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M.

E CAD 2015
ADVANCED VIBRATION ENGINEERING SPR5106
UNIT 2: MULTI-DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS
Introduction - Modeling of Continuous Systems as Multidegree of Freedom Systems - Using
Newtons Second Law to Derive Equations of Motion- Influence Coefficients Based on
Stiffness, Flexibility and Inertia Eigen value Problem and its solution - Free and Forced
Vibration of Un damped Systems Using Modal Analysis-Forced Vibration of Viscously Damped
Systems - Self-Excitation and Stability Analysis.
THREE DEGREES OF FREEDOM SYSTEM
Equations of Motion
A simple 3-mass 4-springs system: Newtons law:

Fig 1

m1
x1 k1 x1 k2 ( x1 x2 ) k3 (0) k4 (0) f1 (t )

(2.1)

m2
x2 k1 (0) k2 ( x2 x1 ) k3 ( x2 x3 ) k4 (0) f 2 (t )

(2.2)

m3
x3 k1 (0) k2 (0) k3 ( x3 x2 ) k4 x3 f3 (t )

(2.3)

Rearranging

m1
x1 (k1 k2 ) x1 k2 x2 0 f 2 (t )

(2.4)

m2
x2 k2 x1 (k2 k3 ) x2 k3 x3 f 2 (t )

(2.5)

m3
x3 0 k3 x2 (k3 k4 ) x3 f 3 (t )

(2.6)

In the matrix form

m1 0
0 m
2

0 0

0
x1 (k1 k2 )
k2
0 x1 f1

0
x2 k2
( k 2 k3 )
k3 x2 f 2
m3
x3 0
k3
(k3 k4 ) x3 f3

(2.4)

Note the symmetry of [K] matrix, kij = kji .Eqn (2.7) can be expressed as

M x K x F
3. Free Vibration

(2.8)

Then assuming a solution,

xi (t ) = Xi sin t

(3.1)

xi (t ) = - 2 Xi sin t

(3.2)

Equation (2.7) reduces to

m1
0

2
k2
0 X 1 0
X 1 ( k1 k2 )

2 X k
( k 2 k3 )
k3 X 2 0
2
2

m3 2 X 3 0
k3
( k3 k4 ) X 3 0

0
m2

0
0

(3.3)

Dividing each row in the present problem by the respective mass - that is, in general case,
equivalent to pre-multiplication by inversion of mass matrix we get

k2 / m1
X 1 (k1 k2 ) / m1

X 2 k2 / m2
(k2 k3 ) / m2
X
0
k3 / m3
3
2

( k1 k2 ) / m1 2

k2 / m2

X1

k3 / m2 X 2
(k3 k4 ) / m3 X 3

k2 / m1
( k2 k3 ) / m2 2
k3 / m3

(3.4)

X 1 0

X 2 0 (3.6)
2
( k3 k4 ) / m3 X 3 0
0
k3 / m2

Since Xis = 0 is not a desired solution, the frequency determinant should be zero.

( k1 k2 ) / m1 2
k2 / m2

k2 / m1
(k2 k3 ) / m2 2

k3 / m3

0
k3 / m2
( k3 k4 ) / m3

(3.7)

This will lead to a cubical frequency equation in 2 and is not simple, in general, for manual
computation. Either computer or approximate method should be resorted to, except in
special cases.
Special Cases
There are two special cases, where one root will come out easily and hence the remaining
equation will be quadratic and solved for two remaining frequencies. They are
1) Physically symmetric case.
2) Semi-definite case.
4. Physically Symmetric System: Refer the Figures
First system: (Fig 1)
If (k1 + k2)/m1 = (k3+ k4)/m3, there will be physical symmetry.

Second system: .(Fig 2)

Fig 2
Here k4 = 0. Therefore, if (k1 + k2)/m1 = (k3)/m3, there will be physical symmetry.
Common sense will help to save time. Copying will land in problem.
Exercise: 2 Draw schematic pictures of the mode shapes of this solution.
Exercise:1(b) For the case in Exercise 1(a), find and sketch mode shapes.
Exercise: 3 System 2: (Fig 2) For the following values of k and m formulate equations of
motion.
(a) k1 = k2 = k3 = k; m1 = m; m2 = 4m; m3 = 2m
(b) k1 = k2 = k; k3 = 4k; k4 = 0; m1 = m; m2 = 4m; m3 = 2m

Fig 2
6. Case 2: Semi-definite System
An example of 3-DoF semi-definite system with 3 masses & 2 springs is shown in Fig 3

Fig 3
Using (X)i[M]{X}j = 0, i j verify orthogonality.
3-DoF DAMPED SYSTEM

Example 2

Consider k1 = k, k2 = 2k, k3 = k. m1 = m, m2 = 2m, m3 = 2m


Equation of motion:

