Running heading: DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

Decreasing the Visual Challenges of Dyslexia

Audrey Nord
Franciscan University of Steubenville

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

Introduction
When discussing the cause and effects of dyslexia it is common for the principle focus to
be placed on a phonological deficit. However, there are other deficiencies which also contribute
to the distinct challenges of dyslexia. Rather than accepting phonological deficits as the primary
cause, it could be that dyslexia arises as the result of multiple and independent cognitive
disorders. Awareness of these additional deficiencies support a multi-factorial view of
developmental dyslexia develops (Bosse, Tainturier, & Valdois, 2007). For the purposes of this
study the presence of a visual attention span deficiency, as well as the occurrence of visual stress
within individuals with dyslexia will be explored. Visual attention (VA) refers to the subtle shift
that occurs as the students focus moves from one word to the next in a text (Bosse, Tainturier, &
Valdois, 2007). When an individuals visual attention is impaired it can cause the person to
struggle with reading fluency and reading in a smooth continuous manner. Further, visual stress
(VS) as defined by Singleton and Henderson is, a condition in which unpleasant visual
symptoms are experienced when reading (2007, p. 130). These symptoms can include: sore or
tired eyes, headaches, illusions of shape, motion or color, and by moving or instable text
(Singleton & Henderson, 2007). A deficit of visual attention or the presence of visual stress
contributes to the noticeably slower reading rate of dyslexic students than the reading rate of
their on-level peers. In order to provide the most effective support to students with dyslexia it is
vital to consider each individual challenge that occurs in their reading development. An
instructional method suited to build comprehension, may not help improve the students reading
rate and vice versa. Therefore, it important to discover methods that will aid specific challenges
found within dyslexia, such as visual attention span deficit and visual stress.

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

Purpose
Reading is a visually stimulating activity and in order to achieve an adequate reading rate
students with dyslexia, who have visual deficits, need to be provided methods for managing the
negative visual effects. Even if some students with dyslexia do not suffer from a pronounced
case of visual attention span deficit or visual stress, research suggests that, individuals with
dyslexia are more sensitive to the visual features of text, and consequently have greater
susceptibility to reading induced fatigue (Singleton & Henderson, 2007, p. 133). Therefore, the
first goal of this present study is to identify and target the primary visual challenges faced by
individuals with dyslexia. The second goal is to identify at least one, if not several, effective
method(s) which may be implemented into the reading instruction of students with dyslexia
which serve to aid them in managing the identified visual challenges. Thus, what are one or more
methods that may be implemented into the reading instruction of students with dyslexia that will
effectively increase the students reading rate and aid their overall reading ability, while
simultaneously lessening dyslexias negative effects, specifically the visual challenges faced by
the students who have this disability?
Due to a lack of participants and opportunity, this study will be of a hypothetical
scenario, the results of which being based on the primary and secondary research of other
professionals, as well as upon statistical analysis and estimation. The participants of the
hypothetical study would be comprised of 200 students from two separate schools between the
ages of 8 and 10 years old. In order to determine the possibility of visual stress being present
within the participants, a twelve question survey would be administered. Next the effectiveness
of using color overlays as a means to negate the negative effects of VA deficit and visual stress
would be tested. Two passages of text, at the developmentally appropriate level, would be orally
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

read aloud by the participants, in order to form a baseline reading rate for each student. In further
sessions the participants would be presented with a text passage to be read aloud. Next the
participants would read the same passage but with the use of their chosen color of an overlay.
They would perform this task several more times with additional texts, while randomizing the
order of plain text reading and color overlay reading. Through the use of this hypothetical study,
as well as support from primary and secondary studies, the research will examine the benefits
and effectiveness of color overlays as a solution to the visual challenges of dyslexia.
The use of color overlays is expected to greatly increase the overall reading rate of
individuals with dyslexia. It is also hypnotized that the use of color overlays may increase the
reading rate of the typically developing participants, whether they also suffer from VS or not.
However, the dyslexic group of participants are expected to make more dramatic gains in their
reading rate than their peers.

