Curs Materiale PT Constructii PDF

D nu T.
BABO R
Basic notions
for building
materials
Editura Societa ii Academice "Matei - Teiu Botez"

Bdul. Dumitru Mangeron nr. 43
Director: Prof.univ.dr.ing. Constantin Ionescu
Consilier tiin ific: Conf.univ.dr.ing. Fideliu
P ule - Cr iniceanu
Ia i 2 0 0 5
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Na ionale a Romniei

BABOR, D NU T.
Basic notions for building materials
D nu T. Babor - Ia i : Editura Societ ii Academice
"Matei-Teiu Botez", 2005
Bibliogr.
ISBN 973-7962-70-2
691(075.8)
Scientif ic reviewers:
profes s or. Ciprian D ariescu, Ph.D., ass ociate profess or
Dept. of Theoretical Physics
Al.I. Cuza University, of Ia i
eng. Liviu Groll, Ph.D., ass ociate profess or

Fac ulty of Cons truc tion
G h. A s ac hi Tec hnic al University of Ia i
Comp uterised edited, photos and c over:
eng. D nu T. B abor Ph. D , lecturer
F O RE WO R D
Any material is s ubjected, by

performance dec ay.
Every
material
reac ts
natural laws, to physic al or
entropic ally
to
the
stimulation
of
certain external or internal agents . V ery often, it reac ts eve n

synergic ally, thus affecting the service life of materials.
S o,
t he
bas ic s
not i ons
a b out
physic al
a nd
c h e m ic a l
properties and, als o, the tes ting method involved to determine

thos e c haracteris tics are the base of the construction engineers
k n o w l e d g e.
Autor
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
1.UNITS, MEASURES, & DIMENSIONS
1.1. MEASUREMENTS
1.2. DIMENSIONS, UNITS, AND SYMBOLS
1.3. METRIC SYSTEM vs. "ENGLISH SYSTEM"
1.4. LENGTH
1.5. AREA
1.6. VOLUME
1.7. TIME
1.8. MASS
1.9. FORCE
1.10. W EIGHT
1.11. VELOCITY
1.12. ACCELERATION
1.13. PRESSURE
1.14. DENSITY
..
1.15. TEMPERATURE
..
1.16. ENERGY
..
1.17. HEAT
1.18. CONCENTRATION
1.19. DEFINITIONS TO CHANGE UNITS
..
..
7
7
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
.. 1 6
.. 1 6
17
..
.. .....
.
...
.
.
...
..
.. ..
..
.
. .
..
.
..
..
...
..
..
.
CHAPTER II
2.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2.2 ATOMIC W EIGHTS AND ATOMIC NUMBERS
...
2.3 FORMULA W EIGHT OR MOLECULAR W EIGHT OR FORMULA
MASS OR MOLAR MASS
..
2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
...
2.5 LEW IS STRUCTURES OF THE ELEMENTS
..
2.6. IONS AND THEIR FORMATION
...
2.7. IONIC BONDING
...
2.8. COVALENT BONDING
2.9. METALLIC BONDING
...
2.10. VAN DER W AALS BONDS
...
2.11. SIMPLE AND COMPLEX MOLECULES
...
.. 2 0
22
27
.. 2 9
. 33
. 37
38
. 40
.. 4 3
... 4 6
. 49
CHAPTER III
3.1.TRANSFORMATION OF THE AGGREGATION STATES
... ... 5 2
3.2. RECIPROCAL TRANSFORMATION BETW EEN THE SOLID AND
LIQUID STATES
. 54
3.3. THE CRYSTALLISATION S MECHANISM FROM MELTING

3.4. LIQUID-GAS AND GAS-LIQUID TRANSFORMATIONS
3.5. SUBLIMATION
...
61
63
. 67
..
..
CHAPTER IV
INTERFACE PHENOMENA
4.1. ADSORPTION
4.2. SUPERFICIAL STRESS
4.3. LYOPHILY AND LYOPHOBY
4.4. CAPILLARITY
...
..
... ..
...
..
...
.
68
69
69
71
...
74
76
...
CHAPTER V
DISPERSE SYSTEMS
5.1. DEFININTIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS
5.2. SSOLUTIONS
...
CHAPTER VI
NOTION OF CHEMICAL KINETICS IN THE FIELD OF BUILDING
MATERIALS
6.1. REACTIONS IN HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS
..
.
6.2. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS ....................................... .. .
6.3. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
...
.
. .
6.4. REACTIONS IN HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS
..
6.5. COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS
...
... .
80
83
84
86
92
CHAPTER VII
94
98
112
116
7.1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE BUILDING MATERIALS

...
7.2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
.
.....
7.3. STRUCTURE CHARACTERISTICS
..
.......
7.4. GRANULARITY
....
.....
7.5. CHARATCTERISTICS REGARDING THE BEHAVIOR TOW ARDS
THE ACTION OF THE W ATER
7.6. HUMIDITY W ATER ABSORPTION
..
.
7.7. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
..
.
121
123
140
Bibliography
165
Introduction in building materials
CHAPTER I
1.UNITS, MEASURES, & DIMENSIONS
1.1. MEASUREMENTS
Measurement is the most useful form of description in
science. Often the most useful measurements are those that have a
number and a unit, such as 12.7 inches.' Here '12.7' is the number
and 'inches' is the unit. This unit of inches in the example is one of
the common units in the dimension of length. A number, then, is an
expression in numerals. A unit is a recognized way to divide the
essence of a dimension for measurement, and a dimension is a
measurable physical idea. Here is a bit of advice you can overlook
only at your peril: To become fluent in the subject we should
memorize the basic background of information. The following units,
dimensions, and measures are so basic to the study of Chemistry.
1 .2 .
DIMENSIONS, UNITS, AND SYMBOLS
Notice the symbols of the dimensions as they would be used

in formulas. The basic metric symbol or the symbol of the most used
metric unit is listed after the metric units.
DIMENSION
SYMBOL
LENGTH
S, l, d, r
AREA
VOLUME
TIME
V
t
MASS
FORCE (weight)
VELOCITY
ACCELERATION
PRESSURE
DENSITY
TEMPERATURE
ENERGY
F, Fw
v
a
P
D
T
E
HEAT
CONCENTRATION C**
METRIC
UNITS
SYMBOL
ENGLISH
UNITS
meter (+m.p.)
m
Ft, in,Yd, mi, etc.
sq.meter,
2
sq.Ft, etc., acre
m
etc,hectare
cu.meter, etc., liter m3, L
cu.Ft,cu.in,etc.,gal,Floz.
sec (+m.p.) sec,min,hr,day, yr,etc.(both metric & English)
Kilogram
(+
kg
(slug, rarely used)
m.p.), AMU
Newton (+ m.p.) N
Pound , Oz, etc.
meter/sec,KPH,etc m/sec
Ft/sec, MPH, etc.
meter/sec.sq., etc. m/sec2.
Ft/sec sq., etc.
N/sq.m, atm.,Pa atm,Pa*
N/sq.in (PSI), inHg, etc.
g/cc, Kg/liter, etc. g/cc
g/cu.Ft, Kg/gal, etc.
Celsius or Kelvin C
Fahrenheit or Rankine
Joule (+ m.p.)
J
foot-pound
BTU (British Thermal
calorie (+ m.p.)
cal
Unit)
gram/L,
mol/L,
M
(g/gal or mol/cu.ft,
Molar
Abbreviations: Ft = foot, in = inch, AMU = atomic mass unit, KPH =

kilometers
per
hour,
MPH=miles
per
hour,
gal = gallon , PSI = pounds per square inch, cc = cubic centimeter,

inHg = inches of mercury, Pa=Pascal; m.p. = metric prefixes, cu. =
cubic, sq. = square, atm = atmosphere.
*The unit Pa, for Pascal, is a unit of pressure that is the standard
unit for the SI system, the MKS system in the metric measurements.
The unit of Pascal, however, is rarely used in chemistry. Instead, the
unit "atm," for "atmosphere," is still most used in chemistry.
**The symbol "B" is now the official symbol for concentration in the
SI, but there are still chemistry texts using the "C" as is shown
h e r e ."
The table above lists almost all the dimensions you will need
in this course, the symbol for each dimension as it will be used in
common formulas, and the units of each dimension. Notice
Chemtutor has two systems of measurement displayed that you
should know. There are really two commonly used metric
subsystems. Most chemistry texts will use the MKS system (meter,
kilogram, second) rather than the less-used CGS (centimeter, gram,
second) system. A system is defined by its basic measure of
distance, mass, and time.W e will use the MKS system, also called
the S.I., or International System. The symbol for only the basic unit
of each dimension in the metric system is on the list.
1.3. METRIC SYSTEM vs. "ENGLISH SYSTEM"
The metric system typically uses only one root word for any
basic dimension such as for length, the meter. All the metric units of
length use the root word 'meter' with the metric prefixes . United
States s system is not really a system, but is a thrown-together
mess of measurements with no overriding order. Chemtutor, as
does most of the United States, calls this group of measurements
the English system. You will want to know how to relate the
English System to the metric system. Particularly notice the large
number of units of length in the English system. This is only a small
number of the common ones. There are many little-used English
length units such as the barleycorn (one third of an inch) that may
be picturesque, but are not used today. Notice that we define the
10 Introduction in building materials

barleycorn as a third of an inch. The way to relate one English unit
to another is by definition. Length is the most common
measurement. As a result, it has not only the largest number of
words to describe it, but it also has the largest number of symbols to
represent it in formulas. The English language also uses distance,
long, width, height, radius, displacement, offset, and other words for
length, sometimes in specialized applications.
1.4. LENGTH
A meter is a little longer than a yard, so a meterstick that has
inches on the back of it will has just a bit over thirty-nine inches on
the English side. Typically, on the English side, the inches are
broken into halves, fourths, eighths, and perhaps sixteenths. On the
metric side one meter breaks down into ten decimeters, one
hundred centimeters, and a thousand millimeters.
1.5. AREA
An area is a length multiplied by a length. An area is an
amount of surface. Almost all area units are length units squared,
such as: square meter (m2), square centimeter (cm2), square inch
(in2), etc. The acre and hectare, units of land measurement, are the
only units commonly used that are not in the distance squared area
unit format. An acre is defined as 43,560 square feet, so in using the
unit 'acre' in dimensional analysis, the definition can be used to
relate the acre to other units. Notice the squaring of a unit of length.
A meter multiplied by a meter is a square meter. A foot by a foot is a
square foot, etc.
11
1.6. VOLUME
Volume is length multiplied by length multiplied by length.
You may have heard that volume is length times height times width,
but it means the same thing. You may think of a volume as the
space inside a rectangular (block-shaped) fish tank. Volume is the
measure of an amount of space in three dimensions. Because
volume is such a common type of measurement, it is unique in that
it has two types of commonly used root word in both metric and
English systems. The metric roots are liter and cubic meter. The
English system also uses cubic length and an extensive array of
units that are not in the cubed length format. Again, analagously to
area measurements, a cubic meter is a meter multiplied by a meter
multiplied by a meter, and a cubic foot is a foot by a foot by a foot.
1.7. TIME
Time is also a bit odd in its units. In both systems the units of
less than a second are in the metric style with prefixes before the
second. Time units of more than a year are in a type of metric
configuration because they are in multiples of ten. (Decades,
centuries, millennia, etc.) The dimension of time is messy for good
reason. The more commonly used time units from day to year are all
dependent upon the movement of the earth. The unit of 'month,'
particularly if it is directly related to the moon, is useless as an
accurate unit because it does not come out even in anything.
Having sixty seconds in an hour and twenty-four hours in a day
come about from the ease of producing mechanical clocks.

1.8. MASS
Mass is an amount of matter. Mass has inertia, which is the
tendency of matter to stay where it is if it is not moving, or to keep
moving at the same rate and direction if it is already moving. You
could measure mass by an inertial massometer. Visualize a metal
strip held tightly on one end and twanged," or given a push to make
it vibrate on the other end. It has a natural pitch to vibrate. If you
were to put a mass on the end of that strip, you would change the
pitch of the vibration. The change of pitch would make it possible to
calculate the mass of the added object. This measurement of mass
is completely independent of gravity, the way we often weigh a
mass by comparing the push or force of the mass on a surface.
Mass is a more accurate way of thinking of amount of matter
compared to weight. The metric system is mass-based whereas the
English system thinks in weight. Consider that an astronaut in near
earth orbit has no weight because the gravitational attraction
cancels inertia, but the mass of the astronaut remains the same.
The metric root word of mass is the gram. Notice the difference
between the root word, gram, which is the basis for adding metric
prefixes, and the system base of kilogram, the mass unit of the S.I.
metric system.
1.9. FORCE
A force is a push or a pull. Those simple words are the best
definition of a force under our limited experience. A force can not be
seen or heard directly, so it is a bit of a difficult concept beyond the
13
simple definition. Having basic metric units like 'kilogram-meter per

second squared' make the idea of force hard to think about using
that tool also.
1.10. WEIGHT
W eight is a downward force due to the mass of an object and
the acceleration of gravity. The English system can conveniently
use the idea of weight to measure amount of material because there
is very little difference in the acceleration of gravity over the surface
of the earth. There are certainly other forces besides gravity.
Magnetism produces a force. Electric charge produces a force.
1.11. VELOCITY
Velocity is a complex dimension. The unit of velocity is a
combination of more than one type of basic dimension. A velocity is
a distance per time. The word 'per' here means 'divided by,' and
distance divided by time is not only the definition of velocity, but it is
the easy way to remember the velocity formula, v = d/t. Velocity also
has the name of rate. You might know the same formula as, rate
times time equals distance.
Here s where we could start
complicating the math by using calculus, but we won t. If you are

taking a course that requires calculus, the math is only slightly
different, but the basic ideas behind it are the same.

1.12. ACCELERATION
An acceleration is just another step down the same road as
velocity, that is, acceleration is a distance per time per time, or,
another way to see it, distance per time squared. An acceleration is
a time rate of change of velocity. If something changes its velocity, it
has an acceleration. An acceleration causes an increase or
decrease in speed or a change in direction. Newton and Einstein
identified gravity as an acceleration. Gravity has a fairly consistent
amount of acceleration on the surface of the earth, that is 32 ft./sec2
or 9.8 m/sec2. As you can see, the acceleration of gravity, g, can
substitute for the a of acceleration in the formulas below when the
acceleration is due to gravity.
1.13. PRESSURE
A pressure is a force per area. You can almost see the
pressure of the wind on a sail. The pressure of the wind is the same,
so the larger the area of the sail, the greater the force of the wind on
the ship. Pressure unit definitions that we need for this course
revolve around the unit atmosphere because historically the
pressure was first measured for weather.
1.14. DENSITY
Density is mass per volume, weight per volume, or specific
gravity, which is the density of a material per the density of water.
Metric system densities are usually in the units of mass per volume,
such as kg/L (kilogram per liter) or g/cm3 (gram per cubic
15
centimeter). English densities are usually in weight per volume,

such as Po/gal. (pounds per gallon) or Po/ft3 (pound per cubic foot).
Specific gravity has no units (!) because it is a comparative
measurement. Specific gravity is the density of a material compared
to the density of water. Expressing density as specific gravity shows
neither system
1.15. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a bit more subtle dimension. W hat we really
measure is the average velocity of the atoms or molecules in the
material. One way to measure it is by the expansion of a liquid in a
very small tube. This is the shape of a liquid (usually mercury or
alcohol) in a thermometer. The Fahrenheit scale is still not a bad
one for use with weather. Scientists are more likely to use the
Celsius or Centigrade scale. Gas law calculations require the Kelvin
scale because it is an absolute scale. The other absolute scale,
Rankine (pronounced rank-in ), is useful for teaching purposes, but
is not in common use.
1.16. ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work. A Joule, the metric unit of
energy is a kilogram- meter- square- per- second- square. Both of
those ideas can be difficult to wrap your mind around. The easier
way to think of energy is perhaps by its various types. You should
have an intuitive feeling that a fifty pound rock held above your head
has more energy of position in a gravitational field than the same

fifty pound rock by your feet. A rubber band pulled back has more
spring energy than a lax one. A speeding train has more energy of
movement than a still one. W e usually value petroleum not for its
beauty, but for its chemical energy content. Energy is transferable
from one type to another, but is not lost or gained in changes.
1.17. HEAT
Heat is a form of energy. It is the energy of the motion of
molecules. Even though heat and energy are fundamentally the
same di mension, we measure and calculate them differently. W e
define a calorie (note the lower-case 'c') as the amount of heat that
increases the temperature of a gram of liquid water one degree C.
The BTU, the English unit of heat, is the amount of heat that
increases the temperature of a pound of liquid water one degree F.
A food Calorie (note upper case 'C' ) is one thousand heat calories
of usable food energy. That is, the food Calorie reflects the type of
living thing eating AND USING the energy. So the food Calorie
depends on the type of (animal) eating it. A cow or a termite could
get much more food value from a head of lettuce than a human
being can, so what is a Calorie for us would be different for them.
1.18. CONCENTRATION
Concentration is amount of material in a volume. In this
course, we will stay mostly with measuring the amount of solute in a
solution. There is more on this in the chapter on solutions, and we
really need to explain the idea of mol or mole before a thorough
17
explanation of concentration can mean much.

Notice the formulas in the table below. Some of the simple ones we
use in this course only for practice with problem-solving techniques
and for defining the units and dimensions. There are a few items in
the formulas that have not been mentioned yet, such as c, the
specific heat; n, the number of mols; and R, the universal gas
constant. These we will consider in context as we use them.
FORMULAS
A=ll
a = v/t
PV=nRT
V=lll
a = d/t2
Q=mc T
V=Al
P = F/A
vt=d
CV=n
F = m a ( Fw = m g)
D = m/V (D =Fw/V)
Circle Area, Ac = r2 . Cylinder Volume = Vc = Ac l = r2 l
A formula is a relationship among dimensions. The symbols for the

dimensions in the formula list are in the dimension list. Note the
capitalization or lack of it in the symbols, for instance, V = volume
and v = velocity; C = concentration and c = specific heat, etc. Also,
there are some letters written after and slightly under a symbol
called a subscript. Subscripts indicate a special case of the symbol,
as you see above with the area of a circle being represented by the
A for area and a subscript c for circle.
1.19. DEFINITIONS TO CHANGE UNITS
There are three types of definitions you should know for
changing
units,
English
system
definitions,
metric
system
definitions, and changeover definitions between the two systems.

