Gas Sensin Roadmap

Technology Roadmap:
Optoelectronic Gas Sensors in the

Petrochemicals, Gas and Water
Industries
R W Bogue
Robert Bogue & Partners
Issue: A.2
August 2006
Copyright OptoCem.Net
Page 1 of 59
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................4
1.1
DISCLAIMER ................................................................................4
1.2
ABOUT OptoCem.Net.....................................................................4
1.3
SCOPE.........................................................................................4
1.4
OBJECTIVES.................................................................................4
1.5
METHOD AND DATA SOURCES ........................................................5
1.5.1
Method .................................................................................5
1.5.2
Data sources .........................................................................6
1.6
ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY ..............................................7
1.7
SUMMARY ....................................................................................8
1.8
COMMENTS AND FEEDBACK ...........................................................8
1.9
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................8
2 OPTOELECTRONIC GAS SENSING:
THE PRESENT-DAY SITUATION ......9
2.1
THE SENSOR INDUSTRY: PREAMBLE................................................9
2.2
SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR EXPLOITATION ....................... 10
2.3
GAS SENSING: THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ART............................ 11
2.3.1
GAS DETECTION METHODS ................................................... 11
2.3.2
GAS SENSING TECHNIQUES .................................................. 11
2.3.3
PRINCIPLES......................................................................... 14
2.3.3.1
Optical absorption ............................................................. 14
2.3.3.2
UV fluorescence ................................................................ 16
2.3.3.3
Chemiluminescence ........................................................... 16
2.3.3.4
Photoionisation ................................................................. 16
2.3.3.5
DIAL ............................................................................... 17
2.4
PRODUCTS................................................................................. 18
2.5
APPLICATIONS ........................................................................... 19
2.5.1
OVERVIEW .......................................................................... 19
2.5.2
USE BY THE OptoCem.Net INDUSTRIES................................... 20
2.6
MARKETS AND FORECASTS .......................................................... 22
2.6.1
EUROPEAN AND GLOBAL MARKETS ......................................... 22
2.6.2
SOME MARKETS WITHIN THE OptoCem.Net INDUSTRIES ........... 23
2.6.3
UK GAS SENSOR PRODUCTION .............................................. 23
2.7
THE SUPPLY SECTOR ................................................................... 24
2.7.1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 24
2.7.2
SENSOR MANUFACTURING COMPANIES................................... 24
2.7.2.1
Overview ......................................................................... 24
2.7.2.2
OEM sensor supply ............................................................ 25
3 THE FUTURE ......................................................................................... 27
3.1
DRIVERS FOR CHANGE ................................................................ 27
3.2
SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS............................................................ 28
3.3
R&D AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES .................................................... 31
3.3.1
OVERVIEW .......................................................................... 31
3.3.2
SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGIES AND DEVELOPMENTS ....................... 33
3.3.2.1
Introduction ..................................................................... 33
3.3.2.2
Optical sources and detectors ............................................. 33
3.3.2.3
MEMS technology .............................................................. 37
3.3.3
KEY TECHNOLOGIES ............................................................. 38
3.3.4
THE UK ACADEMIC ACTIVITY ................................................. 39
3.4
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ROADMAPS ............................................ 41
3.4.1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 41
3.4.2
DEVELOPMENT ROADMAPS .................................................... 43
3.5
INDUSTRY ROADMAPS................................................................. 54
3.5.1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 54
3.5.2
WATER INDUSTRY ................................................................ 55
Page 2 of 59
3.5.3
GAS INDUSTRY .................................................................... 56
3.5.4
PETROCHEMICALS INDUSTRY ................................................ 57
4 References ........................................................................................... 59
Issue History
Date
31Aug06
Issue
A.2
Details
First public release version
Page 3 of 59
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 DISCLAIMER
The information contained herein is presented in good faith. However, the author,
the SOA, the DTI and all other individuals and parties associated with the
OptoCem.Net project take no responsibility whatsoever for its accuracy or for any
losses or other consequences arising of its interpretation or use.
1.2 ABOUT OptoCem.Net

OptoCem.Net is a DTI Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN), beginning in April
2005 and running initially for three years, which aims to stimulate collaborative
research, development, commercial exploitation and best use of optoelectronic
gas and chemical sensing in the UK.
OptoCem.Net is managed by a Consortium comprising the SOA (Scottish
Optoelectronics Association), SWIG (Sensors for Water Interest Group), GASG
(Gas Analysis and Sensing Group) and Scottish Water.
UK organisations and individuals with interests in optoelectronic gas or chemical
sensing (and overseas organisations with production or R&D facilities in the UK),
are invited to participate. Involvement is free of charge. For further information
see www.optocem.net.
1.3 SCOPE
This document is concerned with optoelectronic gas sensors which are defined
here as sensors that respond to gases and vapours and which operate via optical
phenomena such as absorption or fluorescence.
The term sensor is interpreted broadly to include simple devices such as single
point sensors through to more complex products such as ambient air quality
analysers and continuous emission monitors.
The industries considered are restricted to those covered by the OptoCem.Net
KTN, i.e.
Petrochemicals;
Gas supply;
Water and wastewater.
All applications within these industries are included, e.g. health and safety,
environmental monitoring, process control etc. and whilst the emphasis is on the
UK, several opportunities and technological developments are relevant in a
broader and often global context.
1.4 OBJECTIVES
The broad objectives of this document are twofold: to characterise the present
status of optoelectronic gas sensing (Chapter 2) and to identify future
Page 4 of 59
technological and product developments and their applications within the

