An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current.

[2]

For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature.[3]Occasionally,

a linear alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any ACelectrical generator can be
called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion
engines. An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called amagneto. Alternators in power
stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz three phase alternators in power plants
generate most of the world's electric power, which is distributed by electric power grids.[4]
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Principle of operation

3Synchronous speeds

4Classifications
4.1By excitation

4.1.1Direct connected DC generator

4.1.2Transformation and rectification

4.1.3Brushless alternators

4.2By number of phases

4.3By rotating part

5Specific applications
o

5.1Electric generators

5.2Automotive alternators

5.3Diesel electric locomotive alternators

5.4Marine alternators

5.5Radio alternators

6See also

7Notes

8References

9External links

History[edit]

In what is considered the first industrial use of alternating current in 1891, workmen pose with a Westinghouse alternator at the Ames
Hydroelectric Generating Plant. This alternator was used as a generator producing 3000 volt, 133 hertz, single-phase AC, and an identical one 3
miles away was used as an AC motor.[5][6][7]

Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric
current in the 1830s. Rotating generators naturally produced alternating current but, since there was little use for it, it was
normally converted into direct current via the addition of a commutator in the generator.[8] The early machines were developed by
pioneers such as Michael Faradayand Hippolyte Pixii. Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle", whose operation
was heteropolar each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite
directions.[9] Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and
300 Hz.
The late 1870's saw the introduction of first large scale electrical systems with central generation stations to power Arc lamps,
used to light whole streets, factory yards, or the interior of large warehouses. Some, such as Yablochkov arc lamps introduced
in 1878, ran better on alternating current, and the development of these early AC generating systems was accompanied by the
first use of the word "alternator".[10][11] Supplying the proper amount of voltage from generating stations in these early systems
was left up the the engineer's skill in "riding the load".[12] In 1883 the Ganz Works invented the constant voltage generator[13] that
could produce a stated output voltage, regardless of the value of the actual load.[14] The introduction of transformers in the mid1880s led to the widespread use of alternating current and the use of alternators needed to produce it.[15] After
1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases. [16] Later alternators were designed
for various alternating current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent
lighting and electric motors.[17] Specialized radio frequency alternators like theAlexanderson alternator were developed
as longwave radio transmitters around World War 1 and used in a few high power wireless telegraphy stations before vacuum
tube transmitters replaced them.

Principle of operation[edit]

Diagram of a simple alternator with a rotating magnetic core (rotor) and stationary wire (stator) also showing the current induced in the stator by
the rotating magnetic field of the rotor.[citation needed]

A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive force (EMF) in it (Faraday's Law). This emf reverses
its polarity when it moves under magnetic poles of opposite polarity. Typically, a rotating magnet, called the rotor turns within a
stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an
induced EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since the currents in the stator windings vary in step
with the position of the rotor, an alternator is a synchronous generator.[3]
The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets, or by a field coil electromagnet. Automotive alternators use
a rotor winding which allows control of the alternator's generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding.
Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, due to the cost of
the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the
generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger than those used in automotive applications.
An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage constant. If the output voltage from the
stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in demand, more current is fed into the rotating field coils through the voltage
regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field coils which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils.
Thus, the output voltage is brought back up to its original value.
Alternators used in central power stations also control the field current to regulate reactive power and to help stabilize the power
system against the effects of momentary faults. Often there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the
rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each other.

Synchronous speeds[edit]
One cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair of field poles passes over a point on the stationary winding. The
relation between speed and frequency is , where is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second). is the number of poles (2,4,6...)
and is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (RPM). Very old descriptions of alternating current systems sometimes
give the frequency in terms of alternations per minute, counting each half-cycle as one alternation; so 12,000 alternations per
minute corresponds to 100 Hz.
The output frequency of an alternator depends on the number of poles and the rotational speed. The speed corresponding to a
particular frequency is called the synchronous speed for that frequency. This table[18] gives some examples:

Poles

RPM for 50 Hz

RPM for 60 Hz

RPM for 400 Hz

3,000

3,600

24,000

1,500

1,800

12,000

1,000

1,200

8,000

750

900

6,000

10

600

720

4,800

12

500

600

4,000

14

428.6

514.3

3,429

16

375

450

3,000

18

333.3

400

2,667

20

300

360

2,400

40

150

180

1,200

Classifications[edit]
Alternators may be classified by method of excitation, number of phases,the type of rotation,and their application. [19]

By excitation[edit]
There are two main ways to produce the magnetic field used in the alternators, by using permanent magnets which create their
own persistent magnetic field or by using field coils. The alternators that use permanent magnets are specifically
called magnetos. In other alternators, wound field coils form an electromagnet to produce the rotating magnetic field.
All devices that use permanent magnets and produce alternating current are called PMA or permanent magnet alternator. A
"permanent magnet generator" (PMG) may produce either alternating current, or direct current if it has a commutator. If the
permanent magnet device makes only AC current, it is correctly called a PMA.
Direct connected DC generator[edit]
This method of excitation consists of a smaller direct-current (DC) generator fixed on the same shaft with the alternator. The DC
generator generates a small amount of electricity just enough to excite the field coils of the connected alternator to generate
electricity. A variation of this system is a type of alternator which uses direct current from the battery for excitation, after which
the alternator is self-excited.[19]
Transformation and rectification[edit]
This method depends on residual magnetism retained in the iron core to generate weak magnetic field which would allow weak
voltage to be generated. The voltage is used to excite the field coils for the alternator to generate stronger voltage as part of
its build up process. After the initial AC voltage buildup, the field is supplied with rectified voltage from the alternator.[19]
Brushless alternators[edit]
A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one shaft. Smaller brushless alternators may look like
one unit but the two parts are readily identifiable on the large versions. The larger of the two sections is the main alternator and
the smaller one is the exciter. The exciter has stationary field coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main alternator
uses the opposite configuration with a rotating field and stationary armature. A bridge rectifier, called the rotating rectifier
assembly, is mounted on the rotor. Neither brushes nor slip rings are used, which reduces the number of wearing parts. The
main alternator has a rotating field as described above and a stationary armature (power generation windings).
Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3-phase output from the exciter. This output is
rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly, mounted on the rotor, and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field of the main

alternator and hence alternator output. The result of all this is that a small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the
main alternator.
Early Honda four-cylinder motorcycles (CB750F, CB350F, CB500F, CB550F) used a brushless Hitachi 200W alternator. This
had a fixed "rotor" winding on the outer cover; the outer end of the iron core was a disc that closed the outer rotor pole. The
rotor comprised two intermeshed six- pole "claws" welded to and spaced apart by a non-magnetic ring. It bolted directly to the
end of the five-bearing crank by the hub of one pole. The other pole had an open end to receive the stator winding. The outer
cover also mounted the three-phase stator windings. The magnetic circuit had two auxiliary air gaps between the rotor and its
stationary core. The regulator was a conventional automotive type with vibrating points. As it had no slip rings, it was very
compact and rugged, but due to the auxiliary air gaps, it had poor efficiency.

By number of phases[edit]
Main articles: Single-phase generator and Polyphase coil
Another way to classify alternators is by the number of phases of their output voltage. The output can be single phase, or
polyphase. Three-phase alternators are the most common, but polyphase alternators can be two phase, six phase, or more. [19]

By rotating part[edit]
The revolving part of alternators can be the armature or the magnetic field. The revolving armature type has the armature
wound on the rotor, where the winding moves through a stationary magnetic field. The revolving armature type is not often used.
[19]

The revolving field type has magnetic field on the rotor to rotate through a stationary armature winding. The advantage is that

then the rotor circuit carries much less power than the armature circuit, making the slip ring connections smaller and less costly;
only two contacts are needed for the direct-current rotor, whereas often a rotor winding has three phases and multiple sections
which would each require a slip ring connection. The stationary armature can be wound for any convenient medium voltage
level, up to tens of thousands of volts; manufacture of slip ring connections for more than a few thousand volts is costly and
inconvenient.

Specific applications[edit]
Electric generators[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Electric generator.
Most power generation stations use synchronous machines as their generators. Connection of these generators to the utility
grid requires synchronization conditions to be met.[20]

Automotive alternators[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Alternator (automotive).

Alternator mounted on an automobile engine with a serpentine belt pulley

Alternators are used in modern automobiles to charge the battery and to power the electrical system when its engine is running.
Until the 1960s, automobiles used DC dynamo generators with commutators. With the availability of affordable silicon
diode rectifiers, alternators were used instead.

