Imperialism & Colonialism

Friday, December 16 2011, 10:59 PM

South Asia & SE Asia
Portuguese
Rise
1. Unlike Latam, in Asia, they didnt try to establish settlements. Rather they just established forts at
strategic locations and carried on trade from there.
2. In the same vein, they captured Goa to control trade with India, then Malacca to control Far-East
trade. Then they captured Macau and also began a trade route with Japan.
3. But Spanish did capture Philippines and goods from China were taken to Americas viaPhilippines.
They also converted the island to Christianity and perhaps this is the reason why the island is most
westernized in the region.
Decline
1. They were not able to progress rapidly, and new powers emerged on the scene.
2. As a result, their vast empire became a liability for them and they overstretched themselves.
French
1. Its imperialism in SE Asia was a result of the nationalistic need to rival British. Other usual reason was
the need for markets of French products and capital. It was also supported intellectually by the feeling
of superiority of French culture and the need to civilize natives.
2. France took over Algeria completely by 1857 to secure a good market for French cotton goods.
Tahiti and Ivory Coast were added to the empire as well and expeditions were sent to Beijing and
Syria. In 1859, the conquest of Indo-China was completed by French.
Latin America
South Africa
1. In 1652, the Dutch founded a settlement in Cape Town where they got engaged in supplying the ships
headed for India. Gradually the Dutch settlements grew in size. As they moved interior and west, they
met with resistance from the natives which led to a series of skirmishes and in 1779 the 100 year
Xhosa wars broke out. The Dutch government tried to restore peace by making formal border
agreements with the natives but the Boers (the Dutch settlers) knew no limitations to their greed and
frequently violated the terms of the settlement. However, after the Anglo Dutch Treaty of 1814, South
Africa was given to British.
2. The Dutch colonialists didn't like the idea of being under British command. There didn't agree with the
on many things and the biggest one being over the treatment towards the natives (they were even
more barbaric in their treatment of natives). The soon outlawed importation of slaves and prescribed
a minimum treatment to be met out to slaves and servants and in 1834 slavery was abolished.
3. The Boers were in no position to fight and they didn't like it either, so they moved further north into
the Natal region and setup their independent settlements. This was followed by a conflict with local
Zulu tribes where the Dutch resorted to their usual methods of treachery, massacre and racial
hatred. However, in 1860s and 70s, gold and diamond were discovered in these states. This led to a
rush for riches and too soon turned up to occupy these states. Thus in 1880, Boer wars broke out

between and Boers and after a long series of wars, control was extended over whole SAF.
4. In 1910, all of the former territories of SAF were united into the Union of SAF and a federal
government setup. However, the supposedly 'freer' government too began to pursue highly racial
policies right from the beginning. It excluded the colored people form electorate and came up with a
Native Land Act of 1913 which gave the natives rights over only 13% of the land while they
constituted over 75% of the population. Clearly with such a high pressure on the land, agriculture was
not a viable occupation for the natives and they were forced to work in the industries and mines owned
by the as cheap labor. As if this was not enough the Mines and Works Act of 1911 had already
limited many work opportunities for the colored and only feasible way left for them was to work in an
'almost slave like' position in the mines and factories owned by the .
5. During the WWs the economy got a boost and demand for colored labor increased even further.
Increasingly laws were being framed to limit the mobility of colored, to restrict them into living in
ghettos and there was a clear move towards apartheid. In fact in 1948 the National Party which won
the election had fought it on the promise of imposing apartheid only! Naturally this produced a reaction
and ANC pitched up the anti-apartheid campaign.
Australia
Contact with the Aborigines
1. Initial contacts with Aborigines were those of curiosity but it soon turned to hostility due to greed and
racial prejudice of the settlers. It had a devastating impact on the Aborigines. Not only did their
population dwindle as a result of loss of habitation and resources, direct killings but they also gad to
face diseases like small pox (which wiped out large proportion of their population) which were hitherto
unknown to them.
2. The policy which was followed by the settlers was that of open hostility and racism towards the
indigenous people. Their rights over their ancestral land were not recognized and all land of Australia
was free for the settlers to occupy. Conflicts and atrocities on the Aborigines often went unreported in
the mainstream literature. Soon the population of the indigenous groups ran down from thousands into
hundreds.
3. Later on some efforts were made to reconcile with the locals. But these to were half hearted and
marred with racial superiority. Thus in the name of extending modern 'civilization' to them, they were
converted into Christianity, their children forcibly taken away etc.
Factors Responsible Behind Colonization of Australia
1. had lost American colonies in the war in 1783. That was a big blow to her prestige. So even though
Australia had been 'discovered' earlier, plans to colonize it were developed now. The reports from the
sailors regarding colonization possibilities in Australia had been favorable and it was decided that
convicts would be deported there. The campaign about appalling conditions in the prisons in was
gaining momentum. Deportation was an acceptable punishment in law and America had been use to
this purpose until then. Loss of America necessitated the use of Australia now as a convict dumping
ground.
2. Apart from the above reason, the decision was also made out of strategic concerns. It seemed at that
time that the outbreak of a civil war in Holland might precipitate a war between and France, Spain
and Holland. So a settlement in Australia could facilitate an attack on Spanish colonies in Philippines
and Dutch colonies in Indonesia and would enhance defence of Malacca and India.
3. Finally America had been a source of flax and timber and now Australia held the promise to make up
for the loss. The potential of new finds in Australia was also a luring prospect.
Emergence of Democratic Self Government in Australia