Chemistry and you will see the incredible number of non-metric

units.
ENGLISH SYSTEM DEFINITIONS
1 ft. = 12 in.
1 gal. = 4 qts.
1 gal. = 231 in3
1 mi. = 5280 ft.
1 cup = 8 Floz.
1 pint = 2 cups
2
1 acre = 43560 ft
METRIC PREFIXES AS FACTORS OF TEN

FACTOR
+18
+15
+12
+9
+6
+3
+2
+1
0
-1
-2
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
PREFIX
SYMBOL
exa
E
peta
P
tera
T
giga
G
mega
M
kilo
k
hecto
h
deka
da
*ROOT WORD ONLY*
deci
d
centi
c
milli
m
micro
nano
n
pico
p
femto
f
atto
a
A FEW ODD METRIC DEFINITIONS

1 metric tonne = E3 kg
1 mL. = 1 cc = 1 cm3
1 ngstrom = E-10 m
1 cubic meter = 1000 L
1 qt. = 2 pints
*1 ft3 = 7.48 gal.
*not an exact def.
19
A cook might want a conversion factor between cups and

liters. A doctor or pharmacist might want a conversion factor
between grains and grams. The conversion between inches and
centimeters is an exact one by definition, but the others are not. The
conversion from metric mass to English weight must be done
assuming the acceleration of gravity is one g.
Particularly in the section on gases you will need the
following pressure units:
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 33.9 ftH2O = 14.7 PSI = 30 inHg
Abbreviations: atm = atmosphere, mmHg = millimeters of mercury,
PSI = pounds per square inch, ftH2O = feet of water, inHg = inches
of mercury. The unit feet of water is not common, but included
because it can be useful. For every hundred feet below the surface
of water the pressure increases about three atmospheres. The
running equation above (It just keeps going!) shows the common
pressure units. You can use it to change between any two of the
units, for example: 760 mmHg = 14.7 PSI.
The official SI unit of pressure, the Pascal, Pa, is not often
used in chemistry because it is such a small unit. One atmosphere
is about equal to 100,000 Pascals, or you could say that one
atmosphere is approximately equal to 100 kPa..More exactly, 1 atm
= 1.01325 E5 Pa = 101.325 kPa.
CHAPTER II
2.1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Etymology of "atom"
The word "atom" is derived from the Greek atomos,
"indivisible", from a-, not, and tomos, a cut. Until the 19th century
and the development of the Bohr model,, it was believed that atoms
were tiny, indivisible particles.
An atom is a microscopic structure found in all ordinary
matter around us.
Atoms are composed of 3 types of subatomic particles:
v electrons, which have a negative charge;
v protons, which have a positive charge; and
v neutrons, which have no charge.
Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry, and
are conserved in chemical reactions. An atom is the smallest
particle differentiable as a certain chemical element; when an atom
of an element is divided, it ceases to be that element. Only 90
elements have been identified as occurring naturally on Earth
although some elements (for example, technetium and californium)
have been identified in supernovae.
Each element is unique by the number of protons in each atom of
that element. Every atom has a number of electrons equal to its
21
number of protons; if there is an imbalance, the atom is called an

ion. Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of
neutrons, as long as the number of protons or electrons does not
change. Atoms with different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes of a chemical element.
Other elements have been artificially created, but they are
usually unstable and spontaneously change into stable natural
chemical elements by the processes of radioactive decay.
Though only 90 naturally occurring elements exist, atoms of
these elements are able to bond into molecules and other types of
chemical compounds. Molecules are made up of multiple atoms; For
example, a molecule of water is a combination of 2 hydrogen and
one oxygen atoms.
Because of their ubiquitous nature, atoms have been an
important field of study for many centuries. Current research focus
on quantum effects, such as in Bose-Einstein condensate.
It is generally known that - as a result of their chemical
composition, structure and aspect - building materials have different
characteristics, however, all of them are simple or complex
compounds of atoms.
Atoms have a complex structure, being made of a nucleus
and of an electron shell.
All the matter around you is made of atoms, and all atoms
are made of only three types of subatomic particle, protons,
electrons, and neutrons. Furthermore, all protons are exactly the

same, all neutrons are exactly the same, and all electrons are
exactly the same. Protons and neutrons have almost exactly the
same mass. Electrons have a mass that is about 1/1835 the mass
of a proton. Electrons have a unit negative charge. Protons each
have a positive charge. These charges are genuine electrical
charges. Neutrons do not have any charge. Even more outrageous
is the shape of the atoms with the three subatomic particles. The
neutrons and protons are in the center of the atom in a nucleus. The
electrons are outside the nucleus in electron shells that are in
different shapes at different distances from the nucleus. The atom is
mostly empty space. Ernest Rutherford shot subatomic particles at
a very thin piece of gold.
Most of the particles went straight
through the gold. It was like shooting a rifle into a thin line of trees.
Some of the particles bounced off, some stuck inside, but the major
portion of them passed through the gold foil. Almost all the mass of
an atom is concentrated in the tiny nucleus. The mass of a proton or
neutron 1,6727 x10-24 grams or one AMU, atomic mass unit. The
mass of the neutron is1,675x10-24 grams. The mass of an electron
is 9,108x10-28 grams. This number is a billionth of a billionth of a
billionth of a gram. It is not possible for anyone or any machine that
uses light to actually see a proton using visible light. The
wavelength of light is too large to be able to detect anything that
small.
2.2. ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND ATOMIC NUMBERS
The integer that you find in each box of the Periodic Chart is
23
the atomic number. The atomic number Z is the number of protons

in the nucleus of each atom. Another number that you can often find
in the box with the symbol of the element is not an integer. It is
oversimplifying only a little to say that this number is the number of
protons plus the average number of neutrons in that element. This
number A is called the atomic weight or atomic mass.
The protons and neutrons, constitutive elements of the
atoms' nucleus, are called nucleons.
So :
The atoms' nucleus are characterized by:
- the "A" weight number, equal to the number of nucleons
present in a nucleus (protons + neutrons)
- the "Z" atomic number, equal to the number of protons
in the nucleus.
The atoms' quantum model is based on the fact that, around
the nucleus, at well - defined distances, the electrons forming the
pulsatory electronic cloud - having a non-uniform density on a radial
direction rotate.
The electrons are 9.108 weight particles (1/183 of the
proton's weight), with a negative electric charge equal to that of the
proton's.
How can it be that an element must have an averaged atomic
weight? The number of protons defines the type of element. If an
atom has six protons, it is carbon. If it has 92 protons, it is uranium.
The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an element can be
different, though.

W e visualize the simplest atom
that of hydrogen
as
consisting of a positively charged nucleus (the proton) with a single,

negatively charged particle (the electron) in orbit around it (Figure
2.1.a). The mass of the proton is about 2000 times that of the
electron and the assembly, in its normal state, is electrically neutral.
Helium has two protons and two electrons; these two atoms
represent rather special cases. The next element, lithium, has 3+, 3but these are arranged now in another shell (Figure 2.1.c).
FIGURE 2.1.
Schematic illustration of the atomic structures of the first three
elements of the periodic table.
And so the periodic table of the elements is built up. And so the
periodic table of the elements is built up. For reasons which need not
concern us here, a structure of particular stability arises when the
outermost shell contains eight electrons. The order of filling the
various shells is complex and has its origins in the sophisticated
concepts of quantum physics. Suffice it to say that these octets, as

they are known, are found in neon, argon, krypton, xenon etc.
inert gases, so called they are just that.
Suppose now we take the atom of sodium. Its structure

is shown as 2-8-1 electrons (Figure 2.2). Clearly it can realize
the octet urge by losing an electron.
25
th e

FIGURE 2.2 Schematic representation of ionic bonding
It is then left with a surplus positive charge and is known as
a n io n
in this case a positive ion. Chlorine on the other hand has
shells of 2-8-7 electrons and the octet urge can be satisfied if it

accepts an electron to become a negative ion.
The outermost electrons determine the valency
th a t i s to
say the number of electrons forming bonds. In the above case,

sodium is said to have a valency of 1 and the chemical formula for
sodium chloride is NaCl, since chlorine, being able to accept one
electron, also has a valency of 1. Oxygen, however, has six
valence electrons and needs to borrow two. Since sodium can only
donate one we obtain Na2O. Magnesium has two valence electrons
and so the chemical formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl2 and
for magnesium oxide MgO. The logic is, or should be, obvious,
though it is not always quite so simple since some atoms, such as
iron, can exhibit more than one valency.
Carbon 12 is the commonest type of carbon. Carbon 12 has
six protons (naturally, otherwise it wouldn t be carbon) and six
neutrons. The mass of the electrons is negligible. Carbon 12 has a
mass of twelve. Carbon 13 has six protons and seven neutrons.
Carbon 14 has six protons and eight neutrons. Carbon 14 is
radioactive because, as other atoms with the wrong percentage of
neutrons to protons, it is unstable. The nucleus tends to pop apart.
The proper ratio of protons to neutrons is about one to one for small
elements and about one proton to one and a half neutrons for the
27
larger elements. Types of an element in which every atom has the

same number of protons and the same number of neutrons are
called isotopes. Carbon 14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon. Any
carbon 14 that was made at the time the earth was formed is now
almost all gone. Carbon 14 is continuously made from high energy
electromagnetic radiation hitting nitrogen atoms in the ozone layer
of the earth. This carbon 14 when taken into plants as CO2 will also
be taken into animals. W e can find out how much carbon 14 that
normally is in a living plant or animal and from there we can find the
actual amount of carbon 14 left in a plant or animal long dead. W e
can get a very good idea of how long ago that plant or animal was
living from the amount of carbon 14 remaining in the dead body.
This process is called carbon dating. The stable, non-radioactive
isotopes of carbon play no part in this. As a whole element, carbon
has a more or less fixed proportion of the various carbon isotopes.
For this reason, we can determine a weighted average of the
isotopes for all elements. On a periodic chart you may see some
atomic weights that are integers or in parentheses. These are
usually on the very large or very rare or very radioactive elements.
That is not really an integer atomic weight, but the atomic weight
has been estimated to the nearest integer.
2.3. FORMULA WEIGHT OR MOLECULAR WEIGHT OR
FORMULA MASS OR MOLAR MASS
Now with the atomic weight information we can consider
matching up atoms on a mass-to-mass basis. Let s take hydrogen

chloride, HCl. One hydrogen atom is attached to one chlorine atom,
but they have different masses. A hydrogen atom has a mass of
1.008 AMU and a chlorine atom has a mass of 35.453 AMU.
Practically speaking, one AMU is far too small a mass for us to
weigh in the lab. W e could weigh 1.008 grams of hydrogen and
35.453 grams of chlorine, and they would match up exactly right.
There would be the same number of hydrogen atoms as chlorine
atoms. They could join together to make HCl with no hydrogen or
chlorine left over. If we take one gram of a material for every AMU of
mass in the atoms of just one of them, we will have a mol (or mole)
of that material. One mol of any material, therefore, has the same
number of particles of the material named, this number being
Avogadro s number, 6.022 E 23.
The formula weight is the most general term that includes atomic
weight and molecular weight. In the case of the HCl, we can add the
atomic weights of the elements in the compound and get a
molecular weight. The molecular weight of HCl is 36.461 g/mol, the
sum of the atomic weights of hydrogen and chlorine. The unit of
molecular weight is grams per mol. The way to calculate the
molecular weight of any formula is to add up the atomic weights of
all the atoms in the formula. CuSO45H2O is copper II sulfate
pentahydrate. The formula has one copper atom, one sulfur atom,
nine oxygen atoms, and ten hydrogen atoms. To get the formula
weight of this compound we would add up the atomic weights.
Copper II sulfate pentahydrate is not a molecule, strictly speaking,
but you will hear the term molecular weight used for it rather than
29
the more proper formula weight.' Since the unit of formula weight is
grams per mol, it makes good sense to use the formula weight of a
material as a conversion factor between the mass of a material and
the number of mols of the material.
2.4. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The electrons move around the nucleus, over a space known
as orbital, and also around their own axis, a movement called spin.
The atoms' electronic shell includes a number of electronic
layers, each one characterized by a "n" main quantum number that
may take values from 1 to n, and defining the energetic level of the
layers, conventionally noted - starting from the nucleus to the
exterior - by K ...
A maxi mum number of 2n electrons may be found in a layer
on
each
electronic layer
there
exist
electronic sublayers,
characterized by an "i" orbital quantum number defining the

electron's energy and the shape of the electronic cloud; the
maxi mum possible number of electrons in a layer is 2; the sublayers
are noted by s,p..... The electronic sublayers are divided into atomic
orbital or energetic states characterized by a "m" magnetic quantum
number defining the spatial orientation of the electron.
An electron is characterized by four quantum numbers (the
principal, the orbital, the magnetic and, respectively, the spin
quantum number); in an atom there may exist two or more electrons
with identical values of the four quantum numbers (W .P.'s exclusion
principle).

On the last lever of the atoms' energy [a] maxi mum [number
of] four electrons may occur, for atoms with an unique electronic
layer and maxi mum eight electrons for the atoms having several
electronic layers.
The existence of eight electrons on the last energetic level, or
of two electrons in the case of atoms with a single energetic level is
defined as closed electronic configuration.
The atoms characterized by a closed electronic configuration
have a [well-] balanced structure, stable under normal conditions.
If the last energetic level does not have the number of
electrons corresponding to a close electronic configuration, a
tendency towards completion or fielding of electrons appears, for
the realization of either the doublet or the octet; such atoms are
capable of being combined chemically.
The number of electrons fielded, accepted or put in common
by the atoms, for the realization of the closed electronic
configuration is called valence.
The chemical substances formed of a single type of atoms,
with the same atomic number, are called chemical elements or
elements.
A hydrogen atom has only one proton and one electron. The
electron of a hydrogen atom travels around the proton nucleus in a
shell of a spherical shape. The two electrons of helium, element
number two, are in the same spherical shape around the nucleus.
The first shell only has one subshell, and that subshell has only one
orbital, or pathway for electrons. Each orbital has a place for two
31
electrons. The spherical shape of the lone orbital in the first energy
level has given it the name s orbital. Helium is the last element in
the first period. Being an inert element, it indicates that that shell is
full. Shell number one has only one s subshell and all s subshells
have only one orbital. Each orbital only has room for two electrons.
So the first shell, called the K shell, has only two electrons.
Beginning with lithium, the electrons do not have room in the
first shell or energy level. Lithium has two electrons in the first shell
and one electron in the next shell. The first shell fills first and the
others more or less in order as the element size increases up the
Periodic Chart, but the sequence is not immediately obvious. The
second energy level has room for eight electrons. The second
energy level has not only an s orbital, but also a p subshell with
three orbitals. The p subshell can contain six electrons. The p
subshell has a shape of three dumbbells at ninety degrees to each
other, each dumbbell shape being one orbital. W ith the s and p
subshells the second shell, the L shell, can hold a total of eight
electrons. You can see this on the periodic chart. Lithium has one
electron in the outside shell, the L shell. Beryllium has two electrons
in the outside shell. The s subshell fills first, so all other electrons
adding to this shell go into the p subshell. Boron has three outside
electrons, carbon has four, nitrogen has five, oxygen has six, and
fluorine has seven. Neon has a full shell of eight electrons in the
outside shell, the L shell, meaning the neon is an inert element, the
end of the period.
Beginning again at sodium with one electron in the outside

shell, the M shell fills its s and p subshells with eight electrons.
Argon, element eighteen, has two electrons in the K shell, eight in
the L shell, and eight in the M shell. The fourth period begins again
with potassium and calcium, but there is a difference here. After the
addition of the 4s electrons and before the addition of the 4p
electrons, the sequence goes back to the third energy level to insert
electrons in a d shell.
The shells or energy levels are numbered or lettered,
beginning with K. So K is one, L is two, M is three, N is four, O is
five, P is six, and Q is seven. As the s shells can only have two
electrons and the p shells can only have six electrons, the d shells
can have only ten electrons and the f shells can have only fourteen
electrons. The sequence of addition of the electrons as the atomic
number increases is as follows with the first number being the shell
number, the s, p, d, or f being the type of subshell, and the last
number being the number of electrons in the subshell.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10
6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
Electron configuration is the "shape" of the electrons around
an atom, that is, which energy level (shell) and what kind of orbital it
is in. The shells were historically named for the chemists who found
and calculated the existence of the first (inner) shells. Their names
began with "K" for the first shell, then "L," then "M," so subsequent
energy levels were continued up the alphabet. The numbers one
through seven have since been substituted for the letters. The
electron configuration is written out with the first (large) number as
33
the shell number. The letter is the orbital type (either s, p, d, or f).
The smaller superscript number is the number of electrons in that
orbital.
The octet rule states that atoms are most stable when they
have a full shell of electrons in the outside electron ring. The first
shell has only two electrons in a single s subshell. Helium has a full
shell, so it is stable, an inert element. Hydrogen, though, has only
one electron. It can lose an electron to become H+, a hydrogen ion
or it can gain an electron to become H-, a hydride ion. All the other
shells have an s and a p subshell, giving them at least eight
electrons on the outside. The s and p subshells often are the only
valence electrons, thus the octet rule is named for the eight s and p
electrons.
2.5. LEWIS STRUCTURES OF THE ELEMENTS

