Mechanics of Material-III

Lab Report

Submitted To:
Sir. Azhar Anwar
Submitted By:

Roll No.:

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1

Experiment No: 01
Objective:
Determine deflection of the cantilever bar at the point of application of force and compares it
with the result of the mathematical calculation.

Apparatus:
Deformation of straight beams.

Theory:
Cantilever Bar:
It is bar in which one side of the bar is fixed and the other side free. This is known as a
Tri-valent support which transmits normal force, transverse force and moment.
The equation for the deflection f of the bar at the point of application of force is:
=

Deflection is proportional to the load F and inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity E and planar
moment of inertia (PMI) Iy. The length of the bar is cubed. The influence of the length L should be
demonstrated in this experiment.

Calculated Deflection of the cantilever bar according to Length

For this purpose, the force should be constant. The experimental bar is made of steel (modulus of elasticity E
= 210000 N/ 2) and has a cross-section of 20 x 6 2.
= .

3
203
= 6 = 3604
12
12

This produces a PMI of with these values and a load of 17.5 N (suspender 2.5N + 3 weights 5N), the following
deflection values are achieved:
Deflection of the cantilever bar according to length.
Length L in mm.
Deflection f in mm
300
400
500

Performing the Experiment:

The following is Equipment required:

Steel bar 6 20 1000

Rider for weight
Suspender for weights
3 weights of 5N
Dial gauge with holder
Support pillar with clamp

Procedure:
Fasten the support pillar to the frame.
Clamp the bar in the support pillar.
Place the rider on the bar and lock in the required position.
Fasten the dial gauge to the frame with the holder in such a way that the tracer pin is touching the
flattened part of the rider bolt.
Set the dial gauge to zero with the bar unloaded. To do so, adjust the holder and rotate the scale for
precise adjustment.
Suspend the load weight, read the deflection on the dial gauge and record.

The following table compares the results of the experiment with the results of the mathematical calculation:
Comparison Table:
Comparison between measured and calculated
deflection.
Length L in mm Measured
Calculated
deflection in mm deflection in mm
300
400
500

Calculations:

Conclusion:

Experiment No: 02
Objective:
To Measure the elastic line of a cantilever bar and compare it with result of the mathematical calculation.

Apparatus:
Deformation of Straight Beams.

Theory:
The equation for the elastic line of a cantilever bar loaded with a single force is as follows for the loaded
section II with 0 x2 a.
3
3 2 23
( 2) =
[2
+ 3]
6

In the unloaded section I between the point of application of the force and the free end, the deflection is a
linear function of the length and the inclination in the point of application of force.
This is not bending, but slanting
w(x) =w(b)+(b-x)
Where,
Fa 3

w (b) =3EI

and

=2

Calculated deflection in Elastic line of cantilever bar:

For a load of F = 17.5 N where a = 500 mm, the following deflection values are achieved:
Elastic line of a cantilever bar
x in mm
Deflection f in mm
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800

Procedure:
The load remains constant and is applied at a= 500 mm. The deflection of the bar is measured at intervals of
100 mm with the dial gauge

Relieve the bar.

Apply the dial gauge at the required position and set to zero.
Load the bar.
Read the deflection value and record.
Relieve the bar and move the dial gauge to the next position.

Comparison Table:
x in mm

Elastic line of cantilever bar

Measured deflection Calculated deflection
in mm
in mm

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700

Calculations:

Conclusion:

Experiment: 03
Objective:
Determines the supporting forces for a bar depending on the point of application of the load x.

Apparatus:
Deformation of the Straight beams.

Theory:
The supporting forces A and B can be determined via balances of moments.

Balance of moments around support B:

= 0 = ( )

Supporting force A:

= ( 1 )

Balance of moments around support A:

= 0 =

Supporting force B:
=

Performing the Experiment:

The Following equipment is required:

Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm.

Rider for weight.
Suspender for weights.
3 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N.
2 articulated supports with dynamometer.

The load of 20 N is applied in the Centre at x=500.

Procedure:

Fasten the articulated supports at a distance of 1000 mm.