Diesel electric locomotive alternators[edit]

In later diesel electric locomotives and diesel electric multiple units, the prime mover turns an alternator which provides
electricity for thetraction motors (AC or DC).
The traction alternator usually incorporates integral silicon diode rectifiers to provide the traction motors with up to 1200 volts
DC (DC traction, which is used directly) or the common inverter bus (AC traction, which is first inverted from dc to three-phase
ac).
The first diesel electric locomotives, and many of those still in service, use DC generators as, before silicon power electronics, it
was easier to control the speed of DC traction motors. Most of these had two generators: one to generate the excitation current
for a larger main generator.
Optionally, the generator also supplies head end power (HEP) or power for electric train heating. The HEP option requires a
constant engine speed, typically 900 RPM for a 480 V 60 Hz HEP application, even when the locomotive is not moving.

Marine alternators[edit]
Marine alternators used in yachts are similar to automotive alternators, with appropriate adaptations to the salt-water
environment. Marine alternators are designed to beexplosion proof so that brush sparking will not ignite explosive gas mixtures
in an engine room environment. They may be 12 or 24 volt depending on the type of system installed. Larger marine diesels
may have two or more alternators to cope with the heavy electrical demand of a modern yacht. On single alternator circuits, the
power may be split between the engine starting battery and the domestic or house battery (or batteries) by use of a split-charge
diode (battery isolator) or a voltage-sensitive relay.

Radio alternators[edit]
High frequency alternators of the variable-reluctance type were applied commercially to radio transmission in the low-frequency
radio bands. These were used for transmission ofMorse code and, experimentally, for transmission of voice and music. In
the Alexanderson alternator, both the field winding and armature winding are stationary, and current is induced in the armature
by virtue of the changing magnetic reluctance of the rotor (which has no windings or current carrying parts). Such machines
were made to produce radio frequency current for radio transmissions, although the efficiency was low.

Alternatr, mekanik enerjiyi alternatif akma eviren elektromekanik bir aygttr. ou alternatr bu ii yapmak iin dnen
bir manyetik alan kullanr. Aslnda ou alternatif akm jenaratr alternatr olarak adlandrlabilir fakat genelde hareketini iten
yanmal motorlarnsalad alternatif akm retelerine bu isim verilir.
indekiler
[gizle]

1alma Prensibi

2Ksmlar
o

2.1Rotor

2.2Stator

2.3Diyotlar

3Endstriyel Alternatrler

4Otomobil Alternatrleri

5D balantlar

alma Prensibi[deitir | kayna deitir]

Alternatrler doru akm reteleriyle ayn mantkla alrlar. Bir iletkenin etrafndaki manyetik alan deiince iletkende bir akm
oluur. Modern tipik bir alternatrde rotor denilenmknatslar, demir cevherine sarlm olan stator denilen sabit iletken sarglarn
iinde veya etrafnda dnerler. Mekanik enerjinin rotorlar dndrmesiyle iletkenler etrafndaki manyetik alan deiir ve elektrik
akm retilmi olur.
Rotorun manyetik alan indksiyonla (frasz jenaratrlerde), mknatslarla (genellikle ok ufak makinalarda) veya fralar
yardmyla aktarlacak bir akm ile elde edilebilir. Otomobillerde kullanlan alternatrlerde rotordaki manyetik alan her zaman
fralar ile aktarlan akmla oluturulur. Bylece rotordaki akm kontrol edilerek alternatrn oluturduu voltajn kontrol
edilebilmesi salanr. Mknats kullanan alternatrler ayrca rotora akm vermek zorunda olmadklarndan daha verimlidir fakat
mknatsn maliyeti dolaysyla byklkleri snrldr. Mknatsn manyetik alan sabit olduundan retilen voltaj devir ile birlikte
artar. Frasz alternatif akm reteleri genellikle otomobillerde kullanlanlardan ok daha byk makinalardr. Frasz
alternatrlerde alternatr alma prensibine gre ana ve ikaz sistemi olarak ikiye ayrlabilir. Ana sistemin hareketli ksm olan
ana rotor devir saysna gre deien sayda kutuplardan oluur. Rotordaki ana kutuplar evirici makinann devrinde dndrlr.
Kutuplarda manyetik aknn olumas iin doru akm gereklidir. Ana kutuplara doru akm ikaz sistemi tarafndan verilir.
kaz sisteminin alma prensibi ana sistemle ayn olmakla beraber kutup ve sarglar ters evrilmitir. Yani, ikaz sisteminde
kutuplar hareketsiz olan ikaz statoru zerinde, sarglar ise dnen ikaz rotoru zerinde bulunur.
Ana statordaki bamsz yardmc sarglardan geen akm voltaj reglatrde dorultularak, ikaz statorundaki kutup sarglarna
verilir. Kutuplardan kan manyetik aky kesen ikaz rotoru zerindeki bobinlerde faz alternatif akm oluur. Alternatif akm,
rotordaki dner kpr diyotlarda dorultularak ana rotora(ana kutuplara) doru akm olarak aktarlr.
Frasz alternatrlere yk uygulandnda, voltaj dm nlemek ve voltaj istenilen seviyede tutmak iin voltaj reglatr
kullanlr.

Ksmlar[deitir | kayna deitir]

Rotor[deitir | kayna deitir]
Rotor,ekirdekleri (manyetik kutuplar) bir manyetik alan bobini (rotor) kayar bilezikler ve bir rotor milinden meydana gelmitir.

Stator[deitir | kayna deitir]

Stator, stator ekirdekleri ve stator bobinlerinden meydana gelmitir ve n ve arka kapaklara tutturulmutur. Stator ekirdei,
elik kaplanm ince plakalardan meydana gelir.

Diyotlar[deitir | kayna deitir]

E ykl diyot tablalar iinde, adet pozitif ve adet negatif diyot bulunur. Alternatr tarafndan retilen akm, u
kapaklardan yaltlm pozitif ynl diyot tablalarndan verilir.

Endstriyel Alternatrler[deitir | kayna deitir]

Bir evirici makina tarafndan evrilen hareket enerjisini elektrik enerjisine dntren elektrik makinasdr. Alternatrler alternatif
akm reteleridir. Genellikle elektrik enerjisinin ebekeden salanamad yerlerde kullanlr. Alternatr su trbinleri, rzgar,
dizel motor gibi eitli eviricilerle kullanlabilir. Elektrik ihtiyac olan ou yerde ebeke yedei olarak yaygn olarak dizel motor
ile tahrik edilen alternatrler kullanlr. Dizel motor ile tahrik edilen alternatrler genelde 1500devir/dakika hza sahiptirler.
30kVA'dan kk glerde 3000d/d hzl alternatrlere de rastlanr. Su trbini ile alan alternatrler ise 750 veya 1000d/d gibi
dk devirli alternatrlerdir.
Gnmzde fral alternatrler yerini daha modern ve bakm gerektirmeyen voltajn elektronik voltaj reglatr ile sabitlendii
alternatrlere brakmtr. Frasz alternatrlerde dner kutuplar rotordadr, dner kutuplar ana rotor olarak da adlandrlrlar. Mil
zerinde ana rotorla beraber ikaz statoru sarglar ve dner diyotlar bulunur. kaz rotorunda endklenen fazl gerilim
diyotlarda dorultularak ana rotora verilir. kaz statorunda ise sabit kutuplar vardr. Otomatik voltaj reglatr ile ikaz statoruna
verilen akm kontrol edilir. Bu sayede ana rotoru besleyen ikaz rotoru kontrol edilmi olur. Voltaj reglatr alternatr tarafndan
retilen gerilimi kontrol eder. Alternatr k gerilim istenilen deerin altnda ise reglatr ikaz statoruna daha fazla akm
basarak ana rotor rettii manyetik alan iddetini arttrarak ana klemensteki voltaj sabit tutmaya alr.
Voltaj reglatr ikaz statorunu beslemek iin gerekli enerjiyi stator sarglarndan veya stator sarglarndan bamsz yerletirilen
yardmc sarglardan alr. Alternatrlerdeki voltaj reglatrleri enerjisini yardmc sarglardan almas ani yklemelerde voltajn
kmesini nler ve alternatr voltajnn daha stabil olmasn salar. Yardmc sargl alternatrler ani yklemelerde nominal
ykn %150 si kadar yk kaldrabilir. Ayn zamanda yardmc sarg kullanlmas halinde ksa devre akm nominal akmn 3
katna kadar kabilir. Yardmc sargs olmayan alternatrlerde ise elektrik motoru start akmlar gibi ani yklerde voltaj ker ve
yk kalkmadan alternatr voltaj istenilen deere kaldramaz.
Voltaj reglatr fazlar lerek voltaj sabit tutar. Voltaj reglatrnn en etkin ekilde almas iin reglatrn 3 fazn
kontroln yaparak voltaj ayar yapmaldr. Sadece tek faza bal voltaj reglatrlerinde dier fazlardaki art veya dengesiz yk
hissedilemez.
Bir alternatrn gc iki ekilde ifade edilir. 1. Devaml g: Alternatrn tam ykte, devaml, kesintisiz almaya msait olmas
2. Standby g: Alternatrn belli bir sure altrldktan sonra dinlendirilerek soumaya braklmas, souyan alternatrn
tekrar altrlmas ile elde edilen g. Standby g devaml gcn yaklak 1.1 katdr. rnek olarak; Devaml gc 100 KVA
olan alternatrn standby gc 110KVA olarak ifade edilir. Piyasada genelde Standby g verilir.
Alternatrn g tespiti yaplrken alternatr sarglarnn nominal ykte tamamen snana kadar altrlmas gerekir.
Alternatrn phi=0.8 ykte tamamen snmas iin en az drt saat altrlmaldr. Bir alternatr yarm saat %150 ykte
altrlabilir. Yani 100KVA lk bir alternatr 150kVA'lk yk ile yarm saat altrlmas alternatrn 150kVA olaca anlamna

gelmez. Yarm saatten fazla altnda alternatr ok fazla snacak veya sarglar yanacaktr. Alternatrn gerek gc en
scak olduu durumda yani en az drt saat altktan sonra kendini gsterir.

