Philosophy and Prophecy: Spinoza's Hermeneutics

Author(s): Norman O. Brown

Source: Political Theory, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May, 1986), pp. 195-213
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
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SCRIPTURE AND POLITICS

I. PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

Spinoza's Hermeneutics

[t I]

NORMAN . BROWN
of California,
SantaCruz
University

HE PHILOSOPHER WHO in theEthicscelebratesthepurelife

of theoreticalcontemplationin the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus
(like Plato's philosophercomingback down into the cave) faces the
complex and muddy problems involved in the relation between
philosophyand thenonphilosophicrealworld.Philosophyhas to come

toterms
withtwopredominant
nonphilosophical
institutions:
political
powerand positivereligion.In the "Preface"Spinoza reviewsthe
forreligion
todegenerate
intosuperstition
tendency
andpolitical
power
to degenerate
intotyranny;
superstition
andtyranny
threaten
thevery
existence
ofphilosophic
freedom.
The Tractatus
is notan exercise
in
purecognition
buta modelof practicalreasonin action,or evena
political
act:"I havenotwritten
witha viewtointroducing
(intellectual)
butinorderto correct
novelties,
abuses."'
The politicalact undertaken
in the Tractacusis mediation-to
regulatetherelations
betweenpositivereligion,
politicalpower,and
tolaythebasisfortheir
freedom:
philosophic
The
peaceful
coexistence.
aim is not anotherbroadsidein the old war betweenreasonand
revelation
(orevenfreedom
andtyranny),
butpeace."Reason,though
Hobbesthinks
is alwayson thesideofpeace."2In orderto
otherwise,
function
as peacemaker,
canno longerfunction
philosophy
as
simply
TheTractatus
isnota pureproduct
philosophy.
ofphilosophic
thought
buta hybrid:
in between
movingin theterrain
philosophy,
political
power,and positivereligion;
mediating
between
theseinstitutions,
in
orderto makepeace.
POLITICAL THEORY, Vol. 14 No. 2, May 1986 195-213

? 1986Sage Publications,Inc.

195

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196

POLITICAL THEORY / May 1986

To mediatebetweentheseinstitutions
meansto establishprinciples
formakingtheirseverallanguagesmutuallycomprehensible.
Spinoza
alreadyexistsin the modernworld:There is the distinctlanguageof
politicalpower,articulatedby Machiavelliand Hobbes; thereis the
Scripturallanguageoftraditional
religion;andthereis thenewlanguage
ofphilosophy,Descartesand Spinoza. These severallanguagesneedto
be interpreted
each to theother.In the TractatusTheologico-Politicus
thephilosophercomesforwardto playtheroleofinterpreter.
In orderto
become practicallyand politicallyeffective,
to advance the cause of
peace and freedomin thereal world,philosophytransforms
itselfinto
hermeneutics.AlthoughSpinoza says his aim is not to introduce
intellectualnoveltiesbut to correct abuses, there is one decisive
intellectual
intheTractatusTheologico-Politicus:
novelty
"I determined
to examine the Bible afreshin a careful,impartial,and freespirit,
makingno assumptionsconcerning
it,and attributing
to itno doctrines,
whichI did not findmost clearlythereinset down. WiththeseprecautionsI constructed
a methodof Scripturalinterpretation."3
By what authoritydoes Spinoza introduce a new method of
Scripturalinterpretation?
By the power that inspiredthe Cartesian
thefreespirittakinga freshlook and subjectingeverything
revolution,
to skepticalexamination:in a word,thepowerofreason.Intothestrife
of contendingprinciplesof authoritya new voice is injectedwhich
no authority.
acknowledges
AftertheCartesianrevolution,
as developed
in Spinoza's Ethics,to be rationalmeansto be free;to knowone's own
mind;to depend on no externalauthorityforknowledgeof God or
knowledgeofrightand wrong.The TractatusTheologico-Politicus,
as a
rationalor scientific
investigation
of thenatureof authority,
has to be
the rationalinvestigationof the principleof irrationality
in human
affairs.It is reasonexaminingits own opposite,faith;it is philosophy
its own opposite,prophecy,and recognizingin prophecy
confronting
thefundamental
formoftheprincipleof authority
in humanaffairs."I
constructeda methodof Scripturalinterpretation
and thusequipped
proceededfirstofall to ask-What is prophecy?A prophetis one who
interprets
therevelationsofGod to thosewho are unableto attainsure
knowledgeof the thingsrevealed by God, and thereforecan only
apprehendthembysimplefaith... and whosebeliefreliesonlyon the
prophet'sauthority
and theirfaithin him."4
Philosophyhas to transform
itselfinto Scripturalhermeneutics
in
orderto investigate
thenatureofauthority;
thatis to say,thescientific
investigation
ofthenatureofauthority
takestheformofan interpretation of history.Strictlyspeaking,philosophyhas directknowledgeof

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Brown/ PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

197

God andhiseternal
lawsandhasno needofScripture.
Butinorderto
challenge
traditional
hastobecomeaninterpretaauthority
philosophy
tionoftradition.
a fresh
startwiththeslatewipedclean,
Beinginitself
thewaytheslateisactually
mustexamine
inscribed
withthe
philosophy
legacyofthepast.Philosophical
hermeneutics
ishistorical
hermeneutics.
Thelegacyofthepastisa history
ofprophecy.
transmits
itself
Prophecy
fromgeneration
to generation
in the formof historical
narratives
hisowntaskas "synthe(Spinoza'swordis histories);
Spinozadefines
sizing the historyof prophecy"(historiamprophetiaeconcinnare).5

Historical
herineneutics
isanexercise
ofnatural
reason,butitisnatural
reasonrecognizing
theauthority
ofthepastandseeking
toarrive
atthe
in itsownterms:hencethebasicrulethat"our
essenceofprophecy
of Scripture
mustbe totallyderivedfromScripture
understanding
only.,6