Push the rider for the weight suspender onto the bar and place the bar on the supports.
Loosen the locking screw on the support.
Adjust the height of the support using the rotary knob until the bar is horizontal.
Re-secure the support using the locking screw.
Set the scale on the dynamometer to zero by twisting.
Suspend the weight and load the bar.
Read the supporting forces on the dynamometers and record.

The measured supporting forces are very consistent with the calculated values.
Measured supporting forced at a load of F= 20 N
(values for one half only; the other half is symmetrical)
Distance
x
from Support force a in N
Support force B in N
support A in mm
0
100
200
300
400
500(Centre)

Calculations:

Conclusion:

10

Experiment: 04
Objective:
To Measures the elastic line of a bar on two supports and compares it with the mathematically calculated
result.

Apparatus:
Deformation of Straight Beams.

Theory:
The equation for the elastic line of a bar loaded in the Centre with a single force is as follows for the
section between the left-hand support and the load with 0 x L/2.

( ) =

3
[3 4 3 ]
48

The section between the load and the right-hand support is symmetrical to this.

11

The maximum deflection is at the Centre of the bar where x = L/2 directly beneath the load.
=

3
48

Calculated Deflection w(x) in mm:

The following deflection values are achieved for a 1000 mm long bar with a load of F = 20 N at x =500 mm:
Elastic line of a bar on two supports.
(only one half; the other half is symmetrical)
X in mm
Deflection w in mm
0
100
200
300
400
500(Centre of bar)

Performing the experiment:

The following equipment is required:

Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm.

Rider for weight.
Suspender for weights.
3 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N.
2 articulated supports with dynamometer.
3 dial gauges with holder.

The load remains constant and is applied in the Centre at x= 500 mm.

Procedure:
The deflection of the bar is measured with the dial gauge at intervals of 100 mm. Two dial gauges on the
supports measure the deflection due to the dynamometer.
Relieve the bar.
Loosen the locking screw on the support.
Adjust the height of the support using the rotary knob until the dial gauges read zero.
Fasten the supports using the locking screw.
Place the dial gauge in the required position and set to zero.
Load the bar.
The dynamometers experience spring excursion under load. In order to prevent measurement errors as a result
of this additional deflection f, the supports should be returned to their original position.

12

Loosen the locking screw on the support.

Raise the support using the rotary knob until the dial gauges read zero.
Fasten the support using the locking screw.
Read the deflection value from the dial gauge and record.
Relieve the bar, move the dial gauge to the next position, and repeat the measurement.

Comparison Table:
X in mm

Elastic line of a bar on two supports

Measured deflection w(x)
Calculated deflection
in mm
w(x) in mm

0
100
200
300
400
500

Calculations:

Conclusion:

13

Experiment No: 05
Objective:
Determine the Maxwell-Bettis influence coefficients for bar on two supports.

Apparatus:
Deformation of straight Beams.

Theory:
Influence coefficients link the deflection at a certain point in the bar to the loading of the bar. In general, the
deflection for a point can be specified as the function of n forces as follows:

=1

This experiment is only intended to examine the effect of a force on points

points and .

and on the deflection at

1 = 111

1 = 122

2 = 211

2 = 222

14

According to the Maxwell-Betti transposition law, deflection at point x1 as a result of the force on point x2
is just as large as the deflection at point x2 caused by an identical force on point x1. This correlation is
described by the following formula
1 = 122 = 2 = 211
21 = 12

In general, according to Maxwell-Betti, the following applies,

=
The two influence coefficients 11 and 22 indicate the deflection at the point of force.

Performing the experiment:

The following equipment is required:

Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm.

Rider for weight.
Suspender for weights.
3 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N.
2 articulated supports with dynamometer.
3 dial gauges with holder.

Procedure:
The distance between the supports is 1000 mm. The load of 20 N remains constant and is applied at 1= 300
mm and 2 = 600 mm.
The deflection of the bar at points 1 and 2 is measured with the dial gauge.
Two dial gauges on the supports measure the deflection caused by the dynamometers and serve to compensate
it. The procedure is the same as described in the previous experiment.
Load the bar at point 1 and measure the deflection at 1 and 2.
Load the bar at 2 and measure the deflection at 1 and 2.
Result Table:
Influence coefficients for bars on two
Deflection at
point in mm

Force at point
in mm

1 = 300

1 = 300

1 = 300

2 = 600

2 = 600

1 = 300

2 = 600

2 = 600

Deflection w in
mm

Influence
coefficient in
mm/N

15

Calculations:

Conclusion:

16

Experiment No: 06
Objective:
To calculate the supporting forces of the bar by using Superposition principle.