1. The discovery of gold had fueled a gold rush and many diggers had been attracted to migrate to
Australia. Unlike the convicts (who had settled in Australia previously) these diggers were free men
used to liberties and democracy. The government of Australia was used to handling convicts only and
thus over a dispute in Eureka, it opened fire on the diggers and killed many of them. There was a royal
commission setup and it made sweeping changes in the administration of Australia and increased
democratization.
2. As the free settlers were trickling in (and they were used to a democratic government unlike the
convicts), they began to press for democracy. Thus even before the Eureka incident in 1854,
movement for democratization had begun and political parties had come up to demand for a
democratic government. Slowly voting rights were extended and by the end of century even women
became eligible to vote and contest parliamentary elections.
3. Improvement in transport and communication channels meant increasing trade and economic
interdependence between the various colonies that had come up in different parts of the continent.
Gradually demands began to be raised to unite these colonies. The population had reached 3.5 mm by
the end of 19th century and in 1900 the colonies decided to come together and form a federation.
4. However the political system which was established was highly racist and discriminatory. One of the
first acts of the federal government was to pass the Immigration Restriction Act, 1901 which restricted
the entry of colored immigrants. And the act was justified on racist grounds!
Neo Imperialism
Colonialism was at its lowest ebb in 1815
1. Except for Tangier held by Spain, no colonies existed in N Africa and the Mediterranean Sea was the
line of divide between Islam and Christian world.
2. The slave trade had been abolished. This greatly reduced the importance of west African colonies.
3. Cape Colony was a stoppage en route to India and Australia was a dumping ground for convicts.
4. Much of America had won her independence or strong freedom struggle was going on.
5. The Dutch had only island of Java under her control.
The greatest colonial power was paradoxically anti-colonial in spirit in 1815
1. Only the Christian Missionaries and the traders and manufacturers supported colonialism. The radicals
opposed it as they saw colonialism as merely a means of strengthening the aristocratic influence
(why?). Free Traders were not only opposed to any regulation of overseas trade but also looked upon
independence of colonies as a natural progression. Thus the greatest colonial power was paradoxically
anti-colonial in spirit.
Factors Responsible for Intensification of Imperialism in 1870s
Economic Factors
1. After 1870 there was a surge in industrial growth in the major European countries like Germany, Italy,
France etc.
These governments abandoned free trade and imposed high tariffs to
promote home industries. The protectionist tendencies among various european nations were getting
very strong and by 1870 virtually all european nations had imposed strict tariffs against each other's
goods and capital. Also the enhanced industrial production was not able to satisfy the home needs.
2. In this context, colonies were seen as safe markets (the major reason) for both manufactured products
as well as capital and sources of raw materials. They were now seen less in terms of their commercial
value but more in terms of guarantee for free market. Thus in this period we saw a consolidation of
rule in India, coastal colonies in Africa getting inward, expansion of hold in the Cape and Australia and