Naturalreasonso operating
on Scripture
can produce(notphilosButinterpretation
ophybut)onlyaninterpretation.
isperseprophecya prophet
is"onewhointerprets
therevelations
ofGodtothosewhoare
unabletoattainsureknowledge
hermeneutics
bythemselves."
Scriptural
is a hybrid
form,
ormask,thatenablesphilosophy
toenter
thepolitical
arenadisguised
formofprophecy,
as themodern
theformofprophecy
inanageinwhichtherearenolongeranyliving
prophets.Informand
texturethe Tractatus Theologico-Politicusis not philosophybut

nottheoretical
prophecy,
sciencebutpractical
wisdom,affording
(as
but onlymoralcertainty.8
Spinozasays)not mathematical
It is an
exercisein persuasion,
involving
Spinoza'screativeimagination
and
operatingon productions
of the humanimagination-the
original
legacyofprophecy
andthesubsequent
contending
interpretations.
Historicalhemeneutics
is philosophicenlightenment
comingto
understand
itselfas emancipation
fromtheauthority
ofthepast,and
therefore
itself
as historically
understanding
emergent.
Spinoza'shistorical methodis therefore
genealogical.
Prophecyis thearchetype
or
originfromwhichthethreecontending
institutions
in themodern
world-politicalpower,positivereligion,
and philosophic
freedomareallderived,
thecommon
notioninterms
ofwhichtheycanarrive
at
mutualunderstanding.
Historyis thehistory
of man'sreleasefrom
self-incurred
definition
ofenlightenment.
tutelage-Kant's
Kant'sdefinitionoftutelage-"man's
to makeuseofhisunderstanding
inability
withoutdirection
fromanother"-exactly
corresponds
to Spinoza's
ofprophecy:
definition
A prophet
isa tutorforthosewhoareunableto
attaincognitive
autonomy
andmusttherefore
relyonexternal
authority.

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198

POLITICAL THEORY / May 1986

ofhumanity
Theevolution
evenas
inevitably
beginswithprophecy,
tutelageis inevitable
forchildren.
Historical
hermeneutics
teachesus
ofphilosophic
wisdomin theMosaic
notto lookforpuredoctrines
butelementary
socialdiscipline
dispensation,
appropriate
(Spinoza's
termis accommodated)
to a rudeanduncivilized
state:
of Egypt,
In truth,it is hardlylikelythatmen accustomedto the superstitions
and sunkin mostabjectslavery,shouldhaveheldanysoundnotions
uncultivated
abouttheDeity,orthatMoses shouldhavetaughtthemanything
beyonda ruleof
itnotlikea philosopher,
butlikea
rightliving;inculcating
as theresultoffreedom,
lawgivercompellingthemto be moralby legal authority.Thus the rule of right
living,theworshipand love of God, was to themrathera bondagethanthetrue
thegiftand graceoftheDeity.Moses bidthemlove God and keepHis law,
liberty,
because theyhad in thepast receivedbenefitsfromHim (such as thedeliverance
fromslaveryin Egypt),and further
themwiththreatsiftheytransgressed
terrified
His commands,holdingout manypromisesofgood iftheyshouldobservethem;
thustreatingthemas parentstreatirrationalchildren.9

whichis thehistory
of prophecy,
goes fromMoses in the
History,
to thegreatmoderncityofAmsterdam,
wilderness
which"reapsthe
fruitof freedom
in itsowngreatprosperity."l0
At theotherend of
is civilized
history
toleration,
in which"wehavetherarehappiness
of
livingin a republic,
whereeveyone's
judgment
is freeandunshackled,
whereeach mayworshipGod as hisconscience
dictates,
and where
"II
is esteemed
freedom
before
all things
dearandprecious.
freedom
Philosophic
emerges
as humanity
outgrows
theneedfor
authority;
philosophy
itself
isa newandmoreenlightened
chapter
inthe
of prophecy.
history
Spinoza'shistorical
perspective
contradicts
the
usualviewofphilosophy
as a legacyofGreekrationality
distinct
from
and opposedto theHebraiclegacyof prophecy.
Spinozacontemptuouslydismissesthe speculations
of Platonistsand Aristotelians.
isdefined
Philosophy
as knowledge
ofGodandhiseternal
lawsrevealed
bythenatural
toall:Philosophy
lightofreasoncommon
isequatedwith
natural
religion.
Andnatural
religion
emerged
from
themutation
inthe
prophetic
tradition
thatis recordedin thetransition
fromtheOld
Testament
totheNew.Thearchetypal
philosopher
is notSocratesbut
JesusChrist.The historical
mutationin the prophetic
tradition
is
intheantithesis
crystallized
between
MosesandChrist.Theprophets
whopreachedreligion
beforeChristpreachedit as a nationallaw in
virtueofthecovenant
entered
intointhetimeofMoses,whereasthe
Apostlespreachedit as theuniversalor catholicreligionforall.'2

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Brown / PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

199

of a particular
Mosaic prophecy
includesthefoundation
stateand
positivelaws to sustainit; its methodis constraint
ratherthan
anditpromises
Christ's
wasto
instruction,
mission
temporal
prosperity.
teachuniversalmoralprecepts,
and forthisreasonhe promisesa
rather
thana temporal
spiritual
Christ
theprophetic
reward.'3
reduced
religion
toitsessence,
andinformulating
theGoldenRule-to loveGod
above all thingsand one's neighboras oneself-transcended
the
prophetic
ofobedienceto thelaw and prefigured
principle
thephilosophicreligionoflove.'4In linewiththefundamental
distinction
he
drawsbetween
mindand(prophetic)
(philosophic)
imagination,
Spinoza
goesoutofhiswaytodifferentiate
Christ
from
Mosesinepistemological
terms.Christwasuniqueintheprophetic
incommunicating
tradition
withGod without
theintervention
ofimaginary
suchas
appearances
Moses'voice,butdirectly
mindtomind,withclearanddistinct
ideas,so
thatChristwasnotso mucha prophet
as themouthofGod;thatis,in
ChristthewisdomofGodtookuponitself
humannature."
Themutation
represented
isthenodalpointina long-range
byChrist
in the historicalprocess(the prophetic
tendency
in the
tradition)
directionof rationality.
The universalreligion,
whichwe now can
as a preceptofreasoninphilosophic
apprehend
hadfirst
to be
form,
in the formof prophetic
introduced
revelation.'6
AfterChristthe
Apostolicepistles,
especially
a further
Paul's,represent
advanceover
theGospelsinthedirection
ofrational
form:
didactic
andargumentative
rather
thanprophetic
(orfabulous)
narrative.
"Paulteachesexactly
the
sameas ourselves."'7
OldTestament
prophecy,
notably
Isaiah,showsa
long-range
to transform
tendency
prophetic
revelation
intouniversal
andcatholicreligion
fortheentirehumanrace;to discardceremonial
lawsinfavorofa simple
ruleofcharity
andtheupright
heart;and,above
theexternal
all,tosupersede
covenant
ofGod,written
ininkorontables
ofstone,withthetrueoriginal
covenant
inscribed
bytheSpiriton the
humanheart,on thefleshy
tablesoftheheart(II Corinthians,
111:3);
withhisownseal,thatis,theideaofGodhimself
stamped
intheimage
ofhisGodhead.'8Spinozainterprets
"theWordofGod written
inour
hearts"as theequivalent,
in Biblicallanguage,of whatphilosophy
formulates
as thenaturallightofreasonthatis commonto all. Thus
wasatworkeventhough
rationality
itwasnotunderstood
as such(i.e.,
philosophically).
Theparadoxical
situation
isexpounded
bySpinozain
Biblicallanguage:"It was in theworld,"as JohntheEvangelist
says,
"andtheworldknewitnot."'9

