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WK 2: What you will want to know about the Pre-Socratics

What differentiates the early Milesian philosophers such as Thales, Anaximander, and
Anaximenes is? Their individual orientations to a mythological world view as well as the
act of independent thought.
Be able to match the following early Greek philosophers with their main contributions:

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Thales
Aristotle identifies Thales as the founder of natural philosophy. According to
Stumpf Thales novel inquiry concerned the nature of things. He assumed
that some single element, some stuff, a stuff which contained its own principle of
action or change, lay at the foundation of all physical reality. For Thales, this
One, or this stuff turned out to be water.

Anaximander
Pupil of Thales. Working on the same problem as Thales. He wanted to know
what the basic stuff is from which everything comes. He concluded, contra his
mentor, that this stuff was an indefinite or boundless realm. So, he didnt think
that the basic stuff of the universe was any particular thing like water or any other
determinant element

Anaximenes
An associate of Anaximander. He was not content with Anaximanders
explanation of the composition of natural things. According to Stumpf,
Anaximenes was something of a synthesizer attempting to bring together a definite
substance as did Thales while at the same time not dismissing Anaximanders
concept of the infinite boundless. So, according to Stumpf Anaximenes settled
on air as the primary substance from which all things come.
Pythagoras
Originally from Samos, Pythagoras founded at Croton (in southern Italy) a society
which was at once a religious community and a scientific school. According to
Stephen Law, the importance of the Pythagoreans was their conviction that
numbers hold the key to grasping the nature of reality. The impact of this idea on
the development of science is difficult to overestimate.
Heraclitus
Heraclitus shifted focus from what things consist of to the problem of change.
According to Stumpf, His chief idea was that all things are in flux, and
expressed this concept of constant change by saying that you cannot step twice
into the same river.

Parmenides
Located in southern Italy, Parmenides as well as Zeno, argued that nothing can
be created or destroyed: all that exists is one undifferentiated and unchanging
reality, and the appearance to our senses of multiplicity and change is therefore an
illusion.
Atomists (Leucippus, Democritus)
Leucippus is likely the first Atomist. According to Stephen Law his main thesis
was that the universe is composed of a number of minuscule, indestructible
particles of matter, which, through their combinations and movements, produce
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all phenomena.
forgotten in the Middle Ages, only to be resurrected in the modern era.

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WK 3: What you will want to know about Socrates

So thorny is the difficulty of distinguishing the historical Socrates from the Socrateses of the
authors of the texts in which he appears and, moreover, from the Socrateses of scores of later
interpreters, that the whole contested issue is generally referred to as the? the Socratic problem
(Nails, 2005,)
Within the community of Socratic scholars it is generally accepted that Aristophanes is counted as
one source for the life of Socrates. What are the other main sources? There are three primary
sources of information regarding the man Socrates: (1) Aristophanes, (2) Xenophon, and (3)
Plato.
Is it a fair assessment of Xenophons memoirs of Socrates to say that they are comparable to the
picture of Socrates that emerges from the writings of Plato? Yes any differences in the Socrates
that emerged from Xenophon as compared to Plato could plausibly be a function of the
differences in their personalities. Xenophon, the pragmatic soldier-historian recollecting
and writing about Socrates compared to Plato the sophisticated philosopher
According to top Platonic scholars, given the number of Platos works that are believed to be
authentically authored by Plato, and given that Socrates is the main protagonist in most of these
works, it is fair to say that we finally come to a corpus that provides us a pretty good idea of who
Socrates really was and what he was really like? No One might navely conclude that here we
have a pretty good idea about who Socrates really was, what he was like, and so on.
However, even here there is much controversy. It is important to note that the original
corpus of Platonic dialogues numbered thirty-six. However, as with everything else, we find
scholarly controversy lurking in the neighborhood of the reliability of this number being
authentic in terms of Platonic authorship. According to Plato scholar A. E. Taylor,
Perhaps the very best we can do when it comes to clarifying the issues surrounding the life of
Socrates is to say?
The _ dialectic _ or _ elenchus _ was a deceptively simple technique. It would always begin
with a discussion of the most obvious aspects of any problem. Socrates believed that through the
process of dialogue, where all parties to the conversation were forced to clarify their ideas, the
final outcome of the conversation would be a clear statement of what was meant.
WK 4: What you will want to know about Platos Euthyphro & Apology
Which philosopher made the following observation regarding the philosophy of Plato:
The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it
consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. Alfred North Whitehead
In the Euthyphro, Plato is interested in getting Euthyphro to define which topic?
Plato's famous question concerning the nature of goodness asks whether a thing is good
because God says it is good, or does God say it's good because it is good. This particular
problem has come to be known as? Euthyphro's Dilemma