Apparatus:
Deformation of Straight Beams apparatus.

Theory:
Superposition Principle:
It states that the sum of all deformations caused by individual loads corresponds
to the deformation caused by a combined load from the individual loads.

In order to determine the unknown supporting force, the total deformation at the front end of the bar must be
zero. Consequently, the deformation induced by supporting force A must be just as large as but opposite to
the one induced by the load F.

17

The deformation at the end of the bar caused by the load F is:
= () + =

3 ( ) 2
+
3
2

The deformation at the end of the bar due to supporting force A is calculated as follows:
3
=
3
The sum both deformation must be zero:
3 ( ) 2 3
+ = 0 =
+

3
2
3

Calculated unknown Supporting force A:

Solving the equation with respect to the unknown supporting force produces:
=

(3 2 3)
23

With a load of F= 15 N, a length L= 800 mm and a distance a= 500 mm, this produces the following for the
unknown supporting force A:
=

15
2
(3 800 500
5003) = 6.96
3
2 800

Performing the Experiment:

The following equipment is required:

Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm.

Rider for weight.
Suspender for weights.
2 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N.
Articulated support with dynamometer.
Support pillar with clamp.
Dial gauge with holder.

The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram.

18

The articulated support has a distance of 800 mm from the clamp, and the load 500 mm from the clamp. The
dial gauge is positioned above the articulated support.

Procedure:
Twist the articulated support downwards. The
distance between the unloaded end and the
support should be at least 25 mm.
Whilst unloaded, set the dial gauge at the end of
the bar to zero.
Load the bar with 15 N. The bar will deflect
downwards at the end by = 16.2 mm.

Twist the support upwards to compensate the

deflection by load. The dial gauge should return to
zero. The dynamometer will now display the
supporting force.

Reading produces a supporting force of 6.7 N.

Conclusion:

19

Experiment No: 07
Objective:
To show the linearity of the strain gauges by using Thick Cylinder.

Apparatus:
The Thick Cylinder.

Theory:
Thick Cylinder:
It is a thick-walled aluminum alloy cylinder. The cylinder sits inside a sturdy frame, on the
top of steel box. The steel box contains electrical equipment that works the electronic strain gauges display
and circuits that can link to TecQuipments optional Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS). VDAS will
allow data acquisition with the use of a suitable computer.

Its Main Parts:

The cylinder is made of two halves, cemented together. Before the two halves are put
together, strain gauges are fitted to face of one half and in its bore. These gauges measure the hoop, radial and
inner circumferential strains. The two halves are then cemented together and more strain gauges are fixed to
the surface of the cylinder. These gauges measure the outer circumferential and longitudinal strains. A digital
display on the front of the apparatus shows the strain measured by each gauge.

20

Strain Gauges:
The strain gauges are sensors that measure the strains in the Thick Cylinder. Their use is
important to engineers that works structures. Strain gauges are electrical sensors. Their electrical resistance
changes when an external force stretches or compresses them. This change in resistance has a direct
relationship with displacement (strain).
Strain gauges are small sheets of metal foil cut in zigzag pattern. They are only a few microns thick so they
are mounted on a backing sheet, for mechanical stability and electrical insulation. Gauges are bonded to the
surface of the part that they are stuck to.

Procedure:
Switch on the power to the Thick Cylinder and leave it for at least thirty minutes before we do the
experiment. This allow the strain gauges to reach a stable temperature and give us accurate readings.
Unscrew the pump Hand Wheel until the pressure gauge shows zero pressure.
Use the Press & hold to zero button to zero the strain gauge display readings. All the strain gauge
readings should now read 0 (+/-5), and the pressure meter should read 0 MN. 2(+/- 0.05
MN. 2).
Enter your first set of reading (at zero pressure) into your blank results table.
Screw in (turn clockwise) the pump Hand Wheel until the pressure is approximately 1 MN. 2. Wait
a few seconds for the reading to stabilize and record the readings into the results table.
Carefully increase the pressure in 1 MN. 2 Increments up to 7 MN. 2 . At each increment, wait
for the readings to stabilize and record the reading into your results table.
Undo (turn anticlockwise) the pump Hand Wheel to reduce the indicated pressure back to 0 MN. 2.