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200

POLITICAL THEORY / May1986

takesup wherehis Ethics

Spinoza's TractatusTheologico-Politicus
leftoff.If philosophyis goingto contributeto theimprovement
ofthe
humancondition(Spinoza's programin thetreatiseOn theImprovementof the Understanding),
itmustfinda basis formediatingbetween
the antinomiesleftstaticand absolute in the Ethics:the antinomies
betweenreason and imagination,freedomand bondage,theoryand
practice.Translatedinto the world of politicalrealities,thesephilosophicalantinomiesbecomethepolaritybetweenprophecyand philosophy, between(political and religious) authorityand philosophic
freedom.Thereis a needformediationnotonlybetweenphilosophyand
the real worldoutsidebut also insidethephilosophicsystemitself.A
static and absolute antinomybetween reason and imaginationis
withtheepistemological
inconsistent
thecoherence
premiseoftheEthics,
oftruth,and theoverriding
metaphysical
principleofunity:Truthis a
unity;thefunctionofreasonis to makeit all cohere."Reason (though
Hobbes thinksotherwise)is alwayson thesideofpeace":20Philosophy,
to vindicateitself,mustestablishpeace betweenreasonand revelation.
Alreadyin his earlyMetaphysicalMeditationsSpinoza assertedthat
Sacred Scriptureteachesthesamedoctrinesas naturalreason,for"truth
cannot be at war withtruth"(veritasveritatinon repugnat).2'The
historicalhermeneutics
developedin the Tractatusis themiddleterm
thewholesystemcriesout for.
It is an essentialcorollaryoftheprincipleofcoherence,andthewhole
different
systemoftheEthics,to discriminate
degreesor levelsoftruth,
power,and perfection.All our practicalproblemsarisefromthefact
thatall humansare notperfectly
rational.But all areendowedwiththe
naturallightof reason; both the human individualand the human
mustbe seenas intransition
froma lesserto a greaterdegree
collectivity
of what Spinoza calls perfection.Morality,ethics,our whole duty
individually
andcollectively
liesintheimprovement
ofthehumanmind:
All our actionsand thoughtsmustbe directedto one end; namely,to
attainthegreatestpossiblehumanperfection.22
Fromthedoctrineofdegreesor levelsoftruthand perfection
italso
followsthaterrorcan neverbe absolute,butmustalwaysbe a matterof
havingrelatively
incomplete
(inadequate)knowledge.Mediationbetween
reasonand imaginationcannottakeplace ifthepolarityremainsstatic;
it is set in motionby a dynamicnisustowardperfection.Philosophy
needs the plane of historyin orderto unfoldas enlightenment:
Then
prophecycan be seenpraeparatiophilosophandi,preparingthewayfor
philosophy.The powerthatsetsinmotionthecivilizationalprocess,the

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Brown/ PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

201

progress
towardperfection,
isnotphilosophy
notreason
butprophecy,
butimagination.
werenotendowed
withmoreperfect
"Prophets
minds,
butrather
withthepowerofa morevividimagination."23
IntheEthics
Spinozaspokeonlyofthelimitations
oftheimagination
as compared
withtheclearand distinct
ideasofpuregeometric
in the
reasoning;
Tractatus
we see thepositiveand creative
of
the
power
imagination.
Prophecy
is imagination
inaction:Itproduces
thefirst
formofhuman
andthefirst
oftheknowledge
society,
form
ofGod.Withithumankind
emergesfromthestateof natureintothestateof religionand law.
Prophecy
is perfected
as itbecomesmorerationalandmovestowarda
conjunction
withphilosophy,
withJesusChristas theturning
point.
The end of the processis historical
whichis the
hermeneutics,
ofbothprophecy
perfection
and philosophy.
To perfect
prophecy
in
hermeneutics,
philosophy
hastotransform
itself
from
thepurepursuit
ofknowledge
foritsownsakeintosomething
practically
andpolitically
effective
intherealworld.InSpinoza'sEthicspowerandperfection
are
equatedand"Themoreperfection
a thing
themoreitactsand
possesses,
thelessitsuffers;
themoreitactsthemoreperfect
itis."24Philosophy
cannotrestimpotent
in the divorceof theoryfrompractice.The
philosopher
is not and cannotbecomeking,buthe can inherit
the
prophetic
function
ofspeakingtruthto kings,and raisehisvoiceon
behalfofpeace.
Thereis an instructive
analogyin Islamicphilosophy,
comingto
terms
withtheprophet
Muhammad.
According
toAlfarabi,
philosophy
ispriortoreligion,
andreligion
isan"imitation"
ofphilosophy.
Religion
isanimitation
ofphilosophy
inasmuch
as whilebothgiveanaccountof
the ultimateprinciplesof Being,religionsuppliesan imaginative
accountofthings
whereof
philosophy
possesses
directanddemonstrativeknowledge.
Nevertheless,
a purelytheoretical
perfection
is an
incomplete
Theperfect
perfection:
philosopher
isalsothesupreme
ruler
andlawgiver;
hemusthavethecapacity
toteachthecommunity
andto
formcharacter
so thateveryone
is enabledto achievetheperfection
of
whichheiscapable.Forthispurpose
thephilosopher
willneedreligion,
defined
as theassent,
secured
bypersuasion
rather
thandemonstration,
toanimaginative
accountofreality
appropriate,
tothe
accommodated,
nonphilosophic
multitude.
Thustheperfect
humanisbothphilosopher
andprophet,
combining
theoretical
knowledge
withmastery
ofthearts
ofrhetoric
and poetry.Muhammad
is an actualembodiment
ofthat
excellence
givenliterary
portrayal
inthewritings
ofPlato.25
Mediation
betweenprophecy
and philosophy
is thecentralproblemin Islamic
philosophy.
Spinozainherits
thistradition
via Maimonides.