Otomobil Alternatrleri[deitir | kayna deitir]

Otomobillerde kullanlan alternatrler aracn motoru alyorken aky arj eder ve dier tm elektrik sistemlerine enerji salar.
Alternatrler, doru akm elde etmek iin gereken eviriciye sahip olmadklarndan doru akm retelerine gre daha basit, hafif
ve dayankldrlar. Bu dayanklklar sayesinde daha yksek hzlarda alabilirler, bylece otomobillerdeki altenatrler motor
hznn iki kat hzda dnebilir, bu da alternatrn rlantideki k gcn artrr. 1960'lardan sonra yar iletken diyotlarn ucuza
bulunabilmesi ile birlikte otomobil reticileri doru akm reteleri yerine alternatrleri kullanmaya baladlar. Otomobil
alternatrleri alternatif akm doru akma evirmek iin akm dzelticileri kullanrlar. Dalgalanmalar dk seviyede tutmak iin
otomobil alternatrlerinde 3 fazl sarg kullanlmaktadr.

How does an Alternator work ?

| | Electrical Machines
Alternators are the workhorse of the power generation industry.It is capable to generate AC
power at a specified frequency. They are also referred as Synchronous generators. This video
gives a detailed and illustrative introduction on working of alternators.
Detailed webpage version of of the video is given below.

The Basic Principe

Electricity is produced in alternators by electromagnetic induction. To generate
electricity in a coil either the coil should rotate with respect to a magnetic field or a
magnetic field should rotate with respect to the coil.

Fig.1 Two methods to produce electricity: Rotating coil and Rotating magnetic field concept

In the case of alternators the latter approach is used. The reason behind rotating magnetic
filed approach will be discussed in coming sessions.

Main Parts and Working

Rotor and Armature coils are the 2 main parts of an alternator. Rotor produces a
rotating magnetic field. Armature coils are stationary and rotating magnetic flux
associated with the rotor induces electricity in the armature coils.

Fig.2 Rotor and Armature coils are the 2 main parts of an alternature

The kind of rotor shown here is known as Salient pole rotor. For gaining better insight of its
working lets consider a rotor with just 4 poles. Rotor coils are excited with a DC power source.
Magnetic field produced around it would be as shown.

Fig.3 A 4 pole salient pole rotor and magnetic filed produced around it when excited by a D.C power supply

The rotor is made to rotate by a prime mover. This makes the rotor flux also rotate along with
it, at the same speed.
Such revolving magnetic flux now intersects the armature coils, which is fitted around
the rotor. This will generate an alternating E.M.F across the winding.

Fig.4 When rotor is made to rotate electricity gets induced in armature coils

Frequency of Induced E.M.F

Since 4 pole rotor has got 2 pairs of N-S pole, when the rotor turns a half revolution
the induced E.M.F takes one complete cycle. So it is clear that frequency of the
induced E.M.F is directly proportional to the number of poles and rotor speed. It can

be easily established that frequency of induced E.M.F f(Hz), rotor speed N(rpm) and
number of poles Pare connected through the following relationship.

It is clear from this relationship that, frequency of electricity produced is synchronized with
mechanical rotational speed.

Production of 3 Phase Electricity

For producing 3 phase A.C current, 2 more such armature coils which are in 120
degree phase difference with the first is put in the stator winding.

Fig.5 For producing 3 phase electricity 2 more armature wingdings which are 120 degree apart from the first is introduced

Generally one end of these 3 coils are star connected and 3 phase electricity is drawn from the
other ends. Neutral cable can be drawn from the star connected end.

When to use a Salient pole rotor ?

It is clear from the equation above that in order to produce 60 Hz electricity a 4 pole
rotor should run at following a speed of 1800 RPM. Such huge RPM will induce a
tremendous centrifugal force on poles of the rotor and it may fail mechanically
overtime.

Fig.6 Rotors with less number of poles require high RPM, this in turn induces huge centrifugal force on poles of the rotor

So salient pole rotors are generally having 10-40 poles; which demands lower rpm. Or salient
pole rotors are used when the prime mover rotates at relatively lower speed (120 - 400 RPM),
such as water turbines and I.C engines.

Pole core & Stator core

Pole core is used to effectively transfer magnetic flux and they are made with fairly
thick steel lamina. Such insulated lamina reduces energy loss due to eddy current
formation. At the stator side also core lamina are used to enhance the magnetic flux
transfer.

Fig.7 Pole and stator core enhances magnetic flux transfer and they are made of laminated steel lamina

Self Excited Generator

DC current is supplied to rotor via a pair of slip rings. This is the reason why rotating
magnetic field approach is used in alternator. If rotating coil method were used, slip
rings have to fitted along with the armature coils in order to collect electricity. But

transferring such high voltage electricity via slip ring is rather impractical. It is quite
possible to transfer low voltage DC excitation current via slip rings.
This DC current is supplied either from an external source or from a small DC
generator which is fitted on the same prime mover. Such alternators are called self
excited.

Fig.8 Slip rings are used to supply DC current to the rotor coil; this DC current could come from an inbuilt DC generator

With variation of load generator terminal output voltage will vary. It is desired to keep the
terminal voltage in a specified limit. An automatic voltage regulator helps in achieving this.
Voltage regulation can be easily achieved by controlling the field current. If terminal voltage is
below the desired limit AVR increases the field current, thus the field strength. This will result
in increase in terminal voltage. If terminal voltage is below the specified limit the reverse is
done.

Definition of Alternator
The definition of alternator is hidden in the name of this machine itself. An
alternator is such a machine which converts mechanical energy from a prime mover
to AC electric power at specific voltage and current. It is also known as synchronous
generator.

History of Alternator
Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii gave the very first concept of alternator.
Michael Faraday designed a rotating rectangular turn of conductor inside a magnetic
field to produce alternating current in the external static circuit. After that in the year
of 1886 J.E.H. Gordon, designed and produced first prototype of useful model. After
that Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti designed a model of 100 to 300 Hz
synchronous generator. Nikola Tesla in 1891, designed a commercially useful 15 KHz
generator. After this year, poly phase alternators came into picture which can deliver
currents of multiple phases.

Use of Alternator

The power for electrical system of modern vehicles produces from alternator. In
previous days, DC generators or dynamos were used for this purpose but after
development of alternator, the DC dynamos are replaced by more robust and light
weight alternator. Although the electrical system of motor vehicles generally requires
direct current but still an alternator along with diode rectifier instead of a DC
generator is better choice as the complicated commutation is absent here. This
special type of generator which is used in vehicle is known as automotive alternator.
Another use of alternator is in diesel electric locomotive. Actually the engine of this
locomotive is nothing but an alternator driven by diesel engine. The alternating
current produced by this generator is converted to DC by integrated silicon diode
rectifiers to feed all the dc traction motors. And these dc traction motors drive the
wheel of the locomotive.
This machine is also used in marine similar to diesel electric locomotive. The
synchronous generator used in marine is specially designed with appropriate
adaptations to the salt-water environment. The typical output level of marine
alternator is about 12 or 24 volt. In large marine, more than one units are used to
provide large power. In this marine system the power produced by alternator is first
rectified then used for charging the engine starter battery and auxiliary supply
battery of marine.

Types of Alternator
Alternators or synchronous generators can be classified in may ways depending upon
their application and design. According to application these machines are classified
as1.
Automotive type - used in modern automobile.
2.
Diesel electric locomotive type - used in diesel electric multiple unit.
3.
Marine type - used in marine.
4.
Brush less type - used in electrical power generation plant as main source of
power.
5.
Radio alternators - used for low brand radio frequency transmission.
These ac generators can be divided in many ways but we will discuss now two main
types of alternator categorized according to their design. These are1.
Salient pole type It is used as low and medium speed alternator. It has a large
number of projecting poles having their cores bolted or dovetailed onto a heavy
magnetic wheel of cast iron or steel of good magnetic quality. Such generators
are characterized by their large diameters and short axial lengths. These
generator are look like big wheel. These are mainly used for low speed turbine
such as in hydel power plant.
2.
Smooth cylindrical type It is used for steam turbine driven alternator. The
rotor of this generator rotates in very high speed. The rotor consists of a smooth
solid forged steel cylinder having a number of slots milled out at intervals along
the outer periphery for accommodation of field coils. These rotors are designed
mostly for 2 pole or 4 pole turbo generator running at 36000 rpm or 1800 rpm
respectively.

