INTRODUCTION

Evidence of evolution can be observed in numerous ways, including

distribution of species (both geographically and through time), comparative
anatomy, taxonomy, embryology, cell biology, molecular biology,
and paleontology.
The English naturalist Charles Darwin (18091882) formulated the theory of
evolution through natural selection in his ground breaking publication The
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, published in 1859. One of
the first observations that Darwin made, prompting him to become a pioneer
of evolutionary thinking, was on his journey aboard the HMS Beagle as a
naturalist. Prior to the work of Darwin, most people accepted the biblical
account of creation where all animals and plants were brought into the world,
also called creationism. Darwin made extensive collections of the plants and
animals that he came across wherever the ship stopped, and very soon he
started to notice patterns within the organisms he studied.
Similarities emerged between organisms collected from widely differing areas.
As well as the similarities, there were also striking differences. For
example, mammals are present on all of the major landmasses; however,
these mammals are different, even in similar habitats. One explanation of this
is that in the past when the land-masses were joined, mammals spread over all
of the available land. Subsequently, this land moved apart, and the animals
became isolated. As time passed, random variation due to natural selection
within the populations occurred. This process is known as
adaptive radiation. From the same basic origin, many different forms have
evolved. Each environment is slightly different, and slightly different forms
are better suited to survive.
Evolution has historically been a subject of considerable debate mainly due to
the difficulties in testing scientific hypotheses that are inherently associated
with the topic. It is difficult to imagine how the magnanimous interspecies as
well as intraspecies diversification could exist without evolutionary pathways.
There are many critics that have alternative theories to describe this
diversification, however, many lines of evidence exist that lend credence to the
theory of evolution. This evidence helps to understand why, for example,
islands in the Galapagos are inhabited be various organisms that are similar to
those in the mainland, but belong to a different species, or why thousands of
snail species and other mollusks are found only in Hawaii. A possible
biological explanation is that the diversity and number of related species in

these isolated habitats is a consequence of the evolutionary

mechanisms that arose from a small number of common ancestors that were
the original inhabitants. With the greatness in ecological diversity in different
parts of the world and the absence of species competing for resources
necessary for survival, diversification from evolutionary change was made
possible.
If it is true that widely separated groups of organisms have ancestors in
common, then intuitively it suggests they would have certain basic structures
in common as well. The more structures they have in common, the more
closely related they must be. The study of evolutionary relationships based on
similarities and differences in the structural makeup of certain species is
called comparative anatomy. What scientists look for are structures that may
serve entirely different functions, but are basically similar. Such homologous
(meaning the same) structures suggest a common ancestor. A classic example
of this is the pentadactyl (five digits, as in the hand of humans) limb, which in
suitably modified forms can be seen in all mammals. A even greater modified
version of this can also be seen amongst birds.
Evolutionary relationships are reflected in taxonomy. Taxonomy is an
artificial, hierarchical system showing categorical relationships between
species based on specific defining characteristics. Each level within the
taxonomic system denotes a greater degree of relatedness to a particular
the organism if it is closer in the hierarchical scheme.
In embryology, the developing fetus is studied, and similarities with other
organisms are observed. For example, annelids and mollusks are very
dissimilar as adults. If, however, the embryo of a ragworm and a whelk are
studied, one sees that for much of their development they are remarkably
similar. Even the larvae of these two species are very much alike. This suggests
that they both belong to a common ancestor. It is not, however, true that a
developing organism replays its evolutionary stages as an embryo. There are
some similarities with the more conserved regions, but embryonic
development is subjected to evolutionary pressures as much as other areas of
the life cycle.
The analysis of developmental stages of various related species, particularly
involving reproduction suggests common descent and supports
evolution. Sexual reproduction in both apes and humans, for example, is
very similar. Molecular biology also produces evidences supporting evolution.
Organisms such as fruit flies have similar gene sequences that are active in
specific times during development and these sequences are very similar to