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202

POLITICALTHEORY / May1986

Inordertobecomepractical,
hastobecomehermeneutics,
philosophy
oflanguage-therefraction
master
theproblem
ofthelightoftheOne
intothediversity
oftongues,
andplaces.ThetermtheTractatus
times,
usesto articulate
theproblemis accommodation.
Historicalhermeshowshowreligion
is alwaysaccommodated
neutics
totheintellectual
levelandimaginative
ofboththeprophets
complexion
andthepeoplein
different
historical
"accommodated
totheprejudices
circumstances,
of
eachage."26Hermeneutics
givesus a pragmatic
ofthe
understanding
limitsofthepossible,andthusequipsus forhistorical
action.It also
givesus psychological
ofthevariety
ofhumanopinion,
understanding
andthuslaysthebasisfortoleration.
Spinoza'sfirst
OntheImprovement
programmatic
manifesto,
ofthe
hadlaiddownas thefirst
ruletoguidethepractical
Understanding,
life
ofthephilosopher
to accommodate
hislanguagetothecapacity
ofthe
vulgar,or, as we mightsay,to ordinary
The passageis
language.27
inthecurrent
misinterpreted
andmistranslated
"to
English
translation,
" TheLatinisad captum
speakina manner
tothemultitude.
intelligible
vulgiloqui;comparison
withtheTractatus
showsthatthisis a shorthand phraseto referto the principleof accommodation.28
The
programmatictreatiseOn the Improvementof the Understanding

presents
as firstof all a privateand personalpursuitof
philosophy
whichthenjoins "together
self-perfection,
withotherindividuals
if
insofar
as itisnecessary
toform
possible,
a socialorderconducive
tothe
29 Itisas
attainment
ofself-perfection
bythegreatest
possiblenumber."
iftherewasa primary
ofself-perfection
philosophic
activity
thatcould
bepursued
insolitary
andtheproblem
self-sufficiency,
oftherelation
of
to ordinary
philosophy
languageonlyarose whenthephilosopher
reachedoutto collaborate
withotherindividuals,
"ifpossible,"
inthe
practicaltaskof improving
society.The underlying
epistemological
is theSpinozistic
assumption
separation
ofreasonfromimagination:
the art (or science)of languagerelegatedto the sphereof the
theconnection
imagination;
between
thetwois"accommodation."
Itis
onlyintheTractatus
thatSpinozadealsdirectly
withwhatis meantby
Thusthe Tractatus
accommodation.
(as hermeneutics)
is thekeyto
Spinoza'suseoflanguage,
evenintheEthics.

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Brown/ PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

203

prophecyfrom
Accommodation
is preciselywhatdistinguishes
andall
butonlypiety,
philosophy.
"Scripture
doesnotteachphilosophy
to the capacityand prethatit containshas been accommodated
ofthevulgar.
orrulead captumvulgi
"30Themaxim
conceived
opinions
thenatureof
isderived
notfrom
loquithatSpinozaimposesonhimself
anditassimilates
theprophetic
Spinoza's
butfrom
tradition,
philosophy
to prophetic
speech.Spinoza wantsto keepthe
publicutterances
andimagination,
twospheres-reason
theoretical
distinction
between
"Thesphere
ofreasonis,aswehavesaid,truth
andtheology:
philosophy
Butthe
is pietyandobedience."'"
andwisdom:thesphereoftheology
totheology.
Thesocial
realworldofpractical
belongs
ultimately
politics
so
butthepowerofreasondoesnotextend
orderdependsonobedience,
was
revelation
to
the
of
Therefore,
faras establish principle obedience.
ofreasonand
is essentially
a combination
necessary;
and revelation
Henceon one
involves
accommodation).
imagination
(i.e.,essentially
toreason,norreasontothe
handScripture
mustnotbeaccommodated
ontheotherhandScriptural
whichistheway
hermeneutics,
Scripture;
theprophetic
tradition
age,is boththe
staysalivein a postprophetic
intheBiblicalrecordanditself
as exemplified
studyofaccommodation
inaccommodation.
an exercise
the
enablesus to understand
The principleof accommodation
oftheOneintothevariety
andthus
ofhumanimagination,
refraction
thedifference
uniformity
andpluralbetween
thedogmatic
establishes
underThe moreflexibleand pragmatic
isticconcord(toleration).
by
standingof the natureof religion("truereligion')introduced
historical
thefundamental
hermeneutics
reduces
religion
toitsessence,
universal
andcatholic
tothewholehumanrace.On
dogmasofreligion
theotherhand,thesebarebonesmustbe fleshed
outbytheobligatory
ofaccommodation:
practice
and
manisboundtoaccommodate
thesedogmas
tohisownwayofthinking,
Every
to interpret
themaccording
andmost
as hefeelsthathecangivethemhisfullest
sothathemaythemoreeasilyobeyGodwithhiswholeheart.
unhesitating
assent,
Suchwasthemanner,
as wehavealready
thefaith
wasinold
pointed
out,inwhich
timerevealed
andopinions
of
andwritten,
inaccordance
withtheunderstanding
theprophets
andpeopleoftheperiod;so,inlikefashion,
manis boundto
every
it to his ownopinions,so thathe mayacceptit without
any
accommodate
ormental
hesitation
repugnance.32

of theCartesian
involvesa sacrifice
Accommodation
necessarily
idealof clearand distinct
ideasmakeclear
ideas.Clearand distinct