New Zealand emerging as a full colonized continent. France took over Algeria completely by 1857 to
secure a good market for French cotton goods. Tahiti and Ivory Coast were added to the empire as
well and expeditions were sent to Beijing and Syria. In 1859, the conquest of Indo-China was
completed by French.
3. The expansion of imperialism was also aided in this period by a great improvement in means of
transportation and communications.
Socio-Cultural Factors
1. There was a strong public opinion (often moulded by influential intellectuals and used by politicians to
their advantage) in these countries which favored imperialism mainly in the name of racial superiority
and prestige of the nation. This is also evident from the fact that while in this period, conceded to the
demand of dominion status of the white colonies, no such policy was followed for the colored
colonies.
2. The revival of socialist tendencies among workers led the capitalist governments to focus on
imperialism to save their rule back home.
3. Christian missionaries too played their part in spreading imperialism in their zeal as they often went
under the protection of their home governments and were quickly followed by soldiers. Another factor
was the exploratory spirit of the adventurers who were often treated as national heroes for
'discovering' new lands.
Politico-Strategic Factors
1. Given the change in balance of power (post German rise) and the subsequent mistrust and ever present
danger of war, no opportunity of gaining any strategic advantage could now be left. Thus if one power
increased its influence in one part of the world, the other powers had to intervene and gain themselves
in order to restore the balance of power. This led to great intensification of rivalries.
2. Sometimes the expansion of colonies was used as a sop offered to a power by another power as a
compensation for forgoing something else. Thus Bismarck encouraged France to expand in Tunisia so
as to divert her from concerning herself more with european affairs. Often a consent was reached
between various powers on the colonial spoils and they expanded with the understanding of other
powers.
3. In some countries like Italy and Russia, political and not economic factors were dominant. In the case
of nations, like men, its what they aspire to be which guides their policies and not who they are. Each
country had a strong political class which favored acquisitions of more colonies and they often found
favor in the nationalistic theme which was the dominant undercurrent in europe at that time.
The Scramble for Colonies
Africa

(a) The Berlin Conference, 1884-85

1. In 1876, the Belgian king formed International African Association led by Stanley which between 1879
to 1884 made treaties with the native chiefs and established Belgian influence over a vast area in
interior Congo. Naturally all the major european powers got alarmed and called for a concert in
Europe. Thus a conference was held @ Berlin in 1884-85 to settle the issue of Congo and remaining
Africa. In this conference, Leopold's rights over Congo were recognized and it was decided that in the
future any power that effectively occupied any African territory and duly notified the other powers
could thereby establish possession and full rights over it. Thus began the mad scramble for Africa.
2. Following the example of Belgium, many companies with government monopoly were setup to
establish control over African territories and exploit them.
(b) West and Central Africa
1. As we saw above, Congo had been carved out by Belgium by 1885. Initially her rubber and ivory
were important but with time her gold, diamonds, copper, timber, uranium became more important and
other european powers joined the Belgians in exploiting it. At one time the company having control
over Katanga's copper reserves was the world's largest copper company. It was jointly owned by
Belgian and interests and played a meddlesome role in the political affairs.
2. occupied the area of Nigeria. Initially there was a sharp rivalry between and France but
compulsions back home enabled retain this. It also occupied Gold Coast and Sierra Leone.
3. Towards the north of Congo, de Brazza carved out the French Congo using the same methods of
treachery and naked power. On the west coast, French had already occupied coastal areas and by
1900 she had extended her empire interior and with the conquests in central Africa, she was able to
link her north and western African conquests with French Congo.
4. Germany occupied Cameroon and Togo on the west coast. To the south of Angola, she conquered
present Namibia. But this didn't satisfy her greed and she wanted the Portuguese colony of Angola and
and Mozambique as well. and Germany had secretly partitioned Angola and Mozambique between
themselves but the WW1 spoilt this party. After the war, German colonies were distributed as a prize
among the victors. Cameroon was divided between France and and Namibia was given to SAF.
5. Liberia was settled with slaves who had been liberated from US. Though she remained nominally

