking to her.
Sara will have been dancing for a day.
Will+s+ have+been+V ing+O?
S+will+not+have+been+V
Will they have been talking to her?

They will have been talking to her.
Will Sara have been dancing for a day? Sara wont have been talking for a day.
Comparison of adjectives
She is as tall as Sam.
Is she as tall as Sam?
When adjective is one syllable or two syllables ending with y or er add er when comparing between two ,
and est for comparison between three or more.
When adjective is more than two syllables add more when comparing between two and the most for
comparison of more than two.
One
two
more than two
Good
better
best
Bad
worse
worst
Little
less
least
Little
small
smallest
Much/many more
most
Far
further
furthest
Far
father
farthest
Late
later
latest
Late
latter
last
Near
next
Old
older
oldest
Old
elder
eldest
Modals
No ed ing s are added to the verb followed by the modals.
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Must, can, may, need to, shall, ought to, have to, has to, might, ought to, use to, supposed to, will. Would,
should, could, had to,
S+ Modal + V + O, C.
Modal+s+V+O?
S+modal+V+O.
Obligation and necessity (must, have to, has to, had to, need to)
I must go to the hospital.
Must I go to the hospital?
I must not go to the hospital.
Possibility (Could, may, might)
We may leave at 5pm.
May we leave at 5pm?
We may not leave at 5pm.
Ability
I can help you.
Can I help you?
I cant help you.
Advising (had better, should, ought to)
You should leave after 10 minutes. Should you leave after 10 minutes? You shouldnt leave after 10 minutes.
Intention (will, shall)
I will let you know.
Will I let you know?
I wont let you know.
Habit (would)
She would leave at 10am.
Would she leave at 10am?
She wont leave at 10am.
When we have Auxillary Verb in the sentence, it is easy to make a question sentence.
S+ Auxilllary V + O . Auxillary verb + S + C?
Sardar is home.
Is Sardar home?
S + V + O.
a- if the verb is present tense, we choose either Do or Does. When the verb is in the past tense we choose
Did.
b- If the subject of the present tense is (he, she , or it), we choose Does, and Do if the subject is (I, we,
you, they, and a plural subject).
Auxilliary V + S + C or O?
Dara works in an office. Does Dara work in an office?
They do their homework. Do they do their homework?
Where, when, Why, what, which, who, how,,
Where do you live? Can you tell me where you live?
Where are you from? Will you tell him where you are from?
Modal + S+ Basic of verb+ C?

Can I go home at 10 am? May Sam be excused from not attending the evening class, please?
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Modal+ S+ Basic of verb + O?

Could you let me know when you come? Would you excuse me, please?
Will she be permitted to cross the border without a passport?
Auxiliary Verb + S+ C + if + S+ V+ C?
Is it okay if I turn the TV off? Is it okay if I trun off the TV? Is it okay if she does not come to school today?
Is it all right if Sam drives your car? Is it all right if I change my seat? Is it fine if the management changes
you reservation?
Auxilliary Verb + S + C + if +S+ V+ C ?

Do you mind if Sam takes your car today?
Dose Judy mind if I attend her class today?
Would it be all right if I write on the exam booklet? Would it be fine if we send your package by mail?
Would your partner mind if we change your flight? Do you mind if we take the train instead of the bus?
Would you mind changing your flight?
Do you mind traveling by bus instead of train?
We were wondering if we could cancel our booking room. She is wondering if she could cancel her flight.
Direct and indirect request.
Noun, S + V + O
modal + S+ Basic V+ O + That+ S +V+O?
Statements: a clear expression in speaking or writing

Sam, Sardar is going home.
Will you tell Sam that Sardar is going home?
Imperative: giving a direct command or authority

Sara, you dont be Careless.
Sara, do not be careless.
Could you tell Sara not to be careless?
Yes/ No questions
Noune, Auxilliray V+ S+ C?
Sardar, is your father in Germany?
Moudal+ S+ V + O + if +S+ V +C?

Will you ask Sardar if his father is in Germany?
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Noune, Auxilliray V+ S+ C?
Moudal+ S+ V + O + whether or not+S+ V +C?
Reama , does your sister have a party on Sunday? Could you ask Reama whether or not her sister has a party on
Sunday? Can you ask Reama whether her sister has a party on Sunday or not? Can Sara ask Reama whether or
not her sister has a party on Sunday?
Wh Questions.
Noune, Wh+ Auxilliray V +S+ V+ O?
Modal+ S+ V+ O + Wh+ S+ V?
Sardar, when and where does the celebration take place? Could you ask Sardar when and where the celebration
take place?
Sara, What day should I come to help you? Would you ask Sara what day I should come to help her?
Conditional
When if is at the beginning of the sentence, the second part will start with a comma and have will.
However, if if is at the second part of the sentence no comma before if condition.
Real facts
If it is raining, come home.
If the book is on sale, buy it for me.
Simple present
If+s+present + O, S+ will+V+ O.
S+ will+V+ O+ if+S+ present+O.
If Sardar is home, he will open the door.
Sardar will open the door if he is home.
If they are studying hard, they will pass the exam.
They will pass the exam if they study hard.
If I go to the party, I will see the singer.
I will see the singer if I go to the party.
If Sardar can sing, we will invite him.
We will invite Sarda if he can sing.
If Sara has studied for the exam, she will pass the test. Sara will pass the test if she has studied for the exam.
Simple past
I/They/We/You/=were
If +S+ Past, S+ would+verb+O.