Examine the Sideways Periodic Chart W ith Electron Shell
Numbers again. All of the Group I elements and hydrogen (the top
row of the chart) have one and only one electron in the outside
shell. That single electron is what gives these elements the
distinctive character of the group. The Lewis structures are just an
attempt to show these valence electrons in a graphic manner as
they are used to combine with other elements. The element symbol
is in the center and as many as four groups of two electrons are
shown as dots above, below, to the right and left of the element

symbol to show the valence electrons. All of the inert gases (noble
gases) have all eight of the electrons around the element symbol,
except for helium, which has only two electrons even with a full
shell. Below is a demonstration of the noble gases written in Lewis
structure. Notice the electrons are in red just to emphasize them.
All the other elements have less than eight electrons in the
outside shell. These electrons can be in the positions of the eight
electrons of the noble gases, but there are some suggestions about
where they belong. The Group I elements have only one electron in
the outer shell, so it really does not matter where the electron dot is
placed, over, under, right or left of the element symbol.
Group II elements have two electrons. Some authors will

place the two electron dots together on any side of the element
symbol because the electrons really are in an s sub shell together.
Some authors will show the electrons separated from each

other in any of the two positions with only one electron in each
35
position. The reasoning behind that is that the electrons really do try
to move as far away from each other as possible.
Boron and the elements below it on the periodic table all

have three electrons in the outside shell. These electrons may be
grouped as each electron alone in one of the positions around the
element symbol or as a group of two (s) electrons in one position
and one electron in another. Boron is usually shown with separate
electrons because it bonds mostly covalently. Covalent bonds, we
know from the shape of molecules, tend to blend the s and p sub
shells into sp orbitals with one s and one p orbital blended, sp2
orbitals with one s and two p orbitals blended, or sp3 orbitals, using
the single s orbital with all three p orbitals. The sp2 orbitals of boron
tend to be flat trigonal shape, that is, the bonds are at 120 degrees
from each other in a flat circle around the boron atom in the center.
The Lewis structure of boron is any of the shapes below.
Carbon and the elements below it have four electrons in the

outer shell. Carbon and silicon are usually shown in Lewis
structures to have four separated electrons, again because these

elements bond purely with covalent bonds. The sp3 orbitals of
carbon and silicon are tetrahedral in shape.
Nitrogen and the elements below it have five electrons in the

valence shell, so they must be shown with one pair (anywhere) and
three solitary electrons.
Oxygen and the elements below it have six valence electrons

and so must have two pairs and two solitary electrons.
Elements in the halogen group, Group VII, all have seven

electrons in the outer shell, so only there are three groups of two
and a single electron in the last position.
The transition elements and the Lanthanide and Actinide

series elements are not often used in the covalent bonds that the
Lewis structures usually portray, but these metal elements can be
portrayed in this manner using the number of electrons in the outer
shell that corresponds with the valence of the element.
37
In using the Lewis structures to show covalent bonds, the pair of

electrons that are in the bond are shown as a dashed line. For
example, ammonia would be shown with the bonds from the
nitrogen to the hydrogens and the unshared pair of electrons on the
nitrogen.The covalent bond dash is in red in the above sketch also.
Notice that the electrons from all of the participants in this molecule
are all accounted for.
2.6. IONS AND THEIR FORMATION

The atoms which do not have a doublet or octet of electrons
on their last energetic layer have the tendency of forming a closed
electronic configuration of their own, either by fielding or collecting
electrons.
If the atoms have - on their last energetic level - a number of
1,2 or 3 valence electrons, then field electrons, remaining with the
closed electronic configuration from the inferior level of energy.
The atoms fielding the electrons from the last energetic level
form the positive ions (remaining with a number of positive electric
charges equally non-balanced with the number of fielded electrons);
the elements formed of such atoms are called electropositive
elements.
The atoms having a number of 5,6 or 7 valence electrons an

the last level of energy show the tendency of completing their last
energetic level.
The atoms picking up electrons for the formation of a closed
electronic configuration on the last level of energy form the negative
ions (the atoms possess additionally unbalanced negative electric
charges); the elements having such characteristics are called
electro-negative.
Some elements, characterized by low weight and four
valence electrons (such as carbon is) show no tendency of fielding
or picking up electrons; they form the electro-neutral elements.
2.7. IONIC BONDING
If an atom (A) with one electron in the outermost shell meets
an atom (B) with seven electrons in the outermost shell, then both
can attain the octet structure if atom A donates its valence electron
to atom B. However, in so doing, the electrical neutrality of the
atoms is disturbed: A, with an extra electron, becomes a negatively
charged ion and B becomes a positively charged ion.
The two ions are then attracted to each other by the
electrostatic force between them and an ionic compound results, the
strength of the bond being proportional to eAeB/r where eA, eB are
the charges on the ions and r is the interatomic distance.
The bond is strong, as shown by the high melting point of
ionic compounds, and its strength increases, as might be expected,
where two or more electrons are donated. Thus the melting point of
sodium chloride, NaCl, is 801C; that of magnesium oxide, MgO,
39
where two electrons are involved, is 2640C; and that of zirconium

carbide, ZrC, where four electrons are involved, 3500C. Since the
total numbers of electrons and protons in the lattice are the same as
those of the individual atoms, the lattice is electrically neutral. The
ionic bond is also non-directional: that is to say, when a crystal is
built up of large numbers of ions, the electrostatic charges are
arranged symmetrically around each ion, with the result that A ions
tend to surround themselves with ions of B and vice versa (see
Figure 2.3). The pattern adopted then depends on the relative sizes
of A and B ions, I.e. how many B ions can be comfortably
accommodated around A ions whilst preserving the correct ratio of
A ions to B ions in the lattice.
FIGURE 2.3
Non-directional nature of the ionic bond: A- ions surrounded by B+

ions, B+ ions surrounded by A- ions. This particular arrangement,
where each species of ion taken by itself lies on the sites of a facecentred cubic structure.
Being electrostatic in its nature, the ionic link, is not rigid, the
ions thus linked having no fixed positions one versus the other.
The building materials with electrovalent links show low
mechanical resistance, figh deformations to mechanical stresses,
specific breaking, low chemical stability, a.s.a.
2.8. COVALENT BONDING
An obvious limitation of the ionic bond is that it can only occur
between different atoms, and therefore it cannot be responsible for
the bonding of any of the solid elements. W here both atoms are of
the electron acceptor type, octet structures can be built up by the
sharing of two or more valence electrons between the atoms.
Thus, to take a simple instance, two chlorine atoms can bond
together and achieve the octet structure by each contributing one
electron to share with the other atom. The interaction may be
written:
W here two electrons are required to make up the octet, the
interaction may either be: as in the oxygen molecule, or as in one
form of sulphur, where there is an obvious
tendency for the atoms to form up in long chains.
41
Structurally, the elements showing covalent bonding obey

what is known as the 8 - N Rule. This states that the number of
nearest neighbours to each atom is given by 8 - N where N is the
number of electrons in the outermost shell. Thus chlorine IN = 7)
has no nearest neighbour and so the atoms pair off as diatomic
molecules; with sulphur, selenium and tellurium (N = 6) long chains
occur; with arsenic, antimony and bismuth IN = 5) sheets of atoms
occur, and with carbon IN = 4) we get a three-dimensional network.
Atoms with values of N less than 4 cannot show covalent bonding
with their own species, since they would require five nearest
neighbours, but have only three electrons available for making up
the shared bonds.
The structures are shown schematically in Figure 3.4, and it
will be seen that only carbon gives a three-dimensional pattern in
which all the bonds are covalent. This reveals the major structural
difference between ionic and covalent bonding: the covalent bond,
unlike the ionic bond, is saturated by the individual atoms
participating in it.
Thus the chlorine molecule is structurally self-sufficient and
there is no extension of the covalent bonding between molecules.

Similarly, the chains of sulphur and the sheets of bismuth are really
large molecules but there is little bonding between the chains or
sheets. The result is that the covalent elements (which effectively
means the non-metallic elements) have poor physical strength, not
because the covalent bond itself is weak, but because, with the
exception of diamond, they do not form a three-dimensional lattice.
In fact, the hardness and high melting point of diamond (3500C)
show that the covalent bond is
extremely strong. Covalent bonding is not limited to elements ;
many compounds are covalent, some simple examples being HCI,
HID, CH4 and NH3. A large number of compounds show partly ionic
and partly covalent bonding, e.g. sulphates such as Na2S04 in which
the sulphate ion is covalently bonded whilst the bond to the sodium
is ionic.
FIGURE 2.4.
43
Schematic structures of elements conforming to the 8 - N

rule. la) Chlorine (N = 7): individual molecules; 16) tellurium (N = 6):
spiral chains; (c) antimony (N = 5): corrugated sheets; Id) diamond
(N = 4): three-dimensional crystal.
The vast field of industrial polymers is also predominantly
concerned with covalent compounds. Individual bonds may exhibit
hybrid qualities akin to both ionic and covalent bonding; although in
the pure form the two bond types represent different modes of
linkage, there is in fact no sharp line of demarcation between them.
W hen elements of high valency combine to form ionic compounds
(e.g. the nitrides and carbides of the transition elements), the donor
ion may lose three, or even four, electrons to the acceptor ion. The
result is a strong polarizing pull exerted by the donor ion on the
electrons of the acceptor ion, so that the electrons are sucked back
towards the donor and spend more time between the two ions than
circling each individually. The bond thus acquires some of the
characteristics of the covalent linkage. Compounds of this sort are
usually extremely hard and have very high melting points, since they
combine in some degree the strength of the covalent bond and the
non-directionality of the ionic bond.
2.9. METALLIC BONDING
The basis of the modern theory of metals was laid as long
ago as the year 1900 when Drude and Lorenz put forward the freeelectron theory of metals. This suggested that in a metallic crystal
the valence electrons are detached from their atoms and can move

freely between the positive metallic ions, as shown in Figure 2.5.
FIGURE 2.5
Schematic 'free-electron' structure for a monovalent metal. In
the absence of an electric field the electrons are in ceaseless
random motion, but the overall distribution remains uniform over any
period of time.
The positive ions are arranged in a space lattice, and the
electrostatic attraction between the positive ions and the negative
free electrons provides the cohesive strength of the metal. The
linkage may thus be regarded as a very special case of covalent
bonding, in which the urge to attain the octet grouping is satisfied by
a generalized donation of the valence electrons to form a cloud
which permeates the crystal lattice, rather than by electron sharing
45
between specific atoms (true covalent bonding) or by donation to

another atom (ionic bonding).
Since the electrostatic attraction between ions and electrons
is non-directional, i.e. the bonding is not localized between
individual pairs or groups of atoms, metallic crystals can grow easily
in three dimensions, and the ions can approach all neighbours
equally to give maxi mum density of structure.
Crystallographically, these structures are known as closepacked ; they are geometrically simple by comparison with the
structures of ionic compounds and naturally occurring minerals, and
it is this simplicity that accounts in a large part for the ductility of the
metallic elements.
This theory explains the high thermal and electrical
conductivity of metals. Since the valence electrons are not bound to
any particular atom, they can move through the lattice under the
application of an electric potential, causing a current flow, and can
also, by a series of collisions with neighbouring electrons, transmit
thermal energy rapidly through the lattice. Optical properties are
also explained by the theory. If a ray of light falls on a metal, the
electrons (being free) can absorb the energy of the light beam, thus
preventing it from passing through the crystal and rendering the
metal opaque. The electrons which have absorbed the energy are
excited to high energy levels and subsequently fall back to their
original values with the emission of the light energy; in other words
the light is reflected back from the surface of the metal, and we can
account for the high reflectivity of metals.

The ability of metals to form alloys (of extreme importance to
engineers) is also explained by the free-electron theory.
Since the electrons are not bound, when two metals are
alloyed there is no question of electron exchange or sharing
between atoms in ionic or covalent bonding, and hence the ordinary
valency laws of combination do not apply.
The principal limitation then becomes one of atomic size, and
providing there is no great size difference (see page 58), two metals
can often form a continuous series of alloys or solid solutions from
100% A to 100% B. The Drude theory has been extensively
modified since it was first proposed - only about I% of the valence
electrons are in fact sufficiently free to absorb thermal energy - but
the modifications are primarily concerned with conductivity and need
not be further considered here.
The metallic links being not space-oriented and having a
special mobility, the atoms transformed into ions occupy positions
that generate the most compact and poorest in energy (dense)
structures, characterized by increased plasticity (modification of
form during mechanical stresses, without structural deformations).
The presence of free electrons confers to metals specific
peculiarities, such as electric and thermal conductivity, light
absorption, luster, etc.
2.10. VAN DER WAALS BONDS
The three strong primary varieties of linkage between atoms
all occur because of the need for atoms to achieve a stable electron
47
configuration. However, even when a stable configuration exists

already, as in the case of the inert gases, some sort of bonding
force must be present since these elements all liquefy and ultimately
solidify, albeit at very low temperatures.
Bonds of this nature are universal to all atoms and
molecules, but are normally so weak that their effect is negligible
when any primary bonds are present. They are knows as Van der
W aals bonds, and are one reason why real gases deviate from the
ideal gas laws. They arise as follows.
Although in Figure 2.6 we represented the orbiting electrons
in discrete shells, the true picture is that of a cloud, the density of
the cloud at any point being related to the probability of finding an
electron there. Such a picture implies that the electron charge is
spread around the atom, and over a period of time the charge may
be thought of as symmetrically distributed within its particular cloud.
FIGURE 2.6
W eak Van der W aals linkage between atoms arising from fluctuating
electronic fields.
The V der W forces are determined by the initial attraction
between the electrons of one molecule's elements and the nuclei of
atoms belonging to a neighboring molecule, being not wholly
compensated by the repulsive forces between electrons and,
respectively, nuclei.
Fig 2.7. - Diagram of the V der W . forces

Figure 2.7. plots schematically the character of the V der W
forces. The repulsion forces are very strong when the molecules
49
contact each other, then decrease with the increase of the distance
between molecules; consequently, the interaction (the resultant of
the repulsion and attraction forces) - as an attraction force attain a
maxi mum when the molecules get closer, then decrease rapidly,
being transformed into repulsive forces, the distance between
molecules corresponding to the "d0" zero resultant characterized the
spatial structure of each substance.
The size of the V der W forces increases with the number
of electrons from the molecules' elements and, respectively, with the
molecular weight.
The V der W forces induce attraction between the
molecules of the real gases, assure cohesion of liquids and of the
crystalline solid state with the molecular networks, determine the
molecular substances' melting point, explain liquids' condensation
and decrease of the solidification points, etc.
2.11. SIMPLE AND COMPLEX MOLECULES
Structure of simple molecules
The most simple molecular structures are the symmetrical and
linear ones: monatomic - the noble gases, diatomic - natural gases ,
triatomic formed by symmetrical covalent links and, respectively
triatomic ones formed by un-symmetrical covalent links (fig. 2.8.)
Fig.2.8. Structure of complex molecules

Complex molecules have much more intricate structure formed of a
first action area with a central atom, to which are linked-through coordinate links
several atoms, group of atoms or simple molecules,
forming together a complex ion around which - on a second action

area -, ions of reverse sign are spread uniformly, in a sufficient
number, so that to balance the charge of the complex central ion
(fig. 2.9).
51
Fig. 2.9. Structure of the complex molecules

The number of particles on the first action area of the
central atom is defined as co-ordination number, which may vary
from 2 to 12; the most frequently met complex combinations have
the co-ordination number 4 or 6.
CHAPTER III
3.1.TRANSFORMATION OF THE AGGREGATION STATES
A substance
may
occur
(in nature) in
different
aggregation states, as depending on temperature, pressure, specific

volume - which represent the main parameters of states,
conditioning its internal energy.
+ Temperature is the physical parameter characterising
the thermal condition (the degree of heating) of a body found in a
state of thermodynamic equilibrium..
The measuring unit for temperature is - according to the
International System - the Kelvin degree (K); in everyday practice
the Celsius degree (C) is also applied.
*
Pressure is the parameter of state numerically equal to the
force developed by the particles of a surface gas marking the limits

of the volume it occupies.
The measuring units currently used for pressure are:
- pascal (Pa) = N / mm2
- physical atmosphere (atm) = 1,013.105 Pa
- torr ( one mm colon of Hg) (torr) = 1,33.105 Pa
- barr = 105 Pa

*
53
The specific volume is the state parameter numerically
equal to the rate between the part from the space available to a gas
and the gas' weight.
The measuring unit for the specific volume is m3 / kg.
In 1885, Le Chatelier formulated the principle of
constraint according to which, exercising of a constraint upon a
system in equilibrium causes its movement, as that the constraint
should be minimum. A system's constraint involves modification of
one of the parameters that assure the equilibrium, when modifying
the aggregation states (temperature, pressure, specific volume).
W hen increasing a substance's temperature, the Kinetic
energy also increases - the amplitude of the particles' motion
increases - , the equilibrium being shifted towards the state
characterised by several possibilities of the particles' motion; the
solid state is shifted to the liquid state (vibration and translation with
higher amplitude than that of solids), while the liquids are
transformed into gases, known as offering the highest liberty of
movement.
Instead on reducing the temperature, the kinetic energy
decreases, which induces transformations in the reverse direction,
namely gas - liquid - solid.
As
state
parameter,
pressure
conditions
the
concentration of particles per unit of volume, which influences the

liberty of movement. Consequently, the principle may be formulated
according to which, under conditions of increased pressure, more
stable will be the state with a lower specific volume and, therefore, a

higher pressure.
Shifting of a substance from one aggregation state into
another is called chance of the aggregation state or change of
the physical state.
3.2. RECIPROCAL TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN THE SOLID
AND LIQUID STATES
The solid-liquid and liquid-solid transformations occur as

the result of temperature's modification; as a state parameter
participating to such transformations, pressure is not manifested,
once these states are characterised by a constant volume.
Nevertheless, pressure conditions the temperature at which the
transformations occur.
The solid-liquid transformation is called melting while the
liquid-solid one solidification.
Solidification
of
substances
which,
under
normal
conditions of temperature, occur in liquid state, is called freezing.