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204

POLITICAL THEORY / May1986

distinctions:
Theywillneverteachus,as SpinozadoesintheTractatus,
that"itmakesno difference
whether
be apprehended
religion
byour
natural
faculties
orbyrevelation
is oneandthesameandis
... religion
inwhichitbecomes
equallyrevealedbyGod whatever
be themanner
knowntomen.""3
Accommodation
needsambiguity,
equivocation
("to
expressoneselfin termsthatadmitof different
interpretations"),
prevarication
is fromstraddling,
withone'slegs
(thebasicmetaphor
orprevarication
intheTractatus
apart).Theequivocation
enablesusto
recognize
thesupreme
equivocation
intheEthics-DeussiveNatura.
In hisinitialandbasicterminological
arrangements
Spinozaallows
prophecyand philosophy
to sharethe idea of God. Prophecy,
or
is "certainknowledge
revelation,
revealedby God to man";natural
knowledge,
revealedbythenaturallightofreason,is also
knowledge
prophecy,
as it"dependsentirely
onknowledge
ofGod andhiseternal
Ifprophecy
seen
were
decrees."34
as merely
(as
byphilosophy) dismissed
oras meresuperstition,
erroneous
orifphilosophy
(as seenbytheology)
turnedoutto be atheist,
thenthewholeprojectofmediation
would
collapse.Hence,religionhas to be one and thesame,and "equally
revealed
byGod,whatever
bethemanner
inwhichitbecomesknown
to
men."
Similarequivocationor prevarication
occurswith"divinelaw."
identifies
Spinozafirst
divinelawwithlawsderived
from
(philosophic)
trueknowledge
andloveofGod.Therestarehumanlaws,whichhavea
different
aim,"unlesstheyhavebeensanctioned
"for
byrevelation,"
fromthispointofviewalsothings
arereferred
toGod";so thatthelaw
ofMoses,"although
notuniversal
andverylargely
to
accommodated
theparticular
ofa singlepeople,maynevertheless
preservation
becalled
law of God or divinelaw inasmuchas we believeit to have been
Thesearenotclearanddistinct
sanctioned
bythelightofprophecy."35
ideas.In formulating
the"universal
religion,"
thefundamental
dogmas
ofthewholeofScripture,
languageis strained
to accommodate
(i.e.,
reduce)thegapbetween
theprophetic
religion
ofobedience,
rewards,
and punishments
and the philosophicreligionof love; to effecta

compromise.36

Strictly
someevasionisinvolved,
speaking,
somemasking
(larvatus
prodeo),somedisguise.Thephilosopher
is notspeaking
withhisown
voice,butinstead"adopting
thelanguageofJohn";or"I affirm
with
Paul."37
Spinozaachieves
unspoken
(persuasive)
effects
bymanipulating
discourses
thatarenothisown;forexample,
juxtaposing
hisversion
of
the social contracttheoryof origins(chap. XVI) withtheBiblical

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Brown/ PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

205

accountoftheMosaicCovenant
theanalogy
(chap.XVII),letting
speak
foritself.
inSpinoza'sphilosophy,
isnotprudent
Accommodation,
dissimulato promote
tion,as Leo Strausstakesit,butan activeeffort
tolerant
concord-ina word,charity.
Tolerationis not a maximof mutual
indifference
laiddownbyraisond'etat(HobbesandLocke),a negative
limit
toa rational
ofconformity:
Itismutual
requirement
understanding
ofthevariety
basedon recognition
ofthehumanimagination;
thatis,
madescientific
charity
bythenewscienceof hermeneutics.
Without
no toleration.
Accommodation
without
equivocation,
equivocation
is
of uniformity
or conformity,
thehegemonic
assertion
theone-sided
ofphilosophy
domination
overtheology
ortheology
overphilosophy.
Tolerationis based not on rationaluniformity
but on sentimental
locatedintheheart,theheartthathasitsreasonsthatreason
concord,
doesnotknow.
Accommodation
isequivocation.
Equivocation
isjustified
byfaiththesubstance
ofthings
hopedfor,theevidence
ofthings
unseen-faith
in the existenceof a hiddenor preestablished
a hidden
harmony;
harmony
verbaldisagreement;
transcending
a hiddenharmony,
inspite
ofthecontradictory
factsof linguistic
sectarian
variety,
discord,the
TowerofBabel.Itisthefaiththatinspiteofthecontradictory
facts,
the
patentcontradiction
between
thephilosophic
fewandthesuperstitious
multitude,
nevertheless
thereis,hiddeninthehumanbreast,
thenatural
lightofreasoncommon
toallhumanbeingsas such."Itisnoaccident,"
says Spinoza,that"thewordof God in the prophetsis in entire
withtheverywordofGod whichspeaksinsideofus" (as
agreement
in Christ,
prefigured
whowasnotso mucha prophet
as themouthof
God,inwhomthewisdomofGodmanifested
itself
inhumanform.)38
It
istheprophetic
faith,
invoked
fivetimesintheTractatus,
thatreligion,
first
tothehumanraceintheformofan external
imparted
codeoflaw
written
down,isnowinscribed
inGod'sownhandwriting,
intheform
of
theidea ofhimself
and theveryimageofhisGodhead,on thefleshy
tablesof thehumanheart.39
It is no accidentthatthis,thecentral
propositionin the Tractatus,
relieson propheticrhetoricfor its
persuasiveforce:Spinoza cites Deuteronomy
(XXX:6), Jeremiah
(XXXI:33),and2 Corinthians
(111:3).
Andwhatitasserts
isequivalence
orequivocation
between
thevoiceofreasonandthevoiceofimagination.

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206

POLITICAL THEORY / May 1986

into
theprophetic
faithinhiddenharmony
Philosophy
transforms
thatitallcoheres),
andtransforms
philosophic
knowledge
(oftheUnity:
ethicofcharity
intotheintellectual
loveofGod.
theprophetic
Divinelaws appearto us as laws or positivecommandments
onlyso longas we are
ignorantoftheircause; as soon as theircause is knowntheycease to be lawsand we
embracethemnotas laws butas eternaltruths;thatis to sayobediencepassesover
into love, whichemanatesfromtrueknowledgeas necessarilyas lightemanates
fromthesun.40