independent, US interference in her affairs was heavy particularly to protect interest of US capital
there. Portugal had Angola while Spain had Rio de Oro.
(c) South Africa
1. Outside SAF, the explorer Cecil Rhodes carved out vast empire and called it Rhodesia (N
Rhodesia is now Zambia and S Rhodesia is now Zimbabwe).
(d) East Africa
1. Except for the Portuguese possession of Mozambique, east Africa had not been occupied before the
Berlin conference. An agreement was reached between , Germany and France where France
occupied Madagascar, and east Africa was distributed between Germany and . Even the ruler of
Zanzibar who had been promised a small territory was not spared and eventually Germany and
occupied his area as well. In 1890, there was another agreement between and Germany where
Uganda was 'reserved' for and in exchange Germany got Heligoland. After the WW1, German East
Africa was given to .
2. Italy was given Somalia, Eritrea and Ethiopia. But in 1896 she was defeated by Ethiopia.
(e) North Africa
1. Algeria had been conquered by France in 1830 itself but it took her ~40 years to suppress the
Algerian resistance. Then encouraged by Bismarck, she also captured Tunisia from the Turkish empire.
French made further conquests interior and were able to link their African possessions.
2. Italy and France agreed in 1900 where France increased her influence on Morocco and Italy occupied
LIbya. In 1904, France and signed an agreement which gave Morocco to France and Egypt to .
Sudan was jointly occupied by Egypt and . A Sudanese leader who had proclaimed himself the
Mahdi had in 1880s succeeded in overthrowing the and Egyptian control over Sudan. But in 1898
and Egyptians came back again and after a bloody battle, occupied Sudan. The French tried to occupy
southern parts of Sudan but were forced to withdraw by . But she was allowed to capture western
Sudan which she did and thus connected her equatorial territories with the western and northern ones.
SE Asia- Indonesia
1. Following the doctrines of mercantilism, the Dutch companies formed a cartel and this was an
important reason for their strength. They followed the Portuguese approach of carrying out trade
through forts established in strategic locations. Initially the colonial act was done only to promote the
trading interests of the company i.e. to earn profits via trade. Only after Holland began to industrialize
that we see the motivation and colonial pattern changing.
2. In 1798, the Dutch conquered Indonesia. But in 1804, after Napoleon conquered Netherlands, the
Dutch government went into exile in England and formally ceded its colonial empire to her. After the
defeat of Napoleon, the Anglo-Dutch Treaty was signed where English gave back Indonesia to Dutch
and the Dutch relinquished all their claims over India. But the Dutch had to cede South Africa to
British. As a result of the loss and because Indonesia was the only major colony left, Dutch began to
consolidate their rule vigorously there through military campaigns and diplomatic alliances with the local
rulers. Thus they fought many wars like the Padri war (1821-37), the Java war (1825-30), the Aceh
war (1873-04).
3. In WW2, Japanese occupied Indonesia. After the war, Dutch tried to fight back but Indonesia won
freedom in 1949 and in 1963 Indonesian armies freed the last remaining colony of Dutch New Guinea
as well.