Review of Literature
Similar to most other learning disabilities, dyslexia is multifaceted with many different
features, challenges, and degrees of severity which are all collected then ordered into one
category, under one title. Thus, as one might be able to guess, there are many different aspects to
dyslexia which cause the reading and various other problems for students who have it. Lallier,
Donnadieu, and Valdois (2013) explore three of these differing aspects in their study on how
phonological and visual attention span disorders can be connected to simultaneous auditory
processing deficits found within dyslexia. As they conducted their research, Lallier, Donnadieu,
and Valdois (2013) strove to understand how auditory stimuli given at the same time would

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

affect children with dyslexia. In addition, how an auditory disorder might also be accompanied
by a visual disorder and to what extent these two kinds of information processing might be
related to the phonological disorder in dyslexia. Thirty-four children participated in the study,
seventeen of them being dyslexic and the other seventeen being the control group. The dyslexic
group all had a normal IQ and while the control group was younger in age the children were
farther in terms of their reading level. The reading skills of each group was assessed using a
reading list of an even amount of low-frequency words, irregular words, and also pseudo-words.
Then they were asked to read aloud a set of three lists as quickly as possible. In addition, they
were presented with the control task of identifying syllables showed in isolation, then with a
dichotic listening task which differed for each ear. Through these methods of collecting data the
researchers found certain connections and disconnections between the varying aspects of
dyslexia. For example, through their data they came to the conclusion that there is no association
between phonological skills and visual attention span disorder. However, they found that an
abnormal visual attention span does affect an individuals reading and adds another layer of
difficulty for those who have it, namely by reducing their reading speed and making it
challenging to focus on multiple sentences and word structures in rapid succession. The
researchers also came to find that those with an auditory processing disorder usually also have a
visual processing disorder. Lallier, Donnadieu, and Valdois concluded their research article by
advocating further more wide spread studies on the connections of these aspects found in
dyslexia, as well as additional individual studies.
The authors of this article do an excellent job of exploring connections between the
visual, auditory, and the phonological aspects found in individuals with dyslexia. They explain
the procedures of their study in clear and precise detail, which made it easier to follow and to
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

understand the conclusions which they drew from it. In addition, the graphs, charts, and other
visual depictions also clarified their data and their findings. The connections found between the
three aspects of their study are invaluable pieces of information for further understanding the
challenges of those with dyslexia. Such as, that while visual disorder may not be connected
directly to an individuals phonological knowledge, it still very much effects the rate and
comprehension of the individuals reading. A discussion of how these aspects of dyslexia affect
individuals in their daily or school life or how the various affects manifest themselves would
have been helpful. Also, some explanation of how the auditory and visual disabilities are a part
of dyslexia and when or within what extent would also have been a helpful piece of information
which was not included in the article. It would be interesting if in the future this study or a
similar one could be extended to include a large number of participants in order to solidify the
research findings, and also to perform a similar study on a more individual scale so that it could
be directly related to individuals reading progress. This article is a valid resource for the present
study, because it explores the idea of there being a visual aspect which affects those with
dyslexia, even while it is not necessarily connected to the way they see the words or gain
phonological understanding.
An additional empirical study, by Singleton and Henderson (2007), explored the
connection between visual abnormalities and dyslexia by choosing to focus on the relationship
between the disability and visual stress. Whether the connection between the two is causational
or correlational is still the subject of much controversy. For context, visual stress is when
uncomfortable visual symptoms are experienced while reading. Furthermore, Singleton and
Henderson also sought to assess the effectiveness and accuracy of using ViSS, a computerized
testing method which screens for visual stress by using a reading-like visual search method. They
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