OptoCem.Net industries (Chapter 3).
Chapter 2 considers:
The nature of overall sensor industry;

Gas sensing principles and techniques;
Products;
Applications;
The supply companies;
Markets and forecasts.
It should be stressed that a market-led approach has been adopted in considering

the future and Chapter 3 is largely centred around needs and opportunities
identified by the users. It considers:
The drivers for change;

Emerging needs and opportunities;
Technological developments;
The UK academic research effort;
Product developments and timescales;
Industry roadmaps.
1.5 METHOD AND DATA SOURCES

1.5.1 Method
This document was compiled over a period of many months and was conducted in
several stages, as illustrated in Figure 1.
The first stage, which was to define the present-day status of optical gas sensing,
was largely compiled from data at hand and was supplemented by discussions
with sensor manufacturers and users. This was followed by a lengthy data
acquisition phase which involved a series of face-to-face meetings and telephone
discussions with sensor users and decision makers from the three main industries
concerned. The aim was to identify key drivers for change and needs and
opportunities for new and improved gas sensing products. (These are considered
in detail in a separate OptoCem.Net document: Needs and opportunities for new
and improved gas sensors). In addition, this project phase quantified, as far as
was realistically possible, the size of the potential markets for these products (see
the above document).
New and emerging technologies were subsequently identified and considered in
the context of their potential to meet the previously identified needs and led to a
series of product development charts. These were then used to create the three
industry roadmaps.
Page 5 of 59
Figure 1 - Methodology
Inputs from
academics
and sensor
manufacturers
Defining
presentday status
of optical
gas
sensing
Identifying
needs and
opportunities
for new
sensors and
key market
drivers
Information at
hand, inputs
from sensor
users and
manufacturers
Inputs from
sensor users
and
legislators
etc.
Review
and
appraisal
of R&D
and new
technology
Establishing
technological
solutions and
product
development
timescales
Literature
review, inputs
from academics
and sensor
manufacturers
Creation of
three industry
roadmaps
showing
adoption of new
products and
technologies
1.5.2 Data sources

The information in this document was derived from the following sources.
Telephone and face-to-face discussions with sensor manufacturers, users,

legislators and researchers;
Company and university web sites;
Product literature;
Technical and commercial reports;
The Micro and Nanotechnology (MNT) Gas Sensors Forum (see:
http://www.gas-sensor-roadmap.com);
Trade and technical press;
Research literature.
Page 6 of 59
1.6 ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

The following abbreviations are used:
AQ
BTEX
CEM
CHP
CNT
CRDS
CW
DIAL
DOAS
DUV
EC
FID
FTIR
GasFET
GASG
GC
HC
IMS
IR
LED
LEL
LIDAR
LNG
LOD
LPG
MEMS
MNT
MS
NDIR
NIR
OES
OPO
PAS
PID
PMT
ppb
ppm
QCL
SPR
TDLAS
UV
VECSEL
VOC
Air quality
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene
Continuous emission monitor
Combined heat and power
Carbon nanotube
Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
Continuous wave
Differential absorption LIDAR (see below)
Differential optical absorption spectroscopy
Deep ultra-violet
Electrochemical (sensor)
Flame ionisation detector
Fourier transform infra-red
Gas-responsive field-effect transistor
Gas Analysis and Sensing Group
Gas chromatograph
Hydrocarbon (unspecified)
Ion mobility spectrometry
Infra-red
Light emitting diode
Lower explosive limit
Light detection and ranging
Liquid natural gas
Limit of detection
Liquid petroleum gas
Micro-electromechanical systems
Micro and Nanotechnology
Mass spectrometer
Non-dispersive infra-red (absorption)
Near infra-red
Occupational exposure standard
Optical parametric oscillator
Photoacoustic absorption spectroscopy
Photo-ionisation detector
Photomultiplier tube
Parts per billion
Parts per million
Quantum cascade laser
Surface plasmon resonance
Tuneable diode laser absorption spectroscopy
Ultra-violet
Vertical external cavity surface emitting laser
Volatile organic compound
Well known gases are designated by their chemical formulae (e.g. H2S, CO, NO2).
The chemical names of lesser known compounds are written in full (e.g.
propylene oxide, dimethyl sulphide). The term NOx is used to designate
unspecified or mixed oxides of nitrogen.
Page 7 of 59
1.7 SUMMARY
Following a general introduction, the first section of this document (Chapter 2)
describes in some detail the present state of the optical gas sensing industry by
considering the underlying principles and techniques, the major product types
and their applications, markets and market forecasts and the nature of the supply
companies. This is probably of greatest interest to those who are not presently
involved with optical gas sensing.
Chapter 3 considers future prospects, with an emphasis on developments that will
impact the three main OptoCem.Net industries during the next decade. It firstly
identifies the factors driving change within these industries and subsequently lists
a number of needs and opportunities for new products, identified by end-users. It
then considers key technologies and discusses those that are expected to
facilitate the development of the previously identified products. Following a brief
discussion of the UK academic research effort, a series of product development
charts identify applications, the critical technologies and timescales. Finally,
Roadmap Summary Charts show, in graphical form, the anticipated application of
new products and technologies by the three OptoCem.Net industries.
1.8 COMMENTS AND FEEDBACK