sequences in mice and even humans that are activated in similar ways during
development.
Even in cell biology, at the level of the individuals cell, there is evidence of
evolution in that there are many similarities that can be observed when
comparing various cells from different organisms. Many structures and
pathways within the cell are important for life. The more important and basic
to the functioning of the tissues in which cells contribute, the more likely it
will be conserved. For example, the DNA code (the genetic material in the cell)
is the very similar in comparing DNA from different organisms.
In molecular biology, the concept of a molecular clock has been suggested. The
molecular clock related to the average rate in which a gene (or a specific
sequence of DNA that encodes a protein) or protein evolves. Genes evolve at
different rates the proteins that they encode. This is because gene mutations
often do not change the protein. But due to mutations, the genetic sequence of
a species changes over time. The more closely related the two species, the
more likely they will have similar sequences of their genetic material, or DNA
sequence. The molecular clock provides relationships between organisms and
helps identify the point of divergence between the two species. Pseudogenes
are genes that are part of an organisms DNA but that have evolved to no
longer have important functions. Pseudogenes, therefore, represent another
line of evidence supporting evolution, which is based on concepts derived
from molecular genetics.
Perhaps the most persuasive argument that favors evolution is the fossil
record. Paleontology (the study of fossils) provides a record that many species
that are extinct. By techniques such as carbon dating and studying the
placement of fossils within the ground, an age can be assigned to the fossil. By
placing fossils together based on their ages, a gradual change in form can be
identified, which can be carefully compared to species that currently exist.
Although fossil records are incomplete, with many intermediate species
missing, careful analysis of habitat, environmental factors at various
timepoints, characteristics of extinct species, and characteristics of species
that currently exist supports theories of evolution and natural selection

How Do We Know That Evolution Has Occurred?

The evidence for evolution has primarily come from four sources:

1. the fossil record of change in earlier species

2. the chemical and anatomical similarities of related life forms
3. the geographic distribution of related species
4. the recorded genetic changes in living organisms over many generations

Heres a brief summary of the evidence that supports the theory of

evolution by natural selection:
Biochemistry is the study of the basic chemistry and processes
that occur in cells. The biochemistry of all living things on Earth
is incredibly similar, showing that all of Earths organisms share a
common ancestry.
Comparative anatomy is the comparison of the structures of
different living things. This figure compares the skeletons of
humans, cats, whales, and bats, illustrating how similar they are
even though these animals live unique lifestyles in very different
environments. The best explanation for similarities like the ones
among these skeletons is that the various species on Earth
evolved from common ancestors.

Credit: Illustration by Kathryn Born, M.A

Comparative anatomy of the bones in the front limbs of humans, cats, whales, and bats.

Biogeography, the study of living things around the globe, helps

solidify Darwins theory of biological evolution. Basically, if
evolution is real, youd expect groups of organisms that are
related to one another to be clustered near one another because
related organisms come from the same common ancestor.
On the other hand, if evolution isnt real, theres no reason for
related groups of organisms to be found near one another. When
biogeographers compare the distribution of organisms living
today or those that lived in the past (from fossils), they find that
species are distributed around Earth in a pattern that reflects
their genetic relationships to one another.

 Comparative embryology compares the embryos of different

organisms. The embryos of many animals, from fish to humans,
show similarities that suggest a common ancestor.
Molecular biology focuses on the structure and function of the
molecules that make up cells. Molecular biologists have
compared gene sequences among species, revealing similarities
among even very different organisms.
Paleontology is the study of prehistoric life through fossil
evidence. The fossil record (all the fossils ever found and the
information gained from them) shows detailed evidence of the
changes in living things through time.
Modern examples of biological evolution can be measured by
studying the results of scientific experiments that measure
evolutionary changes in the populations of organisms that are
alive today. In fact, you need only look in the newspaper or hop
online to see evidence of evolution in action in the form of the
increase in the number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Radioisotope dating estimates the age of fossils and other
rocks by examining the ratio of isotopes in rocks. Isotopes are
different forms of the atoms that make up matter on Earth. Some
isotopes, called radioactive isotopes, discard particles over time
and change into other elements.
Scientists know the rate at which this radioactive decay occurs,
so they can take rocks and analyze the elements within them.
Radioisotope dating indicates that the Earth is 4.5 billion years

old, which is plenty old enough to allow for the many changes in
Earths species due to biological evolution.
Evidence for the Evolution of Man

Homo habilis, the first species of the genus Homo

The evidence for the evolution of man is more than fossils and missing links. There is
an amazing pattern to the fossils that have been found, and I hope to bring that out in
this section.
From the human evolution timeline we can pull an amazing lineage. That this series is
some sort of accidentby a stroke of luck as numerous errors fell together into a
continuous series of dates, events, and locationsis rather hard to believe, don't
you think?