also conducted the study in order to examine the validity of the hypothesis which claimed that
visual stress occurred much more frequently in children with dyslexia than compared to their
reading-age equivalent peers. The participants in the study were 44 children with the mean age of
about ten years, twenty-two of whom were dyslexic and twenty-two who did not have dyslexia
or any other learning disability. The study was conducted using a variety of means of collecting
data including: intuitive overlays, Wilkins Rate of Reading Test, visual stress screener (ViSS),
visual stress symptom questionnaire which was administered orally, and the British Ability
Scales. Through the study the researchers found that all the children in the dyslexic group
response times were greatly impaired on the visually stressful portions of the procedures. Thus
coming to the conclusion that individuals with dyslexia are much more susceptible to visual
stress than the control group was. However, it was also found that the dyslexic group benefited
greatly and made substantial gains on their reading rate when they performed the tasks with a
color overlay. In fact, without the color overlay the dyslexic group preformed below the control
group, but with the overlay their reading rate was actually slightly faster than the control groups.
The authors even speculated that the use of color and dyslexia could have a direct relationship
between themselves, while being independent of visual stress. Based on the research
participants ratio of 50:50, the authors found no evidence that visual stress was any more
common in individuals with dyslexia than in those without dyslexia. However, they did admit
that the research group ratio was not realistic to the wider ratio of dyslexic individuals found in
the general population. They posited that based on more realistic statistics and estimations, that
those with dyslexia would suffer from visual stress more than would that percentage of the
population without dyslexia. Meanwhile, the authors found that using the ViSS to assess for
visual stress was an effective method and that it would be a valuable tool for discovering visual

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

stress, especially for dyslexic individuals. Yet, Singleton and Henderson could not come to a
conclusive result on whether visual stress and dyslexia were casually related or correlational,
except that to understand one would help to understand the other.
The article provided a plentiful supply of useful and intriguing information on the
correlation between the visual factors and dyslexia. The authors, Singleton and Henderson, were
not afraid to acknowledge many viewpoints and hypothesis about the subject matter and were
open-minded to other possibilities even if it opposed their own position. This allowed the article
to be very informative in multiple ways and to remain relatively unbiased while still drawing
conclusions. The many different assessment and research methods used also provided a wide
array of data, while keeping it all pertinent to the purpose of the study. As stated by the authors, a
large scale study on the subject may render differing results and perhaps more accurate ones. The
article is full of information and data showing the strong relationship that visual functions have
with dyslexia and it also provided much data comparing the challenges of an individual with
dyslexia and one without. However, one of the most useful aspects of this article for the purpose
of the current study is the discussion of visual overlays and the benefits they can provide to the
dyslexic individual. Within the article there is a plentiful supply of data to advocate the use of
visual overlays as an aid for students with dyslexia and showing the benefits using the overlays
can have on the individual. For future research it would be helpful to use a wide, unselected pool
of participants in order to perhaps reach a more statistically accurate conclusion on the
connection between visual stress and dyslexia. It would also be beneficial if the study could be
broken down into more concentrated research theses, so that each part of the research findings
could become deeper in that one particular aspect.

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

There is still an abundance of controversy between researchers on the topics of dyslexia,
visual stress, and the use of colored overlays. Thus, it should be expected that there would be
controversy on how these three topics relate to each other. Do students with dyslexia truly benefit
from the use of colored overlays to such a great extent as many researchers claim? Do colored
overlay improve a students comprehension of a text along with improving his overall reading
rate? Are the most common methods used for testing visual stress and the effects of colored
overlays reliable and consistent? These questions were the driving purpose behind the research
conducted and analyzed by Henderson, Tsogka, and Snowling (2013). The studys participants
were made of up 42 undergraduate students, 16 of whom were dyslexic, while the other 26 made
up the control group with no previously diagnosed reading disability. A variety of research
methods were used for testing the students, in order to collect data that specifically pertained to
each of the three questions previously stated. These methods included: a nonsense passage
reading task, a spoonerism task, the use of 11 different colored overlays with the Wilkins Rate of
Reading Test (WRRT), a brief questionnaire which focused on symptoms of visual stress, and
further use of the colored overlays on two passages of reading. The research was conducted over
a span of two months with the participants being tested once in the first month, phase 1, and then
being retested with the color overlays in the second month, phase 2. In the results of their
research Henderson, Tsogka, and Snowling reaffirmed previous claims about the subjects of
dyslexia, visual stress, and colored overlays. However, they also found evidence which
contradicted generally accepted practices concerning these three topics. In brief, the authors
found that colored overlay did increase the reading rate of both groups of participants, especially
for the group of dyslexic students. However, the colored overlays had no significant effect on the
comprehension level on either of the groups. Further, the authors discover that the WRRT was