SE Asia - Indo China

1. While was busy consolidating its empire in India and extending it in Malacca, France was carving out
its empire in Indo-China. But these efforts were not free of the mutual jealousies which had come to be
associated with imperialism everywhere. Thus when France secured from the Burmese king to
construct a railway from Tonkin to Mandalay in 1880s, (fearing a French expansion) waged a war
on Burma and annexed it.
2. France came to control Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia and Thailand remained between possessions
and the French possessions as a buffer state. Yet both countries meddled freely in its internal affairs.
3. French had commercial interests in Indo - China (also called Annam) from 17th century but no
concerted effort was made to colonize it since held the supremacy in Indian Ocean (and any large
scale French colonization would have invited their wrath). After the 1850s, French imperialism was
driven by the needs of balancing acts (of imperialism) in the wake of the scramble for colonies and
was supported by the doctrines of racial and cultural superiority and the 'white man's burden'. Initially
Christian missionaries were sent in Indo-China and soldiers followed and the areas were occupied on
the false pretext of protecting the missionaries. Thus protection of religious men became the pretext of
occupying Saigon, Da Nang and other areas in 1850s.
4. By the Treaty of Saigon in 1862, the Vietnamese emperor ceded the territories of S Vietnam to French
(which French merged with their other areas to form the colony of Cochinchina) and also the French
secured trade and religious privileges over entire Vietnam and a control over her foreign policy.
Gradually they spread their influence and in 1882 occupied Hanoi. This led to a war with China and a
French victory confirmed their supremacy in the region. Thus entire Vietnam and Laos came under
French control as 'protectorates'.
5. In these places even though they nominally retained the old administrative structures but all the effective
power lay with them. They resorted to making the elite native class dependent on them for survival and
also heavy cultural propaganda.
SE Asia - Philippines
1. The Filipinos revolted against Spain in 1896 and proclaimed the First Philippines Republic in
1898. However, the 1898 Treaty of Paris transferred the control from Spanish to US. The Philippines
government didn't recognize this Treaty and declared war against US in 1899. The US unilaterally
declared peace in 1902 and this was followed by Philippine Organic Act, 1902. This Act provided for
the establishment of a bicameral legislature where the lower house was to be popularly elected. Thus
Philippines became a US colony and like Canada, Australia etc. it had modern colonial practices.
English was also made the official language along with Spanish.
2. The Philippine Autonomy Act, 1916 officially declared US commitment to grant independence to her
as soon as possible. Partial autonomy was granted in 1936 and plans were made to grant
independence in 1946. But in the WW2, Japanese conquered her. Philippines welcomed US forces
reconquering her and in 1946, independence was granted.
3. During WW2, the People's Army which was affiliated to the Communist Party of Philippines (PKP)
fought against the Japanese and gained popularity. In the 1946 elections, PKP participated. However,
with the onset of cold war, its growing strength drew ire from US and the ruling government. They
resorted to repression of PKP and in 1948, an armed struggle began between PKP and the
government + US military forces present in Philippines. The insurgency lasted till 1956 when PKP gave
up arms.
Theories of Neo-Imperialism
Hobson's and Lenin's Accumulation Theory

(a) Features
1. The European capitalist markets suffered from under consumption due to concentration of
wealth in few hands. The workers were merely paid sustenance wages and hence were not able to
absorb the vast amount of goods being produced. This led to migration of capital which was the
essential feature of Neo-Imperialism. This could have been avoided by a more equal distribution of
wealth in these countries so as to raise the domestic consumption itself.
2. Lenin argued that in the colonies the imperialists found a new proletariat to exploit and the benefits
were reaped by even the workers of the industrial countries which led them to forget their revolutionary
fervor and support their bourgeoise. Thus the war which happened in 1914 was one where both sides
were imperialists.
3. After 1870s, this capital migration was more towards Latam and rest of Commonwealth and less
towards Europe, US and India. However, this capital was accompanied with policies and attitudes
which
served
to
dominate
the
native
systems
instead
of
industrializing
them. This is called the Dependency Theory. It must also be noted that the need to find secure markets
for capital and manufactured goods was higher than the need for raw materials since the raw materials
could have been secured even without political control.
(b) Criticism
1. Doesn't explain why countries with very little surplus capital like Italy wanted colonies. It also doesn't
explain why US & Russia, both of who were net importers of capital, engaged in imperialism. Some of
the native rulers like Ismail Pasha themselves requested foreign capital.
2. Moreover Scandinavian countries which had the highest labor standards engaged in little imperialism.
3. In the scramble for Africa, sometimes the military and bureaucratic costs of maintaining the rule
overshadowed the economic benefits.
Wallerstein's World Systems Theory
1. It contends that with the spread of industrialization, other powers developed. The core imperialist
power was Britain and the new peripheral powers were Germany, France etc. The peripheral powers
wanted to displace the core powers and become core themselves. This contributed to the emergence
of an era of aggressive national rivalry.
Implications of Neo Imperialism
Political
1. It proved to be a blessing in disguise for some countries as it introduced them to the ideas of modern
administration, press, modern means of communication and transport, English language, modern ideas
like nationalism, democracy, constitutionalism etc.
2. Though many of these systems were implemented to facilitated the exploitation of the colonies, but
nonetheless it served them after their liberation. Also the common cause of overthrowing the foreign
rule united the people in many of the colonies - something which they hadn't seen in their histories
before.
3. The imperialist rule also facilitated slavery and migration of labor.
4. The conquest of Asia and Africa further added to the rivalries in Europe. Example, French conquest of
Tunisia frustrated Italy who joined an alliance against her and started a tariff war.
Economic