If I found Saras phone number, I would call her.
If I were you, I would help him.
If Sara was in the city, I would see her.
If Sadar studied hard, he would pass the exam.
If Sam could drive, we would wait for him.
She/He/It= was
S+would+ past+ O+ if+s+would+verb+ O.
I would call Sara if I found her number.
I would help him if I were you.
I would see Sara if she was in the city.
Sardar would pass the exam if he studied hard.
We would wait for Sam if he could drive.
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Past perfect
If+ S+ past perfect+ O, S+ would have + Verb+ O.
If I had found her phone number, I would have called her. I would have called her if I had found her phone
number.
If Sara had seen the movie, she would have told us. Sara would have told us if she had seen the movie.
If+S+ past perfect +O, S+would+Verb +O.
If Sardar had written the story, he would tell the class. Sardar would tell the class if he had written the story.
If+s+ past+ O, S+would have+ verb+ O.
If Sara had saved some money, she would have bought the house.
Passive
Check the verb first if it is in present time use (am, is, are). If the verb is past tense use (was, were)
Check the Object if it is singular use is or be. Otherwise, use are or be if the subject is plural. Not to forget
that always with I subject use am or be.
S + verb present + O.
Object + be v (am, is, are) + pp.
Be V+O+PP?
Sardar writes a letter.
A letter is written by Sardar.
Is a letter written by Sardar?
They drink the milk.
The milk is drunk by them.
Is the milk drunk by them?
He breaks the windows.
The windows are broken by him.
Are the windows broken by him?
Sam corrects students homeworks. Students homeworks are corrected. Are students homeworks corrected?
S + am, is, are+ V ing + O.
She is having him a gift.
Object + am, is, are+ being + pp.

He is being given a gift.
Am, is, are+O+being+PP?

Is he being given a gift?
They are helping the poor.
The poor are being helped.
Are the poor being helped?
S+ verb past + O.
Sardar wrote a letter.
Sara gave them a gift.
Sara gave them a gift.
Objecc + be verb (was, were) + PP. Be V+O+pp?

A letter was written.
Was a letter written?
They were given a gift.
Were they given a gift?
A gift was given to them.
Was a gift given to them?
S+ has + PP + object.
Sardar has written a letter.
Object + has+been + pp.

A letter has been written.
Has + object+been+ pp?

Has a letter been written?
S+ will+ verb + object.

Sardar will write a letter.
Object + will + be + pp.

A letter will be written.
Will+ object+be+pp?
Will a letter be written?
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Sardar can write a letter.
A letter can be written.
Can a letter be written?
S + will+ be+ Ver ING + object

. Sardar will be writing a letter.
Sardar was writing a letter.
Object + will+ being + pp.

A letter will be being written.
A letter was being written.
will+ object+ being+pp?

Will a letter be being written?
S + had + PP + object
Sardar had written a letter.
Object + had + been + pp

A letter had been written.
had+object+been+pp?
Had a letter been written?
S + modal + have + pp+ object.

been+pp?
Sardar will have written a letter.
Sardar should have written a letter.
Sardar would have written a letter.
Object + modal + have + been + pp

A letter will have been written.
A letter should have been written.
A letter would have been written.
modal+object+have+
Will a letter have been written?
Should a letter have been written?
Would a letter have been written?
Taq questions
Having auxiliary verb in the sentence is important to construct a tag question. Use the same auxiliary in the Taq
question. If the auxiliary is negative have the Taq positive and visa versa.
S + be verb positive + O , be verb Negative + pronouns of the subject?
Duhok city is really crowded, isnt it?
S + be verb negative + O , be verb positive+ pronouns of the subject?
Duhok city is not crowded, is it?
They are not going to study their homework, are they?
S + verb present, does, do negative + pronouns of the subject ?
Sardar teaches English, doesnt he?
Sara and her mother cook the dinner, dont they?
Sara has an exam, doesnt she?
They have a car, dont they?
Sardar does his job properly, doesnt he?
Soldiers protect the country, dont they?
S+ verb past, did negative + pronouns of the subject ?
Sardar went home, didnt he?
S+ modal + verb , modal negative+ pronouns of the subject?
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Sardar will go home, wont he?

Reported speech
Reported speech
I will go to school.
Immediate report.
She says I will go to school.
After a time, but same place.
After a time different place. She said that she would go to school.
She is going to school.
She said that she will go to school.

She said that she was going to school.
She went to school.
She said that she had gone to school.
She has watched the TV.
She said that She had watched the TV.
They are going to watch the TV.

She must go to the hospital.
She said they were going to watch the TV.

She said that she had to go to the hospital.
We have to study for the exam.
They said that they had to study for the exam.
Spelling of ing and ed forms

Having a word ends with e drop the e and add ing to the word.
Hope
Date
Injure
Hoping
Dating
Injuring
Hoped
Dated
Injured
Having one syllable word has two consonants and one vowel CVC.
Stop
Rob
Beg
Stopping
Robbing
Begging
Stopped
Robbed
Begged
Having the second syllable word stressed with 2 consonants.

Begin
Prefer
Control
Beginning
Preferring
Controlling
Began
Preferred
Controlled
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Having word ends by y if the y is preceded by a vowel keep the y.

Pray
Enjoy
Buy
Praying
Enjoying
Buying
Prayed
Enjoyed
Bought
Having word ends by y if the y is preceded by a consonant change the y into i and add the edwhile
keep the y when adding the ing.
Study
Try
Reply
Studying
Trying
Replying
Studied
Tried
Replied
Dying
Lying
Died
Lied
The words die, lie

Die
Lie
Pronunciation of ed
1- ed is pronounced /t/ when a word ends by k, p,s, ch, sh, fsound.
2- ed is pronounced /d/ when a word ends by L, v, n, b sound.
3- ed is pronounced /ed/ when a word ends by t, d v, n, b sound.
Pronunciation of s, es
1- s is pronounced /s/ when a word ends by t, p, k sound.
2- s is pronounced /z/ when a word ends by d, b, g, ee sound
3- s and es pronounced /ez/ when a word ends by sh,ch, s, z, ge, dge sound
Transitive verbs and intransitive verbs

