Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing it to run
off. Rainwater can be collected from rivers orroofs, and in many places the water collected is redirected to a deep pit
(well, shaft, or borehole), a reservoir with percolation, or collected from dew or fog with nets or other tools. Its uses
include water for gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and indoor heating for houses
etc. The harvested water can also be used as drinking water, longer-term storage and for other purposes such
asgroundwater recharge.
Advantages[edit]
Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water restrictions and in developed
countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It provides water when there is a drought, can help mitigate
flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on wells which may enable groundwater levels to be sustained. It
also helps in the availability of potable water as rainwater is substantially free of salinity and other salts. Application
of rainwater harvesting in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water
supply and wastewater subsystems by reducing the need for clean water in water distribution system, less
generated stormwater in sewer system,[1] as well as a reduction in stormwater runoff polluting freshwater bodies.
There has been a large body of work focused on the development of Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing
methodologies to assess the level of environmental impacts and money that can be saved by implementing
rainwater harvesting systems.
More development and knowledge is required to understand the benefits rainwater harvesting can provide
to agriculture. Many countries especially those with an arid environment use rainwater harvesting as a cheap and
reliable source of clean water.[2] To enhance irrigation in arid environments, ridges of soil are constructed in order to
trap and prevent rainwater from running down hills and slopes. Even in periods of low rainfall, enough water is
collected in order for crops to grow.[3]Water can be collected from roofs, dams, and ponds can be constructed in
order to hold large quantities of rainwater so that even on days where there is little to no rainfall, there is enough
available to irrigate crops.[3]
Quality[edit]
The concentration of contaminants is reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of run-off water to waste.
[4]
Improved water quality can also be obtained by using a floating draw-off mechanism (rather than from the base of
the tank) and by using a series of tanks, with draw from the last in series. Pre-filtration is a common practice used in
the industry to ensure that the water entering the tank is free of large sediment. Pre-filtration is important to keep the
system healthy.
Conceptually, a water supply system should match the quality of water with the end use. However, in most of the
developed world high quality potable water is used for all end uses. This approach wastes money and energy and

imposes unnecessary impacts to the environment. Supplying rainwater that has gone through preliminary filtration
measures for non-potable water uses, such as toilet flushing, irrigation, and laundry, may be a significant part of a
sustainable water management strategy.
System setup[edit]
Rainwater harvesting systems can range in complexity, from systems that can be installed with minimal skills, to
automated systems that require advanced setup and installation. The basic Rainwater harvesting system is more of
a plumbing job than a technical job as all the outlets from the building terrace are connected through a pipe to an
underground tank that stores water.
Systems are ideally sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be big enough to
support daily water consumption. Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such as a building roof must be large
enough to maintain adequate flow. The water storage tank size should be large enough to contain the captured
water.[citation needed]
For low-tech systems, there are many low-tech methods used to capture rainwater: rooftop systems, surface water
capture, and pumping the rainwater that has already soaked into the ground or captured in reservoirs and storing it
into tanks (cisterns).
Before a rainwater harvesting system is built, it is helpful to use digital tools. For instance, if you want to detect if a
region has a high rainwater harvesting potential, rainwater harvesting GIS maps can be made using an online
interactive tool. Or if you need to estimate how much water is needed to fulfill a community's water needs, the Rain is
Gain tool helps with this. Tools like these can save time and money before a commitment to build a system is
undertaken, in addition to making the project sustainable and last a long time.
Life Cycle Assessment: Design for Environment[edit]