In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an
external circuit. The source of mechanical energy may vary widely from a hand crank to an internal combustion engine.
Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids.
The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators
have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable
generators.
Contents
[hide]

1Terminology

2History
o

2.1Theoretical development

2.2Direct current generators

2.3Alternating current generators

2.4Self-excitation

3Specialized types of generator

3.1Direct current

3.1.1Homopolar generator

3.1.2MHD generator
3.2Alternating current

3.2.1Induction generator

3.2.2Linear electric generator

3.2.3Variable speed constant frequency generators

4Common use cases

4.1Vehicular generators

4.1.1Roadway vehicles

4.1.2Bicycles

4.1.3Sailboats

4.2Genset

4.3Human powered electrical generators

4.4Mechanical measurement

5Equivalent circuit

6See also

7References

8External links

Terminology[edit]

Early Ganz Generator inZwevegem, West Flanders, Belgium

Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two broad categories, dynamos and alternators.

Dynamos generate direct current, usually with voltage or current fluctuations, usually through the use of a commutator

Alternators generate alternating current, which may be rectified by another (external or directly incorporated) system.

Mechanical:

Rotor: The rotating part of an electrical machine

Stator: The stationary part of an electrical machine

Electrical:

Armature: The power-producing component of an electrical machine. In a generator, alternator, or dynamo the
armature windings generate the electric current. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator.

Field: The magnetic field component of an electrical machine. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be
provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets mounted on either the rotor or the stator.

History[edit]
Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were used. They operated
on electrostatic principles. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current. They operated by using
moving electrically charged belts, plates, and disks that carried charge to a high potential electrode. The charge was generated
using either of two mechanisms: Electrostatic induction and the triboelectric effect. Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty
of insulating machines that produced very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used
for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power, even at the time of its development.

Theoretical development[edit]

The Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk
was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring
contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle.

Main article: Electromagnetism

The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 18311832 by Michael Faraday. The
principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a
varying magnetic flux.
He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc
rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.
This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions that were not under the influence of the
magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that
were outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced
waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged
around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction.
Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux.
Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output
voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying
the number of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.
Independently of Faraday, the Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting in 1827 with the electromagnetic rotating devices
which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854)
both the stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. He also may have formulated the concept of the dynamo in
1861 (before Siemens andWheatstone) but didn't patent it as he thought he wasn't the first to realize this. [1]

Direct current generators[edit]

Main article: Dynamo

This large belt-driven high-current dynamoproduced 310 amperes at 7 volts. Dynamos are no longer used due to the size and complexity of
thecommutator needed for high power applications.

The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic
induction to convert mechanical rotation into direct current through the use of a commutator. An early dynamo was built
byHippolyte Pixii in 1832.

Woolrich Electrical Generator inThinktank, Birmingham

The Woolrich Electrical Generator of 1844, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, is the earliest electrical generator
used in an industrial process.[2] It was used by the firm of Elkingtons for commercial electroplating.[3][4][5]
The modern dynamo, fit for use in industrial applications, was invented independently by Sir Charles Wheatstone, Werner von
Siemens and Samuel Alfred Varley. Varley took out a patent on 24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both
announced their discoveries on 17 January 1867, the latter delivering a paper on his discovery to the Royal Society.
The "dynamo-electric machine" employed self-powering electromagnetic field coils rather than permanent magnets to create the
stator field.[6] Wheatstone's design was similar to Siemens', with the difference that in the Siemens design the stator
electromagnets were in series with the rotor, but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel.[7] The use of electromagnets
rather than permanent magnets greatly increased the power output of a dynamo and enabled high power generation for the first
time. This invention led directly to the first major industrial uses of electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used
electromagnetic dynamos to power electric arc furnaces for the production of metals and other materials.

The dynamo machine that was developed consisted of a stationary structure, which provides the magnetic field, and a set of
rotating windings which turn within that field. On larger machines the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more
electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.
Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of alternating current for power
distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very large direct-current dynamos were the only means of power generation and
distribution. AC has come to dominate due to the ability of AC to be easily transformed to and from very high voltages to permit
low losses over large distances.

Alternating current generators[edit]

Main article: Alternator
Ferranti alternating current generator, c. 1900.

Through a series of discoveries, the dynamo was succeeded by many later inventions, especially the AC alternator, which was
capable of generating alternating current.
Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from Michael Faraday's original discovery of the magnetic
induction of electric current. Faraday himself built an early alternator. His machine was a "rotating rectangle", whose operation
was heteropolar - each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite
directions.[8]
Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. The first public
demonstration of an "alternator system" was given by William Stanley, Jr., an employee of Westinghouse Electric in 1886.[9]
Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti established Ferranti, Thompson and Ince in 1882, to market his Ferranti-Thompson Alternator,
invented with the help of renowned physicist Lord Kelvin.[10] His early alternators produced frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz.
Ferranti went on to design the Deptford Power Station for the London Electric Supply Corporation in 1887 using an alternating
current system. On its completion in 1891, it was the first truly modern power station, supplying high-voltage AC power that was
then "stepped down" for consumer use on each street. This basic system remains in use today around the world.

A small early 1900s 75 kVAdirect-driven power station AC alternator, with a separate belt-driven exciter generator.

After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases. [11]Later alternators were
designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting,
incandescent lighting and electric motors.[12]

Self-excitation[edit]
Main article: Excitation (magnetic)
As the requirements for larger scale power generation increased, a new limitation rose: the magnetic fields available from
permanent magnets. Diverting a small amount of the power generated by the generator to an electromagnetic field coilallowed
the generator to produce substantially more power. This concept was dubbed self-excitation.
The field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding. When the generator first starts to turn, the small
amount of remanent magnetism present in the iron core provides a magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in
the armature. This flows through the field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which generates a larger armature current. This
"bootstrap" process continues until the magnetic field in the core levels off due to saturation and the generator reaches a steady
state power output.
Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field coils of the larger. In the event
of a severe widespread power outage whereislanding of power stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a black
start to excite the fields of their largest generators, in order to restore customer power service.[13]

Specialized types of generator[edit]

Direct current[edit]
Homopolar generator[edit]
Main article: Homopolar generator
A homopolar generator is a DC electrical generator comprising an electrically conductive disc or cylinder rotating in a plane
perpendicular to a uniform static magnetic field. A potential difference is created between the center of the disc and the rim (or
ends of the cylinder), the electrical polarity depending on the direction of rotation and the orientation of the field.
It is also known as a unipolar generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo, or Faraday disc. The voltage is typically low, on
the order of a few volts in the case of small demonstration models, but large research generators can produce hundreds of
volts, and some systems have multiple generators in series to produce an even larger voltage.[14]They are unusual in that they
can produce tremendous electric current, some more than a million amperes, because the homopolar generator can be made to
have very low internal resistance.
MHD generator[edit]
Main article: MHD generator
A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot gases through a magnetic field, without the
use of rotating electromagnetic machinery. MHD generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD
generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a steam power plant. The first practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25,
developed in 1965. The U.S. government funded substantial development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration plant in 1987.
In the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the MHD plant U 25 was in regular commercial operation on the Moscow
power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant rating in the world at that time. [15] MHD generators operated as
a topping cycle are currently (2007) less efficient than combined cycle gas turbines.

Alternating current[edit]
Induction generator[edit]
Main article: induction generator
Some AC motors may be used as generators, turning mechanical energy into electric current. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotor faster than the synchronous speed, giving negative slip. A regular AC asynchronous motor
usually can be used as a generator, without any internal modifications. Induction generators are useful in applications such as
minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can recover
energy with relatively simple controls.
To operate, an induction generator must be excited with a leading voltage; this is usually done by connection to an electrical
grid, or sometimes they are self-excited by using phase correcting capacitors.
Linear electric generator[edit]
Main article: Linear alternator
In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding magnet moves back and forth through a solenoid - a spool of copper
wire. An alternating current is induced in the loops of wire by Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides through.
This type of generator is used in the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used inwave power schemes.
Variable speed constant frequency generators[edit]
Many renewable energy efforts attempt to harvest natural sources of mechanical energy (wind, tides, etc.) to produce electricity.
Because these sources fluctuate in power applied, standard generators using permanent magnets and fixed windings would
deliver unregulated voltage and frequency. The overhead of regulation (whether before the generator via gear reduction or after
generation by electrical means) is high in proportion to the naturally-derived energy available.
New generator designs such as the asynchronous or induction singly-fed generator, the doubly fed generator, or the brushless
wound-rotor doubly fed generator are seeing success in variable speed constant frequency applications, such as wind
turbines or other renewable energy technologies. These systems thus offer cost, reliability and efficiency benefits in certain use
cases.