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

not a sufficiently reliable or accurate measurement of visual stress after all. In the articles
discussion portion the authors discussed in greater detail the flaws and unaccounted for factors of
the WRRT, such as its low test-retest reliability. They also make several suppositions which call
into question whether colored overlays actually benefit the individual with dyslexia any more
than the overlays would for an individual without the disorder. The authors close the article by
calling for further studies that have larger numbers of participants and by cautioning the overprescription of colored overlays to dyslexic students.
Henderson, Tsogka, and Snowling (2013) touch upon dyslexia, visual stress, the use of
colored overlays, and the connections and correlations between all three. Thus, the article is an
excellent source of data and statistics for the present research study. Further, the article provides
an alternative viewpoint on the use of colored overlays. It challenges popularly-established
methods of evaluating visual stress and other well-known research articles; ready to point out the
holes and flaws in the prior research. Therefore, at the very least, this article will provide a good
foil to the rest the present study. On the negative side, the article does not perfectly fit the
purposes or age range of the current research, because the participants are college students.
Whereas the current research study is primarily focused on grade school to middle school.
Further, while the authors raise some good points and draw several reasonable conclusions, there
is also a lack of solid evidence to support all of their claims. However, this could be solved by
conducting similar research studies on a wider participant pool. Overall, the article is a good
resource thanks to the extremely detailed exploration of dyslexia, visual stress, and colored
overlays controversies, as well as a plentiful supply of data.
Finally, an article by Wilkins (2002) provides a general reflection upon colored overlays
and how they affect the reading of individual students. In addition to summarizing many of the
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

different and varying research studies behind colored overlays, the article converses on the
characteristics and variety of uses of colored overlays in great detail. For example, Wilkins
carefully explains exactly what a color overlay actually is, as well as how to use one properly.
Colored overlays come in a wide range of colors, though typically one packet of overlays will
contain seven different colors. Overlays have a matte coating on one side and a glossy coating on
the other side. The amount and intensity of lighting in a room will dictate which side of the
overlay should be used for maximum benefit. The color of the overlay is an important factor in
determining how helpful the overlay is to reducing a students visual stress. The preferred color
of an overlay varies from person to person. While other colors may also benefit the students
reading rate, the preferred color of an overlay produces the greatest improvements and benefits.
Wilkins also explores the statistics and research which support the use of colored overlays to
reduce visual stress and increase reading speed. He summarizes each researchers work and then
ties all results to form one conclusion about colored overlays. The conclusion being that colored
overlays are a low-cost, easy to use, and scientifically supported treatment method for visual
stress and other similar reading challenges facing some students.
Wilkins article provides a wealth of research based evidence which shows the benefits
that colored overlays can have upon a students reading speed. Furthermore, the clear
explanation of what exactly a colored overlay is and its functions, is invaluable. The surplus of
useful information presented within the article will also be a great resource to the current
hypothetical study. In addition, while Wilkins article is not in itself empirical, it does build a
strong case for using colored overlays by citing the work of so many other researchers. The fact
that it is not an empirical article on Wilkins own research is a drawback. However, this article is
still of particular value in order to reach a conclusion about the present research thesis.
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

Methodology
The following research participants, methodology, and observations are all part of a
hypothetical study. Therefore, the expectations and observations of the study are based upon
prior research, statistical inquiry, and generated estimations. As stated prior, the participants of
the current hypothetical study would be comprised of 200 students from two separate schools
between the ages of 8 to 10 years old. The size of the participant pool was selected according to
the recommendation from researchers Singleton and Henderson (2007) for a larger number of
participants. Further, Henderson, Tsogka, and Snowling (2013), as wells as Lallier, Donnadieu,
and Valdois (2013) also advocate for future studies on the visual aspect of dyslexia to be more
wide spread and to have greater quantities of students participants. For the current research the
participants would be chosen randomly, in order that the study might be made up of an
unselected population. Thus, the random population should reflect the true ratio of dyslexic
individuals to non-dyslexic individuals more accurately, rather than an unrealistic ratio of 50:50
as found in Singleton and Hendersons 2007 study. However, if students selected were to have
other learning disabilities besides dyslexia, those students would be replaced by additional
randomly selected students. This would be necessary so that the data collected would reflect the
visual challenges only within dyslexia.
The methodology used to conduct the study would be comprised of two separate
processes conducted over multiple sessions with the participants. In the first session the
participants would take a twelve question survey on the symptoms of visual stress. The survey
would supply basic information on whether the students would have or may be susceptible to
VS. To each question on the survey the student participants would indicated their experience
with the various symptoms by selecting one of the following answers: Never; every once in a
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