.
Contemporary system designs require an analysis of not only the economic and technical performance of a system,
but also the environmental performance. Life Cycle Assessment is a methodology used to evaluate the
environmental impacts of a precut or systems, from cradle-to-grave of its' lifetime. Devkota et al., [5][6] developed such
a methodology for rainwater harvesting, and found that the building design (e.g., dimensions) and function (e.g.,
educational, residential, etc.) play critical roles in the environmental performance of the system. The Economic and
Environmental Analysis of Sanitations Technologies, EEAST model evaluates the greenhouse gas emissions and
cost of such systems over the lifetime of a variety of building types.
To address the functional parameters of rainwater harvesting systems, a new metric was developed - the demand to
supply ratio (D/S) - identifying the ideal building design (supply) and function (demand) in regard to the
environmental performance of rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing. With the idea that supply of rainwater not only
saves the potable water, but also saves the stormwater entering the combined sewer network (thereby requiring
treatment), the savings in environmental emissions were higher if the buildings are connected to a combined sewer
network compared to separate one.[6]
Rain water harvesting by freshwater flooded forests[edit]

Ratagul Freshwater Flooded Forest,Bangladesh

Rain water harvesting is possible by growing fresh water flooded forests without losing the income from the used
/submerged land.[7] The main purpose of the rain water harvesting is to utilize the locally available rain water to meet
water requirements throughout the year without the need of huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate availability
of uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial and irrigation needs.
New approaches[edit]
Instead of using the roof for catchment, the RainSaucer, which looks like an upside down umbrella, collects rain
straight from the sky. This decreases the potential for contamination and makes potable water for developing
countries a potential application.[8] Other applications of this free standing rainwater collection approach are
sustainable gardening and small plot farming.[9]
A Dutch invention called the Groasis Waterboxx is also useful for growing trees with harvested and stored dew and
rainwater.

Presentation of RainSaucer system to students at Orphanage in Guatemala.

Traditionally, storm water management using detention basins served a single purpose. However, Optimized RealTime Control (OptiRTC) lets this infrastructure double as a source of rainwater harvesting without compromising the
existing detention capacity.[10] This has been used in the EPA headquarters to evacuate stored water prior to storm
events, thus reducing wet weather flow while ensuring water availability for later reuse. This has the benefit of
increasing water quality released and decreasing the volume of water released during combined sewer
overflow events.[11][12]
Generally, check dams are constructed across the streams to enhance the percolation of surface water in to the sub
soil strata. The water percolation in the water impounded area of the check dams, can be enhanced artificially many
folds by loosening the sub soil strata / overburden by using ANFO explosives as used in open cast mining. Thus
local aquifers can be recharged quickly by using the available surface water fully for using in the dry season.
History[edit]
Earlier[edit]
Around the third century BC, the farming communities in Balochistan (now located in Pakistan, Afghanistan and
Iran), andKutch, India, used rainwater harvesting for agriculture and many uses also. [13] In ancient Tamil Nadu ,
rainwater harvesting was done by Chola kings.[14] Rainwater from the Brihadeeswarar temple (located in
Balaganpathy Nagar, Thanjavur, India) was collected in Shivaganga tank.[15] During the later Chola period, the
Vrnam tank was built (1011 to 1037 CE) in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu to store water for drinking and irrigation
purposes. Vrnam is a 16 km (9.9 mi) long tank with a storage capacity of 1,465,000,000 cubic feet
(41,500,000 m3).
Rainwater harvesting was done in the Indian states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh[citation needed] in
the olden days[when?]. Ratanpur, in the state of Chhattisgarh, had around 150 ponds. Most of the tanks or ponds were
utilized in agriculture works.[citation needed]

It is a little know fact that the town of Venice depended for centuries on rainwater harvesting. The lagoon which
surrounds Venice is made of brackish water which is not suitable for human drinking. The ancient inhabitants of
Venice established a system of rainwater collection which was based on man-made insulated collection wells.
[16]
Water would percolate down the specially designed stone flooring, and be filtered by a layer of sand, then
collecting at the bottom of the well. Later, as Venice acquired territories on the mainland, it started to import water by
boat from local rivers, but the wells remained in use, and were especially important in time of war when access to the
mainland water could be blocked by an assailant.
Current use[edit]

In China and Brazil rooftop rainwater harvesting is being practiced for providing drinking water, domestic
water, water for livestock, water for small irrigation and a way to replenish groundwater levels. Gansu province in
China and semi-aridnorth east Brazil have the largest rooftop rainwater harvesting projects ongoing.