1. The imperialist powers setup industries and modern means of transport and communications in the
colonies.
2. There was exploitation of colonies, massive drain of wealth as colonies were made to export raw
materials at very cheap prices and import finished goods at high prices. This unfair trade was secured
using unfair laws and taxation.
Socio-Cultural
1.
2.
3.
4.

It led to a change in religious lives of the natives as Christianity spread.

It led to spread of enlightenment and awakening.
It led to racial segregation as the imperialists followed a racial outlook.
It let to a split among the commoners in Europe as some of them backed the imperialist ambitions and
some opposed it.

Colonial Collisions
1. The colonial considerations in distant always remained secondary to the considerations related to
national security and interests in europe. Had they been supreme in guiding the foreign policies of these
countries, one would have expected to ally with Germany and not France or Russia. Whenever
colonial disputes arose, as far as possible, an attempt was made to resolve them by negotiating an
outcome beneficial to all. Thus Africa was partitioned in Berlin in 1884-85. In the case of the Boxer
rebellion in China in 1900 and in case of Japan in 1905 the colonial powers united and worked
together to secure an outcome which was beneficial for them all. They were also united in preventing
the rise of a strong imperial Japan.
2. In fact a satisfactory settlement of colonial disputes became a prerequisite for alliances back home.
Thus the Anglo - French alliance was made after settling the colonial disputes in Egypt and Morocco,
Anglo - Russian alliance was made after settling the dispute over Iran (by carving it out in separate
spheres of influence and keeping a buffer zone). The only country which let its foreign policy be
dictated by colonial considerations was Italy and it proved to be an unreliable ally and eventually
gained nothing.
Moroccan Crisis
1. France had influence over Morocco yet it was politically independent. There were some disputed
areas between the two and France wanted to expand her territories. had trading concerns in
Morocco as well as wanted to possess Gibraltar on the other side of the straits. Naturally a French
expansion into Morocco would have raised concern for them. So Germany decided to exploit the issue
to break the -French alliance and the Kaiser visited Morocco in 1905 and indicated support for
recognition of Moroccan independence. Since Germany had no direct interest in Morocco, such an
action was perceived as directly hostile and aggressive by both and France.
2. But and France refused to let their foreign policy be guided by colonial interests (overriding the
interests in europe) and reached an agreement over Morocco. Germany (unaware of the agreement)
called for an international conference to discuss Morocco. The situation was worsened when German
pressure forced French foreign minister (who had worked to strengthen the alliance with ) to resign.
This further strengthened opinion against Germany. In the conference which was held, except for
Austria-Hungary, no one supported Germany and it came as a big defeat to German diplomacy.
France was given effective control of Morocco.
3. In 1910, French troops occupied Fez, the most important city of Morocco. Germany was infuriated
and without much consideration sent a gunboat to the Moroccan port. This was the gunboat
diplomacy.