0
x1 3k
m 0

0 2m 0

x2 2k
0 0 2m
x3 0

2k
3k
k

0 x1 0

k x2 0
k x3 0

(1)

As before xi = Xi sint . This leads to

0 X 1 3k
m 0

0 2m 0 X 2 2k
0 0 2m X 3 0
2

2k
3k
k

0 X 1 0

k X 2 0
k X 3 0

(2)

Rewriting (2)

3k m 2

2k

2 k
3k 2m
k

X 1 0

k X 2 0
k 2m 2 X 3 0
0

(3)

For vibration to occur Xi,s are not zero in general. Then determinant of square matrix must
be zero. Dividing by k and letting m2/k = , (3) becomes

2
0 X 1 0
3

2 3 2
1 X 2 0

0
1 1 2 X 3 0

(4)

(3 - )[3 - 2 )(1- 2 ) - 1] 2[-1x0 + (1 2 ) x 2] = 0


(3 - )[3 - 2 )(1- 2 )] - (3 - ) 4(1 2 ) = 0
(3 - )[4 2 - 8 + 3] 7 + 9 = 0
12 2 - 24 + 9 - 4 3 + 8 2 - 3 - 7 + 9 = 0
- 4 3 + 20 2 - 18 + 2 = 0
3 - 5 2 + 4.5 - 0.5 = 0

(5)

= 1 is one root; hence dividing (5) by (1 - )


2 - 4 + 0.5 = 0

(6)

1, 3 =2 (22 - 0.5)0.5 = 2 (3.5)0.5


= 2 (1.871) = 0.129, 3.871
12, 32 = 0.129 k/m, 3.871 k/m

(7)
(8)

1, 2, 3 = 0.359k/m, 1.00k/m, 1.97 k/m

(9)

To find mode shapes, go to (4).


From row 1,
(3 - ) X1 2 X2 = 0
X2/ X1= (3 - )/2 = 1.5 0.5

(10)

Mode 1: = 0.129 ; Let X1 =1. X2 = (1.5 0.5 x 0.129) = 1.4436


Mode 2: = 1; X2 = (1.5 0.5 ) = 1
Mode 3: = 3.871; X2 = (1.5 0.5 x 3.871) = - 0.4355
To find X3, go to row 2
- 2 X1 + (3 2 ) X2 - X3 = 0
X3 = - 2 X1 + (3 2 ) X2

(11)

Mode 1: = 0.129 ; Let X1 = 1; X1 = 1.4436.


X3 = - 2 + (3 2 x 0.129) 1.4436 = 1.9583
Mode 2: = 1; X2 = 1;
X3 = - 2 X1 + (3 2 ) X2 = - 2 + (3 2) = - 1
Mode 3 ; = 3.871; X2 = = - 0.4355;
X3 = - 2 + (3 - 2 x 3.871) (- 0.4355) = 0.06514
(X)T1 = (1
(X)T2 = (1
(X)T3 = (1

1.4436

1.9583)
1

- 0.4355

- 1)
0.06514)

1
1
1

Modal Matrix [X] = 1.4436 1 0.4355

1.9583 1 0.0651

(12)

Normalization of Mode shape

This is done by dividing every component of the modal vector by [XTMX]. For this let us
compute [XTMX]1,2,3 .
This will still help to diagonalize the [M] & [K] matrices so that the equations of motion will
reduce to n single degree-of-freedom systems as before, but having the new M matrix a
unit matrix and still K matrix a diagonalized matrix having its elements directly the
frequencies.
Then it is much easier to solve the problem for forced vibrations of any degrees of freedom
systems.

MODE 1
0 1
m 0

1 1.4436 1.9583 0 2m 0 1.4436


0 0 2m 1.9583
1

1 1.4436 1.9583 2.8872 m


3.9166

(13)

(1 4.168 7.67)m 12.838m


MODE 2
0 1
m 0

1 1 1 0 2m 0 1 5m

0 0 2m 1

(14)

MODE 3
0 1
m 0

1 0.4355 0.0651 0 2m 0 0.4355


0 0 2m 0.0651
1

1 0.4355 0.0651 2 x0.4355 m


2 x0.0651

(1 0.3793 0.008476)m 1.3878m


The normalized mode shapes are

(15)

MODE 1
1
0.2787

X 1 (1/12.83m) 1.4436 (1/ m) 0.4029


1.9583
0.5466

(16)

MODE 2
1
0.4472

X 2 (1/ 5 m) 1 1/ m) 0.4472
1
0.4472

MODE 3
1
0.8489

X 3 1/ 1.3878m 0.4355 1/ m 0.3697


0.0651
0.05526

(18)