Raise, raised, raised: lift or move to a higher position or level.
The soldier raised the victory flag.
Rise, rose, risen: move from a lower position to a higher one.
The sun rises in the east of our city.
Set, set, set: put, lay, or stand in a special place or position.
Sara set her book on the table.
Sit, sat, sat: remain in a particular position or state.
Azad sits in the class.
Lay, laid, laid: put something down gently or carefully.
Sardar is laying the key on the table.
Lie, lay, lain: remain, or kept in a specific horizontal or resting state.
Sara is lying on the beach.
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Time clauses.
When Sara comes, she will do the job. Sara will do the job when she comes.
While I was driving, my brother checked the map. My brother checked the map while I was driving.
As I was walking home, it began to snow. It began to snow as I was walking home.
By the time Azad came, she had already left. She had already left by the time Azad came.
Since Sam left, I have not seen him. I have not seen Sam since he left.
Before Azad flies, he is going to say goodbye. Azad is going to say goodbye before he flies.
After Sam got home, he will call his parents. Sam will call his parents after he got home.
As soon as Sara arrives, she will cook the dinner. Sara will cook the dinner as soon as she arrives.
Once Sara arrives, she will cook the dinner. Sara will cook the dinner once she arrives.
Until Sam comes, we will have the dinner. We will have the dinner until Sam comes.
Till Sam comes, we will have the dinner. We will have the dinner till Sam comes.
As long as I am alive, I will not talk to her. I will not talk to her as long as I am alive.
So long as I am alive, I will not talk to her. I will not talk to her so long as I am alive.
Whenever I go to Erbil, I eat at Boky Shahab. I eat at Boky Shahab whenever I go to Erbil.
Every time I go to Erbil, I eat at Boky Shahab. I eat at Boky Shahab every time I go to Erbil.
The first time I saw her, I fell in love with her. I fell in love with her the first time I saw her.
The last time I went to Suliamani, I stayed in Shreen hotel. I stayed in Shreen hotel the last time I went to
Suliamani.
The next time I go to Suliamani, I am going to see him. I am going to see him the next time I go to Suliamani.
Cause and effects

Because, now that, since, so,
Contrast
Even though, although, though.
Direct contrast
While, whereas.
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Condition
If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, in case, in the event that.
Transition conjunctions of cause and effect
Therefore, consequently, for , so
Transition of contrast
However, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the other hand
Preposition
Because of, due to, despite, in spite of
Because of his bad behaviour, he was expelled from the school.
Because he behaves badly, he was expelled from the school.
Due to the constructions, the city streets were damaged.
In spite of his bad behaviour , he passed to the next class.
In spite of that he has a bad behaviours, he passed to the next class.
Adding and sound of s, es.

To make a noun plural add s to a noun as in friends, and add es to nouns like classes, dishes, catches, kisses,
mixes, prizes, edges.
The final s is pronounced s when it comes after a Voiceless Constance Sound of (t, p, and k) as in seats,
ropes, backs.
The final s is pronounced z when it comes after voiced sound of d, b, g, and ee as in seeds, robes, bags, sees.
The final s and es are pronounced iz when it comes after sound of ch, s, sh, z, ge, and dge as in dishes,
catches, kisses, mixes, prizes, edges.
One, each, every are the expression of a singular quantity.

One worker was injured at the workplace.
Each worker has his or her own schedule.
Every worker has his or her own schedule.
One of the workers was injured at the workplace.
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Subject and verb agreement

Singular Verb
Plural Verb
The United Sates is a powerful country.

The Philippines is an Asian country.
Sears is a giant company in Canada.
Mathematics is not an easy subject for many students.
Seven hours is not enough for an infant.
Two and two is four.
Those people are from Kurdistan.
The police have been searching for survivors.
Cattle are domestic animals.
English is an international language.
The English drink coffee more than tea.
Chinese is spoken worldwide.
The Chinese have many historic sights for visitors.

The poor have endless problems.
My brother works in a factory.
My brothers work in a factory.

My cousin and my sister work in a factory.
My cousin, brother, and sister work in a factory.
Azad read a book. It was a good book.
Azad read some books. They were good.
Every child, boy, and girl, needs love.

Each boy, and girl, is welcomed to the party.
That book on the football teams is well edited.
The projects in that magazine are interesting.
Azad, as well as my cousins, likes Chinese food.
My friends, as well as my father, like Chinese food.
The novel I bought for my parents was interesting.
The novels I bought for my parents were
interesting.
Some of the magazine is interesting.
A lot of the equipment is old.
Some of the magazines are interesting.

A lot of my classmates are partying.
One-third of the money is for him.
One third of the books are for him.
One of my classmates is absent.

Each of my classmates is here.
Every one of my classmates was here.
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No one of the girls was there.

The number of players in the team is eleven.
A number of players were late for the practice.
Possessive nouns
When adding possessive s to a singular noun, an apostrophe is added and then s.
A girls, Toms,a ladys.
When adding possessive s to a singular noun ending with s such as in Thomass or Thomas. While adding
s to a plural noun just add such as in girls, and ladies , but with mens and childrens.
No final s is added to adjectives.
Using a noun as modifiers

This soup is made of vegetables.
It is a vegetable soup.
This premise has many offices in it.
It is an office premise.
The trip lasted three hours.
It is a three hour trip.
Their daughter is four years old.
They have a four year old daughter.
Expression of quantity
Countable nouns
Uncountable nouns
One orange, each orange, every orange, two oranges,
A little sugar, much sugar, a great deal of sugar, no
both oranges, a couple of oranges, a few oranges,
sugar, some sugar, any sugar, a lot of sugar, lots of
several oranges, many oranges, a number of oranges,
sugar, plenty of sugar, most sugar, all sugar.
no oranges, some oranges, any oranges, a lot of

oranges, lots of oranges, plenty of oranges, most of
oranges, all oranges.
Using a few and few

Azad has been working in a factory only three weeks, but he has already made a few friends.
We feel sorry for Sara because she has few friends.
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Using a little and little

I have a little money so we can go to have a lunch in a restaurant.
I have little money so I do not have even enough to buy a sandwich.
Of expressing of quantity.
Expression always contain of
Expression having of is an optional
A lot of, a number of, a majority of, lots of, a great
All, most, almost all, many, much, a few, a little,
deal of, plenty of.
one, two, both, several, some, any.
Modal
Would you mind if he closed the door. Would you mind closing the door.
I have to study for Monday exam. I have got to study for Monday exam.
You do not have to go to the class because no one is there.
Progressive of Modals
Sam may be working right now.
Sara might have been working at the factory.
I would rather work for a private sector than (work) for a government.
I would rather not work for a government.
The payment was okay, but I would rather have worked for a private sector.
I would rather be working for a private sector than (be) studying in class right now.
Participial Adjectives
It is a confusing situation.
I am confused.
It was an interesting novel.
They are interested.
The usage of whether or not

I wonder whether or not he will help us.
I wonder whether he will help us or not.
I wonder if he will help us or not.
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Whether he will help us or not is crucial to know.
Question words followed by infinitives

He doesnt know what he should do. He doesnt know what to do.
Sam cant make up his mind whether he should study or play. Sam cant make up his mind whether to study or
play.
Azad instructed us how we can do our homework. Azad instructed us how to do our homework.
After the modal no (ed, s, ing, to).