Readers are invited (and encouraged) to comment on this document. All such
correspondence should be addressed to the author, Robert Bogue, by e-mail:
robbogue@aol.com.
1.9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author hereby acknowledges the inputs made by the numerous individuals
who kindly contributed to this document.
Page 8 of 59
2 OPTOELECTRONIC GAS SENSING:

THE PRESENT-DAY SITUATION
2.1 THE SENSOR INDUSTRY: PREAMBLE
Unlike fields such as computers or mobile phones, the sensor industry does not
progress in a linear manner with clearly defined product generations, each being
more sophisticated and advanced than its predecessors and arising from clear-cut
technological developments. There are neither any universal, unsatisfied
requirements nor any technologies poised to revolutionise the industry. Oftquoted needs such as those for miniaturisation or improved accuracy are in
reality far from universal and are only of genuine benefit in specific instances.
Even within the confines of OptoCem.Net, with its emphasis on the optoelectronic
sensing of chemical species in a limited number of industries, needs and
opportunities vary enormously and are highly application-specific. They can arise
from a many factors, as illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Factors driving the needs for sensors
Social
Concerns over
air and water
quality, safety
and security
etc.
Economic
Legislative
Reduced testing
& material
costs, process
automation,
energy
consumption,etc
Political
Health & safety,

environment,
avoiding
prosecution etc.
NEEDS
FOR
SENSORS
Control of
trans-boundary
pollution,
compliance with
EU directives,
etc.
Technological
Improved
performance,
sensing new
variables, new
capabilities, etc.
Page 9 of 59
2.2 SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR

EXPLOITATION
Todays sensor markets are served by tens of thousands of products which
respond to well over 100 different physical and chemical variables. These are
based on a diversity of techniques and technologies and despite recent
innovations, several have been in existence for well over half a century. They
maintain their market position through an often subtle combination of technical,
economic and other application-specific factors. Consequently, new sensor
technologies often struggle to exert a significant commercial impact and
frequently only satisfy limited applications where particular features confer real
benefits; fibre optic sensors and biosensors are good examples. Even much
vaunted technologies such as silicon MEMS have only impacted the overall sensor
industry to a limited degree. This is even the case in sectors such as the
automotive industry, where the requirements are for small, rugged, reliable and
very low cost devices where MEMS sensors appear ideally suited, they have only
satisfied part of the market.
In some instances, a technological development may lie dormant for many years
until such time that an application emerges where its features meet that
particular requirement. Silicon accelerometers are good examples. First
developed in the 1970s, for many years they only satisfied niche applications in
the aerospace and defence markets but tens of millions are now used annually as
the trigger for vehicle air bags. In other cases, often following decades of
research, significant applications for a particular technology with seemingly
strong market potential have failed to emerge. Examples include silicon GasFETs
and ISFETs and fibre optic gas sensors.
In addition to the commercialisation of new technological developments,
innovative products can arise as a result of a company identifying a particular
market opportunity and addressing it though the use of an existing but hitherto
largely unexploited technique or technology. For instance, the ability of oxygen to
quench fluorescence in certain organo-metallic compounds has been known for
decades but it is only during the last five years that this effect has been exploited
in advanced dissolved oxygen sensors.
Page 10 of 59
2.3 GAS SENSING: THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ART

2.3.1 GAS DETECTION METHODS
To understand the competitive gas sensing landscape, it is important to recognise
that, in addition to sensors, several other techniques are used within the overall
gas detection field (Figure 3). This reflects several factors, such as cost, the lack
of sensors for some gases or particular operational requirements (resolution,
specificity etc.).
Figure 3 Gas detection techniques
All gas detection

Detector
Tubes
Analytical
Techniques
Exposure
Badges
Gas
Sensors
2.3.2 GAS SENSING TECHNIQUES