Common use cases[edit]

Vehicular generators[edit]
Roadway vehicles[edit]
Main article: Alternator (automotive)
Motor vehicles require electrical energy to power their instrumentation, keep the engine itself operating, and recharge their
batteries. Until about the 1960s motor vehicles tended to use DC generators with electromechanical regulators. Following the
historical trend above and for many of the same reasons, these have now been replaced by alternatorswith builtin rectifier circuits.
Bicycles[edit]
Bicycles require energy to power running lights and other equipment. There are two common kinds of generator in use on
bicycles: bottle dynamos which engage the bicycle's tire on an as-needed basis, and hub dynamos which are directly attached
to the bicycle's drive train. In reality, neither of these is a dynamo, properly speaking - they are small permanent-magnet
alternators.
Sailboats[edit]
Sailing boats may use a water- or wind-powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries. A small propeller, wind
turbine or impeller is connected to a low-power generator to supply currents at typical wind or cruising speeds.

Genset[edit]
Main article: Engine-generator
An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover) mounted together to form a
single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines used are usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used. And
there are even hybrid diesel-gas units, called dual-fuel units. Many different versions of engine-generators are available ranging from very small portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations. The primary advantage of engine-generators
is the ability to independently supply electricity, allowing the units to serve as backup power solutions. [16]

Human powered electrical generators[edit]

Main article: Self-powered equipment
A generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for instance, in field radio station equipment).

Protesters at Occupy Wall Streetusing bicycles connected to a motor and one-way diode to charge batteries for their electronics [17]

Human powered direct current generators are commercially available, and have been the project of some DIY enthusiasts.
Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically
used to charge batteries, and in some cases are designed with an integral inverter. An average "healthy human" can produce a
steady 75 Watts (0.1 horsepower) for a full eight hour period, while a "first class athlete" can produce approximately 298 Watts
(0.4 horsepower) for a similar period. At the end of which an undetermined period of rest and recovery will be required. At 298
Watts the average "healthy human" becomes exhausted within 10 minutes.[18] It is important to note that the power figures
referenced above are for direct human output and not the electrical power that can be generated from it. Portable radio
receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio. During the mid 20th century,

pedal powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide schooling (School of the Air), medical and other
needs in remote stations and towns.

Mechanical measurement[edit]
Designed to measure shaft speed, a tachogenerator is a device which produces an output voltage proportional to that speed.
Tachogenerators are frequently used to power tachometers to measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the
equipment they power. speed. With precise construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages
for certain ranges of shaft speeds.[citation needed]

Equivalent circuit[edit]

Equivalent circuit of generator and load.

G = generator
VG=generator open-circuit voltage
RG=generator internal resistance
VL=generator on-load voltage
RL=load resistance

An equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the diagram to the right. The generator is represented by an abstract
generatorconsisting of an ideal voltage source and an internal resistance. The generator's and parameters can be determined
by measuring the winding resistance (corrected to operating temperature), and measuring the open-circuit and loaded voltage
for a defined current load.
This is the simplest model of a generator, further elements may need to be added for an accurate representation. In particular,
inductance can be added to allow for the machine's windings and magnetic leakage flux,[19] but a full representation can become
much more complex than this.[20]

ALTERNATOR WARNING LIGHT

"What does that little red light that says ALT mean when it comes on?" Very basically, it means that either the alternator output
voltage is lower than the battery voltage, or the battery voltage is lower than the alternator output voltage. If the light gets
dimmer as you rev up the engine, then you most likely have a problem with the alternator. If it gets brighter, then the battery is
most likely bad.
That's all well and good, but just exactly what does all that mean? To get a good idea, it is first necessary to understand how an
alternator works. You don't need an engineering degree, just a basic understanding of the general principles. Figure 1, below, is
a block diagram, or a "functional" diagram, of an alternator, and its connections to the remainder of the automobile electrical
system. Following the figure is a description of the various components that make up an alternator, and a description of how
each operates to keep the battery charged in your car.

ALTERNATOR ROTOR
We'll start our tour of the alternator where it all starts in the alternator itself - at the alternator rotor. The rotor consists of a coil of
wire wrapped around an iron core. Current through the wire coil - called "field" current - produces a magnetic field around the
core. The strength of the field current determines the strength of the magnetic field. The field current is D/C, or direct current. In
other words, the current flows in one direction only, and is supplied to the wire coil by a set of brushes and slip rings. The
magnetic field produced has, as any magnet, a north and a south pole. The rotor is driven by the alternator pulley, rotating as the
engine runs, hence the name "rotor."

STATOR
Surrounding the rotor is another set of coils, three in number, called the stator. The stator is fixed to the shell of the alternator,
and does not turn. As the rotor turns within the stator windings, the magnetic field of the rotor sweeps through the stator
windings, producing an electrical current in the windings. Because of the rotation of the rotor, an alternating current is produced.
As, for example, the north pole of the magnetic field approaches one of the stator windings, there is little coupling taking place,
and a weak current is produced, As the rotation continues, the magnetic field moves to the center of the winding, where
maximum coupling takes place, and the induced current is at its peak. As the rotation continues to the point that the magnetic
field is leaving the stator winding, the induced current is small. By this time, the south pole is approaching the winding, producing
a weak current in the opposite direction. As this continues, the current produced in each winding plotted against the angle of
rotation of the rotor has the form shown in figure 2. The three stator windings are spaced inside the alternator 120 degrees
apart, producing three separate sets, or "phases," of output voltages, spaced 120 degrees apart, as shown in figure 3.

OUTPUT DIODES (BRIDGE RECTIFIER)

A/C voltage is of little use in a D/C system, such as used in an automobile, so it has to be converted to D/C before it can be
used. This conversion to D/C takes place in the BRIDGE RECTIFIER . Diodes have the property of allowing current to flow in
only one direction, while blocking current flow in the other direction. The BRIDGE RECTIFIERconsist of six diodes, one pair for
each winding. One of the pair is for the negative half cycle, and the other for the positive half cycle. As a result of this diode
rectification, the output of the alternator looks as shown in figure 4.
Surprisingly enough, the output of the alternator is not a pure D/C as one might expect, but a pulsating D/C. Because there are
three windings, each with a positive and a negative half, by the time the voltage is passed through the diodes, there are six
pulsations for each rotation of the rotor. This is close enough to D/C for most automotive components. Critical components, such
as radios, have their own internal filtering circuits to further smooth out the waveform to a purer D/C.

DIODE TRIO
The diode trio consists, as the name suggests, of three diodes, one per phase, which provides field current to the alternator
regulator. This output will be discussed in more detail later in the "field current supply" section.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The regulator has two inputs and one output. The inputs are the field current supply and the control voltage input, and the output
is the field current to the rotor. The regulator uses the control voltage input to control the amount of field current input that is
allow to pass through to the rotor winding. If the battery voltage drops, the regulator senses this, by means of the connection to
the battery, and allows more of the field current input to reach the rotor, which increases the magnetic field strength, which
ultimately increases the voltage output of the alternator. Conversely, if the battery voltage goes up, less field current goes
through the rotor windings, and the output voltage is reduced.

FIELD CURRENT SUPPLY

Field current supply is provided from two different sources - from the alternator itself, via the diode trio, and from the battery, via
the alternator warning lamp. When you first get in the car and turn the key on, the engine is not running and the alternator is not
spinning. At this time, the voltage/current source for the field current is from the battery, through the ignition switch, and through
the warning lamp. After the engine is started, and the alternator is up to speed, the output of the diode trio is fed back to the
regulator, and serves as a source of current for the field current. At this time, the alternator is self sustaining, and the battery is
no longer needed to power the automobiles electrical system WARNING!!! This is theoretical only - in actual practice, the voltage
surges resulting from disconnecting the battery can seriously damage the regulator circuitry. All alternator manufacturers
strongly advise NOT doing this! This test will not prove the functionality of the alternator anyway, as the engine may still run with
a weak alternator output.