I would go to the party.
I would have gone to the party. I would have been going to the party.
S + modal + v + C.
S + modal + be+ v ing+ C.
S+ modal+ have +pp+ c.
S + modal + have + been + pp+ C.
S + modal + have + been + v ing + C.
Mr. Dana, who teaches English in AUK, is from USA.
A student who is from Zakho is a good student.
Rice which is grown in India is well packed.
Gerund and infinitive

Using the gerund form after these verbs.
Gerund is the ing form of a verb it acts as a noun and uses as the same ways noun is used.
Gerund + V + O, C.
Playing music is really fun.
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S + V + Gerund.
Sara really enjoys playing the guitar.
S + Be V + preposition + Gerund.
Sardar is eager about playing the guitar.
Use the gerund after these verbs.
Enjoy, appreciate, mind, quit, give-up, finish, get-through, stop, avoid, postpone, put-off, delay, keep, consider,
discuss, mention, suggest.
S + V + Gerund + C.
Sara enjoys playing the guitar at a party where she knows everyone.
I avoid going to a party where I have to sing and dance.
Azad enjoys studying in the university library.
Sardar quit smoking.
I avoid speaking to a strange person when I am by myself.
Sara postponed attending the party because she has a final exam next week.
Maria wont mind putting off her wedding party until next month.
Using Gerund as an object of a preposition.
S+ Aux V+ not+ Ver + Gerund + C.
Sardar doesnt mind expressing his point view in the class.
I will postpone traveling to Erbil if you come with me.
She will give up going to the picnic because of sickness.
Use the gerund form after these expressions containing prepositions.
S + V + preposition + Gerund + O, C.
Sara talked about having a picnic next week.
Sardar will be in charge of finalizing the deal with the company.
Maria is interested in learning more about your job.
Sam is used to sleeping with the light on.
The manager objected to changing the work schedule.
Sara admitted to having drunk two cups of liquor.
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Dana apologised for not introducing his girlfriend to his cousin.

Most AUK students complained about not being treated fairly.
Sardar insisted on paying the bail.
S + Be V + prepositions + Gerund + C.
Sardar is eager about playing the guitar.
She is into participating in the game.
S + V + Gerund + C.
Azad enjoys studying in the university library.
Sardar quit smoking.
I avoid speaking to a strange person when I am by myself.
Sara postponed attending the party because she has a final exam next week.
Maria wont mind putting off her wedding party until next month.
S + go +Gerund + O, C.
She goes hunting every summer.
Lets go fishing next week.
Use infinitive after these verbs.
S + V + infinitive + O, C.
We hope to see you next week.
We hope to see you next week.
Hope , promise, plan, intend, decide, agree, offer, refuse, seem, appear, pretend, ask, expect, would like, want,
need.
Use the gerund or the infinitive after these verbs.

Begin, start, continue, like, love, prefer, hate, cant stand, cant bear.
Use the gerund or the infinitive after these verbs.

S + V + Gerund or infinitive + O, C.
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Sara cant stand being alone in the class.
Sara cant stand to be alone in the class.
The sky began to rain.
The sky began raining.
Sara loves inviting her friends over.
Sara loves to invite her friends over.
Sara continued to study at the AUK.
Sara continued studying at the AUK.
She hates getting up early in the morning.
She hates to get up early in the morning.
Sardar doesnt like to invite too many friends to his party. Sardar doesnt like inviting too many friends to his
party.
The sky began to rain. The sky began raining.
Sara continued to study at the AUK. Sara continued studying at the AUK.
She hates getting up early in the morning. She hates to get up early in the morning.
Sardar doesnt like to invite too many friends to his party. Sardar doesnt like inviting too many friends to his
party.
Begin, start, continue, like, love, prefer, hate, cant stand, cant bear.
It is easy to learn a second language. Learning a second language is easy.
It is an easy job for kids to learn a new skill. Learning a new skill is an easy job for kids.
- Noun Clauses after be

A clause is a part of a sentence which contain both subject and a predicate (Verb). Mostly prepositions are used
in the sentences.
Phrases + presposition + be ver+ S + V + O.
Subject + preposition + be ver + object clause (S +V+ O)
The disadvantage with having a young brother is that I always have to take him out.
The problem of living with my parents is that I have come home early.
Unit 2 mistakes and Mysteries
past modals and phrasal modals of obligation
S+ modal + have + PP + C + Clause.
Sara should have studied for her final exam, but she did not study.
Sardar should have thought about his friend when he needed his assistance.
S+ was or were+ modal + V+ ing+ O or C + Clause.
Sara was supposed to be taking the garbage out, but she asked her brother to do instead.
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S+ was or were+ modal + V+ O or C + Clause.

They were supposed to take an exam, but they did not attend the class.
Sardar was supposed to hand in my essay, but he forgot to do it.
S+ past modal + V + O or C + Clause.
Sara had to work all the day, but she did not go to the factory.
University students should wear uniform when they attend the college.
S+ did + not +modal +V +O or C.
Sara did not have to study for the exam because it so easy for her.
Sardar did not have to go to the party, but he wanted to see his friends.
S + past simple + that+ S + past modal + V+
Sara thought that she needed to save more money.
Noun phrases and Noun clauses

Phrases + V + O,C.
His presentation was amazing. Noun phrase as a subject
S + V + phrases.
I like his presentation . Noun phrase as an object.
Clause + V + C.
Pronoun S+V + C.
What he said was amazing. Noun clause as a subject.
S + V + Clause.
The judge carefully examined all the evidences that the defendants has presented them to the court.
S + V+ pronoun S + V.
I liked what he said. Noun clause as an object.
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S + V + preposition + Phrase
I listened to his presentation.
S + V + preposition + pronoun + S + V.
I listened to what he said.
Having noun clause after Be