Theintellectual
loveofGodtransforms,
perfects,
andfinally
transcends
theprophetic
religion.
Obedientiainamoremtransit:Obediencepassesoverintolove.There

isa dialectical
mutation,
prefigured
inthedialectical
mutation
from
the
LikeJesus,
OldtotheNewTestament.
cansay,"I camenot
philosophy
to destroy
thelaw and theprophets,
butto fulfill."
It is-using the
to illuminate
thecontroversial
Tractatus
mysteries
of theEthics-a
To pass overbeyondprophecy
mystic
transcendence.
is to pass over
beyondwordsand images:"Inasmuchas God revealedHimselfto
Christ,or to Christ'smind,immediately,
and notas to theprophets
wordsandimages,
wemustsupposethatChrist
through
truly
perceived
orunderstood
whatwasrevealed;
fora thingis understood
whenitis
"41Itis onlyat
perceived
purely
bythemindbeyondwordsandimages.
thispoint-whenwe pass beyondwordsand images-thatwe can
discardequivocation.
intheTractatus
is to transcend
Theintellectual
effort
thedualisms
fromwhichit begins."Althoughnaturalknowledge
is divine,its
cannotbe calledprophets":
propagators
[A prophet]interprets
[i.e., mediates]thedecreesofGod revealedto himto others
who have receivedno revelation,and whosebelieftherefore
reliesmerelyon the
oftheprophetand faithreposedinhim.Ifitwereotherwise,
and all who
authority
listento prophetsbecameprophetsthemselves,
as all who listento philosophers
becomephilosophers,a prophetwould no longerbe theinterpreter
of thedivine
wouldno longerrelyon theprophet'stestimony
decrees,inasmuchas thelisteners
and authority
but on actual revelationand inwardtestimony.42

isherepresented
as a dialectical
Philosophy
transcendence
ofprophecy,
itandsuperceding
bothperfecting
it.Prophecy
ifall
wouldbeperfected
becameprophets;
butat thispointquantity
passesoverintoquality:
Relianceon externalauthority
fallsaway;theinnerlightthathad

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Brown/ PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

207

theprophet
toall;
privileged
passesoverintothenaturallightcommon
weareintherealmoffreedom
andphilosophy.
On the
Prophetic
theology
passesoverintophilosophical
theology.
is democracy.
politicalsidethepointat whichdualismis transcended
Spinoza says his chiefpurposein the Treatiseis to exhibitthe
formof
fundamental
principles
ofdemocracy
as beingthemostnatural
The argument
ruleand themostconsistent
withindividual
liberty.43
between
takestheformof expounding
an (equivocal)concordance
ofthe
socialcontract
theory(chap.XVI) and thescriptural
history
Mosaiccovenant
(chapter
XVII).
Inthelanguage
ofsocialcontract
theory,
as against
Hobbes,Spinoza
on thetheoretical
insists
possibility
ofdemocracy:
andthe
A societycan be formed
ofnaturalrights,
without
anycontradiction
if each
compactcan be entirely
and eternally
keptwiththeutmostfidelity,
individual
handsoverallthepowerhehasto society;
society
willthenhavesole
ofnatural
possession
rights
overallthings;
thatis,itwillhavesupreme
sovereignty,
willbeboundtoobey,either
andeveryone
as a freechoiceorbyfearofpunishment.
ofsociety
isdefined
as
Sucha constitution
which
iscalleda democracy,
accordingly
a collective
bodywhich
collegially
exercises
unlimited
sovereign
rights."

ofthe
Democracy
is thenaturaloutcomeofa rationalunderstanding
onwhichsociety
socialcontract
isbased:Another
passagesaysthatina
all agreewithcommonconsentto liveaccording
to the
democracy
ofreason.45
dictates
ButatthesametimeSpinozainsists
ofthe
onthereligious
dimension
socialcontract.
Obedienceis nota rationalbuta theological
principle,
andtherefore
society
hastobeginwithprophetic
revelation.46
Society
is
into
existence
the
rational
instinct
of
notbyrationalfearand
brought
as in Hobbes,butbytheprophetic
self-preservation,
indoctrination
withtheidea ofGod: Mosesintroduced
a religion
so thatthepeople
mightdo theirdutywillingly,
withfidelity
and constancy,
from
devotion,and notfromfear.47
a
The socialcontract
was essentially
anoath,whereby
covenant,
including
humans
agreedtoobeyGodinall
as itweresurrendering
things,
their
natural
liberty
andtransferring
their
to God.48Politicalorganization
rights
is instrinsically
theocratic.
It is intrinsically
theocratic,
buttherearedegreesofperfection
and
tobe distinguished.
truth
In thechildhood
ofthehumanrace,giventhe
fickle
andirrational
disposition
ofthemultitude,
theregime
ofauthority
and obediencethatmakespossiblethetransition
frombarbarism
to
civilization
reflects
fictions
and distortions
thatare necessary
con-

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208

POLITICAL THEORY / May1986

Theinstitution
cessionsto thedemandsofthehumanimagination.
of
is sacredandplays
divinekingship
dependson"thebeliefthatkingship
thepartofGod onearth,thatithasbeeninstituted
byGod notbythe
suffrage
and consentof men."49
frompagan
Spinozacitesinstances
suchas Alexander
andAugustus,
andthenlikeMachiavelli
lets
history,
us infer
thatMoseswasnotso different:
"Moses,notbyfraud,butby
thathewas
divinevirtue,
gainedsucha holdonthepopularjudgement
thoughtto be divine,and divinelyinspiredin all his wordsand
theinterpreter
ofGod
actions."50
In theinstitution
ofdivinekingship
(i.e., theprophet)takesthe place of God. In his initialand basic
ofprophet
definition
ofGod,SpinozacitesExodus(VI:1),
as interpreter
inwhichGod saysto Moses,"See I havemadetheea godto Pharaoh,
thetexthesays,
andAaronthybrother
shallbe thyprophet";
glossing
"sinceininterpreting
Moses'wordstoPharaohAaronactedthepartof
a prophet,
MoseswouldbetoPharaohquasiDeus,as itwereGod;oras
actingintheplaceofGod,vicemDei agit." 5lSpinozahasincorporated
intotheTractatus
thedoctrine
ofHobbesinPartIII oftheLeviathan:
The Kingdomof God is a real,not a metaphorical
Kingdom;the
Kingdomof God is a CivilCommonwealth,
in whichGod himself
is
wherein
he reigneth
Sovereign,
byhisVicar,Vicegerent,
Lieutenant,
Sovereign
Prophet,or Representative.
Exactlyso Spinozareiterates
thatthosewhoactuallyexercisesovereign
arethe
power(imperium)
andtherefore
interpreters
masters
ofall law,bothciviland religious;
religion
acquirestheforceoflawonlyfromthecommand
ofsovereign
rulers;God hasno specialkingdom
amongmenexceptthrough
those
who actuallyexercisesovereign
power.52
The construction
of civil
to thepatternofthehumanimagination
societyaccording
notonly
an idolatrous
requires
usurpation
ofdivinestatusbyhumankings,
but
alsotheanthropomorphic
representation
ofGodas sovereign
potentate,
in directviolationofSpinoza'swarning
king,legislator,
in theEthics
thatitisessential
toavoidanyconfusion
between
thepowerofGodand
thehumanpowerandrights
ofkings.53
Thehistory
oftheHebrewRepublicshowsus a better
way,a better
formoftheocracy.
Thatgovernment
is best,themostnatural,
inwhich
onprophetic
dependence
authority
istranscended
byalltogether
being
theirownprophets,
as isthecaseinthetheoretical
idealofdemocracy.
Spinozacites,as Miltondidbefore
himandBlakedidafter
him,Moses'
ownexclamation,
Numbers
(XI:29),"Wouldto GodthatalltheLord's
peoplewereprophets,"
andcomments,
"thatis,wouldto Godthatthe
rightof consulting
God resulted
in powerbeingin thehandsofthe