The normalized Modal Matrix

0.2787 0.4472 0.8489


[X] (1/ m) 0.4029 0.4472 0.3697
0.5466 0.4472 0.05526

(19)

{Checking: It is not necessary normally. Here we do it to first get convinced and next to
verify the correctness of our computation.
[X]T [M][X]

0
0.2787 0.4029 0.5466 m 0
0.2787 0.4472 0.8489
0.4472 0.4472 0.4472 0 2m 0 (1/ m) 0.4029 0.4472 0.3697

0.8489 0.3697 0.05526 0 0 2m


0.5466 0.4472 0.05526
0.4472
0.8489
0.2787 0.4029 0.5466 0.2787

0.4472 0.4472 0.4472 2 x0.4029 2 x0.4472 2 x0.3697


0.8489 0.3697 0.05526 2 x0.5466 2 x0.4472 2 x0.05526
Elements (1,1) = 0.99987363 1, (2,2) = 0.9999392 1,
(3,3) = 1.00009473 1, (1,2) = 0.0087 0
Within the reasonable approximation level the diagonal
elements =1 and other elements are zero, forming an identity matrix . Hence
it checks.

0.2787 0.4029 0.5466 3k 2k 0


0.2787 0.4472 0.8489
0.4472 0.4472 0.4472 2k

3 k (1/ m) 0.4029 0.4472 0.3697

0.8489 0.3697 0.05526 0


0.5466 0.4472 0.05526
k
k
0.2787 0.4029 0.5466 0.0303 0.4472 3.2861
0.4472 0.4472 0.4472 0.1047 0.8944 2.8622 (k / m)
0.8489 0.3697 0.05526 0.1437 0.8944 0.4296
Elements (1,1) = 0.12917466 0.129; (1,2) = - 0.00389 0;
(2,2) = 0.9999392 1; (3,3) = 3.87146533 3.871. These values tally with
earlier derivations of frequencies.}
The equation of motion in the normalized form therefore is

0 q1 p1
q1 0.129 0


1
0 q2 p2
q2 0
q 0
0 3.871 q3 p3
3

(20)

f1 (t)
0.2787 0.4029 0.5466 f1 (t)

f 2 (t) (1/ m ) 0.4472 0.4472 0.4472 f 2 (t)


f (t)
0.8489 0.3697 0.05526 f3 (t)
3

p(t) X

0.2787 f1 (t) 0.4029 f 2 (t) 0.5466 f3 (t)

(1/ m ) 0.4472 f1 (t) 0.4472 f 2 (t) 0.4472 f3 (t)


0.8489 f (t) 0.3697 f (t) 0.05526 f (t)
1
2
3

(21)

If there is only a force F0(t) on mass 3, f1(t) & f2(t) are zero. Then

p(t) X

0
0.5466

0 (1/ m ) 0.4472 F0 t , (21A)


F t
0.05526

The decoupled single degree-of-freedom system of equations, considering up to 3 decimals:

q1 0.129(k / m)q1 (1/ m )(0.546) Fo(t )

(22)

q2 (k / m)q2 (1/ m )(0.447) Fo(t )

(23)

q3 3.87(k / m)q3 (1/ m )(0.055) Fo(t )

(24)

Solutions for forced vibrations


(i)
Suddenly applied a constant force F0
For this solution for a single degree-of-freedom case is available. {For
example: Recall S DoF.

q1 12 q P
Use D operator.
(D2 12 )q1 P
q1 ( P) / (D2 12 ) ( P) / (12 )(1 D2 / 12 ) ( P / (12 )(1 D2 / 12 ) 1
( P / (12 )(1 D2 / 12 ........)
( P / (12 ) being a const , D2 ( P / (12 ) 0
Therefore
q1 ( P / (12 )}
These steps need not be done if one has properly understood the
S - DoF step force excitation.Thus the steady state solution: General case:
q = P/ 2
Total solution :
q = A sin t + B cos t + (P/ 2 )
P is suddenly applied. Hence,
Initial conditions : q(0) = 0 & v(0) = 0
q(0) = 0 = B + (P/ 12 ) B = - (P/ 12 )
Differentiating, v =A cos t (B ) sin t
v(0) = A + 0 A = 0
q = (1 - cos t) (P/ 2)
For the 3-DoF system
Replacing P by (1/m) 0.546 F0 and since 12 = 0.129 k/m,
q1 = (1/m 12 ) 0.546 Fo
= (1/m 0.129 k/m) 0.546 Fo = m 4.23 F0 /k
Therefore the solutions in principal coordinates are:
q1 = m 4.23(Fo/k) (1 - cos 1t)
Since 12 = 0.129 k/m (see previous section),
1 = 0.359k/m; 22 = 1.00 k/m, 2 = k/m;
32 =3.87 k/m 3 = 1.97k/m.
Corresponding to Eqns (22), (23) & (24), the solutions are

q1 = m 4.23(F0 /k) (1 - cos 0.359k/m t)

(25)

q2 = - m 0.447(F0 /k) (1 cos k/m t)

(26)

q3 = m 0.0142(F0 /k) (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)

(27)

Now the solution in original physical coordinates x1, x2 & x3 is required.