Phrase + preposition + phrase + V + that + Clause (S + V+ O, C.)
The good thing of having a close friend is that he or she could help you when you need a hand.
The one thing about living in a dormitory is that the student is close to the classes.
The disadvantage of having a car is that the person could travel anywhere at anytime.
Modals with multiple uses

To express degrees of certainty, use must (not) cant, could (not) might (not) or may (not)
S+ Be V+ O + that + S + modal + have+ PP+ C.
Sara was sure that the boy must have broken the window.
I am confident that the car must have caused the accident.
S+ modal+ have+ been+ PP+ by noun.
The accident must have been caused by the drunk driver.
To express obligation, advice, or opinion, use should (not) Do not use must (not) have for obligations, or
opinions about the past.
S+ should+ have+ PP+ C. (obligation)
The student should have studied more for the final exam.
S+ should+ V+ C. (advice)
The security company should think of a way to protect its clients.
S+ should+ not+ have+ PP+ Gerund+ C. (opinion)
The students should not have been keeping so long in the classroom.
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Defining and non-defining relative clauses

A defining relative clause defines or gives essential information about a noun.
The information is very important to distinguish the target.
S+ V+ O + that+ S+ V+ O.
The teacher that teaches grade five English in AUK is from United State.
S + modal + be + ing + C.
Clause + S + modal + have + pp+ C.
S + modal + have + been + pp + C.
S + modal + have + been + ing + C.
All new students have to register before the starting.
She must be working the whole day.
She must have missed the bus.
I cant meet him because I must go to the hospital right now.
She must have been studying the whole week.
Modal with multiple uses page 15
B- , use modals to write reactions to these situations. Then compare answers with a partner.
123456-
He might have been busy at work. But he should have called to say he couldnt meet.
She might not have the money, but she is supposed to present an explanation for not repaying back.
I am supposed to not have eaten that big fish alone.
I must not have received the flower.
My phone services must have been disconnected.
She must have forgotten.
Certain
Be certain, Be sure, bet, know for a fact, be positive, suspect.
Not certain
Doubt, have a hunch, suppose, assume, guess, figure
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Noun phrases and Noun clauses

Phrases + V + O,C.
His presentation was amazing. Noun phrase as a subject
S + V + phrases.
I like his presentation . Noun phrase as an object.
Clause + V + C.
Pronoun S+V + C.
What he said was amazing. Noun clause as a subject.
S + V + Clause.
S + V+ pronoun S + V.
I liked what he said. Noun clause as an object.
S + V + preposition + Phrase
I listened to his presentation.
S + V + preposition + pronoun + S + V.
I listened to what he said.
Having noun clause after Be
Phrase + preposition + phrase + V + that + Clause (S + V+ O, C.)
The good thing of having a close friend is that he or she could help you when you need a hand.
The one thing about living in a dormitory is that the student is close to the classes.
The disadvantage of having a car is that the person could travel anywhere at anytime.
Clauses and phrases showing contrast and exception

Use except (that), except (for), and except for the fact (that) to show and exceptions.
S+ V+ O, except (that) S+ V+ C.
Both Kurds and Arabians drink tea, except (that) Kurds drink darker tea.
Kurds and Arabians are different, except for the way they greet their guests.
Kurds people typically eat more, except for the fact that they work less hours.
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Phrase + , except for or with the exception of + S+ V+ C.

Everybody in the company, except for the part time workers, should attend the meeting.
Everybody in the company, with the exception of the part time workers, must attend the meeting.
Use whereas, especially to show contrast idea.
Whereas fancy big car is favored in Kurdistan, small economy car is (favoured) in Holland.
Past habitual with used to and would.
(Used to, would) both are used to describe past actions or events that are no longer true. However, would
is not used with stating verbs as live, be, have, or like.
S + used to+ V+ O or C.
Sardar used to smoke cigarette.
S + did+ not + used to+ V+ O or C.
Exams didnt use to be so hard as it is today.
State Ve + O + S+ would + V+ C?
Remember the way she would explain the lesson?
S + would + V+ C+ , but+ S + would + not + V + C.
Sara would brows some good books, but her mother wouldnt let her read it.
Did you use to, is used to ask questions about repeated events in the past.
Did you use to + V+ to + V+ C + Clause.
Did you use to work in a factory when you were a teen?
Did you use to live in one bedroom with a roommate for over 10 years?
Did you use to, is used to guess about a repeated events in the past.
Didnt you use to + V+ to + V+ C + Clause.
Didnt you use to study at the university library after the school.
Unite 10 the art of complaining 3) Relative clauses and noun clauses.
Adjective Clauses
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Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always appears immediately following
the noun or pronoun.
Modifiers with participles (Gerund) and prepositions
Azad is a teacher.
He is from Erbil.
Azad who is a teacher is from Erbil.
Duhok is a big city.
I live in Duhok.
I live in Duhok which is a big city.
Participle (Gerund)
Who is Azad?
He is the student who is studying in the library. He is the student
studying in the library.
Prepositions
Which one is Sam.
Sam is the student who is with long hair. Sam is the student with
long hair.
Statement with be
3)
Be Verb= am , is , are (present) was , were (past) (page
S + Be Verb + O or C.
contraction of be
I am a student.
Im a student.
This is my book.
He is a citizen of Kurdistan.
Hes a citizen of Kurdistan.
That is your car.
She is from Erbil.

Kurdistan is our country.
Shes from Erbil.
possessive adjectives
That is his notebook.
Kurdistans our country.
We are Kurdish.
Were Kurdish.
They are peshmergas.
Theyre peshmergas.
You are a student.
Youre a student.
You are students.
Youre students.
This is her purse.