Gas sensors are based on many different techniques and technologies which coexist in the marketplace due to their particular capabilities; there is some, but
relatively little, competition between them. Table 1 and Table 2 list the more
important classes of non-optical and optical gas sensors, together with examples
of their uses.
Page 11 of 59
Table 1 Non-optical gas sensing techniques and their uses

Sensor type
Respond to
Typical applications
Catalytic
(pellistors)
All combustible gases

(non-selectively)
Fire and explosion

prevention
Wet electrolyte
(electrochemical)
Oxygen, many toxic

species, environnemental
pollutants, combustion
products
Occupational health and

safety, combustion
monitoring, medical etc.
Solid electrolyte
(zirconia)
Oxygen
Industrial combustion
monitoring and control,
vehicle exhausts (lambda
sensors)
Metal oxide
semiconductor
HCs, CO, O3, H2S, organic

vapours, aromas etc.
Leak detection, health and

safety monitoring, invehicle air quality etc.
Paramagnetic
Oxygen
Medical, process control

and monitoring etc.
Thermal conductivity
Binary gas mixtures

(often a known gas in air)
Leak detection, process

control etc.
IMS
Wide range of organic

and inorganic compounds
Mainly military uses (detecting

chemical warfare agents) etc.
FIDs
Methane, organic vapours

(non-selective)
Landfill site monitoring,

occupational health and
safety, leak detection etc.
Page 12 of 59
Table 2 Optical gas sensing techniques and their uses

Sensor type
Respond to
NDIR
Many
mid-IR
absorbing
species, e.g. CO2, CO, CH4,
H2O, NO etc.
Stack emissions, health

and safety, food storage
and packaging, medical
gas analysis etc.
FTIR
Many IR absorbing species
Stack emissions, trace gas

analysis, environmental
monitoring, process
monitoring etc.
PAS
Trace gas analysis
TDLAS
Emerging uses, e.g. stack

emissions, trace gas and
moisture analysis etc.
CRDS
Emerging uses, e.g. trace

gas and moisture analysis
etc.
DIAL
Many species that absorb

at IR, visible and UV
wavelengths
Remote detection of
gases in the atmosphere
and around industrial
plant etc.
UV absorption
O3, NO, H2S, HCl etc.
Ambient AQ monitoring,
stack emissions etc.
UV fluorescence
SO2 (modified variant for H2S)
Ambient AQ monitoring
UV DOAS
O3, H2S, NH3, C6H6, NO2 etc.
Environmental AQ
monitoring
Chemiluminescence
NOx (NO, NO2)
Ambient AQ monitoring,
stack emissions
Photoionisation
VOCs
Health and safety
Page 13 of 59
2.3.3 PRINCIPLES
This sub-section briefly describes the principles that underpin the techniques
listed in Table 2, above.
2.3.3.1 Optical absorption
Many
which
gases
of the
of the most important optical gas sensing techniques exploit absorption

is, therefore, a critical effect. This is because many combustible and toxic
have strong fundamental absorption bands in the 2-5 m (mid-IR) region
spectrum, as below and shown in Figure 4.
CH4
H2S
CO2
CO
NH3
3.3
2.7
4.2
4.6
2.3
m
m
m
m
m
Figure 4 Some fundamental gas absorption peaks in the mid-IR
In the mid-IR, the fundamental absorption is normally measured as this may be

several orders of magnitude stronger than the overtone vibrational-rotational
bands in the NIR, (although overtones in NIR are starting to be used as a way to
employ components from the telecoms industry).
Absorption is characterised by the Beer-Lambert gas absorption law which may
be written:
I() = I0() exp-[L()C]
[2.1]
Where I() is the light intensity at wavelength after it has passed through a
layer of gas of thickness (or length) L; I0() is the initial intensity of the
transmitted light at wavelength ; () is the gas absorption cross-section at
wavelength ; and C is the gas concentration. Given the values of () and L in
equation [2.1], the gas concentration can be determined from the measured ratio
I0()/I(), i.e.
C = log [I0()/I()]/[()L]
[2.2]
Page 14 of 59
Some of the gases commonly detected by absorption at UV and IR wavelengths

are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Some gases commonly detected by optical absorption
Spectral region
Gas species
IR
CO, CO2, CH4, NO, SF6, NH3, H2O, HCl
UV
O3, H2S, SO2, NO, NO2, NH3, C6H6, Cl2
The more important techniques that exploit absorption are described briefly in
Table 4. Note that some of these terms are poorly defined and used somewhat
indiscriminately. Whilst DIAL exploits absorption, it also relies on backscatter and
is considered separately (see Section 2.3.3.5 below).
Table 4 Absorption-based gas sensing techniques

Technique
Principle of operation
NDIR
Most simple technique. IR is absorbed by the target gas in path

between source and detector. Absorption wavelength is selected
by optical filters. Some types employ a second reference beam
Gas filter
correlation
spectroscopy
Two cells, one containing the target gas the other a nonabsorbing gas, are alternately placed in the beam. Difference in
detected radiation equates to concentration of the target gas
UV absorption
Absorption of UV light at wavelength specific to target gas, e.g.