The solid-liquid and liquid-solid transformations do not
obey the same rules; they are manifested different in the case of
crystalline and, respectively, amorphous solids, for extreme rates of
temperature variation.
55
Fig. 3.1. - Solid-liquid and liquid-solid transformations

W hen heating the solids, the particles' kinetic energy
increases, which results in an increased distance between them and
in the reduction of the possible returning to a position of equilibrium;
the attraction forces between particles become lower and a local
reorganisation of the solid's structure may be observed.
At melting temperatures, the attraction forces are as low
that they can no longer maintain the particles in the former
equilibrium positions, as that the structure is destroyed and the
substance passes into a liquid.
a) Melting and solidification of crystallised solids
Under normal conditions, melting of a crystallised solution
occurs at well determined temperature, called melting temperature
(t - figure 3.1.a), which remains constant during the (process of)
melting.
The melting temperature depends on the pressure at

which melting occurs. Melting and solidification represent opposite
phenomena occurring at the same temperature on conditions that
pressure is the same.
At melting temperature (solidification) the solid and liquid
states are in equilibrium mode (figure 3.1 a and a1).
b) Melting and solidification of amorphous solids
Amorphous solids are shifted from a solid to a liquid state
over a certain temperature interval (figure 3.1. b and b1) a dipping
purees being involved. The amorphous state is much closer to the
liquid state, melting being possibly seen as a modification of
viscosity - once known that the solid passes a very high viscosity,
which decreases with increasing temperature.
A special situation occurs with solidification accompanied
by temperature's rapid decrease, when the liquid state may be
maintained below the solidification temperature (Figure 3.1.b) as an
instable state, rapidly destroyed on stirring, in the presence of a
crystal, etc., when temperature raises very quickly up to the
solidification temperature. If the under-cooled state is not destroyed
or if the cooling rate is very high , the liquid's viscosity increases
rapidly, the particles loose their mobility and solidification occurs,
accompanied by the formation of an amorphous structure (which
explains the definition given to them, of sub-cooled liquids).
Melting
and
solidification
ar e
accompanied
by
modifications of volume; usually, melting assumes volume increases

while solidification brings about volume reductions, which may be
57
explained by the different inter-particle distances characterising the

two aggregation states.
Exceptions nevertheless exist - such as in the case of
water or cast iron, when solidification is accompanied volume
increases; in the case of water, the explanation leis in the hydrogen
bonds known as producing agglomerations.
W ater's increase in volume during solidification (freezing)
with about 10% (Figure 3.2.) represents actually a shortcoming for
building materials - which may be destroyed in such cases;
however, the phenomenon is of special importance for assuring life
in lakes and streams (once ice - lighter than water - floats on it,
assuring also thermal isolation of the depth water which no longer
freezes).
Figure 3.2. Volume variation in the case of freezing water

Experimentally, it has been shown that, in the case of
substances whose volume increases on melting, the melting
temperature
increases
with
raising
pressure;
instead,
with

substances whose volume decreases as a result of raising
pressure.
Ice
3.3.a Icicles
3.3.b
A natural ice block in Iceland

Ice is the solid form of water.. The phase transition occurs
when liquid water is cooled below 0 C (273.15 K,, 32 F)) at
standard atmospheric pressure.. Ice can be formed at higher
temperatures in pressurized environments, and water will remain a
liquid or gas until -30 C at lower pressures. Ice formed at high
pressure has a different crystal structure and density than ordinary
ice.
Ice, water, and water vapor can coexist at the triple point,
which for this system is 273.16 K at a pressure of 611.73 Pa.
An unusual feature of ice frozen at a pressure of one
atmosphere is that the solid is some 8% less dense than liquid
water. Ice has a density of 0.917 g/cm at 0 C, whereas water has
a density of 0.9998 g/cm at the same temperature. Liquid water is
most dense, essentially 1.00 g/cm, at 4 C and becomes less
59
dense as the water molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals

of ice as the temperature drops to 0 C. (In fact, the word "crystal"
derives from the Greek word for frost.) This is due to hydrogen
bonds forming between the water molecules, which line up
molecules less efficiently (in terms of volume) when water is frozen.
The result of this is that ice floats on liquid water, an important factor
in Earth's climate..
As a crystalline solid, ice is considered a mineral..
A.
Types of ice
3.4. Snow flakes by W ilson Bentley, 1902

Everyday ice and snow is ice Ih, or hexagonal ice. Subjected
to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in
roughly a dozen different phases. Only a little less stable
(metastable) than Ih is cubic structure ice (Ic). But cooling Ih causes
a different arrangement to form in which the protons move, XI.
With both cooling and pressure more types exist, each being
created depending on the phase diagram of ice. These are II, III, V,
VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X. W ith care all these types can be recovered at
ambient pressure. The types are differentiated by their crystalline
structure, ordering and density. There are also two metastable
phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen disordered, these
are IV and XII. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. As well as crystalline
forms solid water can exist in amorphous states as amorphous solid
water (ASW ), low density amorphous ice (LDA), high density
amorphous ice (HDA), very high density amorphous ice (VHDA) and
hyperquenched glassy water (HGW ).
Note: In addition to these real variants of ice, a fictional "ice-nine" is featured in
Kurt Vonnegut's novel Cat's Cradle. Real Ice IX does not have the properties of
Vonnegut's fictional ice-nine (i.e. the ability to freeze all water on Earth with the
introduction of one granule).Rime is a type of ice formed by fog freezing on cold
objects. It contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather
than transparent, and giving it a density about one quarter of that of
pure ice.
Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in appearance, as
water drips and re-freezes.
61
Clathrate hydrates are forms of ice that contain gas molecules

trapped within its crystal lattice. Pancake ice is a formation of ice
generally created in areas with less calm conditions.
Some other substances (particularly solid forms of those usually
found as fluids) are also called "ice": dry ice, for instance, is a
popular term for solid carbon dioxide.
Ice is a common metaphor for things that are cold, hard, and clear in
some way; for instance, "ice" is a colloquial term for diamond, and
also for some forms of the drug amphetamine.
3 .3 .
THE
CRYSTALLISATION S
MECHANISM
FROM
MELTING
Is well known that solidification mode depends on the
speed of cooling and on the chemical nature of the melting. At a
rapid cooling, the substances
solidification is realised in a
amorphous state.
If an liquid solidified by a moderate cooling, without subcooling phenomena, near the solidification s temperature, the
molecular associates from the liquid increase, becomes stable and
form centres of crystallisation or
crystallite (figure 3.5. with
plane representation of the phenomena) which could be founded in

all the melting s mass. W hen the solidification temperature is
obtained the particles are disposes around the crystallite, along the
axes of the future crystal, realised dendrites (figure 3.5.b). At the
cooling of the metal melting the tendency of the crystallisation is so

pronounced, so that at the melting s surface the dendrites could be
observed with free eyes. In time, at the solidification s temperature,
the melting s particles occupied the places between the dendrite s
ramifications - filling regular the voids - so that the crystal take the
full shape in all direction.
figure 3.5. The crystallisation in solutions

Following the crystallisation process in all the mass of the
melting, in the first phase, the crystallite are reached in all the mass
of the melting (figure 3.6.a) and from these are formed the dendrites
and around the dendrites are formed the isolated crystals (figure
3.6..b) that grow up continuum until the moment when meet
another dendrites. Because the meeting between crystals is
randomise, the development of the crystals is stopped on the
random contact surfaces, so that in crystallised solid which is
formed by the melting, are not seen crystals with regulate shape
(ideal), but are seen granular crystals, with irregular shape. The
63
structure of each grain is regular, that is characteristic of crystalline

state. This denotes the isotropic characteristics of the grainy
crystalline structures (rocks, metals, a.s.o.)
Figure 3.6. The crystallisation in all the mass of the melting

3.4. LIQUID-GAS AND GAS-LIQUID TRANSFORMATIONS
The liquid-gas and gas-liquid transformation occurs on
the variation of all state parameters (temperature, pressure, volume
of weight unit) among which reciprocal conditioning exist.
a) The liquid-gas transformation
+ The process of a substance shifting from liquid into
fazes state, within a limited volume, is called vaporisation.
+ Shifting of a liquid in vapour state only thought the
liquid's free surface, within an unlimited volume (in the
open) is known as evaporation.
Under certain conditions of pressure and temperature, it
may be possible that the number of particles which evaporate
should be equal to the number of particles returning to liquid state
(condensation). In such situations, the vapours and the liquid are in

dynamic equilibrium.
*
The vapours found in dynamic equilibrium with the liquid
from which they come are defined as saturated vapours.

*
The pressure to which, at a certain pre-determined
temperature, the dynamic equilibrium is attained, is called pressure

of the saturated vapours. (pVS)
*
The vapours whose pressure is lower than that of the
saturated vapours are called unsaturated vapours.

Under conditions of vaporisation, saturated vapours may
be obtained, which is not possible in the case of evaporation. If a
liquid is subjected to heating, the air absorbed by the liquid in the
form of agglomerations (bubbles) increases the volume in which the
liquid is vaporised, in the form of saturated vapours.
W hen the bubbles' volume is sufficiently high they over
come the liquid's viscosity and raise to the free surface, where they
are destroyed, the process of cooking being thus produced.
*
Cooking is a process of evaporation occurring within the
whole liquid's weight, the temperature at which the liquid remains

constant being defined as cooking temperature.
Cooking begins only when the pressure of the saturated
vapours within the bubbles becomes equal to the external pressure
(on the liquid's free surface). The cooking temperature increases
with the increase of the external pressure.
b) The gas-liquid transformation
Shifting of a liquid from gaseous to liquid state is called
condensation, if the substance's normal state is the liquid one, and
65
liquefaction, if the substance in its normal state is a gas.

Condensation
may
be
attained
by
dropping
the
temperature, or as the result of the contact with cold surfaces

(during collisions with cold particles, the gaseous particle field their
energy) - according to W ald's principle of the cold W all. Among the
main practical applications of the gas-liquid transformations, special
mention should be made of distillation, liquefaction, attaining of low
temperatures, etc.
*
Distillation represents the partial vaporisation of a
liquid, followed by vapours' condensation and collecting of the liquid

thus formed.
In figure 3.7. are shown the transformation curve liquidgases, through compression, for different temperatures (Andrew s
curves).
Figure 3.7. The Andrew s curves

W e could observe that the transformation is produced by
bringing the vapours in saturated state (characterised by constant
pressure pVS), that passes in liquid state by volume decrease
(inverse proportional with temperature). For a well known
temperature the transformation gases-liquid by compresses is not
possible. It is defined a critical temperature, (the maximum
temperature at which a substance in gaseous state could passes in
liquid state through compresses).
Liquefaction may be performed by lowering temperature
increasing pressure, reduction of the gas volume - all these
parameters being reciprocally inter-conditioned.
Liquefaction may be performed by several procedures, as
follows:
*
isothermal compression of the gas, at a temperature

below the critical one; the method is applied to easyto-liquefy gases (having a high critical temperature)
such as carbon di oxide and ammoniac.
concurrent cooling and compression; cooling is

performed with either ice or another liquefied gas.
stepwise cooling (the K-O method), involving gradual

liquefaction of permanent gases, such as: oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen.
Temperature of the condensation point

*
The temperature of the condensation point is the
67
temperature at which wet air should be cooled, at constant

pressure, for the saturation of the water vapours.
The phenomenon is very important, conditioning the
comport of the built spaces and protecting the building elements
against humidity. W hen the temperature of the dew point lies within
a building element or on its inner side, the vapours grown the built
space will condense and be collected in/on the building elements in
the form of drops.
3.5. SUBLIMATION
Vaporisation of the solid bodies is called sublimation.
For certain so lid substances, under condit io ns o f raised
temperature, vapours are formed prior to the so lid's liquefaction; when the
pressure of the saturated vapours equals the atmospheric pressure, the
solid-gas transformation occurs at the temperature of the environment.
CHAPTER IV
INTERFACE PHENOMENA
4.1. ADSORPTION
The disequilibrium of forces in which the molecules at the
interface of two substances are found induces different effects in
their structures. Consequently, in the structure of substances with
higher cohesion forces, molecular pressure occurs. At the same
time, the non-equilibrium cohesion forces oriented towards the
interface will attract (towards them) the molecules from substances
with lower cohesion forces, so that the concentration of the
substance is higher than in the rest of the space it occupies.
The physical phenomenon of attraction of a substance's
molecules at the interface with other substance, as a result of the
cohesion
forces
disequilibrium,
is
called
adsorption
or
physiosorption.
Thus, the substance possessing higher cohesion forces,
which therefore causes adsorption, is called adsorbant, while the
substance being attracted at the interface is called adsorbate.
The adsorption's effect decreases quickly, in the
adsorbate's structure, with the increase of the distance at the
interface. The forces performing adsorption are of the Van der
W aals type, so that, with the modification of the physical
parameters, the phenomenon may be reversible.
The phenomenon of the adsorbate's removal off the
69
adsorbant's surface is called desorption.

Chemosorption
or
chemisorption
represents
th e
substance's selective (chemical) adsorption.

4.2. SUPERFICIAL STRESS
As a result of the action induced by the resultant of the
adsorbant - adsorbate forces, the adsorbant's superficial layer tends
to reduce its surface. As, on the directions within the interface, the
cohesion forces between molecules are reciprocally equilibrated
(between the molecules of the same substance), the superficial
layer will behave like an elastic membrane.
The force acting tangentially at the interface of two
substances, on a 1 meter long straight line, is called superficial
surface stress. In the case in which both substances in contact are
liquid, the force is called interfacial stress.
4.3. LYOPHILY AND LYOPHOBY
If a drop of liquid is found on the surface of a solid, the
system being found in a gas (figure 4.1), in the point of a contact of
th e
three
aggregation
states
(A),
th e
superficial
stresses
corresponding to the solid-gas (ag), solid-liquid (sl) and liquid-gas

(lg) interfaces, will be manifested.
Figure 4.1. Lyophily and Lyophoby

The equation expressing the equilibrium forces (stresses)
in this point, will be:
sg = sl + lg cos
The resultant of superficial stresses, in the triple point of
contact, is called force of adhesion to the solid.
= sg ( sl + lg cos )
The degree is called wetting degree and is the
variable parameter in order to obtain the equilibrum which is
expressed by equation bellow. So, for minim , must be satisfied
the following relation:
0, if sg > sl;
180, if sg < sl.
The notion of legophily defines the solid's affinity
towards the liquid (the liquid wets the solid), and it is attained when
the wething angle is below 90.
The notion of lyophoby defines the lack of the solid's
affinity towards the liquid (the liquid does not wet the solid), and it is
71
attained when the wetling angle takes values over 90.

If the liquid utilized is water, the phenomena described
are called hydrophily and hydrophoby.
4.4. CAPILLARITY
If a liquid is found in a tube made of a solid material, the
molecules of liquid contacting the solid will tend to be shifted, on its
surface, in the direction of the force of adhesion to the support
(figure 5.2.).
Once known that there molecules are linked throught the
superficial stress, to the molecules from the superficial layer and,
respectively, through the forces of internal cohesion, to the
molecules from the liquid's structure, their motion, will draw the
whole column of liquid on the tube's wall.
In such situations, two phenomena will take place,
namely:
the surface of the liquid in the tube will get the shape
of a meniscus
the liquid column will be shifted, in the tube, in the
direction of the force of adhesion to the solid.

In the case of lyophily, the meniscus will be concave,
while the liquid column will go up the tube; in the case of lyophoby,
the meniscus will be convex, while the liquid column will go down
th e tu b e .
Ffigure 5.2. The Capillarity:

det.A - in the case of
det.B - in the case of
the lyophily
the lyophoby
The ascending height (h) or, respectively descending, of

the liquid column, in tube is named capillarity height, and is realized
73
at the equilibrium between the adding force at solid () and

hydrostatically pressure of the liquid:
d 2
d =
gh
4
from where results that
h=
14
dg
where:
d = tubes diameter
= liquids density
g = gravitational acceleration
5. Liquids miscibility
As a result of interfacial surface, the interface of two
liquids behaves as an impermeable membrane for the molecules of
liquids.
Liquids' miscibility expresses the capacity of the
molecules of two liquids of being reciprocally diffused one into
another.
CHAPTER V
DISPERSE SYSTEMS
5.1. Definitions and classification
In nature, substances are usually found in mixtures, thus
forming systems of substances.
Individual substances, defined from a chemical point of
view, forming a system, are called the system's components.
Therefore, the components define the system as to its
chemical composition.
T he
physically
homogeneous
and
distinct
parts,
separated - in the system - among them through defined surfaces

are called the system's phases.
Therefore, the phase defines the part of the system that
may be physically individualized.
For example:
*
the mixture of a liquid with its vapours (during boiling)

constitutes a system with a component and two
phases.
the mixture of two gases or of two miscible liquids

forms a system with two compounds and a phase
the mixture of two non-miscible liquids or of a liquid
75
and a gas (carbogaseous water) forms a system with

two compounds and two phases, etc.
The systems with only one phase, the components of
witch can not be physically individualized (observed) are called
homogeneous systems.
The systems with two or several phases, in which the
surfaces of separation between parts may be observed by physical
means, are called heterogeneous systems.
In a system, the preponderant part (the continuous part)
is called dispersing phase or dispersium medium, while the part
which is dispersed in it is called dispersed phase or dispersoide.
Table 5.1. Classification of systems according to the dispersoide's

dimension
Dimension of the
dispersoide
(m)
< 10-9
10-9 ... 10-7
> 10-7
Type of system
System s name
homogeneous
heterogeneou
solution
colloid
suspension
The specific surface of a dispersoide represents the

surface of all particles resulting through division of a cm3 of
compact substance.
Table 5.2. The variation of specific surface according to divization

degr ee
The
The total
Dimension of
Numbers of
the grain [cm ] cubes obtained surface of the corresponding
grains (m2)
through
disperse
divization
system
-4
1
1
6 x 10
3
-1
6 x 10-3
10
10
M
M
M
suspensions
12
-4
6
10
10
15
-5
6 x 10
10
10
M
M
M
colloids
3
21
-7
6 x 10
10
10
21
-7
solutions
6 x 103
10
10
5.2. Solutions
Solutions represent homogeneous disperse systems in
which the dispersoide is constituted of small molecules, atoms or
ions (< 10-7 cm).
In solutions, the compound constituting the dispersion
medium is called solvent or dissolving agent, while the dispersed
compound is called solute, solvate or dissolved agent.
Dispersion
is
performed
through
th e
solute's
dissolution into the solvent, a phenomenon occuring by different
77
mechanisms, as depending on the aggregation states and also on

the nature of the compounds' chemical links. As to the components'
aggregation states, the main situations that may be met are
illustrated in following table:
Table 5.3. Aggregation states
Solvent
Solute
Symbol
Name
gas
gas
G-G
gas mixtures
gas
G-L
liquid
L-L
solid
S-L
gas
G-S
(alloys)
liquid
L-S
solid solutions
solid
S-S
liquid
solid
5 .2 .1 .
The
Mechanism
liquid solutions
of
Solid
Substances'
dissolution in Liquid Solvents
The mechanism of solids' dissolution in liquids depends

on the nature of the links between the solid (solute) and the liquid
(solvent).