Recall {x} = [G] {q}. In the case on hand [G] is normalized to Modal matrix [X].
Therefore

0.2787 0.4472 0.8489


[X] (1/ m) 0.4029 0.4472 0.3697
0.5466 0.4472 0.05526
Considering approximation to 3 decimals
x1
0.279 0.447 0.849 q1


x2 (1/ m) 0.403 0.447 0.370 q2
x

3
0.547 0.447 0.055 q3
x1 = (1/m) (0.279 q1 + 0.447q2 + 0.849q3)
Since q,s have m), (see 25, 26 & 27), in the next result m gets cancelled.
x1 = (F0 /k) [(0.279 x 4.23 (1 - cos 0.359k/m t)
- 0.447 x 0.447(1 cos k/m t)
+ 0.849 x 0.0142 (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)]
x1 = (F0 /k) [1.180 1.180 cos 0.359k/m t)
- 0.200 + 0.200 cos k/m t)
+ 0.012 - 0.012 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x1 = (F0 /k) [0.992 1.180 cos 0.359k/m t)
+ 0.200 cos k/m t)
- 0.012 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x2 = (1/m) (0.403 q1 + 0.447q2 - 0.370q3)
x2 = (F0 /k) [0.403 x 4.23 (1 - cos 0.359k/m t)
- 0.447 x 0.447(1 cos k/m t)
- 0.370 x 0.0142 (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)]
x2 = (F0 /k) [1.705 1.705cos 0.359k/m t)
- 0.2 + 0.2 cos k/m t)

(28)

- 0.0053 + 0.0053 cos 1.97k/m t)]


x2 = (F0 /k) [1.5 1.705cos 0.359k/m t)
+0.2 cos k/m t)
+ 0.0053 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x3 = (1/m) (0.547 q1 - 0.447q2 + 0.055q3)
x3 = (F0 /k) [0.547 x 4.23(1 cos 0.359k/m t)
+ 0.447 x 0.447(1 cos k/m t)
+ 0.055 x 0.0142 (1 - cos 1.97k/m t)]
x3 = (F0 /k) [2.314 2.314 cos 0.359k/m t)
+ 0.2 0.2 cos k/m t)
+ 0.0008 -0.0008 cos 1.97k/m t)]
x3 = (F0 /k) [2.513 2.314 cos 0.359k/m t)
0.2 cos k/m t)
- 0.0008 cos 1.97k/m t)]
NOTE: In Kelleys answers, there are some sign errors.
(ii) Sinusoidal excitation force F0 sint:

q1 0.129(k / m)q1 (1/ m )(0.546) Fo sin t

(22 A)

q2 (k / m)q2 (1/ m )(0.447) Fo sin t

(23 A)

q3 3.87(k / m)q3 (1/ m )(0.055) Fo sin t

(24 A)

The steady state responses are ,


for 12 = 0.129 k/m, 22 = 1.00 k/m and 32 = 3.87 k/m,
q1 = m 4.23(F0) sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )

(25A)

q2 = - m 0.447(F0) sint /(k/m - 2 )

(26A)

q3 = m 0.0142(F0) sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )

(27A)

0.2787
[X] (1/ m) 0.4029
0.5466
x1
0.279

x2 (1/ m) 0.403
x
3
0.547

0.4472 0.8489
0.4472 0.3697
0.4472 0.05526
0.849 q1

0.447 0.370 q2
0.447 0.055 q3
0.447

x1 = (0.279 q1 + 0.447q2 + 0.849q3)

