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VITAMINS
Dietary Importance
BIOCHEMISTRY-I
Teacher: Dr. Sheeraz Ahmad
BS-MICROBIOLOGY PROGRAM
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN
UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD
[Pakistan]
V ITAMINS
Vitamins are a group of organic substances essential in small quantities for normal metabolism. They are
found in minute amounts in natural foodstuffs & are sometimes produced synthetically. Deficiencies of
vitamins cause specific diseases & disorders.
It must be a vital organic dietary substance, which is neither a carbohydrate, fat, mineral nor
protein, but is necessary in very small quantities to the performance of particular metabolic functions
or to the prevention of an associated deficiency disease.
2.
2.
Hepatic function.
Bile contents.
A. Vitamin A (Retinol): Vitamin A is an alcohol & because it has a specific function in the retina of
the eye, it has been given the name Retinol. However, it is still commonly referred to as vitamin A.
carotene (pro-vitamin A) is the precursor of vitamin A.
-carotene
metabolism
Retinol (Vitamin A)
metabolism
Rhodopsin
(Retinal rod cell pigmentation)
It is photosensitive & essential
for dark adaptation
11-cis-retinol
Iodopsin
(Retinal cone cell pigmentation)
Poor absorption.
Xerophthalmia
3. Hypervitaminosis A: Vitamins are substances required in small amounts, & too much of some vitamins
can be dangerous. Since the liver has a great storage capacity for vitamin A, megadoses of this vitamin are
toxic. Hypervitaminosis A is manifested by: joint pain, thickening of long bones, loss of hair, & jaundice.
In children: hyperstoses (bone hypertrophy)
In adults & children:
o
Peeling of skin
Headache
o
o
Lymph
enlargement
node
Nystagmus
o
yolk,
o
Plant sources: are the yellow & green vegetables & fruit sources of
carotene; e.g. carrots, sweet potatoes, apricots, spinach & cabbage.
5. Uses of vitamin A:
o
Psoriasis.
o
Acne
Night blindness.
vulgaris.
6. Daily requirements: Vitamin A can be taken orally or IM.
o
1300 IU 2600 IU
3000 IU
Any preparation containing vitamin A should contain not less than 1,600 IU for adults and 1,000 IU for
children. Additionally, it should not exceed 10,000 IU.
One IU vitamin A = the biological activity of 0.3 g of retinol or 0.6 g of carotene.
Zinc (Zn) 8-9 mg/day is essential for:
o
Administration of a small amount of vitamin E with vitamin A will increase the absorption & tissue
storage of vitamin A, & protect against the oxidation of vitamin A (available as vitamin A+E).
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o
little in egg & milk).
o
either from the sun or a lamp.
7-hydroxy ergosterol
UV
Ergosterol
o
o
2. Hypovitaminosis "'D": can happen due to inadequate exposure to sunlight (UV) &/or dietary deficiency.
This can lead to:
o
Rickets (in children): a disease directly related to impaired metabolism of Ca & P, due to
vitamin D deficiency. Characteristic clinical manifestations of rickets result from failure of
calcification of growing bones. Several deformities of bones develop e.g. softening of cranial
bones, bowed thighs & knock-knees.
Hypo-parathyrodism: in adults.
3. Hypervitaminosis "'D": ingestion of excessive quantities of vitamin D can produce toxicity. Symptoms
of vitamin D toxicity are:
o
Bo
ne fragility.
Mental retardation.
MI.
Inc
o
matrix of bone structure).
Treatment of hypo-parathyrodism.
o
6. Daily requirements: 400 IU / day.
o
erythrocytes to hemolysis.
2. Hypovitaminosis E:
o
Deficiency anemia.
Male sterility.
Muscular dystrophy.
5 10 IU
Vitamin E is carried in the plasma by -lipoproteins. It is incompatible with minerals e.g. Fe3+ & Ca2+
D. Vitamin K: is a group of fat-soluble vitamins that promote blood clotting. It is synthesized by the
normal intestinal bacteria so that an adequate supply is generally present.
It is a naphtoquinon derivative that exists in 3 forms:
o
Vitamin K1 (phytoquinon):
of plant origin.
Vitamin K2 (menaquinon):
Vitamin K3 (menadion):
1. Physiologic functions of vitamin K: The major function of vitamin K is to increase the hepatic
synthesis of prothrombin. Prothrombin is an essential factor in blood coagulation.