In Bermuda, the law requires all new construction to include rainwater harvesting adequate for the residents.

The U.S. Virgin Islands have a similar law.

In Senegal and Guinea-Bissau, the houses of the Diola-people are frequently equipped with homebrew
rainwater harvesters made from local, organic materials.

In the Irrawaddy Delta of Myanmar, the groundwater is saline and communities rely on mud-lined rainwater
ponds to meet their drinking water needs throughout the dry season. Some of these ponds are centuries old and
are treated with great reverence and respect.

In the United States: until 2009 in Colorado, water rights laws almost completely restricted rainwater
harvesting; a property owner who captured rainwater was deemed to be stealing it from those who have rights to
take water from the watershed. Now, residential well owners that meet certain criteria may obtain a permit to
install a rooftop precipitation collection system (SB 09-080).[17] Up to 10 large scale pilot studies may also be
permitted (HB 09-1129).[18] The main factor in persuading the Colorado Legislature to change the law was a 2007
study that found that in an average year, 97% of the precipitation that fell in Douglas County, in the southern
suburbs of Denver, never reached a streamit was used by plants or evaporated on the ground. In Colorado
you cannot even drill a water well unless you have at least 35 acres (14 ha). In New Mexico, rainwater
catchment is mandatory for new dwellings in Santa Fe.[19] Texas offers a sales tax exemption on the purchase of
rainwater harvesting equipment. Both Texas[20] and Ohio allow the practice even for potable purposes. Oklahoma
passed the Water for 2060 Act in 2012, to promote pilot projects for rainwater andgraywater use among other
water saving techniques.[21]

In Beijing, some housing societies are now adding rain water in their main water sources after proper
treatment.

In Ireland, Professor Micheal Mcginley established a project to design a rain water harvesting prototype in the
Biosystems design Challenge Module at University College Dublin
Canada[edit]
Main article: Rainwater harvesting in Canada
A number of Canadians have started implementing rainwater harvesting systems for use in stormwater reduction,
irrigation, laundry, and lavatory plumbing. Substantial reform to Canadian law since the mid 2000s has increased the
use of this technology in agricultural, industrial, and residential use; but ambiguity remains amongst legislation in
many provinces. Bylaws and local municipal codes often regulate rainwater harvesting.
India[edit]

Karnataka: In Bangalore it is mandatory for adoption of rain water harvesting for every owner or the occupier
of a building having the sital area measuring 60 ft (18.3 m) X 40 ft (12.2 m) and above and for newly constructed
building measuring 30 ft (9.1 m) X 40 ft (12.2 m) and above dimension. In this regard BWSSB has initiated and
constructed Rain Water Harvesting Theme Park in the name of Sir. M. Visvesvaraya in 1.2 acres (4,900 m2)
land situated at Jayanagar, Bangalore. In this park 26 different type of Rain Water Harvesting models are

demonstrated along with the water conservation tips. The Auditorium on the first floor is set up with Green Air
conditioning system and the same will be utilized to arrange the meeting and showing the video clip about the
rain water harvesting to students as well as general public.[22]

Tamil Nadu: In the state of Tamil Nadu, rainwater harvesting was made compulsory for every building to avoid
groundwater depletion. It gave excellent results within five years, and every state took it as role model. Since its
implementation, Chennai saw a 50 percent rise in water level in five years and the water quality significantly
improved.[23]

Rajasthan: In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting has traditionally been practiced by the people of the Thar
Desert. There are many ancient water harvesting systems in Rajasthan, which have now been revived. [24] Water
harvesting systems are widely used in other areas of Rajasthan as well, for example the chauka system from
the Jaipur district.[25]

Kerala:
Main article: Rainwater harvesting in Kerala

Maharashtra: At present, in Pune, rainwater harvesting is compulsory for any new housing society to be
registered.