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It is fair to say that the Euthyphro ends with Euthyphro having a clear understanding of
what, exactly, holiness or piety is.NO Euthyphro leaves the conversation in a huff
Further one could say that Euthyphro was indeed grateful to Socrates for his assistance in
getting to this point of clarity.
In Platos Apology, Socrates finds himself in front of his accusers at his trial. Socrates is
on trial for two charges, which were? Socrates is on trial for impiety and corruption
Is it fair to say that the reason this work is titled Apology is because when Socrates is
given an opportunity to speak he does indeed agree with the charges and apologizes for
his actions? Socrates' speech, however, is by no means an "apology" in our modern
understanding of the word. The name of the dialogue derives from the Greek
"apologia," which translates as a defense, or a speech made in defense

WK 5: What you will want to know about Platos Theory of Ideas

According to Russell there are three books in Platos Republic containing what Russell
characterizes as pure philosophy. Please identify these three books. Book V VI and VII
Is it fair to characterize Platos theory of forms or ideas as his attempt to save the appearances
from meaninglessness? It is fundamental to his philosophical project as it is this theory that
purports to allow him to make sense out of a world of appearances in constant flux and
therefore bereft of the possibility of any certain knowledge. Its as if, in some sense, this
major philosophical theory was Platos attempt to save the appearances from
meaninglessness
Would you say that one way to think about Platos theory of ideas or forms is to say that cats are
real but The cat is only apparent? According to the metaphysical part of the doctrine, the
word "cat" means a certain ideal cat, "the cat," created by God, and unique. Particular cats
partake of the nature of the cat, but more or less imperfectly; it is only owing to this
imperfection that there can be many of them. The

cat is real; particular cats are

only apparent.

WK 6: What you will want tho know about Plato on Knowledge & Perception

If one encounters a stick in the water and sees what appears to them to be a bent stick, and
subsequently draws the conclusion that all sticks found in water are bent, this would be
considered what type of philosophical problem? Epistemology is the investigation of what
distinguishes justified belief from opinion.
Would it be fair to say that for Plato, all knowledge that is real knowledge comes only from
mans senses? Thus, all true knowledge is empirical? No. Perception, often conceived as
knowledge, can be misleading, thus causing one to draw unwarranted conclusions. There is
however in Plato and among philosophers of certain other schools a very different doctrine,
to the effect that there is nothing worthy to be called 'knowledge' to be derived from the
senses, and that the only real knowledge has to do with concepts

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Is it the case that in one of the early lectures it was suggested that in Platos philosophy related to
the problems attendant to perception and knowledge, a good example of a later philosopher
working on the same problem is Baruch Spinoza and his discussion of the wax of a candle? Plato
and Descartes are working on the same problem. That is, given the constant change going
on in the world of phenomena, how is it possible to have certain knowledge about anything?
We discussed Platos famous Allegory of the Cave. In one of the lectures I mentioned what
various things in that allegory represented. Please fill in the following blanks with the word or
words that correctly finish each sentence.
(1) The prisoners represent the majority of _Mankind_, that multitude of people who
remain all their lives in a state of eikasia beholding only _Shadows_of reality and
hearing only echoes of the truth.
(2) Their view of the world is most_Inadequate_, distorted by their their own _passions_
and _prejudices_as conveyed to them by _language_and _rhetotic_.
(3) And though they are in no better case than _Children_, they cling to their distorted
views with all the tenacity of adults, and have no wish to escape from their _prisonhouse_.
(4) Moreover, if they were suddenly freed and told to look at the realities of which they
had formerly been the _shadows_, they would be blinded by the glare of the light, and
would imagine that the _shadows_ were far more _real_ than the _realities_.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