2. Hypovitaminosis K:
Rarely occurs & is manifested by increased prothrombin time, and
o
hemorrhagic tendencies.
o
Excessive use of oral antibiotics can inhibit the normal GIT flora
responsible for synthesis of vitamin K and might lead to its deficiency.
3. Hypervitaminosis K:
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4. Food sources of vitamin K: Green leafy vegetables (cabbage, spinach), cheese, egg yolk & liver.
5. Daily requirements: No requirement for vitamin K is stated since adequate amount is usually ensured
through intestinal bacteria & the body requires vitamin K in very small amounts.
o
o
2. Deficiency of vitamin C: Scurvy is the nutritional disease associated directly with vitamin C deficiency.
Tissue deterioration & changes of hemorrhagic origin take place. The skin becomes dry, rough & has a
brown color. Hemorrhages occur in the gums, muscle tissue & in the cavities of joints, causing infants in
particular to lie, in the pithed frog position. Lesions in teeth, bones & blood vessels.
3. Vitamin C toxicity:
o
Diarrhea
4. Food sources of vitamin C: Citrus fruits & tomatoes are well known sources of vitamin C. Other
sources include cabbage, potatoes as well as green & yellow vegetables.
5. Uses of vitamin C
o
o
properties.
o
6. Daily requirements:
o
Children:
> 20 mg / day
Adults:
Vitamin C (like other reducing agents e.g. ampicillins) gives false positive results with clintest. The test
depends on the reduction of CuSO4 by glucose in urine. Thus, the testape method can be used instead.
o
Decreased conc. of HCl
o
Mental disorders
o
Tachycardia
o
Fatigue
o
Cardiac hypertrophy
o
Cardiac failure
2. Toxicity of vitamin B1: because vitamin B1 is very safe, toxicity is not marked.
3. Food sources of thiamine: beef, liver, whole or enriched grains, bran, yeast, eggs & fish. However,
vitamin B1 is thermolabile.
4. Uses of vitamin B1: Vitamin B1 is useful in the treatment of
o
Beriberi.
Peripheral
Neuralgia
o
(nerve inflammation).
o
Mental
disorders.
Vitamin B1 may be administered orally, or by subcutaneous or IM injection.
5. Daily requirements:
Adults:
> 0.6 mg (4.5
Children:
> 0.4 mg
mg)
o
breakdown.
o
Lips & nose crack easily (chelosis cracks in the corner of the
mouth)
2. Food sources of riboflavin: Most important food sources are milk. Other good sources are liver,
kidney & some vegetables. It is absorbed from the upper GIT.
3. Daily requirements:
Adults:
o
Children:
> 1 mg
> 0.6 mg
Vitamin B1 may be administered orally, or by subcutaneous or IM injection. It is never given alone but
rather in combination with other B vitamins.
o
CONH2
COOH
Nicotinic acid
Nicotinamide
2. Vitamin B3 deficiency:
o
Weakness, lassitude,
3. Vitamin B3 toxicity:
o
Flushing
Hepatotoxicity
Vasodilatation
Hyperuricemia
Treatment of pellagra.
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5. Food sources of niacin: Meat is the major source of niacin. Peanuts, beans & peas are good sources.
6. Daily requirements:
o
Adults:
> 6 mg 45 mg
Children:
> 4 mg
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E. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine):
1. Physiological functions of vitamin B6:
o
It is essential for the production of GABA (gamma-amino-butyricacid) in the brain which is the main neurotransmitter inhibitor to prevent convulsions.
Serotonin (5HT)
decarboxy.
Tryptophan
Nicotenic acid
2. Pyridoxine deficiency: Since pyridoxine plays an important role in several metabolic activities, it's
deficiency may cause the following problems:
o
3. Food sources of pyridoxine: Yeast, wheat, corn, liver & kidney are good sources of vitamin B6.
There is evidence that intestinal bacteria produce this vitamin, but the full extent of this source & the
degree to which it is utilized by the body are not yet determined.
N.B: Vitamin B6 is contraindicated with L-dopa as it increases its metabolism through increasing the
synthesis of the decarboxylase enzyme, which converts L-dopa to dopamine in the peripheral tissues
before entering the brain.
Pyridoxal is more stable than pyridoxine.
o
throughout body tissues.
o
1. Food sources of pantothenic acid: Yeast, liver & kidney are rich sources, followed by egg, especially
the yolk, leafy vegetables & skimmed milk.