In Mumbai city in Maharashtra rain water harvesting is being considered as a good solution to solve water
crisis.

The Mumbai city council is planning to make rainwater harvesting mandatory for large societies. [26] An attempt has
been made at the Department of Chemical Engineering, IISc, Bangalore to harvest rainwater using upper surface of
a solar still, which was used for water distillation[27]
Israel[edit]
The Southwest Center for the Study of Hospital and Healthcare Systems in cooperation with Rotary International is
sponsoring a rainwater harvesting model program across the country. The first rainwater catchment system was
installed at an elementary school in Lod, Israel. The project is looking to expand to Haifa in its third phase. The
Southwest Center has also partnered with the Water Resources Action Project (WRAP) of Washington D.C. WRAP
currently has rainwater harvesting projects in the West Bank. Rainwater harvesting systems are being installed in
local schools for the purpose of educating schoolchildren about water conservation principles and bridging divides
between people of different religious and ethnic backgrounds all while addressing the water scarcity issue that the
Middle East faces.[28]
New Zealand[edit]
Although New Zealand has plentiful rainfall in the West and South, for much of the country, rain water harvesting is
the normal practice for most rural housing and is encouraged by most councils [29]
Sri Lanka[edit]
Rainwater harvesting has been a popular method of obtaining water for agriculture and for drinking purposes in rural
homes. The legislation to promote rainwater harvesting was enacted through the Urban Development Authority
(Amendment) Act, No. 36 of 2007.[30] Lanka rainwater harvesting forum[31] is leading the Sri Lanka's initiative.
South Africa[edit]
The South African Water Research Commission has supported research into rainwater harvesting. Reports on this
research are available on their 'Knowledge Hub'. [32] Studies in arid, semi-arid and humid regions have confirmed that
techniques such as mulching, pitting, ridging and modified run-on plots are effective for small-scale crop production.
[33]

United Kingdom[edit]
Main article: Rainwater harvesting in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, water butts are often found in domestic gardens and on allotments to collect rainwater, which
is then used to water the garden. However, the British government's Code For Sustainable Homes encouraged fitting
large underground tanks to new-build homes to collect rainwater for flushing toilets, watering and washing. Ideal
designs had the potential to reduce demand on mains water supply by half. The code was revoked in 2015.

United States[edit]

Colorado: Until 2009, water rights laws almost completely restricted rainwater harvesting; a property owner
who captured rainwater was deemed to be stealing it from those who have rights to take water from the
watershed. Now, residential well owners that meet certain criteria may obtain a permit to install a rooftop
precipitation collection system (SB 09-080).[34]Up to 10 large scale pilot studies may also be permitted (HB 091129).[35] The main factor in persuading the Colorado Legislature to change the law was a 2007 study that found
that in an average year, 97% of the precipitation that fell inDouglas County, in the southern suburbs of Denver,
never reached a streamit was used by plants or evaporated on the ground. In Colorado you cannot even drill a
water well unless you have at least 35 acres (14 ha)
New Mexico: In New Mexico, rainwater catchment is mandatory for new dwellings in Santa Fe.[19]

Texas offers a sales tax exemption on the purchase of rainwater harvesting equipment. Both Texas [36] and
Ohio allow the practice even for potable purposes.

