Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Blackbody Radiation
(Ch. 7)
Two types of bosons:
(a)
u T uS , T d
0
A real surface absorbs only a fraction of the radiation falling on it. The absorptivity
is a function of and T; a surface for which ( ) =1 for all frequencies is called a
black body.
Photons
The electromagnetic field has an infinite number of modes (standing
waves) in the cavity. The black-body radiation field is a superposition of
plane waves of different frequencies. The characteristic feature of the
radiation is that a mode may be excited only in units of the quantum
of energy h (similar to a harmonic oscillators) :
ni 1 / 2 h
i
This fact leads to the concept of photons as quanta of the electromagnetic field. The
state of the el.-mag. field is specified by the number n for each of the modes, or, in other
words, by enumerating the number of photons with each frequency.
E ph h
E ph cp ph
p ph
E ph
c
ph
T ,V
0
N T ,V
ph 0
However, we cannot use the usual expression for the chemical potential, because one
cannot increase N (i.e., add photons to the system) at constant volume and at the same
time keep the temperature constant:
F
N T ,V
G N
G F PV
F T ,V
F
P
V
V T
GF
F
V 0
V
ph
G
0
N
n ph f ph , T
1
1
exp
k
T
B
1
Plancks distribution provides the average
h
1 number of photons in a single mode of
exp
frequency = /h.
k BT
n h
h
h
1
exp
k
T
B
k BT
In order to calculate the average number of photons per small energy interval d, the
average energy of photons per small energy interval d, etc., as well as the total
average number of photons in a photon gas and its total energy, we need to know the
density of states for photons as a function of photon energy.
kz
1 4 / 3 k 3
k 3 volume
N k
8
6 2
Lx Ly Lz
kx
dG
g
d
ky
cp ck G
6 2 c
d
h
8 2
g g
h 2
3
3
d
c
c
2
3D
ph
3D
ph
k3
Gk
6 2
3D
ph
2 2 c
8 2
g 3
c
3D
ph
h g n d uS , T d
8 2
3D
g ph 3
c
h g( )
photon
energy
n( )
8 h
3
us , T h g f 3
c exp h 1
u as a function of the energy:
average number
of photons
h g( ) n( )
u , T d u , T d
u , T u , T
8
u , T
hc 3
d
u h , T h
d
1
exp
k
T
B
h 1 exp h 1 h
8 h
3
8 2
us , T 3
3 k BT
c exp h 1
c
Rayleigh-Jeans Law
u , T d u , T d
c
h
hc
8
1
d
hc 8 hc
,
T
d
2
hc 3 exp hc 1 2 5 exp hc 1
k T
k T
B
B
u , T large
8 k BT
1
4
us , T
8 h 3
exp h
c3
Nobel 1911
The maximum of u() shifts toward higher frequencies with increasing temperature. The
3
position of maximum:
3x 2
k
T
du
d
x 3e x
B
const
const x
0
2
x
d
e
1
h
h
e 1
exp
1
d
k BT
k BT
max 2.8
k BT
h
3 x e x 3
x 2.8
u(,T)
h max
2.8
k BT
max max
u , T
u , T
max
max
h max
2.8 - does this mean that
k BT
hc
No!
2.8 ?
k BT max
3
u , T d u , T d
c
h
hc
8
1
d
hc 8 hc
,
T
d
2
hc 3 exp hc 1 2 5 exp hc 1
k T
k T
B
B
du
d
1
5
x 2 exp 1 / x
const 5
const 6
5
0
2
df
dx x exp 1 / x 1
x exp 1 / x 1 x exp 1 / x 1
5xexp 1 / x 1 exp 1 / x
T = 300 K
max
hc
5 k BT
max 10 m
Solar Radiation
The surface temperature of the Sun - 5,800K.