254 nm for O3. Effectively the UV analogue of NDIR. Can be
open-path, i.e. using solar radiation to detect atmospheric O3
UV DOAS
Open-path technique, generally using UV/visible wavelengths.

Difference in signal intensity for absorbing and non-absorbing
wavelengths used to determine gas concentration in optical
beam
PAS
Pressure waves arising from gas absorbing pulsed IR energy at a

particular wavelength within a sealed sample cell are detected
by high sensitivity microphones. High resolution technique
TDLAS
IR absorption using a tuneable diode laser as the source. High

sensitivity technique often using multi-pass cells to increase
path-length/resolution
CRDS
Measurement of the decay time of the IR light as it is multiply

reflected and absorbed between two mirrors within a cell
Page 15 of 59
containing the gas sample. Effective path-length of several km

leads to high sensitivity
FTIR
Light enters a Michelson interferometer before passing through

the gas sample creating an interferogram which is analysed by
calculating its Fourier Transform to yield wavelength spectrum.
Good for multi-component sensing
2.3.3.2 UV fluorescence
UV fluorescence relies on a gas molecule (usually SO2) being excited from its
ground state (S0) to an excited state (S*) when illuminated by UV light with a
frequency v. On returning to the ground state, the molecule emits light at a
characteristic frequency (v1), i.e.
S0 + hv --> S*
[2.3]
S --> S0 + hv1
[2.4]
Where h is Plancks constant. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to

the gas concentration.
The technique can also be used to determine trace levels of H2S. This involves
SO2 + H2O and then
first converting the gas into SO2 with O3, i.e. H2S + O3
detecting the SO2 as above.
2.3.3.3 Chemiluminescence
To detect NO, an excited NO2 molecule NO2* is generated by an oxidising reaction
between NO and O3. This emits light at a characteristic wavelength/frequency (v)
when it returns to the ground state, i.e.
NO + O3 --> NO2* + O2
*
NO2 --> NO2 + hv
[2.5]
[2.6]
The amount of light generated (v) is approximately proportional to the NO

concentration. In the case of NO2 detection, this gas is first reduced to NO within
the instrument and subsequently detected as above. Many instruments can
determine both NO and NO2.
2.3.3.4 Photoionisation
This relies on a gas sample entering a chamber with 2 (or sometimes 3)
electrodes across which is applied a polarising voltage and which is illuminated
with short wavelength light, typically in the DUV (i.e. =120 nm). This ionises
any gases present whose ionisation potentials are less than the light sources
energy, typically ~10 eV for a 120 nm DUV source. The ionisation causes a
current to flow between the electrodes which is proportional to the gas
concentration. The technique is non-selective and limited to gases whose
ionisation potentials meet the above criteria.
Page 16 of 59
2.3.3.5 DIAL
This technique entails a high power, pulsed laser beam which is modulated at two
wavelengths one which will be absorbed by the target gas (the on
wavelength) and one which will not (the off wavelength). The beam is aimed at
the target, such as the lower atmosphere or the air above an industrial site, and
some is back-scattered by airborne particles or molecules to a high sensitivity
detector. On its return the intensity of the on wavelength is attenuated by the
target gas whilst the off signal remains unaffected. The difference in intensity
between the two signals equates to the gas concentration. By timing the pulses,
the distance to the target gas can be determined, thus yielding a range-resolved
measure of the gas concentration. Several factors come into play and the
equations governing this principle are quite complex.
Page 17 of 59
2.4 PRODUCTS
A bewildering number of optical gas sensing products exist, ranging from simple,
point sensing devices to large and complex instruments offering analytical
capabilities. Further, some manufacturers market bare sensors rather than
complete instruments (see Section 2.7.2.2 below).
In addition to the differing techniques employed, products can be categorised in
several ways, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5 Some optical gas sensor variants
Portability
Measuring mode
Point sensing
Single
Multipoint
point
Respond to
Open-path sensing
NonRangerangeresolved
resolved
(DIAL)
(e.g.
DOAS)
Single
gas
Multiple
gases
Hand portable
Transportable
Fixed
Some of the major classes of products are described briefly in Table 6.
Table 6 Optical gas sensing products and techniques
Product
Techniques
Description
CEMs
NDIR, FTIR, TDLAS,