Oklahoma passed the Water for 2060 Act in 2012, to promote pilot projects for rainwater and graywater use
among other water saving techniques.[21]

ainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock
catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground
check dams. The techniques usually found in Asia and Africa arise from practices employed by ancient civilizations
within these regions and still serve as a major source of drinking water supply in rural areas. Commonly used systems
are constructed of three principal components; namely, the catchment area, the collection device, and the conveyance
system.
A) Catchment Areas

Rooftop catchments: In the most basic form of this technology, rainwater is collected in simple vessels at the
edge of the roof. Variations on this basic approach include collection of rainwater in gutters which drain to the
collection vessel through down-pipes constructed for this purpose, and/or the diversion of rainwater from the
gutters to containers for settling particulates before being conveyed to the storage container for the domestic use.
As the rooftop is the main catchment area, the amount and quality of rainwater collected depends on the area
and type of roofing material. Reasonably pure rainwater can be collected from roofs constructed with galvanized
corrugated iron, aluminium or asbestos cement sheets, tiles and slates, although thatched roofs tied with
bamboo gutters and laid in proper slopes can produce almost the same amount of runoff less expensively
(Gould, 1992). However, the bamboo roofs are least suitable because of possible health hazards. Similarly, roofs
with metallic paint or other coatings are not recommended as they may impart tastes or colour to the collected
water. Roof catchments should also be cleaned regularly to remove dust, leaves and bird droppings so as to
maintain the quality of the product water (see figure 1).

Land surface catchments: Rainwater harvesting using ground or land surface catchment areas is less complex
way of collecting rainwater. It involves improving runoff capacity of the land surface through various techniques
including collection of runoff with drain pipes and storage of collected water. Compared to rooftop catchment
techniques, ground catchment techniques provide more opportunity for collecting water from a larger surface
area. By retaining the flows (including flood flows) of small creeks and streams in small storage reservoirs (on
surface or underground) created by low cost (e.g., earthen) dams, this technology can meet water demands
during dry periods. There is a possibility of high rates of water loss due to infiltration into the ground, and,
because of the often marginal quality of the water collected, this technique is mainly suitable for storing water for
agricultural purposes. Various techniques available for increasing the runoff within ground catchment areas
involve: i) clearing or altering vegetation cover, ii) increasing the land slope with artificial ground cover, and iii)
reducing soil permeability by the soil compaction and application of chemicals (see figure 2).

Clearing or altering vegetation cover: Clearing vegetation from the ground can increase surface runoff but also
can induce more soil erosion. Use of dense vegetation cover such as grass is usually suggested as it helps to
both maintain an high rate of runoff and minimize soil erosion.

Increasing slope: Steeper slopes can allow rapid runoff of rainfall to the collector. However, the rate of runoff has
to be controlled to minimise soil erosion from the catchment field. Use of plastic sheets, asphalt or tiles along
with slope can further increase efficiency by reducing both evaporative losses and soil erosion. The use of flat
sheets of galvanized iron with timber frames to prevent corrosion was recommended and constructed in the State
of Victoria, Australia, about 65 years ago (Kenyon, 1929; cited in UNEP, 1982).

Soil compaction by physical means: This involves smoothing and compacting of soil surface using equipment
such as graders and rollers. To increase the surface runoff and minimize soil erosion rates, conservation bench
terraces are constructed along a slope perpendicular to runoff flow. The bench terraces are separated by the
sloping collectors and provision is made for distributing the runoff evenly across the field strips as sheet flow.
Excess flows are routed to a lower collector and stored (UNEP, 1982).

Soil compaction by chemical treatments: In addition to clearing, shaping and compacting a catchment area,
chemical applications with such soil treatments as sodium can significantly reduce the soil permeability. Use of
aqueous solutions of a silicone-water repellent is another technique for enhancing soil compaction technologies.
Though soil permeability can be reduced through chemical treatments, soil compaction can induce greater rates
of soil erosion and may be expensive. Use of sodium-based chemicals may increase the salt content in the
collected water, which may not be suitable both for drinking and irrigation purposes.