while; sometimes; a lot; all the time. For example, to the question, Do the words become fuzzy
or blurry as you read, a participant may circle the answer sometimes to indicated a roughly
50:50 ratio of the symptom occurring. The answers would be rated on a scale of VS presence and
susceptibility, then compiled to identify the students who most suffered from VS. These findings
would be kept in mind as the study progressed to the next study.
A week after the survey had been completed the study would progress onto the second
phase, which would include researching the effectiveness of color overlays in aiding students
reading rate and overall reading abilities. In order to establish a base line the second research
session would be devoted to testing the participants average reading rate when unassisted by any
modification. The participants would be individually tested by orally reading two passages of
text for one minute each. The text itself would be of an appropriate reading level for each
student, as well as having the standard characteristics of 12pt font size, double spacing, and black
text on white paper. The reading rate of each participants would be found by recording the
number of words per minute (wpm) they read within the allotted time. After having established
the extent that VS affects the participants and discovering the reading rates of each individual,
the study would progress to accounting for the effect of color overlays on the reading rates.
Over the course of two further sessions the participating students would continue to
engage in timed oral readings of selected text passages. However, during these two sessions the
students would be presented four times with two individual reading passages, so that they would
read each text twice. With two of the readings, one for each text, the students would be given
their preferred color of an overlay to use as they read. The other two readings of the passages
would be read as before, without any accommodations. The sequence in which the students read
the passages with or without the color overlays would be randomized each time. The wpm of the
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

color overlay readings and the wpm of the standard readings would be compared to find the rate
of increase in the participants reading speeds.
As a final consideration the participants would be asked the following questions of:
How did you feel about using the color overlays? What did you think of them? Would you want
to keep using them for your own reading? These informal questions would be asked to increase
the depth of the data in a qualitative manner.

Findings
Due to the hypothetical nature of this study the findings discussed here are drawn and
correlate with the primary and secondary research of other educational professionals. The
information of this study is also based on statistics and estimations to form the conjectured
results of the methodology outlined previously. An important feature of this studys methodology
is that the participant pool is from an unselected group of children from two schools, therefore
the majority of the students within the study would be typically developing with no significant
developmental or educational challenges. The minority of the students would compose the group
of participants with dyslexic and therefore assumed to be more susceptible to some extent of
visual attention deficit or visual stress. Within their research Singleton and Henderson (2007)
calculated what a realistic ratio of dyslexic to control participants would be when the whole
number of participants is 1000 and that dyslexia is found in 5% of the population. For the current
study the statistical number of dyslexic individuals with in the participant group of 200. Also the
current statistic is that between 7-10% of the population is dyslexic, therefore this study will
work under the assumption that 7% of the 200 participants have dyslexia. The results of this
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

calculation are that only 14 of the 200 participants would have dyslexia, while 186 of the
participants would be typically developing students. As an additional factor affecting the data it
is important to note that of the 14 students with dyslexia, not all may have been diagnosed with
the disability yet. Further, when testing the effectiveness of color overlays, it is vital to first
determine the degree to which the participants, both those with dyslexia and those without, are
affected by visual deficits or disabilities.
The presence of visual stress survey would provide general information on the effects of
and the level that each participant experiences visual stress. It should be noted that the survey is
only intended to give a basic understanding of each individuals affected level and it is not meant
for exact precision of the degree of VS present in the participants. The data in previous studies,
such as Wilkins 2002 research paper, has discovered that the prevalence of VS is, only
slightly higher (37.5%) in children with diagnosed dyslexia compared with a prevalence (25%)
in children with normal reading skills (p. 451). However, this still is a 12.5% increased
possibility for dyslexic participants to have VS over the possibilities of their on-track reading
peers. Although, not as dramatic of an increase in susceptibility as was previously supposed, VS
remains to be more prevalent in dyslexic individuals. It should be observed that while some
typically developing individuals may be affected by VS, there are also dyslexic individuals
which are not affected by a disorder of VS. In fact, out of 50 students with dyslexia 40.9% of the
students would be challenged by VS, while 30 would not. From a group of 950 non-dyslexic
students 22.7% would be found to have symptoms of VS and 734 would not (Singleton &
Henderson, 2007). Thus, in a study such as the current hypothetical one, visual stress would
be expected to be significantly more common amongst people with dyslexia than amongst people
who do not have dyslexia (Singleton & Henderson, 2007, p. 140-141). Using similar statistics
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