2. Uses of pantothenic acid:
o
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G. Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobolamin): In 1948 vitamin B12 was discovered & was shown to have
control over the blood-forming defects & neurologic problems involved in pernicious anemia.
1. Physiologic function of vitamin B12:
o
2. Deficiency of vitamin B12: Leads to perinaceous anemia (macrocytic &/or megaloplastic anemia),
which affects all highly proliferating cells & is characterized by:
o
Sprue: Like folic acid, vitamin B12 was effective in treating sprue.
However, it seems most effective when used in conjunction with folic acid.
4. Food sources of vitamin B12: Vitamin B12 is supplied almost entirely by animal foods where it is stored
in organ meat. The richest sources are liver, kidney, meat, milk, eggs & cheese. 1ml of liver extract =
10 mg of vitamin B12.
It is the only nutrient that needs a gastric secretion (intrinsic factor) to be absorbed from the GIT. The
intrinsic factor is glycoprotein in nature & is secreted by the parital cells of the stomach (that secrete HCl).
This glycoprotein forms a complex with vitamin B 12. The ilial cells take up the formed complex
transporting it to the blood where plasma -globine transfer it to cobolamine II.
Intestinal bacteria also synthesizes some vitamin B12 although the amount supplied is not known.
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* Shilling test is used to differentiate whether the cause of perinaceous anemia is vitamin B12 defficiency or
deficiency in both vitamin B12 & the intrensic factor. Radioactive (Co57 or Co58) vitamin B12 is given
orally. If perinaceous anemia is due to both (intrensic factor & vitamin B12 deficiency) then vitamin B12
will not be absorbed & Co appears in the feaces in large amounts. If Co appears in the urine (i.e. vitamin
B12 was absorbed) then the anemia was due to defficiency in vitamin B12 only.
H. Folic Acid (B9): belongs to group B-vitamins that have an important role in cell growth & bloodforming factors.
1. Physiologic function of folic acid:
Folic acid is essential for the synthesis of purine & pyrimidine
o
nucleotides.
Folic acid folate reductase enzyme
(puroyl glutamic acid)
synthesis reaction
purine + pyrimidine
3. Toxicity of folic acid: Folic acid is not toxic by the oral route.
4. Food sources of folic acid: Liver, kidney & fresh green leafy vegetables are rich sources.
5. Uses of folic acid:
o
6. Daily requirements:
50 g / day
* Folic acid can mask the signs of perinaceous anemia but will not prevent the progression nor the
neurologic symptoms.
I. BIOTIN: is a member of the B-Complex group of vitamins. It has been called a micronutrient
because such minute traces of it perform its metabolic task.
o
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1. Food sources of biotin: excellent food sources include egg yolk, liver, kidney, tomatoes & yeast. Large
amounts of egg white causes its deficiency.
J- Choline:
o
o
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M INERALS
I- Definition: Minerals are inorganic elements widely distributed in nature, & many of them have vital
roles in metabolism. Minerals may be grouped according to their amount in the human body.
o
o
the largest amounts.
2. Clinical application:
Tetany: A decrease in ionized serum calcium causes tetany, a state marked by severe, intermittent spastic
contractions of the muscle & by muscular pain. It is manifested by a characteristic spasm of the muscles in
the upper extremity, which causes flexion of wrist & thumb with extension of the fingers.
Rickets: deficiencies in salcium, phosphorus &/or vitamin D are all related to rickets. When adequate.
calcium & phosphorus are not absorbed, proper bone formation cannot take place.
Renal Calculi: The majority of renal stones are composed of calcium. Immobilization of the body
through a cast or other orthopedic device causes an increase in the amount of calcium excreted in urine.
Hyperparathyrodism &hypoparathyroidism: Because calcium & phosphorus metabolism are so
directly controlled by parathyroid hormone, conditions of the parathyroid gland that increase or decrease
the secretion of its hormone will immediately be reflected in abnormal metabolism of these 2 minerals.
As such, dietary calcium intake should be adequate and should not exceed the usual daily allowances.
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3. Food sources of calcium: Dairy products supply the bulk of dietary calcium. Secondary sources such
as egg yolk, green leafy vegetables, legumes & nuts contribute much smaller quantities.
B. Phosphorus:
Phosphorus is closely associated with calcium & both occur in the
o
same major food source - milk.