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Brown / PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

209

people."54
is themostperfect
Democracy
formoftheocracy,
theonly
AlltheLord'speoplebeingtheirownprophets
truetheocracy:
would
ofGod'searthly
theidolatrous
meantranscending
worship
Vicegerent
the one and onlytrueGod, theveryimageof his
and discovering
Godheadinscribed
inthefleshy
tablesofthehumanheart,
whichisthe
toallhumanbeings,
ofwhich
naturallightofreasoncommon
byvirtue
all areequal.
outthistheoretical
withhisown(prophetic)
Spinozafleshes
possibility
oftheeventson Sinai(ExodusXX; Deuteronomy
interpretation
V).
Theoriginal
contract
"as
wasbetween
Godandallthepeopletogether,
ina democracy,"
buttheexperience
ofGodspeaking
outofthefirewas
thatthepeopleaskedMosestobethemediator,
so terrifying
interpreter,
orprophet,
saying,
"Go thounear,andhearallthattheLordourGod
shallsay,andspeakthenuntous allthattheLordourGodshallspeak
untothee;andwewillhearitanddo it"(Deut.V:27).55"Godaloneheld
overtheHebrews;byvirtueofthecovenantor compact
sovereignty

theirstate was called God's kingdom.... There was no distinction

between
civiland religious
law;inasmuch
as thecitizens
werebound
revealedby God, the statecould be calleda
onlyby law directly

theocracy."56

Although
allstates,
byvirtue
ofthefundamental
nature
ofthesocial
aretheocratic,
theHebrewRepublicis theocratic
contract,
parexceltheperfection
lence,representing
ofthetheocratic
principle;
and itis
theocratic
parexcellence
bybeingdemocratic.
In Spinoza'sinterpretation of Hebrewhistorythe theocracy
comesto an end withthe
institution
ofkingship,
whenthepeoplebreakwithGod'srule("divine
right")andaskfora kingliketheGentiles
have(I SamuelVIII).57 In
andstillunsurpassed
Spinoza'sextraordinary
interpretation
ofHebrew
history,
thechangeovertokingship
isthefinalfall,butthere
wasa fatal
seed of corruption
in the Mosaic constitution:
theseparateLevitic
priesthood
insteadoftheuniversal
priesthood
ofthefirst-born
inevery
as originally
family,
intended
byGoduntilthepeople'sdefection
tothe
GoldenCalf.58
ThatGodshouldhaveordered
theintroduction
ofa fatal
flawmarring
hisownrevelation
oftheperfect
theocratic
constitution
drawsfromSpinozaa daringrecallofTacitus'epigram:
God'sconcern
atthattimewasnothumanwell-being
butpunishment.
Theeffect
ofthis
Machiavellian
use of Taciteanironyis to liberatethe theological
imagination
frombondageto theletter.
To findtheperfect
theocratic
constitution
wehaveto go backto God's"original
intention":
"Ifthe
statehadbeenformed
according
totheoriginal
intention,
therights
and

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210

POLITICAL TH:EORY / May 1986

honourofall thetribeswouldhavebeenequal,andeverything
would
haverestedon a firmbasis."59The theopolitical
premiseof perfect
orrepublican
isthepriesthood
ofallbelievers,
orat
democratic
equality
leastofeverypaterfamilias.
the Hebrew
But forthisflaw(the separateLeviticpriesthood)
eternal
An"immortal
republic
might
havebeenimmortal,
(aeternum).60
a republic
madeexempt
from
thecycleofdegeneration
commonwealth,"
as in Polybius'theory,
monarchical
aristobymixingand balancing,
craticand democraticelements.The Tractatus,as a venturein
in hybrid
or mixedor "impure"
reacheshereits
mediation,
thought,
a conjunction
between
mostadvancedpoint.Spinoza is effecting
ofcontemporary
andthemostadvancedspeculations
prophetic
history
based on classicalpoliticaltheoryas modernized
republicanism,
by
Machiavelli.61Chapter XVII of the TractatusTheologico-Politicus

suchas JamesHarrington
showsthata modelofrepublican
stability,
inthe
inhisutopianschemeOceana(1656),isenshrined
hadprojected
which(Spinoza says),although"it
earlyHebrewCommonwealth,
to imitate
wouldbe impossible
today,"nevertheless
"possessedmany
toourattention
andperhaps
features
whichshouldbebrought
excellent
withadvantage."62
imitated
to Harringtonian
Spinoza'sanalysisconforms
principles.
Moses,
whohimself
exercised
sovereign
power,did notestablish
a successor
withsovereign
power,butdistributed
hisprerogatives
anddividedhis
powers,separating
thehighpriesthood
and theinterpretation
ofthe
laws(Aaron)from
theexecutive
powerandmilitary
command
(Joshua),
and evendistributing
themilitary
commandaccording
to a federal
(tribal)principle,
as in theUnitedStatesof theNetherlands.
As in
thechecksandbalanceswhich,
Harrington,
Spinozasays,"soeffectively
keptwithin
boundsbothrulersandruled"aresustained
bya patriotic
civicconsciousness
based on freehold
tenureof equal lots of land,
universal
possessionof arms,and systematic
instruction
in theholy
book of law. The resultis an armedpopularcommonwealth,
in
theruleofthepeople,regnum
Spinoza'swords,
populi,defended
bythe
ardentpatriotism
offreecitizen-soldiers.
Thecivicconsciousness
that
thewholeis saturated
animates
withreligion;
thechecksandbalances
thatcanceloutthepredominance
ofhumanagenciesleaveGod as the
centerofpolitical
life.
AfterthedeathofMoses no one manwieldedall thepowerofa sovereign;as affairs
werenot at all managedby one man,norby a singlecouncil,norby thepopular