UV absorption etc.
Often complex instruments, making

extractive or in situ measurements in
hostile stack gas/flue environments.
Many can measure several gases
simultaneously
Ambient AQ
monitors
NDIR, FTIR, UV
fluorescence, UV
absorption/DOAS,
chemiluminescence
Often complex, fixed or transportable

instruments. Most are point sensing
but open-path devices (e.g. DOAS,
FTIR) exist which can monitor several
different gases and give a path lengthintegrated
measure
of
the
gas
concentration, e.g. in ppm metres
IR sensors
and
instruments
NDIR
Fixed single and multi-point sensors

and portable instruments based on
NDIR. Also open-path types (as above)
Page 18 of 59
Trace gas
analysers
CRDS, PAS, FTIR, TDLAS

etc.
Fixed, often lab-based high resolution

instruments, some offering multi-gas
sensing capabilities
DIAL
systems
Backscatter/absorption
(IR, visible, UV)
Large, complex and costly systems,

comprising lasers, detectors and signal
processing electronics etc., typically
housed in a van or articulated truck
Other
products
Absorption, backscatter,
photo ionisation etc.
Portable PIDs, paper tape analysers

(for H2S), gas imaging systems etc.
2.5 APPLICATIONS
2.5.1 OVERVIEW
Gas sensors satisfy a diversity of applications in numerous different industries,
although the optical sector is somewhat less fragmented. The leading applications
for the major optical product types are shown in Table 7 below. The portable and
fixed instrument category (based on NDIR) constitutes the most fragmented
sector, both in terms of the user-industries and applications.
Table 7 Applications of the key classes of optical gas sensors

User industries
Product type
Applications
CEMs
Power generation, petrochemicals, chemicals, waste

incineration, other process industries (glass, cement,
metals etc.)
Quantifying gaseous stack emissions to atmosphere,
often stipulated by environmental legislation
Ambient AQ
monitors
Local authorities, national and regional AQ system

operators, environmental consultancies, researchers
etc.
Quantifying key atmospheric pollutants. Data are often
used in regional and national AQ reporting schemes
Page 19 of 59
Portable/fixed
instruments (NDIR)
Petrochemicals, chemicals, offshore, process sector,

water/waste, medical, food and drink, horticulture,
HVAC, landfill etc.
Flammable gas detection (safety), occupational health
monitoring, control of atmospheres in food storage and
packaging, indoor AQ, monitoring anaesthetic gases
etc.
Petrochemicals, chemicals, other process industries
PID-based
instruments
Trace gas
analysers
Occupational health monitoring for toxic VOCs etc.

Petrochemicals,
chemicals,
semiconductors,
supply, medical, pure gas production etc.
gas
Detecting impurities and contamination in pure or

process gases, leak detection, process monitoring etc.
DIAL systems
Petrochemicals,
chemicals,
process
industries,
environmental protection agencies and researchers
Emission and environmental monitoring, atmospheric
research etc.
2.5.2 USE BY THE OptoCem.Net INDUSTRIES

The major gas sensing applications for the industries under consideration by
OptoCem.Net, together with the more important gases monitored, are shown in
Table 8 below. Note than many of these measurements are made by non-optical
sensors, e.g. EC and catalytic types.
Page 20 of 59
Table 8 Gas sensor uses by the OptoCem.Net industries

Industry
Gas supply
Water/
Wastewater
Petrochemicals
Application
Typical gases
sensed
Leak detection
(field)
CH4
Processing/distribution
CH4,water vapour, H2S, odours
Safety (plant)
CH4
Safety
CH4, other combustibles
Health
CO, O2 deficiency, Cl2, O3, CO2, H2S
Other uses
H2S/odours, CH4 (in CHP systems)
Safety
CH4, HCs, H2, other combustibles
Health
CO, CO2, HF, H2S, VOCs, BTEX, HCN,

propylene oxide, O2 deficiency etc.
Process monitoring
and control
O2, H2, CO, H2S, COS, NH3, arsine,

water vapour, ethane, ethylene etc.
Environment
NOx, SO2, CO, CO2, NH3 etc.
Page 21 of 59
2.6 MARKETS AND FORECASTS