WK 7: What you will want to know about Aristotles Metaphysics

In our early discussion of Aristotle the most important topics to be aware of in the Metaphysics
were presented. Those topics were? Aristotles Metaphysics. Here are the most importance topics
for you to be aware of from the Metaphysics :
The Problem of Metaphysics Defined
Substance as the Primary Essence of Things
Matter and Form
The Process of Change: The Four Causes
Potentiality and Actuality
Is it fair to say that for Aristotle, metaphysics was the science of any existent as existent?Yes The
problem of metaphysics as he saw it was therefore the study of Being and its principles and
causes (Stumpf, 1993).
Is it a fair assessment of Aristotle to say that he was really interested in when thinking about
knowledge, justice, virtue, etc. was their accidents or properties rather than their essence or
universality? . For Aristotle, metaphysics does not deny that the qualities that make each
person the particular person he or she is, nor would he deny that these special qualities or
accidents exist or have some kind of being. However, metaphysics is not so much interested
in these characteristics as in the study of what Aristotle calls substance or the essential
nature of a thing. In this sort of inquiry, we do not want to get caught in the circularity of
defining what something is essentially by providing one with a list of characteristics or
accidents.
Was Aristotle a strong supporter of Platos Theory of Forms recognizing that without universals,
there could be no scientific knowledge? It turns out that Aristotle, who had been Platos
student, rejects the theory of Forms (it isnt unusual of course for students of a major
thinker to reject their ideas once out on their own and thinking independently). Aristotle

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was particularly troubled with Platos argument that Forms exist separately from
individual things. He did not reject the notion that there are universals such as MAN and
DOG. Without universals there could be no scientific knowledge,
In this question please match the description in Column B that best fits one of Aristotles Four
Causes found in Column A.
Four Causes
1. Formal determines what a thing is D
2. Efficient what a thing is made C
3. Material that out of which something is made A
4. Final that for which something is made B

Descriptive Phrase
A. that out of which something is made
B. that for which something is made
C. that by which something is made
D. determines what a thing is

As in other areas of his philosophy, Aristotles discussion of potentiality and actuality has to do
with a things striving to achieve its set end. This striving Aristotle called a things _ entelechy __
F. E. Peters points out the Greek term entelechia translates as the state of completion or
perfection, actuality (Peters, 1967).
When one thinks of Aristotles discussion regarding an Unmoved Mover, especially if one has
been brought up in the Western theological tradition, then one often equates this Unmoved Mover
with the Western understanding of the word God. Given the Aristotelian understanding of
Unmoved Mover, is it fair to say that making an inference from the unmoved mover to the
Western understanding of God is a reasonable inference to make? NO a correct understanding
of UM then entails grasping the idea that UM is the reason for or the principle of motion.
The UM is that which is actual without potentiality, the eternal principle of motion.
WK 8: What you will want to know about Aristotles Ethics, Politics

For Aristotle, if man is functioning properly, then it follows that the end toward which he is
moving is __ happiness _ or _ Eudaimonia _.
Is it fair to say that for Aristotle if one is striving for a particular goal such as a promotion to vice
president of their company, or for a bigger, more expensive home, or for their neighbors wife, or
a new Porsche, and if they ultimately accomplish any of these goals, then they have achieved
what Aristotle understands as their proper function? No. If one somehow believes that
something in this world, a certain person, place, or thing (a shiny new Porsche Boxster S, a
new girlfriend or boyfriend, winning the lottery, etc.), will make them happy in the way that
Aristotle understands happiness, then they are not, according to Aristotle, functioning
properly.
Aristotles ethical theory is often labeled _ teleological _ because man is understood by Aristotle
to be aiming toward some distinctive end or proper function.
Aristotle differentiated between two types of ends. They are _ instrumental _ and _ intrinsic _.
In the case of _ instrumental ends _ an action is taken for its own sake whereas in the case of _
intrinsic ends _ an action is taken as a means to other ends.
It is reasonable to think that Aristotle would agree with the following conclusion: Fulfilling the
function required by ones craft (what one does for a living) and that required by ones humanity
(who one is as a person), ones personhood, are essentially the same functions? NO . However,
fulfilling the function required by ones craft and that required by ones humanity, ones