W hen the solvent utilized is water, solids' dissolution
involves two stages (figure 5.3.):
*
the former are, called hydratation, consists in

attracting water's dipole molecules by the structural
units of the solid s network.
in the latter stage, known as hydrolysis, the

network's links are broken and the solute's structural
units diffuse in water, being surrounded by its
molecules.
The phenomenon of ions' occurrence, in solution, as a

result of a solute's dissolution, is called electrolytic dissociation,
while the solute substances causing such a phenomenon are
defined as electrolytes.
ionic network
molecular network
Figure 5.3. The solid disolvation in water

5.2.2. Solutions' concentration
The solution's concentration represents the value of the
ratio established between the number of solute parts and the
79
number of solution parts (or, sometimes, of solvent parts) in which

the solute is dissolved.
The maximum concentration a solution may attain is
defined
as
saturation
concentration,
while
th e
solution
characterized by such a parameter is called saturated solution.

The saturation concentration of a solute in a solvent,
under pre - established conditions of temperature and pressure,
defines the solute's solubility in the respective solvent.
temperature
Figure 5.4. Variations of solubility according by the

temperature
CHAPTER VI
Notions of chemical kinetics in the field of building materials
T he
processes
causing
transformations
of
some
substances into other substances, with different characteristics, are

called chemical reactions.
The substances involved in the reactions are defined as
reactants, while the substances resulted from a chemical reaction
are called reaction products; the weasel, the device or installation
in which the chemical reactions are developed is called a reactor.
According to the reactants' characteristics, the chemical
reactions may be classified into:
Reactions in homogeneous systems, in which the reactants

are found in gaseous state, in solution or in miscible liquids (the
mi xture of reactants form a single phase).
Reactions in heterogeneous systems, when the reactants are

found in different aggregations states, either as solids or as nonmiscible liquids.
6.1.Reactions in homogeneous systems
The occurrence of a chemical reaction involves, besides

the direct contact between the reactants' particles, the condition that
they should be found in a richer in energy state (an active state); the
81
particles' excess of energy, necessary for the production of the

chemical reaction, is called activation energy, which can be
transmitted to the reactants by various forms, such as:
* through heating, thermo-chemical reactions;
* by means of electricity - electrochemical reactions
* in the presence of light - photochemical reactions
* through bombardment with unclear particles - nuclear
reactions
* by means of some chemical substances - catalysis chemical reactions
The physical sense of the activation energy is the
following: let us suppose that the energy of the reactants' particles is
E, while the energy of the reaction products at the end of the
chemical reaction is Ep; the difference of energy E - Ep = E
represents the reaction's thermal effect.
For the reaction's development, the reactants' particles
should attain energy Ea, called barrier of energy, which is higher
than the energy of reactants E; the Ea - Er difference represents the
reaction's activation energy.
- in the case Er > Ep (fig. 5.1.a.) the diference Ea - Er < Ea
- Ep the reaction passes with heating, the exothermal reaction.
- in the case Er < Ep (fig. 5.1.b.) with the difference Ea - Er
> Ea - Ep, for a good reaction is neccesary a plus of energy , the
endotherme reactions.
Figure 6.1. - The physical sense of the activation energy.

The reaction's rate
The rate of reaction defines the development of chemical

reactions in time, and depends on the reactants' chemical nature,
concentration of reactants and of the reaction products, temperature
and pressure at which the reaction occurs, the presence of
catalysis, a.s.a.
The reaction rate may be appreciated by the reactants
concentration of the reaction products (increasing with time).
The mathematical expression of the reaction rate by
means of which the chemical nature of concentration is evaluated is:
V=
dc
dt
( 6 .1 .)
where:
sign - expresses diminishing of the reactants'

concentration
83
sign + expresses increase of the reaction products'

concentration
The rate of a chemical reaction is diversely proportional

with the con-centration of the substances involved in the reaction
(the law of weights' action).
6.2. Types of chemical reactions
The most frequently met chemical reactions are:

a) Reactions of synthesis, of the A + B = C form, such
as oxidation, combinations of halogens, polymerisation and addition
reactions;
b) Reactions of decomposition
*
simple: of the A = B + C form; e.g. decomposition of the
monomolecular substances during heating - also known as thermal

dissociation - ( CaCO3 CaO + CO2);
* . reactions of double decomposition, of the A + B C
+ D form; they include reactions of hydrolysis, saponification,
substitution, polycondensation;
c) Reactions of neutralisation - occurring when strong
acids react with strong bases (NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O);
d) Reactions of hydrolysis, representing the opposite of
the neutralisation reactions, in which water may decompose a salt in
the base and acid form which it was formed. The number of salts

formed of a weak acid and a strong base, or of a strong acid and a
weak base may be hydrolysed at normal temperature, the reactions
being nevertheless stopped in a state of intermediary equilibrium
(Na2CO3 + H2O NaOH + NaHCO3; FeCl3 + 3H2O Fe(OH)3 +
3HCl). The salts formed of strong bases and strong acids hydrolyse
only at high temperatures, in the presence of water vapours.
e) Reactions of substitution, such as substitution of the
anion of a salt with another anion resulted from a strong acid, or
substitution of a kathion with another kathion, from a stronger base
(Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2CO3 ; NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl +
NH4(OH)).
6.3. Chemical equilibrium
The chemical reactions are not performed in all cases in

a single sense (from reactants to the reaction products) and also
between reaction products occurs interactions with reactants
formations, so that occur the reversible reaction of the A + B C
+ D form.
The reversible reactions are being in both sense until
an chemical equilibrium occur.
The reaction rates could be written, in tis case, as
follows:
- for reactants
V1 = k1 [A]a [B]b
- for reaction products V2 = k2 [C]c [D]d

where k1 and k2 are rates constants.
85
If analysed the rates of reaction, we observed that V1 will

decrease in time and V2 will increase; the rates V1 and V2 varying in
contrary sense will follows at a certain time that V1 = V2 and we can
compute the follows:
k1 [A]a [B]b = k2 [C]c [D]d
k1 [ C] c [D] d
k= = a
k 2 [ A] [B] b
( 6 .2 .)
where k = the equilibrium s constant, and the relation
(6.2.) is mathematical expression of the law of weights' action.
The displacement of the chemical equilibrium in
homogeneous systems it is realised taking into account the Le
Chatelier s
principle,
th e
perturbations
factors
being
the
concentration, the temperature and the pressure.

The concentrations
influence about the chemical
equilibrium is contents in the law of weights
action. The
displacement of the chemical equilibrium, in this case, could be

realised by decreasing the concentrations until the reactants are
formed; the vanishing of reaction products could be realised by
volatilizeting as a measure of heating when the products are
volatile, by precipitation in case when the products are hardly
soluble.
The temperature influenced the chemical equilibrium at
the reactions that are accompanied with absorption or degassing of
heat, these being exothermic in a sense and endothermic in other
sense. The equilibrium is moving to a sense through other by

heating or cooling.
The pressure determine the displacement of the
chemical equilibrium only at the reactions between gases which are
followed by volumes variations. So, the increase of the pressure
permit the reactions with volumes increase.
6.4. Reactions in heterogeneous systems
In heterogeneous systems, at which the phases are in
different aggregations states and does not dissolved one in other or
are in the same aggregation state but non-miscible, the chemical
reactions are preceded by interfaces phenomenon (adsorption,
chemosorbtion) between with activation of the particles (caused by
the superficial tensions differences).
At the chemical reactions in heterogeneous systems
(caused by the interface phenomenon), the reaction products are
inserted between phases forming an skinny layer.
The separations surface nature between phases, formed
by reaction products, determined the ulterior course of the reactions,
as follows (figure 6.4.1):
87
Figure 6.4.1. - The sketch of the reactions in heterogeneous

systems
a) the layer formed by reactants (C) is soluble in one of
the phases; The reaction goes on until the exhaustion of the
reactant which is found in a smaller quantity (fig. 6.4.1.a. in which
the reactant B is founded in smaller quantity);
b) the reaction product (C) is insoluble but permeable for
an reactant or much permeable for one of the reactants; the reaction
continue until the exhaustion of the reactants less permeable or of
the reactant in smaller quantity (fig. 6.4.1.b.); the insoluble layer (C)
in both phases (A) and (B) is much permeable for the reactant (A)
which is in greater quantity. this case explain the oxidation of the
Ferro in air, the reaction product Fe2O3 (rusty) insoluble in in ferro
and in air is permeable for the oxygen from air so that the reaction
continue until the exhaustion of the Ferro, the oxygen from the air
being in greater quantity.
c) the reaction product (C) is insoluble and impermeable
for both reactants, the reaction stopped at the formation of a skinny

layer, adherent and impermeable (fig. 6.4.1c.). An typical case for
this type of reaction constitute the metals covering with oxides
(such as Al2O3 at aluminium) that of the form of the adherent layer,
impermeable, very skinny that constitute an protector layer.
The chemical reactions in heterogeneous systems are
influenced (over the layers nature from the reaction products and
the aggregation state in which are the reactants), also by:
a) reactions in systems formed by a single gaseous
phase and a liquid phase;
As follows a gases diffusions, in system formed by a
gaseous phase and a liquid phase, the reactions has, usually, a
reaction rate big enough if doesn t formed a i mpermeable layer
(from the reaction products).
b) reactions in systems formed by two liquid phases nonmiscible;
These reactions occurs when the liquid reactants are
unmiscibles and with different densities, that goes to phases
separation and at occurring of a contact surface, that is smaller in
comparison with reactants masses.
c) reactions in systems formed by a gaseous or liquid
phase and a solid phase;
This type of reactions occurs in numerous processes
from building materials industry or in the building exploitation (in
special corrosion processes).
In the system solid - gas, applied to building materials,
occurs a various types of reactions, as follows:
89
reducing the metallic oxides with helping the carbon

oxides ;
MeO + CO;
Me + CO2;
Me2O3 + CO; 2Me + 3CO2;
the material corrosion in atmosphere ;
the burning of coal ;
the action of humidity and a CO2 from air over the lime ;
d) chemical reactions in systems formed from two
different solids phases;

Between solid states the chemical reactions depends on
a series of structural factors, of medium (temperature), by rates of
diffusion a.s.o., but all of these provided on many intermediate
phases (figure 6.4.2.)
Figure 6.4.2 . - The transformation of chemical reaction in a

system formed from two solid phases
If two solid phases comes in contact and the temperature
is sufficiently , it s formed an intermediate layer of reaction products
(C) (fig. 6.4.2.a.). W ith increasing of temperature one of the
reactants diffused on the layer formed by the reaction products. In
this phase of the reaction, the particles of the reaction products are

random arranged (fig. 6.4.2.b.). Only continuing of heating and
increasing of temperature permits the ordinate arrangements of the
reaction products (fig. 6.4.c.) as a consequence of particles
mobility.
In order to obtain a crystallised solid from the particles of
reaction particles is necessary to realise a heating to a certain
temperature but also an minimum ti me of heating. If we follows to
obtain a intermediate structure (richer in energy) for reactants we
limits the heating time.
In order to obtain the cement, the prime matter form
through heating CaO (C), SiO2 (S) actives from chemical point of
view and that reacts in solid medium formi ng 2CaO.SiO2, in this
case CaO diffused through the product formed realising the reaction
(figure 6.4.3.)
Figure 6.4.3. - The reaction CaO - SiO2 in solid medium

Increasing the reactions rate, in heterogeneous system
formed by solid phases, could be realised in follows conditions:
a) by increasing the specific surface
b) realising a good contact between the particles of
components
c) heating the amount at higher temperatures
91
d) the reactions rate is bigger if the preparation of the

reactants it is done at low temperature.
Figure 6.4.4. - Osmotic Cell

The osmoses explain some aspects of the biologic
processes (from the cells point of view,) and of the action of
chemical substances in the corrosion of the (hardened binders).
The vapours pressure of a solution is already smaller
over that of the pure solvent.
Taking into account the Raoult s law (1877), the relative
decreasing of the vapours pressure of a dilute solution is directly
proportional with the molar ratio of the solute from the solution; it is
independent by the temperature and by the nature of the solute.
Like a consequence of the vapours pressure decreasing,
the boiling point of the liquid solution will be greater and the

solidification point will be reduce, taking into account the respective
point of the pure solvent.
The Raoul s law meaning :
th e
decreasing
of
th e
solidification
poi nt
is
proportional with the solutions concentration, and
the equimolecular quantities of different substances,

dissolved in equals quantities from the same solvent,
produces the same decrease of the solidification
point.
The phenomenon explain the equilibrium diagrams of the

disperse
systems
and
ar e
applicable
in
thermo-technique,
respectively in the decreasing technique of the freezing point at the

concrete and fresh mortars, unfreezing of the roads, a.s.o.)
An important property of any substances, non-coligative
is the modification of superficial tension of the solvent.
In the case when, through dilution, the substance
produce the reducing of the superficial tension of the solvent, it is
called superficial active substance or tensio-active substance.
6.5. Colloidal systems
The colloidal systems are the disperse systems, microheterogeneous, in that the dispersoid has the dimensions between
1 0 --7 a n d 1 0
cm.
In the colloidal system, could be met all the combinations

of the aggregation states, except the combination G - G (see table
6 .5 .)
93
The little dimensions of the dispersoid, greater than the

molecules, but smaller than the waves length of the light in visible
spectrum - the particles of dispersoid can not be seen at the optical
microscope - implies a great specific surface (60 ... 6000 m2/cm3) so
it easy to develop the interface phenomena.
table 6.5.
Dispersion
Dispersoi
medium
gas
liquid
L-G
solid
S-G
air sols
gas
G-L
fine foams
liquid
L-L
colloidal emulsions
solid
G-S
sol
gas
G-S
xerogels
liquid
L-S
gels
solid
S-S
alloys
liquid
solid
Symbol
Name
Tacking into account these phenomena, the colloids are

classified in:
*
lyophil colloids (hydrophils), when between phases

it is manifested the lyophily (hydrophilic)
lyophob colloids (hydrophobs), when between

phases it is manifested the lyophoby (hydrophoby).
CHAPTER VII
7.1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE BUILDING MATERIALS
Building Materials refers to the totality of natural or

artificial resources used in a building process.
Hence, building materials as a term includes from natural
soil and rock to the composite materials used in the structure, the
finishing and even the equipment of a building.
The durability of a building material expresses its ability
of that material to resist the mechanical, physical and chemical
actions to which it is subjected during exploitation.
Choosing a material for a certain purpose is done according
to its properties.
Technical characteristics refer to the quantitative figures
expressing the property of a material based on which its quality
evaluation is made.
Technical characteristics are determined through laboratory
analyses and experiments.
T he
analysis
refers to the procedures through which a
material is decomposed through physical or chemical methods into

its constituent parts in order to determine the existence (qualitative
analysis) or the relative quantity (quantitative analysis) of a
component.
T he
test
represents the process through which the
95
material, its structure and composition unaltered, is subjected to the

action according to which its behavior is to be evaluated.
By analysis, the structure and the composition of a material
are altered, while the experiment uses the material as found in
exploitation, in the building element.
The analyses and the tests take place on material samples. If
the sample has a regular geometrical form and it is prepared or
taken
from
th e
material
to
be
processed,
it
is
called
sample(specimen); if it is extracted from the building material,

already prepared, it is called boring kernel.
Laboratory results are highly artificial in their character as:
the materials have a variable degree of homogeneity (structure

flaws, local variations in composition etc.) and the samples are
relatively small compared to the volume of the material they
were extracted from.
usually, the tests lab can not reproduce accurately the actions
that the building material will endure in exploitation.
In order to acquire a technical characteristic representative of
the whole materials, the following principles are to be observed.

The samples go through two stages:
the initial(primary) sample realized by the mixture of the material

extracted from various areas of the product volume (following the
rules of the statistical analysis);
the determination sample, realized through the reduction of the

primary sample through statistical analysis methods (the quarter

method, the random choice method) to the volume needed in a
determination;
The technical characteristic is expressed as an (statistical)
average of the particular figures determined, simultaneously, from
various determination samples (from sample series) taken from the
same primary sample.
The number of the samples in a series and the criteria of
retaining the particular experimental results, used to obtain the
average figure, are based on the statistical laws of distribution
concerning the material and the technical characteristics (seen as a
statistical variable).
The determination methods need to ensure the reproducibility
of the results. Thus, for the same material, any laboratory needs to
obtain the same experimental result. This principle is practically
applied through the settlement of all the operations of a test with the
aim of eliminating and controlling, as established determination
parameters, all the elements which can influence the technical
characteristic, but it is not dependent on the material (humidity,
temperature, the test duration, the growing speed of the force
intensity, or the deformation speed etc).
Within this principle, of a major i mportance is the preparation
of samples, which needs to be easy to reproduce in order to obtain
the same initial state of the material.
Considering the fact that the major disturbing factors, at this
stage, are the temperature and the humidity of the material, it is
necessary to keep the sample in a medium with the appropriate
97
temperature and humidity for a minimum necessary period so that

the whole sample material can reach these parameters and the test
maxi mum duration can be limited.
W hen these test parameters are not explicitly indicated, the
material temperature needs to be (20 + 3) degrees Celsius and the
humidity to correspond with one of these two extreme states:
dry state of constant mass which is the result of the sample

drying1 until when, following two successive weightings, no mass
reduction is recorded, state in which the material can be
considered totally water-free ;
saturated state obtained by the immersion of the sample into

the water, until when, following two successive weightings, no
mass increase is recorded, state which corresponds to the
maxi mum humidity of the material.
Generally speaking, the technical characteristics obtained
in a laboratory are not identical to those of the material in the

building element, because of the artificial character of the
determination methods as regards the conditions of the material
operating and the real using of the building elements.
The interpretation of the resulted technical characteristics is
done by comparison with the set values established through
technical norms concerning the material and the circumstances in
which it can be used, established through the statistical correlations
between the technical characteristics obtained in the laboratory and
the observations on the material behavior during exploitation.