2.6.1 EUROPEAN AND GLOBAL MARKETS
No data are known of which quantify and segment the entire gas sensing
instrumentation market in the UK, or elsewhere, let alone the optical sector.
However, various figures have been published which cover parts of the whole, as
below. Various industry experts have estimated the value of the global gas
sensing/detection industry at something in the region of US$ 1 billion per annum.
According to Frost & Sullivan, the European Gas Sensors and Analysers market
was valued at US$ 283.9 million in 2004. IR gas sensors accounted for US$ 112.4
million, 40 percent of the total revenue. Demand for IR sensors is forecast to
continue over the next few years as applications for the technology increase, with
revenues reaching US$ 133.3 million in 2007. (The UK is generally estimated to
constitute around 20% of the Western European total). The report also states:
More demand for infrared gas sensors has kept the gas sensors and analysers
market moving upward at a time when there have been few technological
advancements in the field. Initially, growth within the IR gas sensors sector was
slow due to the size and cost of the technology, but improvements in these areas
and performance now outstrips other available technologies. The report also
noted that: Growth comes at a cost. The advent of smaller, cheaper IR sensors
with low power consumption has made the technology more accessible to a wider
range of applications. However, much of this growth has come at the cost of
declining revenue shares for other technologies, catalytic gas sensors in
particular. If market growth is to increase, gas analyser manufacturers must
invest more money into research and development so that new technologies and
techniques can be exploited. Further, the report states The chemicals and
pharmaceuticals industries continue to provide growing demand for industrial gas
sensors. These industries are extremely lucrative and competition is high. The
petrochemical and oil and gas refinery industries are expected to represent an
important area of growth over the next few years.
Also according to Frost & Sullivan (report no. 3682), the Western European
market for all Air pollution monitoring equipment will have reached US$ 300.2
million by 2005. About 50% of this is accounted for by ambient air quality
monitors and CEMs, i.e. ~US$ 150 million, and the majority are optical (NDIR,
chemiluminescence, UV absorption etc.). The report notes that stack emission
monitors are used extensively by the chemicals, petrochemicals and other
process industries.
An American market study, published in 2005, states that the total worldwide
market for Process Spectroscopy Instrumentation is expected to rise from US$
178 million in 2004 to US$ 232 million in 2009, at an average annual growth rate
of 5.4%. Europe probably constitutes around one third of this.
Another recent American study (McIlvaine Company, 2006) predicts that the
global CEM market will rise from its 2005 value of US$ 446 million/annum to US$
583 million/annum by 2009. It identifies mercury CEMs as a high growth sector.
Page 22 of 59
2.6.2 SOME MARKETS WITHIN THE OptoCem.Net INDUSTRIES

The UK water and wastewater industries are believed to consume in the order of
18-24,000 EC sensors annually, broken down between the major gases as below.
Gas
Percentage
O2
44%
H2S
28%
CO
17%
Cl2
8%
Others
3%
It is estimated that these industries and their contractors presently employ

something in the order of 6-8,000 portable multi-parameter instruments which
measure between 3 and 5 different gases, notably CH4/combustibles, O2
deficiency and H2S, with product options on CO2, CO and Cl2 etc. Many
applications concern confined space entry into sewers and pumping stations etc.
The gas supply industry makes extensive use of portable gas leak detection
instruments. It is estimated that NGT (National Grid Transco) and the regional
gas network operators have around 12-14,000 of these. In addition, fixed-point
detectors and personal monitors for combustible gases are used widely.
As illustrated in Table 8, the petrochemicals sector is a major user of gas sensors.
For example, the Shell refinery at Stanlow has around 100 fixed-point H2S
sensors installed and a medium-sized offshore platform employs around 300-500
optical (and some catalytic) combustible gas sensors.
2.6.3 UK GAS SENSOR PRODUCTION
The UK is a major producer of gas sensors and well over two million, probably
closer to three million, are manufactured annually.
The majority are EC and catalytic and others include NDIR, other optical types,
paramagnetic and metal oxide. These are incorporated into instruments produced
in the UK which are either sold to domestic users or exported to overseas users,
and also exported directly to overseas instrument manufacturers.
Page 23 of 59
2.7 THE SUPPLY SECTOR

2.7.1 INTRODUCTION
The UK has had a long and auspicious history in gas sensing and a strong record
of developing new and innovative technologies. The ubiquitous catalytic sensor
(pellistor) was developed in the UK in 1958; Sieger was founded a year later
and became a major, international supplier of gas detection equipment; since
being founded in 1977, City Technology has pioneered EC sensors and is now the
European market leader; e2v (formerly EEV) is Europes leading manufacturer of
catalytic sensors; Sixth Sense (now part of Honeywell) is the worlds leading
supplier of EC CO sensors; Capteur (now part of City) created a generation of
advanced metal oxide sensors using technology from London University (UCL)
and Harwell; a UMIST spin-off pioneered the commercialisation of the electronic
nose in the UK; AMGas is manufacturing IR combustible gas sensors based on
advanced LED technology developed at DERA - the list goes on.
2.7.2 SENSOR MANUFACTURING COMPANIES
2.7.2.1 Overview
The UK gas detection industry is served by a large number of domestic
manufacturers and overseas companies from continental Europe, Japan, the US
and elsewhere, some of whom manufacture in the UK. Companies include large,
diversified multinationals (e.g. Siemens, ABB, Honeywell, Emerson/Rosemount);
the large gas detection specialists (MSA, Draeger); numerous medium-sized and
small specialists (UK examples include City Technology, AMGas, Crowcon and
many others); and a growing number of university spin-offs. Some of these
working on advanced optical techniques are listed in Table 9.
Table 9 UK university spin-offs involved with advanced optical gas
sensing technology
Company
University
Products/Technologies
TDL Sensors
www.tdlsensors.co.uk
Manchester
TDL sensors and systems
Oxford Medical Diagnostics
Oxford
Cavity-enhanced laser absorption

spectroscopy
Cascade Technologies
www.cascadetechnologies.com
Strathclyde
Quantum cascade laser systems
OptoSci
www.optosci.com
Strathclyde
Fibre optic
systems
gas
sensors
and
Page 24 of 59
With the exception of the diversified multinationals, most companies in this