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personhood, are distinctly different functions. Here again is (Stumpf, p,99) To discover the
good at which a person should aim, Aristotle said we must discover the distinctive function
of human nature. The good person, according to Aristotle, is the person who is fulfilling his
or her function as a person
According to Aristotle, an active life of the element that has a _ rational principle _if the
function of man is an activity of soul which follows or implies a _ rational principle _then the
human good turns out to be activity of soul in accordance with _ virtue _(Stumpf, p. 100)_.
For Aristotle, the soul is made up of two distinct parts, the _ rational _ and the _ irrational _.
Aristotle further argues that the soul has an additional subdivision into two more parts which he
labels _ vegetative _ and _ appetitive _.
It is fair to say that when Aristotle is thinking of happiness, he would most likely be thinking of
something similar to the following: () (P , P T ) (C H )? Yes What this says, in
plain English, is: There is something, or there is at least one such that is a person, place,
or thing, and is contentment or happiness. Although we may not actually be aware of our
tendency to think like this about happiness, nonetheless, I believe that most of us do in fact
think like this about the topic of happiness.
For Aristotle, eudaimonia or happiness, is the ultimate practical good for man. Yes Peters further
points out that for Aristotle, eudaimonia is the ultimate practical good for man (Peters,
1967, p. 66).
Please select the philosopher who is credited with the following quotation: Aristotle
and if we assume that the function of a man is a kind of life, namely, an activity or
series of actions of the soul, implying a rational principle; and if the function of a good
man is to perform these well and rightly; and if every function is performed well when
performed in accordance with its proper excellence; if all this is so, the conclusion is that
the good for man is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, or if there are more
kinds of virtue than one, in accordance with the best and most perfect kind.

In its simplest form, the Golden Mean carries the sense of the mid-point between two extremes.
Yes it is the balance between too much deficit on one hand and too much excess on the other.
Without _ reason _, both _ theoretical _ and _practical_, we would not, according to Aristotle,
have any moral capacity at all.
Which philosopher who is credited with the following quotation? Thomas Hobbes
Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war where every man is enemy to every
man, the same is consequent to the time wherein men live without other security than
what their own strength and their own invention shall furnish them withal. In such
condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain, and
consequently no culture of the earth, no navigation nor use of the commodities that may
be imported by sea, no commodious building, no instruments of moving and removing
such things as require much force, no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of
time, no arts, no letters, no society, and, which is worst of all, continual fear and danger
of violent death, and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

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It is a fair construal of Aristotles discussion of contemplation to say that he believes that the
activity of philosophic wisdom is admittedly the pleasantest of virtuous activities? Yes as stated
by Stumpf (1993,p. 103) Here is Aristotles reasoning regarding the importance of
contemplation
If happiness is the product of humanity acting according to his/her distinctive nature, then
it is reasonable to assume it is acting in accord with its highest nature.
This activity is best since not only is reason the best thing in us, but the objects of reason are
the best of knowable objects.
Further, contemplation is most continuous, since we can contemplate truth more
continuously that we can do anything.
Finally, we tend to think that happiness has pleasure mingled with it, but the activity of
philosophic wisdom is admittedly the pleasantest of virtuous activities.
It seems as if, after studying Aristotle for a while, one can begin to see a consistent pattern in his
philosophical theories. That pattern has to do with what things exist for; what some would call
their _ teleological _ end.
Aristotle recognized three forms of government as the true forms: _Monarchy, Aristocracy,
and _Polity_.
Aristotle identified three forms of government which he deemed to be perverted _tyranny,
_oligarchy_, and _democracy_.
Did Aristotle believe that the very best form of government was democracy? No Aristotle
himself preferred aristocracy
WK 9: What you will want to know about the Epicureanism