WARNING LAMP

This brings us back full circle to the starting point - the alternator warning lamp. As can be seen from figure 5, a schematic for an
actual alternator, there is a path to ground from the field current supply input [1] to the regulator. As a result, when the key is
turned on, current flows through the warning lamp, through the resisters, transistors, and field coil, and then to ground, causing
the lamp to illuminate. Once the alternator is at full output, voltage from the diode trio, also applied to [1], equals the battery
voltage. At this time, with 12 volts on both sides, the lamp is out.
If the alternator should fail, voltage from the diode trio would drop, and once again the lamp would light from the battery voltage.
If the alternator output is only a little low, the lamp will be dimly lit. If the alternator fails completely, and the output voltage goes
to zero, the lamp will be lit at full brilliance. Conversely, if the battery should fail, and the battery voltage drops, with the output
voltage of the alternator on one side and the low battery voltage on the other, the lamp will also light.
As stated earlier, if the light grows dimmer as the engine is revved up, it is because the alternator voltage is rising with the RPM,
producing more voltage on the alternator side of the lamp. The closer the output voltage gets to the battery voltage, the dimmer
the bulb becomes. By the same way, if the light gets brighter with increasing RPM, it is because as the alternator voltage
increases, it is getting higher than the battery voltage. The higher the voltage with respect to the battery voltage, the greater the
voltage difference across the lamp, and the brighter it gets.

SUMMATION
In summary, then, we can say that field current through the rotor coils produces a magnetic field, which is coupled over to the
stator coils, producing an AC voltage. This AC voltage is converted by the output diodes into pulsating DC voltage, which
charges the battery.
The field current is supplied from either the battery, via the warning lamp, or from the diode trio. The amount of field current
allowed to pass through the regulator to the rotor, or field coil, is controlled by the voltage feedback from the battery.
And there you have it - the complete operation of an alternator in a nutshell. The next time you see the little red light, you will
know exactly what it is trying to tell you.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR, ALTERNATOR and BATTERY OPERATION

HOW IT WORKS

by Mark Hamilton

The simple explanation is provided first, as not to leave out readers who only want a
sort of overall view of how a system works, without getting too technical.
Sometimes when explaining technical concepts, its good to use parallel
comparison with a more visible and simpler working model. That is why instructors
and tutorial books often use water-plumbing systems in attempt to explain various
electrical occurrences. (We cannot really see volts, and amps, and ohms in
wires. We use meters and other equipment to check for presence and levels of
electricity, and to check up on system performance.)
In this authors many years of experience while attempting to explain
functions of the alternator, voltage regulator, battery, and electrical system power
consumption; the air compressor system has been the best parallel example by
far! That may be true because most people with at least limited experience with
cars will have worked around an air compressor. Quite possibly fewer people who
work with cars will have knowledge of hydraulic pressure differentials and pressure
loss with plumbing systems. Once again, the air compressor system will be used
with attempt to explain this part of our auto electrical system.
VOLTAGE (VOLT) is a measure of electrical pressure. In the compressed air system,
PSI (Pounds per Square Inch) is the measure of pressure.
AMPERAGE (AMP, or AMPERE) is a measure of electrical current flow. In the
compressed air system cubic feet of air is the similar measure of quantity.
OHM is the measure of resistance to electrical current flowa resistance holds back
the flow of electrical current. In the compressed air system, restriction, blockage,
reduced passage (metered orifice) are the terms most often used to describe the

same effect that resistance will have in an electrical system.

THE COMPARISON (explanation of system functions)
The battery is an electrical storage reservoir, similar in function to the air tank
for the compressed air system. (Actually, the battery does not store electricity, it
would be more correct to say; the battery stores ingredients that can produce
electricity.) Both the battery and the air tank can store a source of energy in
reserve, keeping energy available for the times we need it.
The alternator produces electrical power, which can operate devices that
perform work for us. And the compressor produces the compressed air, which can
be used as a source of power to operate tools or machinery.
The voltage regulator limits the maximum voltage in the electrical system. In
the compressed air system the pressure regulator limits the maximum
pressure. The voltage regulator will also cause the alternator to produce more
output, when voltage (pressure) at the electrical system is low. And in the
compressed air system, the pressure switch will turn on the compressor when
system pressure gets low.
Lights, ignition, and accessories use power from the electrical system. Every
time we switch an accessory ON, more power is drawn from the system. Voltage
(electrical pressure) drops as power is drawn from the system, and then the voltage
regulator causes the alternator to make more current. And in the compressed air
system an impact wrench, blowgun, paint gun, or the fitting for filling a tire, can all
use power (compressed air) from the system. When we use compressed air from
the system, PSI (air pressure) drops, and the regulator turns the compressor
ON. In the electrical system, the voltage regulator turns the alternator ON, or
turns OFF the alternator as needed to maintain voltage at the proper level. And in
the air compressor system the pressure regulator stops and starts the compressor
as needed to maintain the proper level of pressure.
The useful electrical system will require an alternator that can produce
anaverage of more output than we use, and the regulator will limit system voltage
to the safe level we need. Like most machinery, the alternator cannot stand to work
at maximum output for extended periods of time. Short bursts at maximum output
are okay, but normal operation will require alternator operation at only a part of full
output potential, most of the time. Alternators make heat as a by-product of
making electrical power, and the more power they supply the more heat they
make. Some models of alternators can stand to put out a much higher percentage
of their gross output rating than others, during extended periods of operation.
Air compressors have duty cycle ratings. The compressor also produces
heat as a by-product, and if it was called upon to run continuously while maintaining
high pressure, the compressor will burn out. Some models of air compressors will
have a greater duty cycle than others. Expect that a hobby shop model will not be
intended to run for the long time periods that a professional workshop compressor is
built for.

When the electrical system needs more power than the alternator can
produce, for a short time, then the battery is already connected to the system and
the battery will contribute the needed power. Entering into this picture is that the
alternator must spin at sufficient RPM to produce power. And there is an alternator
power output/RPM curve, where available output increases with RPM. There is also
a minimum and maximum for practical alternator RPM operating range. Alternator
RPM is somewhat adjustable by changing the ratio of the drive pulley at the
crankshaft and alternator pulley diameters. But since the engine will run slowly at
times, and rev very high at other times, there is no perfect pulley drive ratio for all
applications. The pulley drive ratio is a compromise; and whats acceptable at
maximum RPM is the deciding point. (An alternator can be damaged with excessive
RPM.) A pulley ratio that is good with 6,500 to 8,000 engine RPM on a circle track is
far from ideal with the in-line six engine in Grandmas grocery getter.
At low RPM, expect that early models of alternators often produced much less
available output than more modern designs. And with many models of old
alternators, electrical output at engine idle speed was not sufficient to support
electrical demands. But when sitting at a stoplight, the battery could assist the
alternator with support of the electrical system. And then when the light turned
green we drove away with the engine spinning the alternator fast once again. The
alternator soon replaced power used from the battery while sitting at the stop light,
no harm done. System voltage will be low, when the alternator is not keeping
up. (Voltage will be above 14 when the alternator is working, and about twelve and
falling when supported by the battery.)
Drivers of old cars were accustomed to the lights dimming at idle, or the turn
signals blinking slowerit was simply the result of low voltage when the alternator
did not keep up. The older cars could get by with less than perfect
performance. And with fewer electrical items to support, then the voltage did not
drop off so quickly. The old cars also did not have electronics that would cease to
operate at low voltage. With the duration of city traffic jams in modern times, the
many accessories on a modern car, and electronics that are sensitive to low voltage,
of course alternator output at engine idle speed had to get better. The newer
designs of alternators can produce a lot more current at low RPM, even when the
gross output rating is nearly the same with the old model.
In parallel to the electrical system, with the air compressor at marginal
capacity, there will be times when system pressure gets low. As when friends come
over to help with a project on the weekend, all armed with air tools to operate from
the small compressor in the garage. (And as with electrical systems, this didnt
likely happen back in the 1960s!) The small compressor cannot support an air
ratchet, an impact wrench, a blowgun, and a grinder with a cut-off wheel all at
once. During those times the reservoir (tank) would have to supply power
(compressed air). When average use is more than the amount produced by the
compressor, then system pressure falls low.
The electrical system behaves about the same. If the average output from
the alternator does not keep up with electrical system power use, then the battery

falls to discharged condition, and system voltage falls below acceptable level.
The table below shows about what to expect with differences in alternators
that are only one generation apart. (60s type externally regulated compared to
70s type internally regulated. About the same test results have been observed on
many occasions, when doing alternator up-grades. The same stock pulley drive
ratio was with both types of alternators. (19691972, small block 350 engine, stock
pulleys)
ALTERNATOR
COMPARRISON