The technical characteristic can be seen as a norm only if the
operating technology of the material and the building exploitation
conditions are observed, so that the statistical correlation is realized.
Despite the fact that most of them are found in
interdependence relations, the materials technical characteristics
can be grouped into:
physical characteristics, which refers to the materials structure

and their behavior towards the action of the environment factors;
mechanical characteristics, which expresses the materials

behavior towards mechanical actions.
7.2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

7.2.1. Densities. Specific Weights
The density stands for the mass of the volume unity in a
material.
x=
m
[g/cm3 ; Kg/m3 ;t/m3 ]
Vx
99
where:
m
= the sample mass usually determined in a dry state of
constant mass
Vx
= the sample volume, determined at 20 degrees Celsius
which can be:
Real Volume (Vr) standing for the volume of the matter in the
sample (pore-free material)
Apparent Volume (Va) standing for the volume including that of

the pores in its structures
Pile Volume (Vp) standing for the volume of the pile granular
material including that of
the gaps between granules
Stack volume (Vs) standing for the volume of a stack ( made

out of elements with a regular geometrical shape) including the
holes between elements.
According to the volume concerned, the density classified:
real density
apparent density
pile density g
stack density s
The multiplication of the density with the gravitational
acceleration (g) gives the technical characteristic called the specific
weight.
Specific densities and weights, in all shapes and forms,
represent technical characteristics of vital importance in all

sequences of the building activity beginning with the projection
(when an evaluation of the proper weight of the building element is
needed
(the dying of the sample takes place in air oven at a
temperature of ( 10
15 ) degrees Celsius if not indicated
otherwise.) up to the evaluation of the work in order to establish the

costs.
7.2.1.1. Density (real density)
With liquids, if brought near the boiling point ( to eliminate the
dissolved gasses) and then cooled down to the trial temperature (20
degrees Celsius), the volume they take can be considered as real
volume.
The principle of determining the liquid density is realized
through the measuring of the mass of a known volume of liquid and
it is applied by through techniques:
the weighing of a bowl of a known volume (empty then filled with

liquid) in order to determine the liquid net mass;
the determination of the ascending force the liquid has on a body

of a known volume and mass, immersed in the liquid, done
through the hydrostatical scales and the aerometer method.
The hydrostatical balance (figure 2.1.) is a technical balance
with one o of the pans shorter, so that it can permit the hanging,
with the help of a thin thread (of an insignificant volume), of a body
immersed into a bowl filled with liquid.
101
Fig. 7.1.- hydrostatical balance

According to Archimedes s law, m being the body mass into the
air, the mass (m1), necessary to the scales equilibration when the
body is being immersed
Fig.7.2..b
, it will represent the mass of the volume dislocated from the body
(Vb), hence:
m 1 x g =V c x
Lx
The aerometer (fig. 7.3.) is glass balloon, ballasted at its

inferior part and provided with a rod of small diameter on which is
drawn the densities scales.
Fig.7.3. The aerometer

The floating equilibrium will be realized when its weight into
the air (m1) will be balanced by the accessional force exerted by the
liquid.
As m1 is constant, the immersion volume (Vi) of the
aerometer, at the floating equilibrium, will be reversely proportional
to the liquid density, the linear relation permitting the graduation of
the thin rod in density units.
103
For the solid materials, the density determination principle

refers to the determination of the real volume of a known mass of
material.
In technology, a body is considered has no closed pores
(which do not communicate with the surface) if the dimensions of
this body are smaller than 0,2 mm. The closed pores in a body
structure will be opened by pounding and mortaring the material till
all the powder obtained has gone through a sieve with the holes
dimension of 0,2 mm.
In order to determine the real volume of a powder mass (m),
one should apply the method of measuring the volume of dislocated
liquid.
A si mple but approximate method of this method application
is represented by the burette method (fig7.4.), in which, in a quoted
balloon (of a known volume), where one inserted a known mass
powder, is inserted liquid from a burette (the volume of liquid which
can still enter the balloon over the powder) will equal the powder
volume.
burette
mark of
volume
powder
Fig7.4. Burette method

The approximation of this method results from the errors
regarding the estimation of the liquid levels in the burette and
balloon, the forming of foam in the balloon and the impossibility of
totally eliminating the air adsorbed on the material granules.
The standardized method of determining the powder real
volume, called the picnometer method, performs measurements
through weighing at the analytical scales.
The picnometer (fig. 7.5.) is a glass balloon, with a lapped
cork and with capillary diameter, either through cork or through
lateral arm. After the filling, once the cork has been inserted, the
superabundance liquid overflows so that the same volume is
realized without being necessary for the level to be established;
hence the volumes reading errors are eliminated.
105
Fig.7.5. - Picnometers
Measurements of the picnometer s mass are being performed in the

following statuses:
dry, empty (m1)
filled with liquid (m2)
dry with powder (m3)
with powder and liquid (m4)
The mass (m) and the powder volume (Vp), inserted in the
picnometer, are calculated with the help of the following relations:
m = m3- m1, so
Vr =
(m2 m1) (m4 m3)

L
One can notice the fact that, for the determination to be performed,

is being used a liquid called reference liquid and which should meet
the following conditions:
it should not chemically react with the solid material;
its density should be known;
it should have a relatively small evaporation speed lest its

volume should be modified in this process
After the weighing (m3), over the powder in the picnometer, is being
inserted liquid (approx. 3/ 4 of the volume) and the disaeration
operation is performed; this operation can be carried on in two
ways:
in case the reference liquid is water, the picnometer is laid

on a soil bath tub so that it boil for 15 minutes, then it
cools (meanwhile the powder deposits)
in case the reference liquid can not be boiled (petrol, lamp

oil or any other inflammable liquid) the picnometer is
inserted into a vacuum exicator (fig. 2.5), where a
pressure of 20 mm mercury column is being obtained and
maintained till gas bubbles no longer comes out.
After disaeration, the picnometer is filled with liquid to be

weighed (m4).
7.2.1.2 Apparent Density
The apparent density determination principle consists in
measuring the mass and apparent volume of the body with nomodified structure.
As a rule, mass is measured on dry test at constant mass.
107
Sometimes, in the case of materials of organic nature or of

technological or research needs, mass is measured at imposed
humidity, in which case, the humidity for which the apparent density
was determined is compulsory specified.
If the test has regular geometrical shape (fig. 7.5.), for the
determination of the apparent volume, is applied the direct
measurements method is applied; this method consists in
measuring the characteristic dimensions and calculating the volume
of the body with the corresponding geometrical shape.
On the purpose of taking into account the likely small
deviations from the perfect geometrical shape, dimensions are
measured in several sections, in the volume calculation formula
taking into account the arithmetical averages of these ones.
Fig. 7.5.. Test- pieces measurement for the determination of the

apparent volume
If the test has irregular geometrical shape, the method of the

dislocated liquid volume is
applied; for this method to be carried on, after drying and weighing,
the tests must be prepared, lest the reference liquid should be
prevented from entering the open pores. This preparation can be
performed through:
The saturation method, in which the test is being

immersed for at least 4 hours in a bath tube of reference
liquid, then it is being wiped with a wet rag well wrung (In
order to eliminate the water excess without absorbing the
water from the open pores)
The paraffining method, in which the dry test is covered

with a paraffin layer by repeated immersion and at short
periods, in a bath tube of melted paraffin, then the
paraffined test is weighed again in order to determine the
mass of the adherent paraffin.
The volume of dislocated liquid can be determined in two

ways;
The non-com cylinder method (fig. 7.6.a.): the test is

inserted into a non-com cylinder where there is the
volume (V1) of reference liquid and the volume growth
( V) is measured. This method approxi mation results from
the errors regarding the volumes estimation; the higher
volumes are the higher the cylinder diameter is. In the
109
case of significant tests, there can be applied the variant

presented in fig. 7.6.b
Fig.7.6.The non-com cylinder method

The hydrostatical scales method (fig. 71.): the test is weighed in the
air then in immersed status (as in fig.7.1.), the masses difference
related to the reference liquid density ( L) standing for the volume of
dislocated liquid:
V=
m
[cm3 ]
L
The test apparent volume will be:
The volume of dislocated liquid if the test was prepared

through saturation;
The difference between the volume of dislocated volume

and the volume of the paraffin adherent to the test if the
test was prepared through paraffining.
The apparent density is in correlation with all the other

technical characteristics. It is compulsory determined before
the performing of any other test as it can signal the nonhomogeneity of tests series and account for the likely
deviations of the obtained characteristic if compared with the
series average.
7.2.1.3. Pile Density
The pile density also called bulk density is specific to the

granular materials.
The determination principle consists in measuring the mass of a
certain granular material volume, using a standardized volume bowl.
The bowl volume is chosen depending on the granules maxi mal
dimension.

Maximum
dimension
Bowl s v olume
111
Inside dimensions (mm)
(dm )
of grain
diameter
high
(m m )
7.1
108
109
3.15
185
186
>31.5
10
234
233
Table 1.
Standard bowls for densities
The pile density varies depending on the material clustering

degree as the pile volume also includes the volume of the holes
between granules. That is why this characteristic is being
determined for two limit statuses where the granular material is
considered to be found: the broken up state (
clustered (poked) state (
gi).In
ga),
respectively the
order to obtain the broken up status,
the material is inserted into a bowl, through free fall from constant
height of 10 cm (fig. 7.7.a. and b.) till a material cone over the bowl
is obtained.
In order to obtain the clustered status, a prolonging collar is
attached to the bowl (fig. 77. d.), the bowl filled with material being
vibrated (on vibrating table) for 3 minutes.
The same clustering effect is obtained by filling the bowl in three
stages; within each of them the bowl is let to fall freely for 50 times,
from the height of approximately 5 cm, with a bottom on a wooden
table. After the filling, the material excess is removed with the help
of a metallic rule (fig 7.7.c.) and the bowl is being weighed, the

material net mass being calculated, it being related to the bowl
volume.
Stand-up culler
Fig.7.7. The bowl filling phases for the pile density
7.2.1.4. The Stack Density
The stack density is determined for the elements that can be

laid in ordered stacks (brick,
timber, prefab elements made of
concrete etc)
The determination method consists of building a test stack; its
dimensions are weighed and its volume calculated after the
constituent material has been weighed.
7.3. STRUCTURE CHARACTERISTICS

The structure characteristics express the repartition of the solid
material in the volume
occupied in space.
113
7.3.1. Compactness
Compactness stands for the proportion in which a material
apparent volume consists of solid material.
C=
Vr
100 = a 100 [%]
Va
Compactness can not be determined through a lab test (No

method permits the evaluation of the closed pores volume and the
structure destroy would lead to its modification) so that it is
determined on the basis of densities, according to relation 2.6. Its
value can be at the most unitary (100 %), value which is obtained
only for the materials called total compact (metals, glass, some
polymers etc.).
Compactness is found in direct relation with the material
mechanical strengths; the higher compactness is the higher the
mechanical strengths the material is expected to present are, as
these ones are due to the material solid skeleton.
7.3.2. Porosity
Total porosity PT represents the proportion in which the
apparent volume of a material is formed of pores.
PT =
Vp
Va Vr
Vr
=
= 1-C (x100) [%]
= 1Va
Va
Va
Total porosity is the measure complementary to the

compactness calculated from the relation, where Vp represents the
pore s volume from the apparent volume (Va).
To distinguish the difference between the open pore volume
and the closed pore volume, we define:
Apparent porosity (Pa) representing the proportion in which
the apparent volume of the material is made out of open (apparent)
pores.
Closed porosity (Pi) representing the proportion in which the
apparent volume of the material is made out of closed pores.
The apparent porosity is determined experimentally, through
the determination of the volume of the liquid absorbed from the
sample, to obtain the saturated status which is related to the
apparent volume of the sample (Va):
Pa =
ms m 1
(x100) [%]
x
L
Va
where:
ms
= the mass of the saturated sample
= the mass of the dry sample
pL
= the density of the absorbed liquid
The closed porosity is calculated from the difference between

the total porosity and the apparent density:
115
Pi = Pt - Pa
The porosity, especially the apparent porosity, is in opposite relation
with the material
durability; the higher the apparent porosity, the higher the
penetration in the structure of the material of environmental and
chemical agents (gas, liquids) which can cause changes in its
structure or chemical composition.
7.3.3. Voids Volume
Vv represents the proportion in which the bulk volume in

loose status is made out of the voids between granules.
Vv =
Vsp
(x100)
Vga
[%]
W here:
Vsp
= the volume of the holes between the granules
Vga
=bulk volume in loose state
For the determination, we measure the volume of the

reference liquid necessary for the filling of a vessel of known
volume, where the granular material, saturated beforehand, is
introduced (through the method of obtaining the loose state). The
liquid volume represents the Vsp volume and the volume of the
vessel, the Vga volume.

m
Vga Va
Va
ga
Vvoids =
= 1( x100) [%]
= 1- a = 1m
a
Vga
Vga
a
The volume of the holes offers information on the creation of

the skeleton from the granular materials in stratum or in the
structure of the composite materials.
7.4. Ganularity
Granularity expresses the relative content of granules of

various sizes which compose a granular material.
The volume of voids of a bulk of granular material will be
determined by the proportions in which granules of various sizes
from the solid skeleton, so that the voids between the bigger
granules will be filled by smaller granules and so on, till the inclusion
of the smallest granules.
In order to determine the granularity, the material sample,
dried at a constant mass and of a precisely measured mass, is
sifted through a set of overlapping sieves and screens (the sieve
consists of perforated iron plate while the screen is made of wire
texture. It is conventionally considered that the sieves have the eyes
dimensions larger than 1 mm while the screens have the eyes
dimensions smaller than 1mm ) placed from the ground up
117
according to the size of the net eyes and will allow the smaller
granules to pass.
m0
m1
sieves
Fig7.8. Sieving series

The granular material separated between two sieves is called:
elementary sort if the set contains all the sieves indicated by the
standard series;
granular sort if the set contains only some sieves from the
standard series.
The sorts are defined by the size of the sieves between which
they were retained (example: sort 3,15-7,1 mm)

Granularity is expressed tabular (table 2..) or graphically,
through granularity curves (fig. 2.10), in a octagonal system of axes,
with the dimensions of the eyes sieves/ screens on the abscissa
and on theordinate the proportion of the material passed through
the respective sieves/ screens.
Table 2.
Passing (% f rom mass) through siev e (mm)
Material
grav el
0.2
3.15
7.1
12.5
25.28
32.24
48.51
16
31.5
71
60.37
80.66
100
Granularity example
Fig. 7.9. Example of granularity curve

In order to interpret granularity, one should observe the
following (fig. 79.):
Q1% passes through the sieve with the eyes dimensions

1, hence Q1 of the material mass made up of granules
with dimensions smaller than
1;
(Q2-Q1) % passes through the sieve with the eyes

dimension
2, but it is retained by the sieve with the eyes
dimension
1, hence the material consists, in proportion
of (Q2- Q1) %, of granules with dimensions between

and
119
2;
the granularity curve is always displayed between the

abscissas corresponding to the minimum and maxi mum
dimensions of the sieves/ screens eyes used at sifting,
respectively between the ordinate corresponding to the
passing through the finest screen and the ordinate of 100
% ( This means that the biggest sieve from the sifting set
must be adjusted so that it should not retain any granule
(mo=0). Otherwise, the sort retained by this one is not
defined, his superior limit not being mentioned).
the granularity curve is a graphic uniformly ascending that

could have at the most horizontal sectors that will indicate
the fact that the granular material is deprived of the
respective sorts (The descending sectors do not have a
physic significance as it is not possible that through the
smaller sieve should pass a larger quantity than through
the bigger sieve situated above).
Depending on the curve shape (fig. 7.10.), the material

granularity is being characterized as:
Fig.7.10. Granularity types
continuous, if the graphic is strictly ascending (curves a

and b ) ;
discontinuous, if the graphic contains horizontal sectors

(curve c );
monogranular, if the graphic is displayed only on the area

of a single granular sort (curve d ).
rich in fine sides if the graphic has a convex shape (curve

a );
poor in fine sides if the graphic has a concave shape

(curve b );
Usually, in order to simplify the graphic curve, on the area 0-7,1 mm

of the abscissas axes (The fine sorts are characterized by large
specific area, which could tell on many of the composite materials
characteristics),one should adopt a logarithmic scale (fig.7.10.).
121
7.5. Characteristics regarding the behavior towards the action

of the water
In the materials structure, water can be found under three

aspects:
free, absorbed in pores and which can circulate, through

these spaces, under the action of gravity, pressure and
capillarity;
physically tied, also called hygroscopicity water, absorbed

on the pores walls;
chemically tied, included in the molecules which make up

the solid substance (hydroxides, crystallization water etc).
The water influence on the materials properties is complex,

manifesting itself under physic and chemical aspect:
under physic aspect, at positive temperatures, the

absorption forces modify the structural forces equilibrium;
they can thus lead to volume modifications (compulsions
and swellings) and the modification of the materials
mechanical strengths, and at negative temperatures, the
free water freezes and with its volume growing, it will
action on the pores walls which could eventually lead to
the material fissuring.
under chemical aspect, the water can dissolve some

components of the material and the driven chemical
substances (in solution or watery suspension) can react
with these ones, phenomena which stand for causes of
materials chemical corrosion.
The water actions will be much more intense if a higher

volume of water will enter the material structure and this will
be determined by the apparent porosity as well as by the
pores character.
Fig.7.11. capillary tubes

By analyzing the draining of a liquid through capillary tubes
(fig.7.11), one could notice that the speeds distribution
depends on how thick the liquid stratum absorbed on the
123
tube walls is. In the case of hydrophilic materials, the stratum

of absorbed water has a thickness of about 0,15 m so that
the pores with a diameter smaller than 0,30 m will be filled
with absorbed water but which can not circulate being
physically tied by the walls of these ones, through pores of
diameters to 1 m; water can only circulate at high pressure
and through pores of diameters of over 1
m, water can
circulate freely, under the action of capillarity, gravity and

pressure. As the smaller the tube diameter is the more
intense the capillarity, it results that the absorption of water
(without pressure) will be made easier by the capillary pores
and the penetration of water under pressure will be made
easier by pores of high diameters.
7.6. Humidity. Water Absorption

7.6.1. Humidity
Humidity (w) and water absorption (ai) express the relative
quantity of water that a material contain.
W : ai =
mw m
(x100) [%]
m
where:
mw
= the mass of dry respectively saturated test;
= the mass of dry test.
According to the definition, both characteristics (humidity and

water absorption) express the relative contents of water but

they differentiate by the following:
humidity expresses the material water contents at a certain

moment as it can vary, in the case of the same material,
depending on the humidity of the medium where it is to be
fo u n d ;
water absorption expresses the material capacity to absorb

water, under certain saturation circumstances (expressed by
th e i n d e x
according to the table 3.), depending
exclusively on the material characteristics structure.