Epicurus developed an unsparingly materialistic _metaphysics_, empiricist

_epistemology_, and hedonistic _ethics_.
For Epicurus, the basic constituents or building blocks that make up the world are?
atoms, uncuttable bits of matter, flying through empty space
Is it a fair conclusion to say that if one were to identify the one philosopher who most
influenced Epicurus, it would have to be Plotinus? No Epicurus, studied the atomistic
system of Democritus under Nausiphanes of Teos
The term epistemology comes from the Greek term episteme and is identified in
philosophical circles as the study of being? No epistemology is the theory of
knowledge
According to Epicurus, there are two criteria of truth: the forms and reason. Is this
correct? truth are the senses, and the preconceptions, and the passions
Is it a fair summation of Epicurean ethical theory to say that what Epicurus was trying to
say is If it feels good, do it!? No this is not even close to what Epicurus was
teaching. Epicurus was trying to teach that the serenity of the soul was the ultimate
pleasure, and that exercising ones intellect was the highest pleasure. He was not
speaking of carnal pleasures of the flesh.
Would you agree that a good way to characterize Stoic logic is to say that it is
rationalistic in its orientation? No I do not agree due to the fact that Stoic logic is
essentially empiricist in orientation.

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The Stoics, like the early Greek philosophers were interested in what the original stuff
of the universe was made of. Would you agree that it turns out that they found
themselves most attracted by the work of Thales and his theory that the underlying stuff
of the universe is water? Why or why not? The stoics believed as did Heraclitus that
all things are composed of fire.
Even though Stoicism promoted a thoroughgoing materialism, they seem to believe that
the primal fire they call God, is _ absolute reason _. What follows from this particular
doctrine is a universe that can be characterized as? No the stoic believe would be
characterized as rational_?
Would you agree that in its most fundamental form, Stoic ethics argues that each
individual human being is an actor in a play?. That each is assigned a certain part by God
and there is nothing they can do to change what that part will be? Yes I would agree that
stoic philosophy teaches that every man has a role to play that is determined by
God, and that mankind can only change minor parts of the role chosen for them.
Is it true that the Fates, according to the Stoics, guide the man who wishes to be guided;
the man who does not wish to be guided they drag along with them. Thus, resistance is
useless? Yes according to our lecture the Stoics believed the fates would guide the
willing man and drag the unwilling along so there was no point in trying to resist.
Plotinus is most famously known for the philosophical movement known as _
Neoplatonism _.
Identify the six major philosophical teachings found in the works of Plotinus.
The One The material world with its multiplicity of things is not true reality
because it is always changing. Only that which is changeless can truly be. For
Plotinus that which is changeless is not part of this world. This true reality is God
or the One (Stumpf, p. 125).
Emanation - The One cannot, strictly speaking, be referred to as a source or a
cause, since these terms imply movement or activity, and the One, being totally selfsufficient, has no need of acting in a creative capacity (VI.9.8). Yet Plotinus still
maintains that the One somehow emanates or radiates existents. This is
accomplished because the One effortlessly overflows and its excess begets another
than itself (V.2.1, tr. OBrien 1964) this other is the Intelligence (Nous), the
source of the realm of multiplicity, of Being (Moore, 2001). The first emanation
from the One is called mind or nous, that is, thought or universal intelligence
(Moore, 2001).
World Soul The second emanation comes from nous and is what Plotinus called
the World Soul (Stumpf, pp. 126-127).
Human Soul The human soul is an emanation from the World Soul (Stumpf, p.
127).
The World of Matter At the lowest level in the hierarchy of being, that is, the
farthest remove from the One, is matter which is the opposite of spirit and therefore
is the opposite of the One. Here we see Plotinus discussion of the problem of evil,
which is a function of the soul being trapped in a material body (Stumpf, 127-128).