(28)

x2 = (1/m) (0.403 q1 + 0.447q2 - 0.370q3)


x3 = (1/m) (0.547 q1 - 0.447q2 + 0.055q3)
Since q,s have m, in the next result m gets cancelled.
x1 = 0.279 x 4.23(F0) sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
+ 0.447 x (- 0.447(F0) sint /(k/m - 2 ) )
+ 0.849 x 0.0142(F0) sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )
x1 =( F0)[1.18 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
- 0.2 sint /(k/m - 2 )
+ 0.12 sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )]
x2 = (0.403x 4.23(F0) sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
+ 0.447 x (- 0.447(F0) sint /(k/m - 2 ) )
- 0.370 x 0.0142(F0) sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )
x2 = (F0)[(1.7 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
- 0.2 sint /(k/m - 2 )
- 0.0053 sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )]
x3 = (F0 [( (0.547 x 4.23 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
- 0.447 x (- 0.447 sint /(k/m - 2 ) )
+ 0.055 x 0.0142 sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )]
x3 = (F0 [2.31 sint /(0.129k/m - 2 )
+ 0.2 sint /(k/m - 2 ) )
+ 0.0008 sint /(3.87 k/m - 2 )]
3 DoF - DAMPED - HARMONICALLY FORCED VIBRATION
(Example 6.31: Kelly)
Given: m1 = 30, m2 =60, m3 = 30 kg
k1 = 2x105 , k2 = 1x105 , k3 = 3x105 N/m
c1 = 2000 , c2 = 1000 , c3 = 3000 N-s/m

30 0 0
3 1 0
3 1 0

5
3
[ M ] 0 60 0 [ K ] 10 1 4 3 [C ] 10 1 4 3 (1)
0 0 30
0 3 3
0 3 3
Equations of motion

0
x1 (c1 c2 )
c2
0 x1
m1 0


0 m

0
x2 c2
(c 2 c3 ) c3 x2
2

0 0 m3
x3 0
c3
c3 x3
k2
0 x1 f1
(k1 k2 )

k2
(k2 k3 ) k3 x2 f 2
0
k3
k3 x3 f 3

(2)

If xi = Xi sint, the accelerations & displacements will have sint term; but the velocity will
have cost term; they are at 90o apart. A different approach is needed as below.
In this problem f1 = f2 = 0and f3 = 200 sin50t
Let the harmonic force in general be,
F(t) = R sint + S cost

(3)

In this problem, however, S is zero.

0
0


{R} 0 {S} 0
200
0

(4)

And = 50 rad/s and 2 = 2500


The steady state solution of equation (2) is
x(t) = U sint + V cost

(5)

Let the unknowns U & V be


Ui = Xi cosi

Vi = - Xi sini

(6)

Then (5) becomes


xi(t) = Xi sint cosi - Xi cost sini = Xi sin(t - i)

(7)

From (6), the amplitude of vibration of the 3 masses are


Xi = (Ui2 + Vi2)

(8)

and
tan i = -Vi / Ui, i = 1,2,3

(9)

In the new approach,


U and V are solutions of
(-2 M + K)U - CV = R

(10)

CU + (-2 M + K)V = S

(11)

Substituting the numerical values in (10) & (11)

3 x105 0.75 x105

1x105

3 x103

50 1x103
0

3 x103

50 1x103
0

1x103
4 x103
3 x103

1x105

U1

3x105
U 2
5
5
3 x10 0.75 x10 U 3
0

4 x105 1.5 x105


3 x105
1x103
3

4 x10
3 x103

V1 0

3 x10 3 V2 0
3 x103 V3 200
0

(10 A)

0 U1

3 x103 U 2
3 x103 U 3

3 x105 0.75 x105

1x105

1x105
5

4 x10 1.5 x10


3 x105

V1 0

3 x10
V2 0
5
5
3 x10 0.75 x10 V3 0
0

(11A)

Now there are 6 unknowns and 6 algebraic simultaneous equations to solve for Ui and
Vi, i = 1, 2, 3
Kelly has given the answer for X3 = (U32 + V32) = 0.0168 mm
NOTE: Free Vibration is most involved. The principle is explained in 2-DoF.
SELF-EXCITED VIBRATIONS
Free vibration is started by energy supplied by either initial displacements or initial
velocities or both. The supply of energy in general is not continued. In other words no power
is supplied but only initial energy is supplied. The alternating force of vibrations thereafter is
generated and sustained within the system. The free vibration will sustain itself indefinitely, if
there is no dissipation, since the initial energy supplied is preserved alternating between
kinetic and potential energies. This is a case of response to initial energy conditions.
Forced vibration is started and sustained by continuous supply of energy, that is, supply of
power. Note the external power transmitted through external vibratory force that is the
cause of vibration. This is a case of steady state response to the externally applied
continuous vibratory force. It is a response problem.
elf-excited vibration is sustained by continuous steady supply of external energy, but not
through alternating force. The force to sustain vibration is self-generated internally. This
is why it is called self-excited or self-induced vibration. Then how is this different from free
vibration? Here there is continuous supply of energy. Theoretically self-excited vibration
cannot start unless the system is disturbed from its equilibrium position. But in practice there
could be some imperfection in the system or disturbing agent in the surrounding that will
provide the necessary condition to start the vibration. The vibration grows with time until it
reaches a limit in most cases. Hence it is a stability problem, not a response problem.
The mechanics and mechanism of transformation of the steady energy of the source to the