Results Table:
Strain ( 106)
Pressure
(MN. 2)

Gauge 1

Gauge 2

Gauge 11

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

21

Results Analysis:

22

Experiment No: 08
Objective:

To prove that the longitudinal strain in Thick Cylinder is very small compared with the
other strain values.
To find the hoop and radial strains in the cylinder and compare them with theoretical
values.

Apparatus:
The Thick Cylinder.

Theory:
Theoretical Strains:
The cylinder deforms equally about its axis. The principal strains are given by:
1

Hoop Strain

Radial Strain

= ( . )

Longitudinal Strain

( . )

( + )

23

Theoretical Strains:

Hoop Stress

= ( 21) [1 +
]
2

Radial Stress

= ( 21) [1
]
2

Procedure:
Switch on the power to the Thick Cylinder and leave it for at least thirty minutes before we do the
experiment. This allow the strain gauges to reach a stable temperature and give us accurate readings.
Unscrew the pump Hand Wheel until the pressure gauge shows zero pressure.
Record the Thick Cylinder outside and inside diameters.
Use the Press & hold to zero button to zero the strain gauge display readings. All the strain gauge
readings should now read 0 (+/-5), and the pressure meter should read 0 MN. 2(+/- 0.05
MN. 2).
Screw in (turn clockwise) the pump Hand Wheel until the pressure is approximately 1 MN. 2. Wait
a few seconds for the reading to stabilize and record the readings into the results table.
Undo (turn anticlockwise) the pump Hand Wheel to reduce the indicated pressure back to 0 MN. 2.

Result Table:
Gauge
1
2
3
4
Number
Radius at
28
36
Gauge (r)
Type of
H R R
strain
Measured
Strain(106)
Calculated
Strain(106)
Error
Difference
Cylinder Outside Radius:

11

12

10
45
H

56

63
R

13
75

18.5
R

Cylinder Internal Radius:

Cylinder Pressure:

24

Result Analysis:

25

Experiment No: 09
Objective:

Open end condition testing.

Determination of axial and hoop stress.
Determination of the maximum principal stress and strain.
Determine the safety factor.

Equipment:
Thin wall cylinder apparatus.

Component List:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Epoxy coated steel base frame.

Thin wall Cylinder.
Hydraulic hand pump.
Bourdon pressure gauge.
Strain gauge.
Digital displaying meter.

Theory:
Thin Wall Cylinder:
If the Ratio of wall thickness to internal diameter of cylinder is defined as less than
about 1/20, the cylinder is known as thin wall cylinder. Then it can be assumed that the hoop and longitudinal
stresses are constant across the thickness. It may also be assumed that the radial stress is small and can be
neglected. For a long thin-walled pressurized cylinder, a force balance results in the following equation for
axial stress:

=
Where p = pressure.
r = cylinder radius.

26

t = cylinder wall thickness.

Similarly, the circumferential (hoop) stress in pressurized cylinder is:
=

The equation for a thin walled cylinder hold only if the wall thickness is less than one-tenth of the cylinder
diameter. If the cylinder is not sufficiently long, the ends of the cylinder nay have an effect on the measured
stresses, so that the equations for a thin walled cylinder of infinite length do not apply.
Poissons ratio v expresses the relationship between the strain responses of a material parallel to and
perpendicular to an applied stress. In a uniaxial stress state,
=

Youngs modulus E is the constant of proportionality between stress and strain,

=E for uniaxial stress.