Both play major roles in bone building & are related to vitamin D in
their absorption process. Both are regulated metabolically by parathyroid hormone, & exist in blood
in definite ratio to another.
o
In addition to these functions related to calcium, phosphorus has
other unique physiological functions that are of clinical importance. These include:
o
Growth: Growing children usually have high serum phosphate levels, probably resulting
from high levels of growth hormone.
State of Recovery from Diabetic Acidosis: results in active carbohydrate absorption &
metabolism that increases the use of phosphorus, resulting in temporary hypophosphatemia.
1. Changes in serum phosphorus level: Situations of pathologic changes in serum P level include:
Hypophosphatemia: Intestinal diseases as sprue & celiac disease in which P absorption is hindered or
bone disease as rickets in which the Ca : P balance is upset, are characterized by low serum P levels.
The serum phosphorus level is also low in primary Hyperparathyrodism, because the excess quantity of
parathyroid hormone secreted results in excessive renal excretion of phosphorus.
Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include muscle weakness, because the muscle cells are deprived of
phosphorus essential for energy metabolism.
Hyperphosphatemia: Renal insufficiency or hypoparathyroidism causes excess accumulation of serum
phosphate. As a result, the calcium side of the Ca : P ratio is low, which causes Tetany.
2. Food sources of phosphorus:
Milk & milk products are the most significant sources of phosphorus. Meat is also a good source.
C. Magnesium:
Magnesium, an essential nutrient, occurs in the body in considerable
o
quantities.
o
P in the bone-salts complex.
o
fluids.
o
carbohydrate & protein.
o
phosphorus level.
o
1. Clinical application:
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D. Sodium:
o
Food sources of sodium: Common salt, is the main dietary source of sodium.
E. Potassium
Like sodium, potassium is a vital mineral element associated with
o
physiologic fluid balance.
o
o
1. Clinical application:
Hyperkalemia (elevated serum potassium): A rise in serum potassium results in weakening of heart
action, mental confusion, poor respiration, & numbness of extremities.
Hypokalemia (low serum potassium): Hypokalemia of dangerous degrees may be caused by a prolonged
wasting disease with tissue destruction & malnutrition, or by prolonged GI loss of K as in diarrhea or
vomiting. Additionally, the continuous use of certain diuretic drugs, as HCTZ increases K excretion.
To prevent complications of cardiac failure, K should be given, especially when K depleting diuretics are used.
2. Food sources of potassium:
o
F. Chlorine
o
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1. Iron deficiency:
Anemia results from either a lack of iron or inability to use it by the body due to one of several causes:
o
o
2. Food sources of iron:
o
Organ meats, especially liver, are by far the best sources of iron.
B. Copper
Broadly speaking, copper seems to behave in the body as a
o
companion to iron.
The two are metabolized in much the same way & share some
o
functions.
Bone formation.
o
supplied.
C. Iodine
o
Deficiency of iodine will cause goiter characterized by great enlargement of thyroid gland
o
plate.
o
iodine,
o
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D. Manganese
o
The best food sources of manganese are of plant origin: cereal bran,
soybeans, legumes, nuts, tea & coffee.
E. Zinc
Zinc occurs in the human body in amounts larger than those of other
o
trace elements except iron.
o
mainly a CO2 carrier in RBCs.
o
1. Clinical application:
o
2. Food sources of zinc: Best food sources of zinc are seafood, meat and eggs.
F. Molybdenum
o
o
o
o
Food source of molybdenum: whole grains milk, leafy vegetables & organ meats.
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B. Chromium
o
It has been speculated that chromium may have a possible link with
chronic disease processes such as CV disorders & diabetes.
Food sources of Chromium: Best food source is meat and whole grains.
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References:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin.
2. https://medlineplus.gov Health Topics
3. www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/195878
4. kidshealth.org/en/teens/vitamins-minerals
5. www.nhs.uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Vitamins-minerals
6. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/list-VitaminsMinerals/
7. www.disabled-world.com/medical/supplements/vitamins
8. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu The Nutrition Source
9. https://www.organicfacts.net/health-benefits/vitamins/vitamins
10.
www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/default.aspx
11.
lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins
12.
www.cvs.com/shop/vitamins/N-3rZieZ2k
13.
https://www.walgreens.com Shop
14.
https://www.honest.com/health-and-wellness
15.
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