energy accumulation in vibration may be different for each of the variety of self-excitation
observed in practice. Table-I compares the features of these three types of vibrations
COMMON EXAMPLES
Several examples can be in nature for self-excited vibration or oscillation. Some
commonly noticed examples are illustrated here.
Flutter of a flag in wind: Grass in flowing water: Urumi melam: Windpipes and
instruments: Violin:
SOURCE AND TRANSFORMATION AGENT OF ENERGY
The way the self-excited vibration is set and sustained differs from case to case. In
most cases the dry friction is the agent. In some cases the viscous damping is responsible
for self-excitation and instability, contrary to the common belief and expectation that damping
would help attenuating vibration. In all cases however energy is added in each cycle,
suggesting a notion that damping is nullified or made negative in effect.
Shafts running in bearings and guides whirl and at times whip, having
considerable clearance with dry friction. The energy source is the kinetic energy of the shaft
itself and the agent of self-excitation is the dry friction between the shaft and the bearing.
Cutting tools chatter in turning or shaping under certain conditions of relative
characteristics of the cutting tool and its holder and the object being machined. The tool
angle, the tool position, the cutting angle, the tool tip geometry, the relative metal properties
and the speed of cutting are some of the parameters that influence the self-excitation.
Nose-wheel of an aircraft wobbles under certain conditions gets self-excited and.
Here the energy source is the kinetic energy of the moving aircraft and the agent of energy
transformation is the dry friction between the track and the wheel.
Wings of aircraft flutter when air flows past, transforming the kinetic energy of the
flying aircraft through the viscous friction between the wind and the wing.
Vehicle body, especially windows, wind screen, window shutter glass panels etc,
flutter due to high velocity wind flowing past them. The source is kinetic energy and
transformer is friction.
Over-head electrical power transmission conductors are self-excited by wind vertical transverse vibration by horizontal wind. The energy source is the kinetic energy of
the flowing wind and the agent of transformation is the viscous friction between the
conductor surface and the flowing air.
MECHANICS OF SELF-EXCITATION
Dry friction in translation contacts
The important character of Coulomb dry friction is the difference in the static and
dynamic friction coefficients. The coefficient of friction decreases slightly with the relative
velocity between the contacting bodies.
The model in Fig 1 is a simple example to demonstrate the mechanics of selfexcitation due to dry friction. A mass m is attached to a spring fixed to ground at the other
end. It rests on the surface of a flat belt running at a steady velocity V. Neglect the initial
disturbance. Consider the steady state. The mass m should take an equilibrium (static)

position determined by the friction force F and the equal and opposite spring tension. In
practice, it is not happening but the mass vibrates horizontally and becomes unstable since it
builds up amplitude, cycle after cycle.
The friction force will not be constant if the relative velocity between the belt and the mass
changes. If by a small disturbance the body is displaced from the so-called static equilibrium
position, it starts vibrating. Let the amplitude of vibration be X and assume that the velocity
of the mass is less than that of the belt. Then while moving in the direction of the motion the
relative velocity is smaller and hence the friction force F1 is higher. During the return motion
the relative velocity will be higher and the

FIG 1
friction force F2 will be lower. Assume for simplicity F1 and F2 are constant. During forward
stroke, the spring is extended adding energy (positive work) and during the return stroke, the
spring is released reducing energy (negative work). The net work done on the mass or
energy added to the vibration system during this cycle a complete traverse X in one direction
is
E = (F1 F2) X.

(1)

If dry friction law is applied, F1 = 1 m g and F2 = 2 m g and


E = m g (1 2) X.

(2)

Thus in every cycle E is added and the vibration amplitude X grows indefinitely, until some
thing happens to limit or stop it or the spring breaks.
Another example is shown in Fig 2. Here a horizontal flat plank is symmetrically supported
on two cylindrical rollers, rotating at the same speed but in opposite directions. Normally we
expect that the plank will be maintained in equilibrium with mass center at the middle, a
distance afrom the centers of the rollers. Suppose that we displace the plank center by a
distance x to the right. Then the plank, if left alone will oscillate horizontally. How?