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Doctrine of Salvation Here we see the soul as it makes its difficult ascent
back to unity with the One. It may take several incarnations before this union is
accomplished. For many, Neoplatonism held out the promise of being something
like a religion but at the same time, it was viewed as a viable alternative to
Christianity (Stumpf, 129).

WK 10: What you will want to know about Augustine &Anselm

Identify the philosopher/theologian who is responsible for the following quotation. St.
Augustine Quoted this
For what is time? Who can readily and briefly explain this? Who can even in
thought comprehend it, so as to utter a word about it? But what in discourse do
we mention more familiarly and knowingly, than time? And, we understand,
when we speak of it; we understand also, when we hear it spoken of by another.
What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that
asketh, I know not: yet I say boldly that I know

According to Bertrand Russell, Augustines most original contribution to pure philosophy was his work
on combating what is known as the Pelagian heresy? No Bertrand Russell, believe to be his most
important contribution to pure philosophy. The best purely philosophical work in St Augustine's
writings is the eleventh book of the Confessions. Popular editions of the Confessions end with Book
X, on the ground that what follows is uninteresting; it is uninteresting because it is good philosophy,
not biography (Russell, 2007).

It is a fair conclusion to say that St. Augustines belief that the world was created ex
nihilo is in perfect harmony with the Greek understanding of the action of God in terms
of how the world began?No In Greek philosophy this sort of act would be considered
impossible. As Russell points out, for the Greeks, God is merely an artificer or
architect of what is already in place, that is, primitive matter.
According to Bertrand Russell, if God and the world are not distinct (if God is not outside
of time) then you wind up with _ pantheism or the view, such as that held by Spinoza,
a view to which, according to Russell, almost all mystics are attracted_.
Is it a fair assessment of Augustines theory of time to say that even though the past is not
and the present is not yet, and only now is real, nonetheless, there really is time past
and future. So, for Augustine, there are three times, a present of things past, a present of
things present, and a present of things future. The present of things past is memory, the
present of things present is sight; and the present of things future is expectation? Yes this
is fair assessment According to Russell, Augustines theory of time boils down to
what he calls three times. Here again is Russell quoting Augustine, There are, he
says, three times: 'a present of things past, a present of things present, and a present
of things future. The present of things past is memory, the present of things present
is sight; and the present of things future is expectation' (Russell, 354).

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St. Anselms famous ontological argument was originally penned as a _ when Anselm
penned it, it was a prayer, and Anselm was asking that God would grant him
understanding _.
Anselms ontological argument is commonly referred to as which type of argument?
According our lecture Anselms argument is a deductive argument
T. J. Mawson in his book Belief in God: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion
provides us with what he calls a brisk formulation of Anselms ontological argument.
Please fill in the missing information in the argument form below:

Premise 1: God, _by definition_, is a _perfect being_

Premise 2: It is better to _exist_ than not to_ exist_
_ God Exists _

WK 11: What you will want to know about St. Thomas Aquinas
Which ancient Greek philosopher is thought to have had the most impact on the philosophical
writings of St. Thomas Aquinas? Aquinas was a student of Aristotle and according to Russell
When thinking about Aquinas Five Proofs for Gods existence, it is reasonable to say that instead
of beginning with innate ideas of perfection, Aquinas rested all five of his proofs upon the ideas
derived from a rational understanding of the ordinary objects that we experience with our senses?
Yes according to Stumpf, p.181 St. Thomas based his five proofs of God based on our senses
The chief characteristic of all sense objects is that their existence requires a cause
In the blanks provided below, please list briefly Aquinas Five Proofs for the existence of God.
1. There is a _ the argument from an unmoved mover._
2. There is a _ First Cause _ because infinite regress is unacceptable
3. There is an ultimate source of _ necessity _
4. There is in the world a variety of _ perfections _
5. All things, animate and inanimate, serve some _ purpose _
WK 12: What you will want to know about William of Ockham
Although doing his philosophical work in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, it is fair to say that
Ockhams philosophical work fits comfortably within the analytic philosophical tradition? Yes
Ockham fits comfortably within the analytic philosophical tradition. He considers himself a
devoted follower of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.), whom he calls The Philosopher,
Metaphysical Realism is the philosophical position taken by some philosophers who argue that
universals are false? No Metaphysical Realism is the position taken by some philosophers
that universals are real.
Ockham opposed Metaphysical Realism because he believed it to be incoherent. This opposing
position is known as? Metaphysical Nominalism, Ockham, however, argues that this
is a false dilemma. He rejects metaphysical realism and skepticism in favor of nominalism:
the view that universal essences are concepts in the mind
Is it true that Ockham asserts that metaphysical realism cannot be true because it holds that a
universal essence is one thing and many things at the same time? Yes Ockham opposed
Metaphisical Realism. For instance, the form of humanity is one thing, because it is what all
humans have in common, but it is also many things because it provides an invisible structure of
each individual one of us. This is to say that it is both one thing and not one thing at the same

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time, which is a contradiction? . According to Kaye, Ockham asserts that metaphysical

realism cannot be true because it holds that a universal essence is one thing and many
things at the same time. The form of humanity is one thing, because it is what all humans
have in common, but it is also many things because it provides an invisible structure of each
individual one of us. This is to say that it is both one thing and not one thing at the same
time, which is a contradiction (Kaye, p.3).
When one is thinking of Ockhams razor, one is actually encountering what is known as
Ockhams principle of _ parsimony_.
Perhaps the best way to think about Ockhams razor is something like the following: Given any
theory T, the simplest explanation is most likely the correct explanation? No this understanding
of the razor is in itself too simplistic.
The essence of the point of Ockhams razor, in its proper context, is to start from the _simplest_
possible explanation and make it more _complex_ only if, and when, absolutely necessary.
Is the best formulation of Ockhams razor is the following: Entities should not be multiplied
unnecessarily? Yes several Latin statements in his writings lead Braithwaite to conclude
that a rough translation of those various phrases is something like Entities should not be
multiplied unnecessarily (Braithwaite, p. 1).
Given Ockhams role within the Catholic Church, is it fair to conclude that if he had been a true
follower of Socrates in the sense that he followed his argument wherever it led, then he would
clearly have found himself embroiled in the very serious charge of teaching heresy. Thus, at
certain times when his logic and theology intersected, Ockham allowed theology to trump logic?
Yes Ockham attempted to equivocate where his logic and his theology intersect, allowing, at
least in some cases, theology to trump logic. As it turns out he was considered heretical
anyway and was ultimately excommunicated by the pope.

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WK 14: What you will want to know about Arabian & Jewish Thought
Is it true that what makes the Arabian philosophers highly important in the Middle Ages is that
they produced influential commentaries on Plato upon which many Christian writers depended
for their understanding of Plato? False What makes the Arabian philosophers highly
important in the Middle Ages is that they produced influential commentaries on Aristotle
upon which many Christian writers depended for their understanding of Aristotle.
Is it true to say that when looking at the ninth through the twelfth centuries in Europe, which
included a period known as the Early Middle or Dark Ages, the Moslem world was far more
advanced in its knowledge of Greek philosophy, science, and mathematics than was the Christian
world? Yes The Moslem world according to Stumpf was far more advanced in its
knowledge of Greek philosophy, science, and mathematics than was the Christian world
(Stumpf, 169).
Is it true that Avicenna assumes that whatever begins to be must have a cause? So, if a thing
requires a cause in order to become actualized, it is called a possible being. A cause which is a
possible being must also have a cause. However, for Avicenna, this cannot be allowed to
continue on into infinite regress. So, he makes an inferential leap from finite causes to a First
Cause, whose being is not simply possible but is necessary, having its existence in itself and not
from a cause, and this is God? True
It is well documented that Averroes primary philosophical interest remained throughout his life
the works of _ Aristotle _.
For Averroes, when it comes down to the doctrine of God, there are two arguments worthy of
obedience. First, is the argument from _providence_. Second, is the argument from
_Invention_.
Maimonides is known within philosophical circles for his philosophic masterpiece _ The