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Brown/ PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

211

bytherestinequalshares,
itismostevident
that
vote,butpartly
byonetribe,
partly
after
thedeathofMoses,wasneither
monarchic,
noraristocratic,
thegovernment,
Thereasonsforapplying
thisterm
norpopular,butas wehavesaid,Theocratic.
are:I. Becausetheroyalseatofgovernment
wastheTemple,andinrespect
toit
II. Becauseall the
alone,as we haveshown,all thetribeswerefellow-citizens.
Judge,to whomonlytheyhad
peopleowedallegiance
to God,theirsupreme
or
promised
implicit
obediencein all things.III. Becausethegeneral-in-chief
63
whentherewasneedofsuch,waselectedbynonesaveGodalone.
dictator,

Even so Harrington-likeSpinoza, a strongdefenderof religious

freedomand enemyof priestlypower-maintainedthatthe Mosaic
commonwealthhad been a trueclassical republic;that Oceana, the
restoredrepublic,is both a new Israel and a new Rome; and that a
republicis a theocracy.Harringtonreaches for the same point of
transcendenceat whichreason and revelationcoincide:"A commonto herGod is king,inas muchas reason,hisdictat,
wealthis a monarchy:
is hersovereignpower."64

NOTES
to theTractatusTheologico-Politicus
areto Benedict
1. TTP 189(111,76). References
de Spinoza, A Theologico-PoliticalTreatiseand a Political Treatise,trans.by R.H.M.
Elwes(New York: Dover, 1951),followedbythecorresponding
page oftheLatinedition
by C. Gebhardt,Spinoza Opera (Heidelberg:Carl WinterUniversitatsverlag,
1972),4
to theElwes translation.
made myown corrections
volumes.I have frequently
2. TTP276 (III, 263).
3.TTP8 (III, 9).
4. TTP13 (III, 15).
5. TTP96 (III, 95).
6. TTPIOO (III, 99).
7. No longeranyprophets:see TTP14 (III, 16); TTP256 (III, 238).
8. See TTP195-6 (III, 185).
9. TTP38-9 (III, 40-41).
10. TTP264 (III, 245-246).
11. TTP6(III, 7).
12. See TTP160 (III, 154); TTP170 (III, 163).
13. See TTP64 (III, 64);TTP70-1 (III, 70-71).
14. See TTP172 (III,165).
15. See TTP19 (III, 21); TTP64 (III, 64).
16. See TTP248 (III, 231).
17. TTP53 (III, 54); see TTP 160-3(III, 154-157).
18. See TTP165 (III, 158); TTP197 (III, 186); TTP237 (III, 221).
19. TTP170 (III, 163).

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212

POLITICAL THEORY / May 1986

20. TTP276 (III, 263).

21. CogitataMetaphysica,Part II, ch. VIII (Gebhardt,I, 265).
22. TractatusDe IntellectusEmendatione,Gebhardt,II, 9.
23. TTP27 (III, 29).
24. Ethics,Part V, Prop. XL.
25. M. Mahdi, Alfarabi'sPhilosophyof Plato and Aristotle(New York: Free Press,
1962),6-7.
26. TTP 106(III, 104).
27. See Gebhardt,II, 9.
28. See Leo Strauss,Persecutionand theArtof Writing
(New York:FreePress,1952),
178-180.I am indebtedto,and contending
with,Strauss'sessay"How to StudySpinoza's
Theologico-Political
Treatise,
"Persecution,142-201.
29. See Gebhardt,II, 8-9.
30. TTP190 (III, 180).
31. TTP194-5 (III, 184-185).
32. TTP 188(III, 178).
33. TTP247 (III, 230).
34. TTP13 (III, 15).
35. TTP61 (III, 61).
36. TTP186-7 (III, 177-178).
37. TTP186 (III, 176); TTP53 (III, 54).
38. TTP197 (III, 186).
39. See TTP165 (III, 158); TTP169 (III, 162); TTP192 (III, 182); TTP197 (III, 186);
TTP237 (III, 221).
40. TTP277 (III, 264).
41. TTP64 (III, 64-65).
42. TTP269 (III, 251).
43. See TTP207 (III, 195); TTP263 (III, 245).
44. TTP205 (III, 193).
45. TTP247 (III, 230).
46. See TTP 194-5(III, 184-185).
47. See TTP75 (III, 75); TTP216 (III, 203).
48. See TTP210 (III, 198); TTP219 (III, 205).
49. TTP218 (III, 205).
50. TTP257 (III, 239).
51. TTP13 (III, 15).
52. See TTP245 (III, 228); TTP248 (III, 231).
53. Ethics,Part II, Prop. III, note.
54. TTP277 (III, 265).
55. TTP220 (III, 206-207):see TTP247 (III, 230).
56. TTP219-220(III, 206).
57. TTP235 (III, 219).
58. TTP232-3 (III, 218).
59. TTP233 (III, 218).
60. TTP236, 237 (III, 220, 221).
61. See C. Blitzer,An ImmortalCommonwealth:The Political Thoughtof James
Harrington
(New Haven:Yale University
Press,1960);J.G.A.Pocock, TheMachiavellian

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Brown/ PHILOSOPHY AND PROPHECY

213

Tradition
(Princeton:
Republican
andtheAtlantic
Florentine
PoliticalThought
Moment:
Press,1975),388.
University
Princeton
62. TTP237(III, 221).
populi"TTP240(III, 224).
63. TTP225-6(III, 211).See ch.XVII,passim;"regnum
Moment,
398,note116.
64. Pocock,Machiavellian

of
Norman 0. Brown is Professorof Humanities,Emeritus,at the University
Death,Love'sBody,and
Californiaat Santa Cruz.He is theauthorofLifeAgainst
NewLiterary
ClosingTime,as wellas manyarticlesinsuchjournalsas Democracy,
and SocialText.
StudiesinRomanticism,
History,

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