B) Collection Devices

Storage tanks: Storage tanks for collecting rainwater harvested using guttering may be either above or below the
ground. Precautions required in the use of storage tanks include provision of an adequate enclosure to minimise
contamination from human, animal or other environmental contaminants, and a tight cover to prevent algal
growth and the breeding of mosquitos. Open containers are not recommended for collecting water for drinking
purposes. Various types of rainwater storage facilities can be found in practice. Among them are cylindrical
ferrocement tanks and mortar jars. The ferrocement tank consists of a lightly reinforced concrete base on which
is erected a circular vertical cylinder with a 10 mm steel base. This cylinder is further wrapped in two layers of
light wire mesh to form the frame of the tank. Mortar jars are large jar shaped vessels constructed from wire
reinforced mortar. The storage capacity needed should be calculated to take into consideration the length of any
dry spells, the amount of rainfall, and the per capita water consumption rate. In most of the Asian countries, the
winter months are dry, sometimes for weeks on end, and the annual average rainfall can occur within just a few
days. In such circumstances, the storage capacity should be large enough to cover the demands of two to three
weeks. For example, a three person household should have a minimum capacity of 3 (Persons) x 90 (l) x 20
(days) = 5 400 l.

Rainfall water containers: As an alternative to storage tanks, battery tanks (i.e., interconnected tanks) made of
pottery, ferrocement, or polyethylene may be suitable. The polyethylene tanks are compact but have a large
storage capacity (ca. 1 000 to 2 000 l), are easy to clean and have many openings which can be fitted with
fittings for connecting pipes. In Asia, jars made of earthen materials or ferrocement tanks are commonly used.
During the 1980s, the use of rainwater catchment technologies, especially roof catchment systems, expanded
rapidly in a number of regions, including Thailand where more than ten million 2 m3 ferrocement rainwater jars
were built and many tens of thousands of larger ferrocement tanks were constructed between 1991 and 1993.
Early problems with the jar design were quickly addressed by including a metal cover using readily available,
standard brass fixtures. The immense success of the jar programme springs from the fact that the technology
met a real need, was affordable, and invited community participation. The programme also captured the
imagination and support of not only the citizens, but also of government at both local and national levels as well
as community based organizations, small-scale enterprises and donor agencies. The introduction and rapid
promotion of Bamboo reinforced tanks, however, was less successful because the bamboo was attacked by
termites, bacteria and fungus. More than 50 000 tanks were built between 1986 and 1993 (mainly in Thailand
and Indonesia) before a number started to fail, and, by the late 1980s, the bamboo reinforced tank design, which
had promised to provide an excellent low-cost alternative to ferrocement tanks, had to be abandoned.

C)
Conveyance
Systems
Conveyance systems are required to transfer the rainwater collected on the rooftops to the storage tanks. This is usually
accomplished by making connections to one or more down-pipes connected to the rooftop gutters. When selecting a
conveyance system, consideration should be given to the fact that, when it first starts to rain, dirt and debris from the
rooftop and gutters will be washed into the down-pipe. Thus, the relatively clean water will only be available some time