FIG 2

Let us analyze further. The reactions at left and right supports will be
RL = mg (a x)/2a and RR = mg (a + x)/2a

(3)

Assume for the present, the coefficient of friction is constant = o that corresponds to the
instant when the plank is at rest at its extreme and the relative velocity is the linear velocity
of the roller surface. The respective horizontal friction forces due to the vertical support
reactions are RL and RR. The net horizontal force acting on the mass is
Fx = o (RL RR) = - o mg x/a

(4)

Considering the accelerating force of the mass


Fa = m d2x/dt2

(5)

Equating the two forces in (6) and (5),


m d2x/dt2 = - o mg x /a

(6)

d2x/dt2 + (og /a) x = 0

(6A)

This is the familiar equation of vibration of the single degree of freedom system or simple
harmonic motion and has the circular frequency
2 = o g / a

(7)

Note the decrease of friction coefficient with relative velocity was not considered so
far. The friction coefficient at the support of the roller that assists the motion will be higher
and that at the one that opposes will be lower. Thus in each stroke a positive work is added.
As an approximation, let the higher and lower coefficients of friction respectively be o +
and o - . Then (4) will be modified to be
Fx = (o +) RL (o - )RR

(8)

Using (3), (8) reduces to


Fx = - o mg x /a + sign(mg )

(9)

Here the word sign in (9) denotes that the force is positive for motion in positive direction and
negative for motion in opposite direction. The equation of motion (6) gets modified to be
m d2x/dt2 + o mg x /a = sign(mg )

(10)

This is a case of vibration with the natural frequency, given by (7) with an addition of
positive energy in each cycle, thus resulting in build-up of amplitude leading to self-excitation
and instability.
The addition of energy in each cycle is due to the sign force in (10) for forward and
return strokes, traversing a distance of 4X and is given by
E = 4 mg X

(11)

The increase in amplitude of vibration in each cycle X can now be estimated approximately,
using E and the maximum kinetic energy of the vibrating plank T. For amplitudes X and
X+X, the corresponding maximum kinetic energies are
T = (1/2) m2 X2

(12)

T1 = (1/2) m2 (X+X) 2

(13)

= (1/2) m2 [(X) 2 +2 X X+(X) 2]

(14)

Ignoring (X) 2as small,


E = T1 - T = m2 X X

(15)

Equating (15) with (11)


X = 4 g / 2

(16)

Eliminating 2from (16) using (7),


X = 4 ( / o) a

(17)

Dry friction in rolling contacts


Figure 3 shows a model that depicts the aircraft nose-wheel with a difference in
that the present relative motion is in the reverse direction and the kinetic energy is
supplied by the moving belt (track), where as there it is from the traveling aircraft.

FIG 3
This model could represent a trailer, yet with a difference in that here the energy supply from
the track, not from the truck. When the track speed is gradually increased, a stage is
reached when the wheel starts wobbling violently. This behavior is seen in trolleys. The
speed at which, such violent wobbling occurs depend on the relative stiffness of the
supporting structure and the wheel. The camber angle and the sense of motion, that is,
whether the wheel is pulled or pushed, have significant influence on this self-excitation.
This could also explain the wobbling of aircraft wheels.
Dry friction in rotational contacts
A pendulum, like a connecting rod is hinged on a rotating shaft (Fig 4). Its amplitude
will grow from cycle to cycle because the principle is similar to the one where a mass resting
on the belt gets self-excited. Here the source of energy is the rotational kinetic energy of the
shaft.

FIG4
The whirling and whipping of the shaft rotating in a clearance bearing already
mentioned needs some elaboration. What is the difference between whirling and whipping?
Whirling normally means the planetary motion of the shaft center as in the case of whirling in
the critical speed of the shaft as a standing wave. Even if it whirls in second or third mode of
the critical speed the planetary motion will be a standing wave growing in amplitude from
cycle to cycle. But a whipping will be a traveling wave, having different amplitude at the
same location from cycle to cycle.

GUIDE

Friction
force

FIG 5
Fig 5 shows a rotating shaft inside a clearance bearing. In practice it is noticed that the
machine runs smoothly as long as the shaft remains straight and does not touch the guide. If
by some chance the shaft touches the guide, a violent whirling is set up. The dry friction at
the contact point of the shaft and the guide causes a force that makes the shaft, while
rotating in its intentioned direction, roll on the interior of the clearance circle in the opposite
direction, taking the shaft center in a planetary orbit, which is the whirling. Since in whirling
there is no to-and-fro motion, the addition of energy through the dry friction force is positive
and continuous. The contact is maintained by the centrifugal force of the bent shaft. This
causes build up of amplitude and consequent instability reflecting in violent whirling.
The speed of whirling will be in one of the critical speeds, even though the shaft
rotates at different speed as intentioned. In running the shaft at its critical speed and
getting a whirling comes under forced vibration and resonant instability. But this
whirling started by dry friction contact of a rotating shaft at different speeds falls
under self-excited whirling.
Fluid excited vibration

Among numerous cases of fluid induced vibration are there in real world, we can see three
cases here: aircraft wing flutter, transmission line vibration and suspension bridge. All these
three are wind-excited cases. Steady flow of liquid could excite vibrations in pipes, conduits,
valves, taps etc. Hydraulic and thermal power installations have experienced severe
vibrations and noise due to unmindful designs or careless installations.