max
hc
0.5 m
5 k BT
- close to the energy gap in Si, ~1.1 eV, which has been so far the best material for solar cells
Spectral sensitivity of human eye:
N
8
n n g d 3
V 0
c
2
h
8
d
0
c3
1
exp
k BT
2 5 k B
15h3c 2
the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant
k BT
- increases as T 3
U
g
8 5 k BT
u T
d
3
V 0 exp 1
15hc
u T
4 4
T
c
u T
8 5 k BT hc
4
k BT 2.7 k BT
3
3
N
15hc 8 k BT 2.4 15 2.4
4
x 2 dx
kB 3
0 e x 1 hc T 2.4
8
4 2
The value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.76 10 W / K m
T 4 500 W / m2
While the emissivity of skin is considerably less than 1, it still emits a considerable
power in the infrared range. For example, this radiation is easily detectable by modern
techniques (night vision).
energy density u
c 1s
Integration over all angles
provides a factor of :
1m2
1
cu
4
c
c 4 4
power u T
T T4
4
4 c
4R 2 T 4
max
hc
5 k BT
hc
5 k B max
5
,
740
K
23
6
5 1.38 10 0.5 10
2 5 k B
W
8
5
.
7
10
15h3c 2
m2K 4
4
This result is consistent with the flux of the solar radiation energy received by the Earth
(1370 W/m2) being multiplied by the area of a sphere with radius 1.51011 m (Sun-Earth
distance).
hc
2
P 4 RSun
2.8 k B max
2
W
4 7 108 m 5.7 108 2 4 5,740K 4 3.8 1026 W
mK
dm P 3.8 1026 W
9
2
4
.
2
10
kg/s
2
8
dt c
3 10 m
0.01M
2 1028 kg
t
Dewar
J rad 1 r Ti
W / m2
i=a for the outer (hot) wall, i=b for the inner (cold) wall,
r the coefficient of reflection, (1-r) the coefficient of emission
J 1 r Ta4 rJ J 1 r Tb4 rJ
J J
1 r
Ta4 Tb4
1 r
If r=0.98 (walls are covered with silver mirror), the net flux is reduced to 1% of the
value it would have if the surfaces were black bodies (r=0).
Superinsulation
Two parallel black planes are at the temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. The
energy flux between these planes in vacuum is due to the blackbody
radiation. A third black plane is inserted between the other two and is allowed
to come to an equilibrium temperature T3. Find T3 , and show that the energy
flux between planes 1 and 2 is cut in half because of the presence of the third
plane.
J 0 T1 T2
Without the third plane, the energy flux per unit area is:
T1
4
T3 T2
The equilibrium temperature of the third plane can be found from the energy balance:
T14 T3 4 T3 4 T2 4
1/ 4
T1 T2 2T3
4
T14 T2 4
T3
The energy flux between the 1st and 2nd planes in the presence of the third plane:
J T1 T3
4
4 T14 T2 4 1
1
T14 T2 4 J 0
T1
2
2
2
JN
N 1
- cut in half
2
4 RSun
Power in RE TSun
Rorbit
Emission:
Power out 4 RE TE
2
1/ 4
R 2
TE Sun TSun
4 Rorbit
Rorbit = 1.51011 m
Transmittance of the Earth atmosphere
= 1 TEarth = 280K
In reality
RSun = 7108 m
VT 3
c
T V
c T
16V
16
2
3
S T V
dT
T
d
T
VT
T
c 0
3c
0
T
F U TS
4
16
4
VT 4
VT 4
VT 4
c
3c
3c
G U TS PV F PV 0
4 4 1
F
P
T u
3
V T , N 3c
1
PV U
3
1
1
1
PV U V n V n 2.7k BT 0.9 N k BT
3
3
3
A. Penzias
R. Wilson
Nobel 1978
S T
16
VT 3 const
3c
T R 1
CMBR (cont.)
for
their
discovery of the
blackbody form and
anisotropy of the
CMBR.
Mather, Smoot, Nobel 2006