Cylinder Specification:
Cylinder Nominal Size
I.D.
Wall Thickness
Material
Youngs Modulus (E)

86 mm
80 mm
3 mm
6063 Aluminum

Poissons Ratio
Strain Gauges
Gauge Factor

1/3
Electrical Resistance Type 120 ohms
2.12

69 GN/ 2

Procedure:

Place the apparatus on a level table. Adjust the leveling foot if necessary.
Plug the apparatus 3 pin plug to the laboratory power supply. Switch ON the power supply.
Switch ON the apparatus ON/OFF switch (D).
Allow the apparatus to run for about 15 minutes to ensure the strain gauges and other electronic
components are warmed up.
Keep an eye on the strain meter (E). Ensure there is reading displayed on the meter.
Set the apparatus to Open end condition by turning the knob until it touched and pressed against the
cylinder piston.
Tighten the relief valve (C).
Record all the initial strain reading to the table provided.
Apply the desired amount of pressure into the cylinder.
Repeat the experiment with different pressure level. (Do not pressurized the vessel for more than 8
bar).
Check the orientation of the strain gauge positioning from the apparatus front panel.
From the result obtained, determine and tabulate the maximum principle stress for all the strain gauges
at different orientation. Hint:
Strain gauge 1,3,5 can consider as rosette(0 , 60 , 120)in arbitrary.
Strain gauge 2 oriented at axial direction.
Strain gauge 6 oriented at hoop direction.
27

 Strain gauge 4 oriented at 45.

Compare the result with different pressure level.
Determine and tabulate the factors of safety against failure by yielding for the pressure vessel at the
desired pressure level.
Compare all the result obtained from experimental with the theatrical result.

Open End Condition:

Result:
Strain reading ()
Pressure

0
1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion:

28

Experiment No.10:
Objective:

Close end condition testing.

Determination of axial and hoop stress.
Determination of the maximum principal stress and strain.
Determine the safety factor.

Equipment:
1) LS-22015 Thin wall cylinder apparatus.

Cylinder Specification:
Cylinder Nominal Size

86 mm

I.D.

80 mm

Wall Thickness

3 mm

Material

6063 Aluminum

Youngs Modulus (E)

69 GN/ 2

Poissons Ratio

1/3

Strain Gauges

Electrical Resistance Type 120 ohms

Gauge Factor

2.12

Safety, precaution & Reminder:

Do not pressurized the apparatus for more than 8 bar.
Ensure all the parts are fully tighten in position before conducting the run.
Allow the apparatus to warm up for about 15 minutes before conducting the run.

29

Theory:
Thin Wall Cylinder:
If the Ratio of wall thickness to internal diameter of cylinder is defined as less than
about 1/20, the cylinder is known as thin wall cylinder. Then it can be assumed that the hoop and longitudinal
stresses are constant across the thickness. It may also be assumed that the radial stress is small and can be
neglected.

Strain Gauges:
The strain gauges are sensors that measure the strains in the Thick Cylinder. Their use is
important to engineers that works structures. Strain gauges are electrical sensors. Their electrical resistance
changes when an external force stretches or compresses them. This change in resistance has a direct
relationship with displacement (strain).

Position of strain gauges:

Procedure:

Place the apparatus on a level table. Adjust the leveling foot if necessary.
Plug the apparatus 3 pin plug to the laboratory power supply. Switch ON the power supply.
Switch ON the apparatus ON/OFF switch (D).
Allow the apparatus to run for about 15 minutes to ensure the strain gauges and other electronic
components are warmed up.
Keep an eye on the strain meter (E). Ensure there is reading displayed on the meter.
Set the apparatus to closed end condition by loosen the knob until it move away from the piston of
cylinder.
Tighten the relief valve (C).
Apply the desired amount of pressure into the cylinder. Stop pumping the hand pump once the piston
is fully extended.
Record all the initial strain reading to the table provided.
Repeat the experiment with different pressure level. (Do not pressurized the vessel for more than 8
bar).
Check the orientation of the strain gauge positioning from the apparatus front panel.
From the result obtained, determine and tabulate the maximum principle stress for all the strain gauges
at different orientation. Hint:
Strain gauge 1,3,5 can consider as rosette(0 , 60 , 120)in arbitrary.
30

 Strain gauge 2 oriented at axial direction.

Strain gauge 6 oriented at hoop direction.
Strain gauge 4 oriented at 45.
Compare the result with different pressure level.
Determine and tabulate the factors of safety against failure by yielding for the pressure vessel at the
desired pressure level.
Compare all the result obtained from experimental with the theatrical result.

Closed End Condition:

Result Table:
Strain reading ()
Pressure

0
1
2
3
4
5

Conclusion:

31