Here is its parts.
He is our president.
She is their consoler.
Why-questions with be
S + Be Ver +O or C.
S + O or C?
Sardar is in his office.
Be Ver + S + O or C?
Is Sardar in his office?
Wh + Be Ver +
Where is Sardar?
Sardar is a teacher.
Is Sardar a teacher?
What is Sardar?
Sardar and Sara are Kurdish.
Are Sardar and Sara Kurdish?
What are they?
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Azad and Maria are from Duhok.

and Maria from?
Are Azad and Maria from Duhok?
S + Verb + O or C.
Ver+ S + Ver + O or C?
Auxi Ver + S+ Ver + O or C?
Sara lives in Duhok.

live?
Does Sara live in Duhok?
Where are Azad

Wh + Auxi
Where does Sara
Yes/ No questions and short answers with Be Verb (page 5)

S + Be Verb + O or C.
Be Verb + S + O?
I am a student in this class.

No, I am not.
Am I a student in this class?
Yes, I am.
He is from Kurdistan.
he is not.
Is he from Kurdistan?
Yes, he is.
No,
Kurdistan is our country.

is not.
Is Kurdistan our country?
Yes, it is.
No, it
Azad and Sardar are students.

are. No, they are not.
Are they students?
Yes, they
I am not a president.
No, I am.
Am I not a president? real
yes, I am not.
I amnt a president.
No, I am.
Amnt I president? real
yes, I amnt.
Hawrazs not a student.

he is not.
Is Hawraz not a student? not real Yes, he is.
No,
Simple present Why-Question and Statements (page 10)

S + Be Ver + O or C.
What+ Be Verb + S?
I am a driver.
Sardar is my classmate.
is Sardar?
Be Verb + S + O or C.?
Am I driver?
Is Sardar my classmate?
37
What am I?
What
Page
S + Verb + O or C.
+ S + O?
Do or dose + S + O?
What do or dose
He works in a factory.
work?
Does he work in a factory?
Where does he
I do my homework.
Do I do my homework?
What do I do?
She likes her coffee cold.

she like her coffee?
Does she like her coffee cold?
Saras father is doctor.

a doctor?
Is Shreens father a doctor?
Whose father is
Azad works from 8 to 4 pm.

work?
Does Azad work from 8 to 4 pm.
When does Azad
How does
Sara prefers to drink tea or coffee.

drink does Sara prefer?
Does Sara prefer to drink tea or coffee? Which
Zakho is 60km far from Duhok.

far is Zakho from Duhok?
Is Zakho 60km far from Duhok?
How
Erbil is 3 hours driving from Duhok.

long driving is Erbil from Duhok?
Is Erbil 3 hours driving from Duhok?
How
Sara works in the hospital.

works in the hospital?
Does Sara work in the hospital?
Who
Who does work in the

hospital?
Time expressions (page 12)
At = time
year,
On= day
at 10am, at midnight, at midday

weeks, in July, in summer,
at night,
Sara goes to bed at 10pm.
in March, 2000.
In= week, month, season,

on Sunday, on Christmas day
in two
on March 21st , on the new year eve

Sara born on March 1st , 2000.
Sara born
Sara born at midnight of March 1st , 2000. Sara born in the first week of March, 2000.
Sara born in Spring of 2000.
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Demonstrative: one, Ones (page 17)

This + Be Verb + O or C.
ones? Which+ one?
Which + one + Be verb + O or C?
This is my friend.
one?
Which one is my friend?
This one? which
That is my car.
Which one?
Which one is my car?
That one?
These are your friends.

ones?
Which ones?
Those are my books.
Which ones?
Which +
Which ones are your friends?

Which ones are my books?
These
Those ones?
Preferences: comparisons with adjectives (page 20)

Which + noun + Auxiliary Verb + S + prefer?
Be +comparison + than+ O +one.
Which T-shirt do you prefer?
than the green one.
S+ prefer+ O + one.
I prefer the blue T-shirt.
Which + noun+ Aux Ve + S + like + to +Ver?

Aux Ver + compar +than +O +one.
Which book does Sara likes to read?
likes the science book more.
S+
The blue is nicer
S+ like + O or C.
S+
Sara likes science books ones.
Sara
Sara does like the science

book more.
Which shirt does Azad like better?
the blue shirt one better.
Azad likes the blue shirt one.
Azad likes
Simple present questions: short answers (page 23)

Aux+ S+ verb+ O or C?
or C?
Subje
ct
1
He
She
39
It
They
We
You
Do you like classic music?
like?
What+ noun+ Auxiliary+ S+ Verb+ O

Object
Me
Him
Her
It
Them
Us
you
What music do you
Page
Yes, I do. No, I do not.
I like classic music.
Do you work in the hospital?
Where does he work?
Yes, I do. No, I dont.
He works in the hospital.

He does work in the hospital.
Does she have a house?
Who dose Sara live with?
Yes, she does. No, she doesnt

Does Sara live with him?
S + Ver + C.
Wh + Auxi + S + Ver?
Azad lives with me.
Where does Azad live?
Sara goes with him.
Who does Sara go with?
They give us a place.
What do they give us?
We live with them.
Who do we with?
She does her homework.
What does she do?
Sara has a car.
Who has a car?

Who does have a car?
They have an exam.
what do they have?
Would : Verb + to + Verb (page 26) refusing an invitation in a nice way.

Would + S + Verb+ to + Verb + O or C?
+ S + Verb + to + Verb + O.
Would you like to drink a coffee?
S + would like to + Verb + but
I would like to drink, but I have to go home.
Yes, I would. Yes, I would like to drink.

No, I would not.
Would you like to come to the party?
I would like to come, but I have an exam.
Yes, I would. Yes, I would like to come.

No, I wouldnt. No, I would not like to com.
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Present continuous (page 32) Be verb = am , is , are

S + Be Verb + Ver ing + O or C.
Be Verb + S + Ver ing+ O or C?
S + Be V + not+ Ver ing + O or C.
Sara is working in a factory.

not working in a factory?
Sara is not working in a factory.
I am studying English.
studying English?
I am not studying English.
Is Sara
Am I not
Sara and Sam are working in a garden.

they not working in a garden?
Theyre not working in a garden.
They are having a party.

they having a party?
They arent having a party.
Wh + Axu + S+ Ve ing + O or C?
S + Ve + O or C.
Where is Sara working?

factory.
What are they having?
They are having a party.
She
She works in a
(page 34)
All of my friends came to the party.