Pierolapithecus catalaunicus This 11.9 million-year-old fossil may represent

what the public considers "the missing link," though that term is
inaccurate. Scientists are hoping that this is the last common ancestor of apes
and humans. As you can see below, the chain of human evolution has many links
that are not missing, and they give clues to links, plural, that are missing.

Sahelanthropus tchadensis This creature, dated between 6 and 7 million

years ago (mya), had a cranial capacity (brain size) of 350 cc and was found in
Chad in central Africa. With similarities to both chimps and humans, it was
unlikely to have been bipedal (walked on two feet)

Ardipithecus ramidus (All new information as of 10/2/2009!) This forest

dweller had the brain-size of a chimp (400 cc), small canines, and was bipedal! It
changed some ideas about the evolution of man! It was found in Ethiopia, not far
from Chad in central Africa.

Australopithecus anamensis This creature also had an unknown cranial

capacity. It lived about 4 mya, and it had thick enamel on its teeth, one of the
marks of human lineage. It was found in Kenya, just south of Ethiopia.

Australopithecus afarensis Many fossils of this linkno longer missingin

the evolution of man have been found. It lived from 3.9 to 2.9 mya. Its cranial
capacity was up to 500 cc. It's teeth are more human-like than the previous
creatures, and its jaw is beginning to have the human parabolic shape. Its
fossils, as well as footprintsfully establishing its bipedalityhave been
found in Ethiopia, Cameroon, and Tanzania.

Australopithecus africanus Similar to afarensis in brain size, its jaw has a

fully human shape. It was found in South Africa and dates from 2 to 3 mya. This
line almost certainly died out.

Homo habilis Homo habilis lived from 2.4 to 1.5 mya and had a primitivelooking, flat face with a sloping brow and no chin, like the australopithecines, but
its teeth are smaller and more human-like. Its brain was shaped like a human
brain and averaged 650 cc in size. It, like robustus and boisei has been found in
Kenya and Tanzania.

Homo georgicus These hominids, intermediate between habilis and erectus,

were discovered in Dminisi, Georgia, making them the first hominids out of Africa
... possibly. Now there's questions about the 2003 discovery of ...

Homo floresiensis Dubbed "hobbits" because of their dimunitive size, these

fossils were found on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Studies of brain size make
it seem these are descendants of habilis, georgicus, or an unknown species, and
they possibly emigrated from Africa. That would be stunning with their
chimpanzee-sized brains. They've probably been in Indonesia for at least 1
million years and only went extinct 17,000 years ago.

Homo erectus This is the species that first left Africa. It lived from 1.8 mya to
300,000 years ago. In early fossils, its brain size averages 900 cc. A million
years later, the skulls have an average cranial capacity of 1100 cc. It had a small
forehead and still no chin, but it probably walked better than we do. We have
larger pelvises to accomodate the birth of large-brained babies.

Homo ergaster and heidelbergensis These are likely just the African and
European races of Homo erectus. They vary like human races vary, only in height
and robustness, though later fossils ofheidelbergensis are difficult to distinguish
from early Homo sapiens.

Denisovans Denisovans are known only from DNA extracted from a finger
bone and a molar found in Denisova cave in Siberia. Thus, all there are no
morphological data on the Denisovans. Humans carry DNA from denisova, thus
indicating that they will not be classified as a separate species, but simply a
population of archaic humans. Their DNA is primarily found in Melanesians,
indicating a possible ancestral mix in southeast Asia. Their role in the evolution
of man is much debated. Work is still being done in the Denisova cave, and
progress in news of this find has been rapid.

Homo neandethalensis Neanderthals (now usually Neandertals) have been

found only in Europe and the Middle East. They are a side branch in the evolution
of man and died out about 30,000 years ago. They were shorter than Homo
sapiens with bigger brains (1450 cc) and much stronger bodies. Scientists
say their adaptations are typical for cold weather. Recent DNA studies have
established thatNeanderthals intermingled with humans. Many humans
carry Neandertal DNA, especially outside of Africa.

Homo sapiens This is us. Our average cranial capacity is about 1300 cc, and
we have much more upright foreheads and pronounced chins than Homo erectus
(except some of the later European versions).