Available output

Engine RPM required

at 680 RPM

for maximum

Engine idle

Available output

Externally regulated
61amp, model 10DN,

8 to 10amps

2400 to 2500 RPM

35 to 40amps

1275 to 1325 RPM

Delco alternator
Internally regulated
63amp, model 10SI
Delco alternator

One more aspect of the comparison between the electrical system and the
compressed air system, and that is PRESSURE DROP with long lines used for
delivery. In the electrical system long lengths of wire will have resistance,
amounting to a restriction of electrical power flow. And the farther down the wire
we check voltage, the lower the voltage (electrical pressure) will be. Also, with
increased current flow, the voltage drop (pressure drop) will increase. In example, if
we attempt to operate a really powerful electrical device such as a starter, through a
long, small diameter wire, then starter performance will be poor. The starter motor
will attempt to draw a large amount of current through the long, small gauge wire,
and voltage will be weak at the starter end of the wire. In another example, if wires
from a headlight switch all the way out to the front of the car are thin in gauge size
diameter, then voltage to the lights will be low resulting with dim lights.
The same can happen with compressed air systems. In younger years, there
were occasions where working with air tools at low pressure was a constant
irritation. Imagine an old building, with a large compressor at the far end of a long
building. Back in the 1940s compressed air was mainly used to air-up tires, but not
to provide service for busy mechanics wielding air ratchets and impact
wrenches. The building was equipped with very old, small diameter steel tubing for
the compressed air service. In that facility, the mechanic farthest away from the
compressor did not receive air at full pressure. If an air ratchet or tool requiring a
large volume of air was used, then the tool was down on power. Larger diameter
tubing would have really improved performance of the air tools. Especially so when
other mechanics closer to the compressor were using air before it gets to the end of

the line.
The situation with the long, small diameter tubing, for compressed air, had
the same effect as with a long small wire used to operate many powerful
accessories. The accessory farthest down the wire will receive power at low voltage
(pressure) level. Larger wire diameter will improve performance by delivering power
at higher voltage (pressure.) Or Use a system design providing a shorter length
wire, which also will improve performance.
And now for those who enjoy the technical aspects of how things work, here is a
more detailed explanation of system operation with the

ALTERNATOR, VOLTAGE REGULATOR and

BATTERY.

The alternator will generate power to operate the electrical system plus keep
the battery charged. The purpose of the voltage regulator is to regulate the amount
of power output from the alternator. (Of course! What else do regulators do?
Ha!) The voltage regulator will allow the alternator to make enough power to
maintain proper voltage level, but not allow system voltage to rise to a harmful
level.
With regulators for the alternator system, voltage limiting is the means of
controlling output. (The older generator systems had a voltage limiter and also a
current limiter, plus a cut-out relay that disconnected the system when the engine
stopped.) If the alternator was allowed to constantly produce all the power it could,
system voltage would rise to a damaging level, the battery would overcharge,
components would be damaged, and the alternator would soon overheat and burn
out.
With a 100amp alternator installed, we do not drive around with the
alternator constantly producing 100amps. When driving a simple car, in example a
66 Chevelle, with no accessories switched on, stock ignition, and the battery topped
off with a charge, the alternator produces only about 3amps to 5amps of
current! (No matter how powerful the alternator, output is limited according to
system demands.)
And, in case you are wondering, the amount of horsepower used to spin the
alternator changes with output. When the alternators produce only a small amount
of current, the horsepower drag is very small (less than 1/3 amp). Large amount of
output causes more horsepower drag (about 3 or 4 horsepower to produce 120amps
output).
REGULATOR ACTIONS
Popular textbooks tell us the ideal voltage regulator setting is 14.2 volts. A
range of about 14.0 to 14.6 volts is generally acceptable, and various shop manuals
will typically publish about that range.
When system voltage is below the setting of the voltage regulator, then the
regulator causes the alternator to produce power until voltage reaches the maximum

setting of the regulator. When we first crank up the engine, battery voltage will be
at about 12.5 or 12.6 volts. The regulator recognizes low voltage, and causes the
alternator to produce power. Also when driving, every time we switch an accessory
ON, power is used from the system, voltage is lowered, and the regulator restores
voltage by causing the alternator to make more power. This action automatically
allows the alternator to provide power for the electrical system.
The system does not need as much power output from the alternator when
accessories are not using power, and when the battery is fully charged. When
voltage at the system rises to about 14.2 volts, the voltage regulator begins limiting
alternator output. When we switch an accessory OFF, use of power from the system
is less, voltage quickly rises, and then the regulator will cause the alternator to
make less power.
Adjustment of alternator output, by the voltage regulator, happens so quickly
that when using a meter to test the system, we see function as smooth and
constant. Even the old points type mechanical regulators could open and close the
points over 200 times per second! Electronic voltage regulators have replaced the
old vibrating point type regulator, and electronic regulators react even faster. With a
modern electronic voltage regulator, voltage at the system will be very consistent.
The battery serves as a big cushion in the system, which also smoothes out
voltage level. The battery will provide momentary surges of power, which are
needed when devices are switched ON. The battery also can absorb momentary
excess of power in the system as devices are switched OFF. The battery prevents
major and sudden voltage changes in the system.
THE METHOD USED TO ADJUST ALTERNATOR OUTPUT
The voltage regulator adjusts alternator output by controlling the amount of
power it will send to the magnetic field winding in the alternator. (Alternators work
through the use of magnets.) More power delivered to the magnetic field winding in
the alternator will produce a stronger magnetic field, which causes the alternator to
produce more power output. Alternator output is reduced when the voltage
regulator delivers less power to the magnetic field winding in the alternator, as the
strength of the magnetic field will be reduced.
WHY 14.2VOLTS, BUT WE CALL IT A 12 VOLT SYSTEM?
The 14.2volt level is said to be the ideal voltage level for the 12volt
automotive system because thats the amount required to fully charge a standard
twelve-volt battery. By itself, without a battery charger, and without cables
connected, a typical, fully charged 12volt battery produces 12.6 volts. The on
board charging system must exceed the 12.6 level for electrical current to flow
through the battery during charging. Electrical current must flow through the battery
during charging to cause chemical reaction between the liquid acid and the lead
plates within the battery. The 14.2volt level causes about the correct amount of
current flow through the battery to maintain a fully charged condition. Extended
periods with higher than 14.2volt level will over-charge the battery (at most

temperatures).

BATTERY CONSTRUCTION and Operating Functions

(The battery interacts with the charging system.)
There are positive and negative metal plates within the battery, each made of
different materials, and with insulators between the plates. Liquid acid within the
battery (sulfuric acid) is in contact with the plates, and the acid will chemically react
with material at the plates to produce electrical power. When the battery is called
upon to produce power, as with engine starting, the chemical reaction activity is
greatly increased. When the battery is stored, very little chemical reaction takes
place, however the elements are waiting in reserve and available for use at any
time.
The battery must produce current for engine starting, and the battery may
also be called upon to supply power at times when the alternator cannot keep up
with electrical system power use. When we connect an electrical device to the
battery, chemical reaction takes place to deliver electrical power. Throughout these
periods when the battery must supply electrical power, the battery is being
discharged.
During discharge of the battery, chemical reaction will produce electrical
power. And the chemical reaction between the acid and the plates will convert
material at the surface of the plates to a new compound. And as the chemical
reaction changes the composition of materials in the battery during discharge,
material at the positive and negative plates will eventually become the same. When
sufficient material at the plates has been converted to the same material at the
positive and negative plates, the assembly can no longer produce adequate
power. Then the battery is considered discharged.
Chemical reaction takes apart existing material, and reassembles the
original ingredients to form a new material. The basic ingredients will all still be in
the new material, but after the chemical reaction has taken place, the new material
will be a different compound. (It happens with manufacturing of plastics and
polymers and many things that we use and enjoy.)
By applying energy to the new material, at least some chemical reactions can
be reversed, and the new material will be converted back to its original form. This
reverse operation is exactly what happens when recharging a battery. When
recharging a battery, we apply electrical current (energy), in reverse direction, which
will cause the chemical reaction needed to change materials in the battery back to
their original form. (Back to different materials at the positive and negative plates.)
BATTERY CHARGING
With recharge, chemical reaction changes compounds at the positive and
negative metal plates back to their original material. Electrical current will flow
through the metal plates in reverse direction during charging, which causes a
reverse chemical reaction (compared to discharge). When the battery becomes

charged, the compounds at the positive and negative plates in the battery will once
again be different. With material at the plates restored back to original compounds,
the battery is again able to deliver electrical power.
To recharge the battery, we apply electrical power to the battery. The
amount of activity with chemical reaction during battery charging will change
according to the amount of electrical current flow through the battery. With voltage
at proper level, the battery will only accept the amount of current required for
reasonable activity with the chemical reaction.
To little current flow will not cause enough activity with the chemical reaction
to completely charge the battery. We need sufficient activity with the chemical
reaction to change the compounds at the plates back to their original material. Lack
of sufficient activity with the chemical reaction resulting from too little current flow
may be termed as an under-charge condition.
The speed of activity with the chemical reaction during recharge is of great
concern! The amount of activity is controlled by the amount of current flow during
recharge.
Excessive current flow during battery charging may be termed an overcharge conditionthe excessive current flow causes too much activity with the
chemical reaction. The amount of activity with the chemical reaction must be
precisely controlled, and the perfect charge rate is a thin line. Its a situation where
too much charge rate is damaging, but with not enough current flow the battery
performance will deteriorate.
It turns out that during charging, the amount of current flow through the
battery can be adjusted by regulating the level of voltage as electrical power is
applied to the battery. When electrical current is supplied to the battery at proper
voltage level, the battery only accepts the amount of current flow it wants. And its
current flow during charging that will adjust the rate of chemical reaction activity
within the battery. The operation is summed up as charge rate.