Nearly all my friends came to the party.
%100
%95
Most of my friends came to the party.
%80
Many of my friends came to the party.
%75
A lot of my friends came to the party.
More than %75
Some of my friends came to the party.
%50
Not many of my friends came to the party.
Less than %50
Few of my friends came to the party.
%10
41
Arent
S + Axu + Ve ing + O or C.
What is Sara doing in a factory?

works in a factory.
Quantifiers
Are
Page
No one of my friends came to the party.
%0
Adverbs of Frequency (page 37)

How + adverb + Aux Ver + S + O or C?
C?
Aux + S+ adverb + Verb + O or
How often do you write a letter?
Do you ever go to the cinema?
I write a letter every day.
I always go to the cinema. % 100
I write every day a letter.

Sara writes a story once a week.
Sara almost always goes to the cinema. %95
They go to party once a week.
She is usually busy in the work. %90
I write a letter once a month.
They normally get good results. %80
She goes to the gym occasionally.
I often go to the cinema. %75
She doesnt often write a letter.
Sara is sometime not in her office. %50
Sardar isnt very much good in writing.
Sara seldom goes to the cinema. %10
Sardar writes an essay once a year.
Azad is hardly ever working late. %25
They are usually working in the garden.

8pm. %10
My father is almost never home before
We are never mad at you.
She never drinks a hot coffee. % 0
Usually, they work in the garden.
Never, she drinks a hot coffee.
Questions with how; short answers (page 40)

How + often , well, long, good, far, tall + Auxi Ver + S+ Ver + O or C?
How often does Sara go the market? Every day she. Twice a week. Not very much. Not
often.
How well do they sing a song?
average.
Pretty well. Not very well. Pretty well. About an
How long does Sara spend in watching TV? One hours a day. Not too much. A very little.
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How good are you in swimming? Pretty good. Okay. Not very good. Not a bad. Not so
good.
Simple past (page 45)
S + Be ver + O or C.
S+ Be ver + not + O or C. Be ver + S + O or C?
Sara was a student.
Sara was not a student.
Was Sara a student?
They were soldiers.
They were nt soldiers.
Were they soldiers?
S + Ve ed + O or C.
C?
S+ did + not+ Ver + O or C. Did + S + Ver + O or
Sara worked in a factory.

a factory?
Sara did not work in a factory.
Did Sara work in
S +Ve irregular + O or C.
+O or C?
S + Did +not + Ver +O or C.
Did +S + Ver
She cut the meat yesterday.
She did not cut the meat.
Did she cut the meat?
Sara did her work.
Sara did not do her work.
Did Sara do her work?
Sardar had an exam.

exam?
Sardar did not have an exam. Did Sardar have an
There is, there are, one , any , some. (page 51)

There+ is + O or C.
Is+ there +O or C?
There is a market close by.

on the corner.
Is there a market close by? Yes, there is. There is one

No, there isnt, but there is one far from here.
There are some markets close by.

There are some nearby.
Are there many markets close by? Yes, there are.
No, there arent, but there are some on the next street.
Prepositions of place: on, in, from, with, in front, near, close by, in the back, behind,
between, at, on the corner of, across, next, opposite, close, at, inside,
Quantifiers: how many and how much (page 54)

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There + Aux +many+ count noun + C.

C?
Aux + there+ many + count noun+
There are many books on the table. Are there many books on the table? Yes, there are a
lot. Yes, there are a few.
No, there arent many. No, there are none. No, there are
not any.
There+ Aux + much+ non-count noun.
+ C?
There is much violence in the movies.
there is a lot. Yes, there is little.
Aux+ there+ much+ non-count noun
Is there much violence in the movies? Yes,
No, there isnt much. No, there isnt any. No, there is none.
Modifiers with participles (Gerund) and prepositions
Azad is a teacher.
He is from Erbil.
Azad who is a teacher is from Erbil.
Duhok is a big city.
I live in Duhok.
I live in Duhok which is a big city.
Participle (Gerund)
Who is Azad?
He is the student who is studying in the library. He is the student
studying in the library.
Prepositions
Which one is Sam.
long hair.
Sam is the student who is with long hair. Sam is the student with
Present perfect: already, yet (page 65)

I, they, we, you, any plural
noun
She , he, it
Have+ PP
Has+ PP
S+ has, have + PP + O or C.
Has, have +S+ PP+ O or C?
Sardar has already taken the exam.
Has Sardar already taken the exam?

Yes, he has. No, he has not.
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Students have not finished their exam yet.

yet?
Have students not finished their exam
Yes, they have not. No, they have.

Present perfect VS simple past (page 66)
Using the present perfect when the time of the action is not important and in
indefinite time in the past.
S+ has, have+ PP+ O+ indefinite time.
indefinite time?
Sara has studied English for five years.
Yes, she has. No, she hasnt.
Has, have+ S+ PP+ O+

Has Sara studied English for five years?
Using the simple past when the time of the action happened in a specific time in the
past.
Sara studied English in 2014.
Has Sara studied English in 2014?
For and since (page 67)

For = specific period of time
the ends
since= know the start point and not
Sardar has studied English for five years. Sardar has studied English since 2009.
Has Sardar studied English for five years? Has Sardar studied English since 2009?
How long has Sardar Studied English?
How long have they live in London?
When has Sardar studied English?

How long have they been living in London?
They have live in London for five year.

2009.
They have been living in London since
Adverbs before adjectives

Adverbs= extremely, very, really, partially, pretty, fairly, somewhat, too,
obviously, nearly, totally, completely
S+ Aux + adverb + adjective.
Kurdistan is a very nice country. It is really nice.
Kurds are extremely patriotisms. They are extremely loving their nation.
Modals (page 75)
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Modals= can, shall, will, may, might, must, have to, supposed to, need to,
ought to, use to
The verb with ed, s, ing (basic Verb)
S+ Modal + Ver + O or C.
S+ Modal+ not.
Modal+ S+ Ver + O or C?
yes, S+ Modal. No,
Sara will celebrate NewRoz.

she will not.
Will Sara celebrate NewRoz. Yes, she will.
No,
They can do the job.

they cannot.
Can they do the job?
No,
Yes, they can.
Wh + modal+ S+ Ver+ O or C?
Who might come to the party?
What will Azad do?
Sam might come to the party.