FIG 6(a)

6(b)

6(c)

The phenomenon of fluid-excited oscillations is attributed to a principle called Von Karman


effect.(Fig 6 a). When a horizontal transverse flow of fluid passes over a cylinder, normally
we expect a horizontal displacement. In practice however the cylinder is self-excited to
vibrate in a vertical direction. This is due to unavoidable disturbance that causes the nucleus
for further vibration. This initiation may have root in unsteady wind, lack of straightness of
cylinder as in the case of a taut power conductor, lack of smooth continuity and uniformity as
in the case of a suspension bridge. If a blunt body is placed on the path of steadily flowing
stream of wind and the body is slightly disturbed to move upward, there is a pressure drop in
the boundary at the leading edge that is here above the body. However if it is constrained by
spring, then it attains equilibrium and returns. When it travels downward the same thing
happens. On the downstream it is reflected in a phenomenon called vortex shedding. This
vortex shedding process adds energy to the system taking the supply from the wind energy
continuously. The vibration builds up to a point when damping inherent in the system comes
into play to limit the amplitude. Otherwise the system fails due to instability. Fig 6b shows a
scheme of a laboratory model to demonstrate this phenomenon.
Flutter of the aircraft wing
One practical problem experienced is the flutter of the aircraft wing, which is the entire
carrier of the load. This is a coupled self-excited vibration with transverse translationtorsion coupling. The aerofoil shape is very favorable for coupled self-excited vibration.
Enormous work had been done to design safer wings eliminating vibrations, discomfort and
failure. But in the Tacoma bridge it is the thin shape was responsible for the coupling.

Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge


One of the striking cases is the failure of the Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge (Fig 7)
in Washington State on November7, 1940, within a few months after it was open for traffic
on July 1, 1940, having taken two years to construct. This was a classic wind-induced selfexcited vibration in low frequency but with very high amplitudes of coupled bending-torsion
mode. This coupling is characteristic of thin panels.
The bridge very well depicts a thin and long (nearly 1.8 km) panel Normally about 20 to 30
feet (7 to 10 m) deep trusses are used as part of the depth of such bridges. But in this bridge
a solid girder of 8 feet (3 m) depth was used, providing a favorable blunt body for vortex
generation and resulting self-excitation of galloping vibration at a windstorm of about 67
km/hr. Because of this, this bridge was nicknamed as Galloping Gertie. The transverse
vibration was at about 30 Hz and the torsional vibration at 14 Hz., approximating a traveling
wave condition. At the highest level of the bridge, one side of the bridge rose 20 feet (7 m)
above the other, due to torsion. . The peak noticed was 28 feet (9 m). A single piece of about
600 feet (200 m) broke off. The bridge oscillated for about 90 minutes permitting Professor
Burt Farquharson of University of Washington to go home to bring his team with movie
cameras to film it for the benefit of the future generation. Bob Elliot and Harbine Monroe
filmed the movie.

FIG 7
Later it was found that this bridge was designed based only on transverse deflection under
traffic load. No consideration was given for the aerodynamic force, especially on thin decks,
which pose an aerofoil-like section. Only after thorough investigation and understanding the
wind effect, a new bridge was built 10 years later. (Some portion of this splendid movie is
available in the NET under the name Galloping Gertie, Tacoma Narrows Bridge)
Transmission line vibrations
Electric power transmission lines experience three major types of wind-induced vibrations.
The first is swaying in the direction of wind that does not come under self-excitation. The
second is galloping, a violent self-excited vibration of an elliptical path of the center of the
conductor cross-section, with major axis inclined forward from the vertical. Mostly it occurs in
cold weather, when ice sleets are formed on the conductor, which provide a favorable
aerofoil-like cross section for easy self-excitation. In a span of about 400 m, the amplitude of
galloping in the mid-span could be as high as 10 m. The oscillation is in first mode mostly
and in frequencies in the order of one cycle per second (1Hz). Its damaging effect is not
fatigue failure of conductor. But it causes damages more to the towers supporting the lines

and any structure nearby and at times breakage of line itself. It may result in outage of power
supply in the least case and catastrophic effect on material and human life. The third and
most common one is the Aeolian vibration, self-excited by vortex shedding at very high
modes in frequencies in the order of 100 200 Hz. The amplitude of the transverse vibration
is limited by the inherent self-damping capacity of the line. When the amplitude is higher
even after limited by the self-damping, external damping is applied through vibration
dampers. One such famous damper is Stockbridge damper.

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