later in the storm. There are several possible choices to selectively collect clean water for the storage tanks. The most
common is the down-pipe flap. With this flap it is possible to direct the first flush of water flow through the down-pipe,
while later rainfall is diverted into a storage tank. When it starts to rain, the flap is left in the closed position, directing
water to the down-pipe, and, later, opened when relatively clean water can be collected. A great disadvantage of using
this type of conveyance control system is the necessity to observe the runoff quality and manually operate the flap. An
alternative approach would be to automate the opening of the flap as described below.
A funnel-shaped insert is integrated into the down-pipe system. Because the upper edge of the funnel is not in direct
contact with the sides of the down-pipe, and a small gap exists between the down-pipe walls and the funnel, water is
free to flow both around the funnel and through the funnel. When it first starts to rain, the volume of water passing down
the pipe is small, and the *dirty* water runs down the walls of the pipe, around the funnel and is discharged to the
ground as is normally the case with rainwater guttering. However, as the rainfall continues, the volume of water
increases and *clean* water fills the down-pipe. At this higher volume, the funnel collects the clean water and redirects it
to a storage tank. The pipes used for the collection of rainwater, wherever possible, should be made of plastic, PVC or
other inert substance, as the pH of rainwater can be low (acidic) and could cause corrosion, and mobilization of metals,
in metal pipes.
In order to safely fill a rainwater storage tank, it is necessary to make sure that excess water can overflow, and that
blockages in the pipes or dirt in the water do not cause damage or contamination of the water supply. The design of the
funnel system, with the drain-pipe being larger than the rainwater tank feed-pipe, helps to ensure that the water supply is
protected by allowing excess water to bypass the storage tank. A modification of this design is shown in Figure 5, which
illustrates a simple overflow/bypass system. In this system, it also is possible to fill the tank from a municipal drinking
water source, so that even during a prolonged drought the tank can be kept full. Care should be taken, however, to
ensure that rainwater does not enter the drinking water distribution system.
Extent of Use
The history of rainwater harvesting in Asia can be traced back to about the 9th or 10th Century and the small-scale
collection of rainwater from roofs and simple brush dam constructions in the rural areas of South and South-east Asia.
Rainwater collection from the eaves of roofs or via simple gutters into traditional jars and pots has been traced back
almost 2 000 years in Thailand (Prempridi and Chatuthasry, 1982). Rainwater harvesting has long been used in the
Loess Plateau regions of China. More recently, however, about 40 000 well storage tanks, in a variety of different forms,
were constructed between 1970 and 1974 using a technology which stores rainwater and stormwater runoff in ponds of
various sizes. A thin layer of red clay is generally laid on the bottom of the ponds to minimize seepage losses. Trees,
planted at the edges of the ponds, help to minimize evaporative losses from the ponds (UNEP, 1982).
Level of Involvement and Skill
Various levels of governmental and community involvement in the development of rainwater harvesting technologies in
different parts of Asia were noted. In Thailand and the Philippines, both governmental and household-based initiatives
played key roles in expanding the use of this technology, especially in water scarce areas such as northeast Thailand.
Cultural Acceptability
Rainwater harvesting is an accepted freshwater augmentation technology in Asia. While the bacteriological quality of
rainwater collected from ground catchments is poor, that from properly maintained rooftop catchment systems, equipped

with storage tanks having good covers and taps, is generally suitable for drinking, and frequently meets WHO drinking
water standards. Notwithstanding, such water generally is of higher quality than most traditional, and many of improved,
water sources found in the developing world. Contrary to popular beliefs, rather than becoming stale with extended
storage, rainwater quality often improves as bacteria and pathogens gradually die off (Wirojanagud et al., 1989). Rooftop
catchment, rainwater storage tanks can provide good quality water, clean enough for drinking, as long as the rooftop is
clean, impervious, and made from non-toxic materials (lead paints and asbestos roofing materials should be avoided),
and located away from over-hanging trees since birds and animals in the trees may defecate on the roof.
Specification
Maintenance is generally limited to the annual cleaning of the tank and regular inspection of the gutters and down-pipes.
Maintenance typically consists of the removal of dirt, leaves and other accumulated materials. Such cleaning should take
place annually before the start of the major rainfall season. However, cracks in the storage tanks can create major
problems and should be repaired immediately. In the case of ground and rock catchments, additional care is required to
avoid damage and contamination by people and animals, and proper fencing is required.
Advantages
Rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and operate. Local people can be easily trained to implement
such technologies, and construction materials are also readily available. Rainwater harvesting is convenient in the sense
that it provides water at the point of consumption, and family members have full control of their own systems, which
greatly reduces operation and maintenance problems. Running costs, also, are almost negligible. Water collected from
roof catchments usually is of acceptable quality for domestic purposes. As it is collected using existing structures not
specially constructed for the purpose, rainwater harvesting has few negative environmental impacts compared to other
water supply project technologies. Although regional or other local factors can modify the local climatic conditions,
rainwater can be a continuous source of water supply for both the rural and poor. Depending upon household capacity
and needs, both the water collection and storage capacity may be increased as needed within the available catchment
area.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of rainwater harvesting technologies are mainly due to the limited supply and uncertainty of rainfall.
Adoption of this technology requires a *bottom up* approach rather than the more usual *top down* approach employed
in other water resources development projects. This may make rainwater harvesting less attractive to some
governmental agencies tasked with providing water supplies in developing countries, but the mobilization of local
government and NGO resources can serve the same basic role in the development of rainwater-based schemes as
water resources development agencies in the larger, more traditional public water supply schemes.
Suitability
The augmentation of municipal water supplies with harvested rainwater is suited to both urban and rural areas. The
construction of cement jars or provision of gutters does not require very highly skilled manpower.
Development Costs
The capital cost of rainwater harvesting systems is highly dependent on the type of catchment, conveyance and storage
tank materials used. However, the cost of harvested rainwater in Asia, which varies from $0.17 to $0.37 per cubic metre