In summary of charge rate, voltage level will adjust the amount of

current flow, and the amount of current flow will affect the rate of the chemical
reaction. And so with the alternator system serving as the onboard battery charger,
the regulator will control voltage, and the rest will follow.
Its all quite simple, however, the ideal amount of charge rate will change
with conditions. (There is always something to complicate matters! Ha!) Battery
state-of-charge condition, temperature, and the duration of the charge (either long
drives or short drives), are all factors that will determine the ideal charge rate. The
discharged battery does not produce as much voltage as the fully charged
battery. When charging a low battery, the discharged battery will accept a large
amount of current flow, ifpower is delivered at the full 14.2volt level. Ideally, the
voltage level would be slightly reduced when a battery is accepting peak amount of
current during recharge. Current flow would then be optimized, which will cause the
correct rate of chemical reaction. Then charge rate could remain optimized if voltage
could be slightly increased as the battery regains charge. Eventually voltage must

be limited as the battery becomes fully charged, and then very little current flow
through the battery is required.
When primary conditions are short drives in extreme cold weather, the
charge rate should be increased. Internal resistance at the battery will change with
extreme cold. This and other effects of the cold will contribute to slower charge
rates in cold temperatures. Short drives with a slow charge rate may not allow the
battery to reach a fully charged condition in extreme cold. The ideal voltage
regulator setting should be slightly higher for this type of usage.
The author has lived in cold climates, and also where it is hot much of the
year. The hot weather is hard on batteries! In the hot climates, batteries typically
have a much shorter life. Also expect to find more corrosion at the battery area with
hot weather conditions (because the warm battery accepts current at a higher
charge rate).
The voltage level must be precisely controlled during charging to prevent
excessive current flow. Excessive current flow can damage the battery. Excessive
current flow is less efficient because compounds at the surface of the plates will not
have time to disperse. Also excessive amount of corrosive and very explosive gas
will be produced with over-charge rates. And excessive charge rate heats the
battery, which changes internal resistance of the battery.
Especially with sealed batteries, over charging will destroy usefulness of the
battery! H2O (water) is one of the compounds formed with the chemical reaction
during battery charging. Many of the so-called sealed batteries are actually vented
to surrounding atmosphere, at least one very popular model of battery has a
pressure relief valve for venting. The valve allows this popular model of battery to
be mounted in various positions. However, these battery are sealed with regard to
access for adding water. When these sealed batteries are charged at a high rate,
water and vapors will escape from the vents. And we do not have opportunity to
add more water to this type of battery, when the liquid level becomes low. When we
allow high rate charging, the sealed battery can loose liquid that we cannot
replace!
Also, when charging these sealed batteries with pressure relief valve at a
rate high enough to cause the valve to release; expect severe corrosion problems at
the battery area resulting from corrosive liquid and vapors that will spew from the
relief. Unfortunately, the author has seen a few cars where this unpleasant
experience has occurred. (Every case was with expensive, high end, occasionally
driven cars. And in every case the car was also equipped with a high output ONEWIRE alternator, which was connected directly to the battery with a heavy cable.)
VOLTAGE REGULATOR LIMITING
Most important of all, when a battery reaches fully charged condition, then
voltage must be precisely controlled, as forcing a charge by allowing voltage to rise
above ideal level will result with all the previous mentioned problems. (That applies
to all batteries.) And with extended periods of driving, all of the previous mentioned
problems will happen for longer time duration. Corrosive vapors emitted from the

battery during charging settle upon everything near the battery, resulting with
severe corrosion at the battery area. (And I hate when that happens with a nice
Hot Rod! Ha!)
Undercharge causes short battery life, and poor performance from the
battery. During charging the chemical reaction cleans the surface of the lead plates
within the battery. But insufficient charge rate (undercharging) allows a crust of
lead sulfate compound to accumulate on the surface of the plates. (This happens
even more so when storing batteries in a discharged condition.) The crust will block
access of the acid to the active materials in the lead plates, and the crust also
changes internal resistance at the battery. With too much crust build up the battery
will no longer be serviceable.
Its a thin line between not enough voltage at under charge and too much
voltage at overcharge. And ideal voltage level is different with various conditions. A
good voltage regulator is a precisely operating piece of equipment! (And the author
prefers and uses exclusively genuine Delco voltage regulators. The genuine item is
more costly than some others, but it has a lot more electronics within. The Delco
regulator is temperature compensating, it does an excellent job of trimming off
charge rate, it has built-in back-up circuits, and voltage limiting is precise. Batteries
last longer, and expect less corrosion problems when using the Delco regulators.)
12VOLT ELECTRICAL PARTS ARE ACTUALLY 14VOLT PARTS!
With most applications, the battery likes about 14.2 volts from the alternator
and voltage regulator system, when driving. Since the system must operate at
about 14volts, electrical parts are designed for best performance and longest life
when operating at about 14 volts. The parts can generally withstand 15volts (or
more), although sometimes parts run hot or dont last as long at stress level
voltages.
PERFORMANCE
Although we always aim for the best, we are always likely to loose at least a
small amount of voltage with long wiring circuits. What really puts the hurt on
performance is low voltage. It turns out that with voltage about 10% low,
performance may be down by over 30%. Electric motors, lights, ignition coils, and
various parts will all behave differently, but its great when we connect the voltmeter
with the part powered-up and running, and find about 14volts at the part.
Voltage drop at wiring will only occur during current flow, therefore testing
must be done with the part connected, powered-up, and operating. In example,
unplugging a wire connector at a part, and then reading voltage at the wire harness
connector is not a valid test of circuit performance.
The voltage test while a system is operating is the industry standard
electrical performance test. Its also very simple to do an approximate performance
comparison of parts running at low voltage to parts running at full voltage, using
only an ordinary car. In darkness, with the engine running and headlights ON,
switch the ignition OFF while the headlights are left ON. Notice that the lights dim

considerably when the engine stops, as the alternator will also be stopped and
voltage drops about 10%. Or with radiator fans running, switch the ignition OFF and
notice the fans slow down.
The significance of engine running and engine stopped, is that when the
engine is running the alternator will have opportunity to maintain the system at
about 14.2volts. But with the engine stopped the battery will deliver power at about
12volts. This simple comparison with engine running and engine stopped serves to
give us a general feel for the loss of performance we can expect with parts operating
at slightly low voltage. In general, voltage drop at the wiring, with delivery of power
to parts, is the enemy to overcome.
THE WRENCH IN THE WORKS!
It all seems so simple just to use a quality voltage regulator built by a major
company that has the overall picture all scienced out. And install an alternator
with more than enough power rating to handle all the electrical loads on the car. But
in the world of automotive wiring, voltage drop resulting from long lengths of wire
often prevents delivering power at full voltage level to all parts of the system. And
especially with our older cars, as with favorites from the Muscle Car period, voltage
drop in wiring is a lot worse than most people would guess. The problem
often exists with design of the system, not with age and deterioration of the
wiring. It happened when these cars were new, and it happens when a new factory
harness with the same original design is installed.
So if voltage throughout the system is not the same at all points, then we
have a major problem with attempt to use the voltage regulator to optimize
performance! The voltage drop only occurs with current flow. Large amounts of
current flow through a wire will result with large amounts of voltage drop. If current
flow through a wire is reduced, then resulting voltage drop will also be reduced.
If we wire the voltage regulator to read and make adjustments to the lowest
part of the system, then the highest part of the system might be dangerously
high. It would be safer and in better judgment to wire the voltage regulator to the
highest part of the system, but then low voltage will cause poor performance at
some systems, and the battery might not even charge properly.
The best option will be to work with design of the wiring layout,
when making improvements to electrical systems! (The improvements
include more powerful alternators, and modern accessories to make good use of the
electrical power.)

THE BEST PLAN

The best plan for most systems is to route alternator power output to a
central power distribution hub. Then send power from the hub to various parts of
the electrical system, and wire the voltage regulator to maintain voltage at
the main distribution hub. The idea is very good, but cannot be claimed by the

author as an original. It happens that Chevy did a very good example of this
design with 63 through 71 models. And the Chevy engineers did it well! Its also a
system that we must be aware of when installing more powerful alternators and
when installing wiring to power-up new accessories.
See more about this design and function in our Tech Section feature on
REMOTE VOLTAGE SENSING, and also in our feature on THE CHEVY MAIN
ELECTRICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. Also see more about how severe
voltage drop actually is with original wiring in our feature on BRIGHTER
HEADLIGHTS.