Table3
Saturation conditions
In d e x i
temperature
pressure
atmosphere
atmosphere
boiling
atmosphere
atmosphere
20 mmHg
atmosphere
15N/mm2
Hence, water absorption stands for the maximum humidity the

material can reach in conditions i of saturation.
Accordingly, one should notice the following when carrying
out the tests:
in order to determine humidity, the test must be weighed

immediately after being taken or it must be protected against
humidity variation until its weighing, then it is being died at
constant mass and weighed one more time;
125
in order to determine water absorption, the test protection is

no longer necessary as the weighing are being carried in the
two limit statuses (dry at constant mass, respectively
saturated).
The tests saturation are being carried in the following operations

display:
for the conditions i = 1 , the test is placed in a bowl in which

water is introduced in three steps so that its level be situated
at of the water height, for at least 2 hours, then at of the
test height for 24 hours and eventually at 2 cm above the
test, quota at which it will remain until a constant mass is
reached;
for the conditions i = 2 , after the saturation i = 1 , the test

will be boiled for 3 hours, after which it is let to dry in the
boiling bath tube;
for the conditions
i = 3 , after the saturation
i=1
, the
test is introduced in a bath tube filled with water, carried on in

the vacuum exicator where pressure is turned down to 20
mm Hg till the air bubbles stop coming out, then the exicator
valve is opened till it reaches a normal pressure again;
for the conditions i = 4 , after the saturation i = 1 , the test

is introduced in a bath tube filled with water, carried out in a
container where the pressure reaches 150 N/ mm.
The saturation conditions defined by the growing order of the

i ndex
lead to ascending values of water absorption, as the air

elimination from the pores and its replacement by water is helped.
The materials behavior towards the water action can be
considered as:
good , if the water absorption has low values;
suspicious if the water absorption is situated at limits where

the other characteristics of the material (composition,
strength etc) can provide the appropriate behavior;
weak if the water absorption reaches high values, in which

case the water effects in structure can not be compensated
by the other characteristics of the material.
The saturation conditions, during the materials test, are related

to the conditions in which these ones will be exploited (in contact
with water with or without pressure), respectively, in the growing
order of the index i , if the water absorption obtained during the
previous tests characterize the material behavior as suspicious .
The water absorption and apparent porosity are in correlation:
a1 =
ms1 m Va m s m Va Pa
x
=
=
x
m
Va
Va
m a
where :
Va and a stand for apparent volume, respectively apparent density
for the material test.
In case that, during the test, another reference liquid instead
of water is used, the
liquid absorption (aL
is expressed by the equivalent water
absorption by relating the value obtained to the liquid density ( L):
a = aL x
127
water
a
1
= aL x
= L
L
L
L
7.6.2. Permeability to water
The permeability index stands for the volume of water which passes
through the area of 1m and the thickness of 1 m of material, for one
hour, at constant water pressure and temperature.
As the permeability index is very difficult to determine and
building materials should be, as a rule, waterproof, this property is
being expressed by the impermeability degree.
The impermeability degree represents the water maximum
pressure in contact with a side of the material test for which in a
period of normalized time, no wet spots show up on the reverse side
of the test.
The practical application of this definition is carried out in a
different way, depending on the material and on the use area of this
one:
for materials in contact with water without pressure (tiles for

instance), one uses a box whose bottom consists of a board
from the material to be tested (fig. 2.13.) and which is filled
with water; one determines the period when, on the inferior
side of the board, the first water drop detaches itself;
for the materials subject to the action of the water with

pressure (concrete for instance), the test is attached to a

device called permeabilimeter (fig7.12. and it is subject to
water pressures, growing by a certain program, which
watches the turning up of the first moistening signs on the
superior side.
Fig. 7.12 Permeability test cell

In case the necessary pressure was reached, without any
moistening on the superior side, the test is split on the vertical line
and the wet height is being measured (x).
The impermeability condition is considered achieved only if the
detaching period of the first drop surpasses the standardized period
for the first case and respectively if, at the necessary pressure, the
129
penetration water height in the test is smaller than the standardized

limit.
7.6.3. The coefficient of water dipping (softening coefficient)
1.The dipping coefficient (I) expresses the relative diminution of the
material mechanical strengths due to the presence of water in the
structure of this one.
I=
Rs
(x 100) [%]
R
W here :
Rs
= the material strength determined in the status
saturated with water;

R
= the material strength determined in dry status at
constant mass.
7.6.4. Strength to repeated frost- thaw
The strength to repeated frost and thaw, also called gelivity,

expresses the capacity of the material to withstand the mixed action
of water and alternating positive and negative temperatures.
Gelivity represents the number of successive frost and thaw
cycles that the material saturated with water can stand without the
loss of mass and respectively of strength to compression going
beyond certain imposed limits.

A frost- thaw cycle consists of 4 hours of maintaining at the
temperature of - (17 + 3) followed by immersed maintaining into
the water at the temperature of + (20 +5)
As a result of the water expansion to frost2 in the structure material
there will turn up stretching effects that will lead to the structure
fissuration, leading to losses of strength and even to peripherical
disintegration of the tests. The destructive effect is cumulative as
the fissures caused by each frost will be filled with water in the frost
stage and the ulterior frost will amplify the fissuration status.
The relative mass loss is called gelivity coefficient ( g) and it
is calculated with the relation:
g
m mg
m
(x100) [%]
where:
m
= the mass of the test before it s subjecting to frost
mg
= the mass of the test after its subjecting to frost
thaw;
thaw.
The relative loss of strength to compression is called
coefficient of dipping at gelivity ( g) and it is calculated by the
relation:
Rm Rg
Rm
131
(x100) [%]
where:
Rm = strength to compression obtained on the basis of witness
tests (kept into water at the temperature of +(+ 20+- 5) C, during the
whole period of frost- thaw cycles).
Rg = strength to compression obtained on the basis of the tests
subjected to the frost and thaw cycles.
In case of granular materials, there is used a sifted test (of a
minimum di mension) and after its subjecting to frost
thaw, the test
is being sifted through a sieve of a smaller dimension, the gelivity

coefficient being calculated with the exposed relation where m
stands for the test initial mass and mg stands for the mass that
remains after sifting.
Gelivity can also be determined in an indirect way by
saturating the tests with a saturated solution of sodium sulfate or
magnesium sulfate and their drying afterwards in a drying stove;
when drying, the salt crystallizes in pores, the crystallization
pressure causing the effect of structure expansion.

7.6.5 Characteristics regarding the materials behavior to the
heat action
The materials behavior towards the heat action is different,
depending on their nature (inorganic or organic).
In case of inorganic materials subjected to heat, the following
successive physic phenomena can be noticed:
the drying through water vaporization;
the material partial melting, which causes the manifestation

of
viscous
deformations
(dipping)
and
total
porosity
diminution through the filling of pores by the fusion;
the material melting together with its turning into viscous

liquid and then diminution of the fusion viscous nature.
Depending on the temperature at which fusion starts, a
temperature that is being called refraction point, materials can be

classified into:
fusible materials which have the refraction point below

1580 C;
refractory materials which have the refraction point over

1580 C.
If, by partial fusion, the material total porosity decreases
below 8 C, this phenomenon is called clinkerization, and the

material brought to this state and then rapidly cooled is called
clinker.
The phenomenon of reduction of total porosity below 2 % by
material partial fusion is called vitrification.
133
In case of materials with colloidal structure or which contain,

in their structure, a gellic (blasting gelatine) phase, the heat causes
the diminution of rigidity (consistency) in the first stage but later the
drying of colloidal formations will cause important contractions which
can lead to the material disintegration.
Besides the physic phenomena mentioned above, the
temperature growth can also bring chemical phenomena (thermic
dissociations, loss of chemically tied water etc), which can radically
modify the material properties.
In case of materials of organic nature, there is to be found the
process of thermic decomposition at relatively low temperatures (<
300 C); following this process combustible gases come off. At the
approach of a fire source (flame), the gases catch fire. If the
concentration of these gases reaches a certain value into the air,
the gases catch fire even if there is no flame (they catch fire by
themselves).
The gases combustion creates conditions favorable to the
carbon oxidation by the oxygen in the air so that the material is
consumed through combustion.
The ashes which possibly remain after the combustion
consists of the inorganic components which are to be found in the
material.
In the combustion respect, there are two temperatures
characteristic to the organic materials:
the catching fire point standing for the temperature at which

the material catches fire in the presence of the fire source;
the inflammability point standing for the temperature at which

the material catches fire by itself.
In respect of behavior towards the action fire, materials are

characterized as:
non- combustible if they don t catch fire and don t burn

though they can be deformed, melted or destroyed;
hard combustible if they catch fire and burn only as long as

the fire source drives; they die out when the source is
removed;
combustible if they catch fire and still burn when the fire
source has been removed;
inflammable if they catch fire by themselves.
Knowing the characteristics of behaviors towards fire is

necessary for the establishment of the buildings protection
measures against fires, and respectively humans and animals
protection measures against intoxication with burning gases which
are, by rule, toxic.
7.6.6. Coefficients of thermic dilatation
The dimensional variations of a body, at the temperature
variation, can be characterized by coefficients of thermic dilatation.
The coefficient of linear thermic dilatation () expresses the
relative variation (L) of the dimension (L) of a body when that
body temperature varies with
= 1 K.

=
135
L
[K-1 ]
L0
The coefficient of volume thermic dilatation ( ) expresses

the relative variation ( V) of a body volume (V0) when that body
temperature varies with
= 1 K.
L
[K-1 ]
L0
The principle of the determination methods consists in

measuring the dimensions variations of a test warmed in a
standardized way.
In case of a body with the three dimensions comparable, the
coefficient of volume thermic dilatation can be estimated with the
relation:
=3
If by constructive measures (dilatation aims, dilation

compensators etc), one can not provide the conditions necessary to
the production of thermic malformations, in the building element
there will turn up efforts that must be taken into account in the
projection calculations. In such cases, the temperature at which the
building component is set in the structure (also called neuter
temperature) is registered and is taken into account during the
building exploitation so that the necessary measures be taken if

temperature reaches, by accident, values outside the field
considered at projection. Also, in the case of composite elements,
the coefficients of the components thermic dilatation must have
values as close as possible lest there should appear different
malformations and adherence between phases should break.
7.6.7. The dipping (softening) point

The dipping point stands for the temperature (in C) at which
a test-piece, subjected to heat and mechanical action, gets a
standardized viscous deformation.
The principle of determination methods consists in heating, in
a standardized way, a test-piece loaded with a weight, and
measuring the temperature at which the test reaches a reference
point situated at a imposed height ( H) (fig7.12.).
In case that the material temperature reaches the dipping
point during the exploitation, the structure of a building can lose its
stability as a result of serious malformations undergone by the
component elements.
137
Fig.7.12 Determination of softening point
7.6.8. Thermal conductivity

The thermic conductivity represents the property of a material
to permit heat transmission.
The coefficient of thermic conductivity ( ) expresses the heat
(Q) that is being transmitted through the area A = 1 m and
thickness H = 1 m of a body in time
= 1 hour when the difference
of temperature between the body sides is

=
= 1 K.
QH
W
[
] (2.22)
A mK
For determination, it is being used the device of the type dr.

Bock (fig 7.13.)
which consists of:
two boards thermo regulated at the temperatures

respectively
2,
through
water
circulation
from
1,
th e

corresponding ultra- thermostats and which achieve the
difference of temperature at the test sides ( 1 >
2) ;
an electric resistor fed through a counter thermo regulated at

the temperature
1 (the same as the temperature of the
board that covers it).
Fig7.13. dr. Bock device

As between the resistor and the board that covers it there is
no heat transfer, all the heat produced by the electric power in
resistor3 will be transmitted, by test, towards the cooler side. Hence,
one can calculate the heat (Q) given out by the resistor on the basis
of electric power consumed (countered), for the duration ( ) of the
test, the area (A) corresponding to the resistor board.
139
In case of porous materials, the heat transmission is

achieved by conduction (from one particle of the solid matter to
another one) as well as by convection (at the contact between solid
matter and fluid in pores), case in which the coefficient of thermic
conductivity experimentally determined bears the specification of
equivalent and it is noted ech.
The ech coefficient depends on:
the material characteristics (nature, density); it is even larger

for the materials of inorganic nature and larger densities;
th e
material
structural
characteristics
(compactness,
porosity), being higher for larger compactness as solid >

fluid;
th e
por es
characteristics
(closed,
open,
isolated
or
intercommunicated) as the fluid streams that can form

achieve the heat transport;
the material humidity, being higher for larger humidity as

water = 25 air;
the material general temperature, being higher for larger

temperatures as the matter energetic state is higher.
The smaller the coefficient of thermic conductivity the larger the

materials capacity of thermic isolation; this is the case of
macroporous materials and especially those with cellular structure,
respectively the materials with large holes volume.
7.7. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS

7.7.1. The efforts and malformations state of solid bodies
W hen an exterior force actuates on a solid body and this one
can not move in the force direction, it will get deformed, which
causes relative moves between the matter structural units. The
modification of distances between particles against the equilibrium
distances (do) will lead to some internal tensions (efforts) that will
oppose the body deformation.
If by deformation the structural units are situated at distances
at which they can still interact, when the exterior force is suspended,
the internal efforts will have the capacity of bringing them back to
the equilibrium distance, the body reaching the initial shape again.
Those deformations that disappear with the exterior force
suspension are called elastic deformations.
If by deformation the structural units are situated at distances
larger than their interactions spheres, the internal efforts will not be
able to bring them again to the initial positions, the body keeping the
same deformation shape after the exterior force suspension.
Those deformations that do not disappear at the exterior
force suspension are called plastic or remanent deformations.
The distancing state of the structural units over the
interaction sphere lead to a local discontinuity of the matter called
141
micro fissure or to a rearrangement of the particles in new

equilibrium positions.
The plastic deformations that take place through the
structural particles rearrangement, without any micro fissures
turning up, are called viscous deformations.
The internal effort that originates in a point in the body, as an
answer of its structure to the deformation action produced by an
exterior force is called unitary effort.
The unitary effort is estimated by relating the active force (F)
to the area (A) of the section in the body, on which it is considered
to be uniformly distributed:
S=
F
A
[P ]
1 Pa = 1 N/m. As the expression in Pa implies figures with several

decimal fractions, it is costumed to use the measure units derived :
N/ mm, N/ cmand daN/ cm.
In order to analyze the unitary effort effects (S) against the
plane of the section (fig.7.14.), we consider the components of the
effort vector on the perpendicular (normal) direction on the section
plane, called normal unitary effort () respectively that included in
the section plane called tangent unitary effort ( ).
Fig.7.14 Effort state on section
The normal unitary effort will oppose to removing or bringing

together the two sides of the section while the tangent unitary effort
will oppose to the modification of the angle between the two linear,
concurrent elements within the sections.
The presence of micro fissures prevents a part of the section
area from participating in the structure response to the exterior force
action; the exterior force will be distributed on smaller areas that the
capable efforts of the structure will surpass; this will lead to new
micro fissures, to the union of these efforts in the fissures and
eventually to the breaking of the body in the weakest section.
In order to express quantitatively the deformation state, we
143
should define:
the absolute deformation ( L) as the value which helps

modifying the dimension of a body through deformation;
the specific or relative deformation () as the proportion which

helps modifying the dimension (Lo) of a body through
deformation;
L
(X100) [%]
L0
The solid state is characterized by constant volume so that

any modification of the body dimension on a direction will be
accompanied by modifications, of opposite sign; the state of efforts
and deformation is complex, the internal efforts and deformations
manifesting in all directions.
The value of the ratio between the specific direction on a direction
transversal to the force(
t)the
specific deformation on the force
direction (L) is called Poisson coefficient ().
T
L
If during a try out the variation of the unitary effort is drawn

considering the specific longitudinal deformation the following are to
be noticed:

With small deformation figures, the efforts are almost equal,
the diagram being represented by a line (OA) under a
angle. At this point elastic deformations are produced so that,
after reaching the state described by a point found in this
area, the force is cancelled, the test comes back to its form
and implicitly the figure becomes the initial one.
Fig.7.15 Characteristic curve

For this area, the variation effort-deformation is expressed by
Hook s law:
tg
and = E
where E (the proportionality factor) is called the elasticity mode

(Young).
145
With the growth of the deformation, the variation of the effort

becomes slower than the deformation s, so that the figure
curves show along the elastic deformations plastically
deformations as well.
If, after having reached the state described by a point (B)
placed in this area and after the test-piece deformation is OF,
the force is cancelled, the body doesn t take the initial form; the
discharge figure will be represented by the BD line under the
same & angle which reveals the canceling of the accumulated
elastic deformations only. The D point will separate the two
types of accumulated deformations:
- Plastic deformation OD, remanent with the discharge.
- Elastic deformation DF, cancelled with the discharge.
The deformation continued, the increase of the volume is

getting
smaller
compared
with
the
increase
of
th e
deformation, revealing the majority of the plastic deformation

( th e
micro-fissure
of
the
structure)
within
th e
total
deformation; the figure becomes asymptotic with a R value

(called the break resistance) and, when the fissuration state
of one of them gets too advanced to respond the mechanical
work of deformation, the break is produced.