Azad will drive the car.
Where can Sara go after the party? Sara can go to Erbil after the party.
What shall Sara present at the exam?
Sara shall present her passport at the exam.
Adjective + infinitive. or noun+ infinitive (page 79)

S+ Aux +
Relative pronouns
S + V + O.
V + O.
S + V + O.
S + V + O. S + V + O.
S + V + O. S + V + O.
Sara likes a person. The man is not too serious.

serious.
I work for Sardar. He is so active.
S + V + O. S +
Sara likes a person who is not too
I work for Sardar who is so active.
I would prefer to work for Sardar. Sam is also working with him. I would prefer to work
for Sardar who Sam is also working with.
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She doesnt like to work for him. Sardar is working for Mazi Mall. She doesnt like to
work for Sardar who is working for Mazi Mall.
This meal is delicious. Sam cooked it. This meal which Sam cooked is delicious. This
meal which is delicious Sam cooked.
It Clauses + adverbial Clauses with when

S + V + it + when + S + V+ O.
I hate it when a person is lying.
It + V + O + when + S + V+ O.
I hate it when a person lies to me.
I do not mind it when a friend calls before he comes.

It drives me crazy when Ishaq doesnt do his homework.
It annoys me when friends are talking loudly.
It makes me happy when Khawla does her homework.
Gerund phrases
Gerund phrases as subject
Flight attendant.
exciting job.
Being a flight attendant is an exciting job.

He would like being a flight attendant.
Being a police officer is not an easy job.
dreamed being a police officer.
He loves being a flight attendant.
She likes being a police officer. She had
Working for Sardar is a dream for every girl. He would dream working for Sardar.
Agreeing with her was the success I was waiting for. Hed enjoy agreeing with her. I
Doing his job was not a good idea. She enjoyed doing his job.
Comparisons.
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With adjectives.
Being a flight attendant is more exciting than being a doctor.

Being a TV reporter is less dangerous than being a soldier.
Police officer job is more dangerous than a flight attendant job.
Being an accountant is not as easy as being a driver.
With nouns
Doctors have more hours than teachers have.
A Fire fighter has better salary than an accountant.
Flight attendants have as much salary as police officers.
He does not have as much money as she has.
With verb
Azad sleeps more than his sister Sara.
Ishaq studies less than Khawa.
Maria doesnt work as much as I work.
With past participles

Sam is better paid than Sardar.
She is as well educated as him.
Women are not as well paid as men.
Requests with modals

May I come to your house?
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Would you help me do my homework?

Could I borrow some money?
Request with if clauses.
Is it okay if I sit beside you?
Is it okay if you lend me some money?
Do you mind if I go in front of you in the lining up?
Would it be all right if I came to your house?
Would you mind if I used your new cellphone?
Request Gerunds
Would you mind comparing our homework?
She was wondering if she could go home early.
Direct Request
Can you help me?
Could you help me, please? May I leave early today?
Indirect Request
Statements
indirect request introduced by that
Rema, Alan is going to work.

Rema, it is raining.
Could you tell Rema that Alan is going to work?

Could you tell Rema that it is raining?
Rema, Azad was having a party. Could you tell Rema that Azad was having a party?
Imperatives
indirect requests using imperatives
Sardar, do not drink and drive.

Sardar, do not be lazy.
Could you tell Sardar not to drink and drive?
Could you tell Sardar not to be lazy?
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Yes/ no questions
or not
indirect requests introducing by if or whether
Rema, are you busy right now?
Could you ask Rema if she is busy right now?
Rema, are going to have a party on Monday? Could you ask Rema if she is going to have
a party on Monday?
Rema, do you have an exam on Sunday? Could you ask Rema whether or not she has
an exam on Sunday?
Why- Questions
indirect requests introducing
Rema, when does the wedding party start? Could you ask Rema when the wedding
party starts?
Rema, where is the party?
Could you ask Rema where the party is?
Rema, what is the partys address? Could you ask Rema what the partys address is?
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The Grammar Rules by Shaalan

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Sentence Structure and Mechanics

A sentence comprises of a group of words which express a complete idea or thoughts.

They/we/you/ 1+1 + are+ O.

They/We/You/ 1+1 + are+ not+O.

Present simple having complement.

They are from Sulimani.

Are they in our class?

Contraction of the (Be verb & NOT)

Contraction of the (Be verb & NOT)

Present simple with action verbs ( work, play, read..etc)

I dont have an exam.

She/He/It+ does + ver + O

Sardar has a car.

Does Sardar have a car?

Sardar doesnt have a car.

Sara works in the hospital.

Does Sara work in the hospital?

Who does work in the

Demonstrative: one, Ones

Which + one + Be verb + O or C?

This one? which

Which one is my car?

Which ones are your friends?

Preferences: comparisons with adjectives

Which book does Sara likes to read?

Would : Verb + to + Verb

No, I wouldnt. No, I would not like to come.

She is usually busy in the work. %90

She goes to the gym occasionally.

I often go to the cinema. %75

Questions with how; short answers

Do I work in this factory?

Do they help him?

They dont help him.

She/He/It+ does + ver + C.

Does+ she/he/it+ ver + C?

Is + he/she/it+ ver ing +O?

Are +they/we/you + ver ing +O?

I+ am+ not+ ver ing + O.

He/She/It+ isnt + ver ing + O.

Be ver+ S+ not+ ver ing + O?

Be ver + S+ nt + ver ing + O?

Having a sentence with out auxiliary verb.

Am I playing the game?

Simple past Be verb (was, Were)

S+Be ver+ not+ O.

Sam & Azad were there.

Were Sam & Azad there?

Sam & Azad werent there.

There are two forms of past verb (regular ed & irregular)

Did +S+ Verb+ O?

Did +S+ Verb+ O?

S+did+ not+ Ver+O.

Past continue I, He, She, It= was

They, We, You, 1+1= were

S+Be ver+ not+V ing+ O.

Were+ they/we/you/V ing+O?

They were going home.

Were they going home?

They werent going home

Will+s+ be+ v ing+O?

He will be talking to her.

Will he be talking to her?