Guide for the Perplexed _ According to Seeskin, GP is a sustained treatment of

Jewish thought and practice that seeks to resolve the conflict between religious knowledge
and secular._?
Maimonides, a member of a major world religion, this time the Jewish religion, and who is also a
philosopher, finds himself attempting to develop a method which would allow the reconciliation
of _Faith _ on the one hand and _reason_ on the other.
Maimonides believed he could answer a number of philosophical questions about the nature of
God and of Gods creation in a way that was consistent with sacred writings. So, would you say
that it is true that Maimonides believed that apparent disagreements between philosophy and
theology were frequently the result of either taking figurative passages of Scripture literally or
misunderstanding difficult philosophical arguments? Yes I believe that Maimonides believed
that many disagreements were due to errors in interpreting scripture to literally,
Maimonides thought occasionally, philosophy is simply incapable of answering a given
question and one must accept the authority of Prophecy, which can teach things beyond
the reach of human speculation. But even in such cases, philosophy can still provide
general reasons for believing Scripture (Baird and Kaufmann, 1997).
Is it true that Maimonides argued that the goal of human life is to achieve mans appropriate
perfection? Although there are four perfections discussed by Maimonides, the first three,
possessions, bodily constitution and shape, and moral virtues are not the highest. The fourth

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perfection, the acquisition of rational virtues, is for Maimonides the highest perfection and the
one that is mans ultimate end, that through which man is man? True
WK 15: What you will want to know about Bacon
It is a fair evaluation of Bacons intellectual contributions to say that although some would judge
him to have, in many ways an unsatisfactory philosophy, he nonetheless has permanent
importance as the founder of modern inductive method and the pioneer in the attempt at logical
systematization of scientific procedure? Yes according to (Russell, 1972)
The addition of mathematical and deductive reasoning to scientific philosophy was achieved in
England by Bacons friend and countryman, _ Thomas Hobbes_.

The major Baconian ideas that seem to fairly cover his major philosophical contributions
are? the three distempers of learning, the idols of the mind, and the inductive
method
Bacon discusses the three distempers of learning in The Novum Organon. They are? fantastical
learning, contentious learning, and delicate learning (alternatively identified as vain
imaginations, vain altercations, and vain affectations).
Identify three distempers of learning Bacon identifies in his writings. the first, fantastical
learning; the second, contentious learning; and the last, delicate learning; vain
imaginations, vain altercations, and vain affectations; and with the last I will begin (Bacon,
Kindle Edition).
The distempers of learning, according to Bacon, share two main faults? They are? Prodigal
ingenuity here Bacon is thinking of ones wasting ones otherwise potentially productive
talents on trivial or puerile enterprises. Most likely he was thinking here of the various
works of the Schoolmen such as St. Augustine, St. Anselm, St. Thomas Aquinas, etc.
Sterile Results pretty much self-explanatory. This sort of effort seemingly provides no
progress toward new knowledge and thus makes no contribution to a better life for all of
humankind.
Please list the four Idols of the Mind found in Bacons philosophical writings. Spell them out,
e.g., Idol of the X, Idol of the Y, etc.The four Idols are Idols of the Tribe (idola tirbus), Idols
of the Cave (idola specus), Idols of the Market Place (idola fori) Idols of the Theatre (idola
theatri).

It is a reasonable conclusion regarding Bacons inductive method to say that his method
provides nothing to guide the investigator other than sheer instinct or professional
judgment, and thus the tendency is for the investigation of particulars the steady
observation and collection of data to go on continuously, and in effect endlessly? Yes
according to Simpson bacons provides nothing to guide the investigator, and would
result in endless data collection.

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