and percentages as presented by these prior researchers, it is estimated that the present survey
would reveal that at least 6 of the 14 dyslexic participants would suffer from VS. Meanwhile, 42
of the 186 non-dyslexic participants would experience VS. Thus, in realistic terms participants
with dyslexia are expected to have roughly twice the likelihood of having VS and therefore their
reading to suffer to a greater extend from its negative effects.
In the second session of this hypothetical study the standard reading rate of each
participants would be tested and recorded. The participants range in age from 8 to 10 years old,
thus they could be selected from 2nd to 5th grade. The typical wpm for oral reading in each grade
would be as follows: 89 wpm for 2nd grade; 107 wpm for 3rd grade; 123 wpm for 4th grade; and
139 wpm for 5th grade. This scale would be used to single out the readers who are struggling or
behind their peers in their reading development. A slowed reading rate on the second text
presented to the participants would be a major indicator of the presence of VS, although a steady
reading rate through the two texts would not necessarily indicate the absence of VS. The
participants with dyslexia would be expected to have a reading rate at a noticeably less wpm than
the expected range for their grade level. The individuals with dyslexia and the presence of VS are
anticipated to be at the bottom of the overall scale of students rates. It is also projected that the
lowest level achieving students would also be the ones to benefit the most dramatically from the
use of color overlays.
In the final two research sessions the participants reading rates would be compared
between the their wpm with regular text passages and their wpm with text passages read while
using color overlays. The data collected from these reading sessions would be expected to exhibit
a great increase in the dyslexic participants reading rates and even a slight increase in the nondyslexic participants reading rates. Singleton and Hendersons own study displays this outcome:
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

The dyslexic children with high visual stress showed increase in rate of reading with an overlay
of more than 20%, compared to reading-age controls with a high visual stress, who showed
increases of more than 5% but less than 10% (2007, p. 142). In fact, Singleton and Henderson
found that the reading rate of the dyslexic participants was slower than that of the control
participants without the use of an overlay, however it was slightly faster than that of the control
group with the use of an overlay. Based on this prior research it is estimated that a similar result
would occur within the hypothetical study. In both groups of participants there would be students
who benefited from the use of the color overlays, however the reading rates of the dyslexic
students who also are challenged with VS would improve the most from their baseline wpm rate.
The increase of the reading rate would indicate that the use of color overlays helps to cancel out
the negative effects of VS and other visual deficiency which slow a students reading rate.
Moreover, the short, informal questions asked to the students at the end of the study
would supply further evidence for this correlation between colored overlays and a decline in
visual stress. Color overlays should serve to negate uncomfortable symptoms of visual stress by
reducing glare on the page and by relaxing the students eyes as they read text. It is speculated
that, since wavelength of light is known to affect neuronal sensitivity (Zeki, 1983) the use of
color could reduce over-excitation, thus reducing perceptual distortions and headaches when
reading (Singleton & Henderson, 2007, p. 132). Some students are expected to answer the last
question, Would you want to keep using them for your own reading, with a positive answer.
The students who benefited from the use of the overlays and who would like to continue using
them would be given their preferred color of overlay at the very end of the study.