of water storage, is relatively low compared to many countries in Africa (Lee and Vissher, 1990).
Compared to deep and shallow tubewells, rainwater collection systems are more cost effective, especially if the initial
investment does not include the cost of roofing materials. The initial per unit cost of rainwater storage tanks (jars) in
Northeast Thailand is estimated to be about $1/l, and each tank can last for more than ten years. The reported operation
and maintenance costs are negligible.
Effectivness of Technology
The feasibility of rainwater harvesting in a particular locality is highly dependent upon the amount and intensity of
rainfall. Other variables, such as catchment area and type of catchment surface, usually can be adjusted according to
household needs. As rainfall is usually unevenly distributed throughout the year, rainwater collection methods can serve
as only supplementary sources of household water. The viability of rainwater harvesting systems is also a function of:
the quantity and quality of water available from other sources; household size and per capita water requirements; and
budget available. The decision maker has to balance the total cost of the project against the available budget, including
the economic benefit of conserving water supplied from other sources. Likewise, the cost of physical and environmental
degradation associated with the development of available alternative sources should also be calculated and added to
the economic analysis.
Assuming that rainwater harvesting has been determined to be feasible, two kinds of techniques--statistical and
graphical methods--have been developed to aid in determining the size of the storage tanks. These methods are
applicable for rooftop catchment systems only, and detail guidelines for design of these storage tanks can be found in
Gould (1991) and Pacey and Cullis (1986, 1989).
Accounts of serious illness linked to rainwater supplies are few, suggesting that rainwater harvesting technologies are
effective sources of water supply for many household purposes. It would appear that the potential for slight
contamination of roof runoff from occasional bird droppings does not represent a major health risk; nevertheless, placing
taps at least 10 cm above the base of the rainwater storage tanks allows any debris entering the tank to settle on the
bottom, where it will not affect the quality of the stored water, provided it remains undisturbed. Ideally, storage tanks
should cleaned annually, and sieves should fitted to the gutters and down-pipes to further minimize particulate
contamination. A coarse sieve should be fitted in the gutter where the down-pipe is located. Such sieves are available
made of plastic coated steel-wire or plastic, and may be wedged on top and/or inside gutter and near the down-pipe. It is
also possible to fit a fine sieve within the down-pipe itself, but this must be removable for cleaning. A fine filter should
also be fitted over the outlet of the down-pipe as the coarser sieves situated higher in the system may pass small
particulates such as leaf fragments, etc. A simple and very inexpensive method is to use a small, fabric sack, which may
be secured over the feed-pipe where it enters the storage tank.
If rainwater is used to supply household appliances such as the washing machine, even the tiniest particles of dirt may
cause damage to the machine and the washing. To minimize the occurrence of such damage, it is advisable to install a
fine filter of a type which is used in drinking water systems in the supply line upstream of the appliances. For use in wash
basins or bath tubs, it is advisable to sterilise the water using a chlorine dosage pump.