The curve effort-deformation is called the characteristic curve
because its form and the coordinates of the specific points are
specific to any material.
The internal abrasions that are present between the

structural unites during their relative move
give the
deformations a viscous aspect , meaning that in order to

equal the effort-deformation rapport in all the structure of the
body a duration of time is needed. The longer the duration of
time, the lower the temperature of the body.
The evaluation of the unitary effort in the 2.24 figure
supposes the construction of the equilibrium of tensions in any
point of the body, so that if the intensity of the exterior force
fluctuates rapidly , for a given momentarily deformation , the
estimated
effort
will
be
higher
Fig.7.16
th a n
th e
real
one.
147
Consequently (figure 7.16), for the high speed charge, the

characteristic diagram will be superior to the low speed one, so that
the resistance modulus and all the ordinate, even the break
resistance resulting are higher.
If the charge is produced at a high speed, to an A point , after
which
the effort is kept constant(by keeping the force constant), the

figure will be a horizontal line (AB), indicating the increase of
the deformation till the equilibrium necessary to the
effort is
attained;
the deformation is kept constant(through the blocking of the
devices of the test piece catching), the figure will be a vertical
line (AC) indicating the reduction of the effort till the
equilibrium necessary to the deformation is attained.
The phenomenon of modification of the state of effort at a
constant deformation, respectively of the state of deformation at a
constant effort, as a consequence of the equality of these states
throughout the structure of the material, is called the relaxation of
the material.
The relaxation of a material will increase with the speed of
the variation of the intensity of the exterior force, the trial
temperature being lower and the material a more reological
behavior more viscous.

7.7.2 The mechanical trial of the materials
In a mechanical trail, a test- piece is submitted to an exterior
force, till its partial or total break. The main purpose of these
trials is to determine the mechanical resistance( R), which can
be considered as the maxi mal value of the unitary effort during
the trial, or the value of the unitary effort at a certain natural
deformation.
Adding to the principles of determination of the technical
characteristics, enounced at the beginning of this chapter, for the
trial of the materials the following need mentioning:
the trials are performed on test- pieces or carrots, on

samples of regular geometrical
dimensional
differences(within
shapes, with small
normal
tolerances)
and
without structure faults;
the test- piece volume needs to be as small as possible but

big enough to represent the material;
the mechanical action on the test- piece needs to be

simple(usually in one direction)and symmetrical to one of its
axes to be able to evaluate as precisely as possible the
unitary efforts;
the trial direction, connected to the test-piece, needs to go

along the trial hypothesis , to account for the possible
anisotropy of the material;
149
the variation speed of the intensity of the force or of the

deformation needs to be within normal limits, to account for
the reologica behavior of the material.
Considering the transversal deformations that accompany the
longitudinal deformation and the difficulty of the measuring of the
dimensions during the trial, the section area determined before the
trial, is to be considered.
Given the ways of applying the charge, the mechanical trials
are classified in:
- static trials, where the charge is applied progressively, with
the speed of a normalized variation;
- dynamic trials, where the charge is applied with a higher
speed of variation(through shock);
- cyclical trials, where the intensity, even the way of the
charge vary after a cyclical law.
7.7.3. The static compression trial

The trial in static compression is done in cubical, prismatic or
cylindrical test- pieces, the strengths resulting being noted with Rc
, Rpr, and Rcil and calculated in the relation:
R=
where:
Fmax
[Pa; N/mm2 ;N/cm2 ;daN/cm2 ]
A0

Fmax = the maxi mal force recorded during the trial (till the total
break) of the test-piece;
A0
= the aria of the transversal section on the direction of the

compression, calculated with the dimensions of the test-piece
before the compression.
The break of an test-piece submitted to compression is done
through the cracks oriented on the direction of the force (figure
7.17.a), showing that the main role in the break is played by the
transversal deformations, induced by the longitudinal deformation.
Any supplementary action capable to prevent the transversal
deformation of the test-piece will have as consequence the delay of
the cracking and the increase of the resistance to compression.
Fig. 7.17. Compression test
151
Such a action is represented by the abrasion between the

surfaces of the test-piece and the press scales (figure 7.16.b), which
will oppose the outward movement, on account of the transversal
deformation, of the structural units in the interface.
The friction effect is transmitted into the test-piece structure
under an angle, characteristic for the material, so that the break of
the test-piece is produced through the cracking of the lateral sides,
where this effect is not felt. W ith the tall test-pieces (prisms or
cylinders), the friction effect is no longer felt in their central area (H
height in 7.16.c figure) where the trial is considered to be performed
without friction .
As a result,
when broken, the cubical test-pieces take the form of two

pyramids united at the tip;
the resistance at compression obtained through the friction

trial is higher than that obtained through the without friction
trial;
the resistance at compression weakens with the rise of the

rapport between the height and the base of the test-piece ,
the strengths obtained on prismatic and cylindrical testpieces being smaller than that obtained on the cubical testpiece.
The resistance at compression is influenced also by the form

of the transversal section of the test-piece. Thus (figure 7.18) for the

square sections, the corner sections will be more deformed (the
corner points will suffer oblique changes DL bigger than the points
on the lateral sides DX and DY), that imply internal efforts bigger
than the rest of the section. As a consequence, the unitary effort is
not equally distributed in the section the break of the test-piece
beginning at the corners.
Fig. 7.18. Deformation of compression sections

F or
th e
circular
sections,
th e
deformation is equal
(symmetrical) with the center of the section, so that the state of

efforts is no longer disturbed.
The difference of behavior of the sections manifested through
the strength at the cylindrical compression bigger than the prismatic
one, but mainly through the degree of static distribution of the
results smaller for the cylindrical test-pieces.
The compression trial can be performed also on square
base prism tips (a bending trial), through the sequence of steel
pieces with an aria identical to that transversal to the test-piece
153
(figure 7.19); the compression effort will be thus passed on a cubical

section of the prism. In this case, the resistance will be bigger than
that obtained on the independent cubical test-piece, because of the
transversal deformation on the length of the prism towards the areas
which are not submitted to compression.
Fig. 7.19 Compression

trial for prism heads
Fig. 7.20. Asperity s
influence
Extremely important for the compression trial is the inherent
flatness of the surfaces of the test-piece, which come in contact with
the scales (the arms) of the press. The asperity of this interface
(figure 7.20.) determines the dotted aspect so that, ever with small
forces, the effort in the contact area increases (Ao goes towards 0),
showing a false resistance, much smaller than the real one.
T he
compression
resistance
represents
th e
bigger
mechanical resistance of the materials, the building composition

systems following its exploitation as much as possible.

7.7..4. The static stretch trial
The static stretch trial can be performed in three ways: axial
(centric), through bending and through splitting. The resistances
thus obtained are known as Rt, Rti, and Rtd symbols.
The trail sample in an axial stretch implies the stretch force

between the longitudinal axe of the material test-piece.
In the transversal sections a normal unitary effort will appear,
manifested through th cracks transversal to the direction of the

force.
The test-pieces (figure 7.21.) with the circular or polygonal
section need to present an area (Lc, called the calibrated length)
where the break is expected to be produced, with very small
dimensional defaults (within the tolerance), and the ends need to be
thicker in order to allow their attachment in the clamping dies of the
trial machine.
The resistance in the axial stretch is calculated in the
formula:
Rt =
Fmax
A0
[Pa]
155
Fig.7.21 Test for axial stretch

where:
Fmax
= the maxi mal force recorded during process;
A0
= the aria of the transversal section where the break is

produced, determined by the progression of the trial.
The axial stretch trial is applied on materials with a
microheterogenous structure (metals, polymers, wood
etc)of
which relatively small test-pieces are made which can be placed

centrally in the clamping dies of the trial machine.
Through the stretch trial through bending, prismatic testpieces are used (figure 7.22.), leaned on two supports at a
determined distance, called opening.
Figure 7.22. The stretch trial through bending and

the diagrams of the bending moment.
The force(F) can act in two versions:
In the A version , directly on the test-piece, at the middle of the
opening, producing a maxi mal bending moment, in the acting
section;
In the B version, through a steel piece, communicating two forces
on the test-piece, 1/3 from the opening producing a constant
maxi mal bending moment in the third section of the opening.
v
The bending to which to test-piece is submitted
produces a stretch in its inferior section and a compression in its

upper section. As the resistance at stretch is smaller than the
resistance at compression, cracks will occur in the stretched part,
in the maxi mal moment area that will move rapidly towards the
compressed section and will produce the break of the test-piece.
157
The resistance at stretch through bending is calculated in the

relations:
For the A version of charge:
For the B version of charge:
Rti =
Rti =
3 Fmax l
[Pa]
2 bh 2
Fmax l
[p a ]
bh 2
where:
Fmax= the maxi mal force recorded during the trial;
l = the opening;
b and h= the width and the height of the transversal section of the
test-piece, in the trial position, determined before the trial.
v The trial method through bending presents the
advantage of the simple form of thetest-piece and the possibility of
using the sepsis for compression. On the ends of theprism, resulting
in the trial version A compression trial can be performed with the
possibility to determine both resistances in the same test-pieces.
In the trial version of stretching through splitting, the test-pieces are
cylindrical, cubical test-pieces and prism tips being used as well.
The test-piece is placed in the compression press through
cartoon stretches; P.F.L. etc (figure 7.23) with the role of regulate
the transmission of the force on the generators. The compression

charge is thus equally transmitted on the generators of the press but
more concentrated compared with its transversal section.
The relation to determine the resistance at stretch through splitting
is:
Rtd =
2 Fmax
[Pa]
A0
where:
Fmax
= maximal force registered during the trial;
A0
= the aria of the splitting plan, determined before the trial;
Fig.7.23 Stretching through

splitting
The method of trial at stretch through splitting presents the
advantage of its applicability on carrots which are usually cylindrical.
For the same material, the resistances at stretch obtained in all
three trial versions are related :
159
Rt Rti Rtd
their eqivalent being calculated through coefficients experimentally
determined.
7.7.5. Dynamic compression trial
The dynamic compression trial (through shock) is performed in
cubical, cylindrical and prismatic test-pieces, using a pile driver type
device.(figure 7.24).
The mechanical action is realized through the fall of the ram, from
higher and higher heights, on the test-piece, till its cracking.
The behavior of the materials with short duration actions (at
shock) is elastically. The kinetic energy of the falling tup in the
moment of the hit is passed on to the test-piece as elastic
deformation energy, so that in the moment immediately following the
hit, the test-piece takes its initial form passing on in its turn the
energy of the ram which will hit back( it will recoil ).
Fig. 2.24 Dynamic trial compression (through shock)

As long as the structure of the test-piece is not cracked, the
recoil of the ram will grow with the rise of its falling height. At the
moment of the cracking of the test-piece, a part of the energy will be
consumed through friction so that the recoil will not rise.
The trial will stop when the recorded recoil during the last hit
is equal or smaller than that registered during the last trial.
The compression resistance through shock is calculated in the
relation:
n 1
G i =1
Rs =
V
where:
hi
[Nm/m3 ]

G
= the weight of the falling tup
hi
= the falling heights of the ram;
= the number of falls of the ram;
= the volume of the test.
161
To notice that the compression resistance through shock

expresses the energy necessary for the cracking of a volume of
material where it dissipates. The resemblance between the
measuring units for the static compression resistance and the
strength at the static compression through shock is a coincidence
since the two characteristics can t be compared.
7.7.6. The dynamic bending trial
The dynamic bending trial, called the resilience, is performed
in prismatic test-pieces, having a weakened structure (through
partial cutting), where the break is about to happen.
For the application of the charge a hammer pendulum device
is used (figure 7.24). If the hammer is allowed to fall free, from the A
point, without hitting the test-piece, it will stop in the B point. W hen
the test-piece is placed in the catch device, the hammer will hit and
break it and then continue its move to the C point.
The difference of height H will result from the energy
consumed for the break of the test-piece, so that the resilience (Kn)
relation is:
Kn =
GH
[N/mm]
A
where:
G
= the weight of the hammer;
= the aria of the weakened section of the test-piece.
Figure 7.24 The dynamic bending trial
The weight of the hammer needs to be chosen so that it would

break the test-piece from the first blow, the n figure in the resilience
symbol expressing the identification of the hammer in the device
case.
7.8.7. The cyclical mechanical trials

The cyclical mechanical trials, called also fatigued trials are
163
performed with hydraulic machines, called pulsatory (figure 7.25a) in

prismatic test-pieces or with rotative machinesin cylindrical or testpieces in the shape of a truncated cone.
The pulsatory device contains a hydraulic cylinder where the
oil pressure varies, in time,so that the force and with it the stretching
effort at the inferior fiber of the test-piece should vary according to a
sinusoidal law.
Figure 7.25. The fatigued trial and the variation

of the effort in the test-piec
The rotative machines have a device to catch the test-piece
which rotates it at a certain speed so that the force attached at the
end of the test-piece which maintains its vertical position will induce
alternative stretching and compression efforts in each of the fibers
of the test-piece .

The repeated bending action determines the apparition, in the
structure of the material, of the evolutionary mIcrofissures so that it
breaks at a smaller effort than that determined through the static
bending trial. The number of the loading-unloading cycles to which
the material resists is in opposite relation to the effort to which it is
submitted.
To determine the resistance to fatigue, trials are performed,
in identical test-pieces, submitted to a decreasing effort. A figure is
drawn having as ordinate the effort (calculated as for the static trial)
and in the abscissa, the number of the loading- unloading cycles
where the test-piece was broken (Figure 7.26.).
To notice that the figure goes asymptotically towards a Ro value,
called the fatigue resistance and which has the significance of the
maxi mal effort for which the repeated bending effort doesn t produce
the breaking.
Fig7.26. Diagram for fatigue resistance
165
Bi b l i o g rap h y
Mineralogie si materii prime pentru industria chimic

anorganica (partea I)
Editura Universit ii tehnice "Gh. Asachi" Iasi, 1996
Noi tipuri de betoane speciale.
Editura tehnica - Bucure ti, 1980
1.
Apost olescu, M.,

Apost olescu, N.
2.
Avram, C, Bob, C.
3.
Beral, E., Zapan, M.
4.
Bob, C, Vel i ca , P.
5.
Bob, C.
Materiale de construc ii
Editura Institutului Politehnic Timi oara, 1984
6.
Ciobanu, Gh.,
Constantinescu, C.
Fizica st rii solide (vol. I)

7.
Craciunescu, L., Popa,

E.
Materiale de construc ii
Editura Institutului de Construcfii Bucureti, 1981
8.
Groll, L., Hirhui, I.,

Apost olescu, R.
9.
Ivanov, I.
Materiale de construc ii - Bazele fizico-chimice ale

studiului materialelor de construc ii
Editura Institutului Politehnic Ia i, 1988
Materiale de const ruc ii pentru inst ala ii
Editura didactica si pedagogica - Bucuresti, 1978
10.
Mocanu, D. R.
(coordonator)
Chimie anorganica
Materiale de constructii
Editura didactica si pedagogica - Bucuresti, 1978
ncercarea materialelor

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D nu T.

Editura Societa ii Academice "Matei - Teiu Botez"

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Na ionale a Romniei

eng. Liviu Groll, Ph.D., ass ociate profess or

Any material is s ubjected, by

natural laws, to physic al or

certain external or internal agents . V ery often, it reac ts eve n

properties and, als o, the tes ting method involved to determine

3.3. THE CRYSTALLISATION S MECHANISM FROM MELTING

7.1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE BUILDING MATERIALS

Introduction in building materials

DIMENSIONS, UNITS, AND SYMBOLS

Notice the symbols of the dimensions as they would be used

Introduction in building materials

Abbreviations: Ft = foot, in = inch, AMU = atomic mass unit, KPH =

gal = gallon , PSI = pounds per square inch, cc = cubic centimeter,

Introduction in building materials

10 Introduction in building materials

Introduction in building materials

12 Introduction in building materials

Introduction in building materials

simple definition. Having basic metric units like 'kilogram-meter per

Here s where we could start

complicating the math by using calculus, but we won t. If you are

14 Introduction in building materials

Introduction in building materials

centimeter). English densities are usually in weight per volume,

16 Introduction in building materials

Introduction in building materials

explanation of concentration can mean much.

Circle Area, Ac = r2 . Cylinder Volume = Vc = Ac l = r2 l

A formula is a relationship among dimensions. The symbols for the

definitions, and changeover definitions between the two systems.

18 Introduction in building materials

1 mi. = 5280 ft.

METRIC PREFIXES AS FACTORS OF TEN

A FEW ODD METRIC DEFINITIONS

1 cubic meter = 1000 L

Introduction in building materials

A cook might want a conversion factor between cups and

20 Introduction in building materials

Introduction in building materials

number of protons; if there is an imbalance, the atom is called an

22 Introduction in building materials

Most of the particles went straight

Introduction in building materials

the atomic number. The atomic number Z is the number of protons

24 Introduction in building materials

consisting of a positively charged nucleus (the proton) with a single,

Introduction in building materials

Suppose now we take the atom of sodium. Its structure

26 Introduction in building materials

in this case a positive ion. Chlorine on the other hand has

shells of 2-8-7 electrons and the octet urge can be satisfied if it

say the number of electrons forming bonds. In the above case,

Introduction in building materials

larger elements. Types of an element in which every atom has the

28 Introduction in building materials

Introduction in building materials

characterized by an "i" orbital quantum number defining the

30 Introduction in building materials

Introduction in building materials