Recommendations
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

In analyzing prior research studies, as well as the relaying on statistical estimations and
predicting outcomes of the hypothetical study, it has been found that visual challenges,
specifically visual stress, are more frequently found within dyslexic individuals than in nondyslexic individuals. Further, color overlays have the capability of greatly increasing the reading
rate and lessening the effects of VS for dyslexic students. However, the use of color overlays can
also benefit students who are non-dyslexic yet still suffer from VS, although the gains are not as
great as those found within the dyslexic students. Wilkins advocates the use of color overlays as,
a low-cost treatment option that has scientific support. They increase reading speed
substantially in at least 5% of the school population (2002, p. 453). Further it may be posited at
generally when a child is able to read more quickly with the aid of an overlay, they may also read
more accurately (Wilkins, 2002).
Other accommodation methods which could be implemented would be the use of colored
lamps or colored glasses, which would render similar effects to the text as would the overlays,
but with a greater amount of color saturation. Colored overlays could be layered on top of each
other to achieve a darker saturation as well, however the text may begin to be obscured or
blurred by the multi-layered overlays. While colored overlays are effective in reducing the
negative visual deficits found in dyslexia, further study is suggested to investigate methods that
directly and particularly address each unique visual challenge.
On a final note, Henderson, Tsogka, and Snowling (2013) bring up an interesting
question which challenges the evidence that otherwise proves the effectiveness of color overlays
for dyslexic individuals. They suggest that, the size of improvement in reading rate with an
overlay on WRRT (a commonly used reading test to measure reading rate) is confounded by
baseline reading rate. Thus, individuals with dyslexia who have a slower reading rate without an
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

overlay have more room for improvement than individuals who start out with faster baseline
reading rate (Henderson, Tsogka, & Snowling, 2013, p. 63). Could the great level improvement
experienced by dyslexic readers of their reading rate by using color overlays only be due to their
initially exceedingly low level of reading rate? This is a formidable question to answer, but is
vital that an conclusion be reach whether it be that overlays truly do help dyslexic students so
greatly or if it is only because of their slow start. Further research of this question is needed, both
in the form of large and small, quantitative and qualitative studies. Due to their hypotheses,
Henderson, Tsogka, and Snowling (2013) caution over prescribing the use of color overlays to
students with dyslexia. However, the data still remains valid which shows that color overlays are
of noteworthy benefit to all students, whether dyslexic or non-dyslexic. Color overlays are still
valid and effective resources that help in increasing reading rate and lessening the effects of
visual challenges.

References
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

Bosse, M., & Tainturier, M. J., & Valdois, S. (2007). Developmental dyslexia: the visual
attention span deficit hypothesis. Cognition, 104(2), 198-230.
Heiervang, E., & Hugdahl, K. (2013). Impaired visual attention in children with dyslexia.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(1), 68-73.
Henderson, L., Tsogka, N., & Snowling, M. (2013). Questioning the benefits that colored
overlays can have for reading in students with and without dyslexia. JORSEN, 13(1), 5765.
Lallier, M., & Donnadieu, S., & Valdois, S. (2013). Developmental dyslexia: Exploring how
much phonological and visual attention span disorders are linked to simultaneous
auditory processing deficits. Annals of Dyslexia, 63(2), 97-116.
Singleton, C., & Henderson, L. (2007). Computerized screening for visual stress in children with
dyslexia. Dyslexia, 13(2), 130-151.
Wilkins, A. (2002). Coloured overlays and their effects on reading speed: A review. Ophthalmic
and Physiological Optics, 22(5), 448-454.

Appendix
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DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

Presence of Visual Stress Survey
Name:

Date:

Circle your response to the questions. How frequently do these things happen to you?
1. Do you lose your place when reading?
Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

A lot

All the time

Sometimes

A lot

All the time

Sometimes

A lot

All the time

A lot

All the time

A lot

All the time

2. Do the words become fuzzy or blurry as you read?

Never

Every once in a while

3. Does reading make you tired?

Never

Every once in a while

4. Does the white page glare against the black letters?

Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

5. Does reading become more difficult the longer you read?

Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

21

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

6. Do fuzzy shapes ever block out the words as you are reading?
Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

A lot

All the time

A lot

All the time

A lot

All the time

A lot

All the time

7. Do the words move about when you read?

Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

8. Do you get sore or tired eyes when reading for a long time?
Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

9. Do the lines of text shift back and forth when you read?
Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

10. Does the white page between the lines of text form patterns?
Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

A lot

All the time

A lot

All the time

11. Do you get headaches when reading for a long time?

Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

12. Does the white page even seem to change color, such as becoming green-blue?

22

DECREASING THE VISUAL CHALLENGES OF DYSLEXIA

Never

Every once in a while

Sometimes

A lot

All the time

23