business are relatively small, with turnovers of <100 million. Even Draeger,
perhaps the worlds largest gas detection equipment manufacturer, only achieved
a 2004 turnover of 510 million for its Safety Division which include all its gas
detection and other safety products (total group turnover = 1,523 million).
Interestingly, being an SME does not appear to hinder doing business with large
users one such UK company with a mere 20 employees has successfully sold its
gas sensing products to most of the big names in the offshore sector.
As with much of the sensing and instrumentation sector, recent years have seen
the gas sensor supply industry in a highly dynamic state, with many acquisitions
and mergers. Equally, several new companies have emerged, often as a result of
the above. Some of the most significant recent changes have been:
The acquisition of City Technology by the First Technology Group (2005

turnover = 163 million), which since acquired Capteur, EnviteC, MST
Technology, Sensoric and BW Technologies (an instrument maker rather
than a sensor manufacturer);
Honeywells purchase of Zellweger which in the past acquired Sieger,

Neotronics and several other well known names in the business;
Honeywells acquisition of the First Technology Group in 2006.
2.7.2.2 OEM sensor supply

Some companies just supply bare sensors as there is a large community of gas
detection instrument manufacturers who do not produce their own sensors (or all
of the types used), in-house. Crowcon is perhaps the best known in the UK. This
(optical OEM) market sector is of quite recent origin and whilst the supply of bare
sensors for incorporation into finished products has been the norm within the EC,
metal oxide and catalytic sensor sectors for several decades, it is only during the
last few years that NDIR sensors have been supplied as components in any
significant quantities. This reflects a number of factors which illustrate well the
complexities associated with, and the application-specific nature of, the adoption
of a particular gas sensing technology, i.e.
Growing requirements to monitor CO2 (still impossible with EC or other

inexpensive gas sensors);
Replacement of growing numbers of catalytic sensors by overcoming some of
their operational limitations;
The ability to monitor two gases simultaneously with a single sensor (e.g. CO2
and CH4, ideal for landfill gas monitoring);
Improved designs leading to better performance;
Cost reductions arising from growing sales volumes. (According to a study by
Frost & Sullivan, the average price of an NDIR gas sensor has halved in recent
years).
A more recent innovation is City Technologys launch, in May 2005, of an OEM

PID sensor. Whilst PID-based instruments have been used in relatively small
numbers for many years, this makes the technique available to a far greater
number of instrument manufacturers. This launch again reflects several factors,
the most significant being the recognition that several VOCs (benzene, hexane,
toluene etc.) are chronically toxic at low ppm levels, well below their LELs,
making detection with catalytic sensors of no real value from the health
viewpoint. National safety organisations are issuing low occupational exposure
Page 25 of 59
limits for many VOCs, often associated with confined space entry applications.
Improved design has also played a role and the City PID features an additional
(third) electrode which confers improved performance and a longer operating life
from the UV lamp. Further, growing sales volumes will lead to falling prices.
The UK is amongst the world leaders in the manufacture and supply of OEM gas
sensors (although Japan dominates the metal oxide sector), as illustrated in Table
10. Companies such as these have arisen in recognition of the fact that the
sensors have the potential to sell in sufficient volumes to create a profitable
business without the need to become involved in complex instrument design and
manufacture.
Table 10 Some UK OEM gas sensor manufacturers
Company
Sensor types
City Technology/
Capteur
EC, catalytic, NDIR, PID, metal oxide
AlphaSense
EC, NDIR, catalytic, solid electrolyte (for CO2)
e2v
NDIR, catalytic
Monox
EC (for CO only)
Sixth Sense
EC, catalytic
Dynament
NDIR
Edinburgh Sensors
NDIR
Page 26 of 59
3 THE FUTURE
3.1 DRIVERS FOR CHANGE
The gas sensing industry is in a highly dynamic state: markets are growing, new
applications are emerging and the research effort continues to expand in a
multitude of directions. Most importantly, gas sensor users are coming under
mounting economic, legislative and other pressures (Table 11) which will exert a
significant impact on existing and future sensing, monitoring and control
practices.
Table 11 Some pressures facing industry
Pressures
Ever more stringent environmental legislation
Carbon taxes and credit trading schemes
Rising fuel and energy prices
An ever more competitive business environment leading to a need to reduce
operating costs
Desire for increased productivity and reduced waste
Reduction in skilled manpower (e.g. instrument and process engineers)
Health and safety legislation
Growing public concern over safety, the environment and business ethics
Discussions with OptoCem.Net industry users led to the identification of a number

of factors which will stimulate the development of new and improved gas sensors,
some of which relate directly to the issues listed in Table 11. These are listed in
Table 12. Many are specific to particular sensor types or applications and none
are truly generic.
Page 27 of 59
Table 12 Factors driving gas sensor developments

Factors
Requirement for reduced purchase prices
Requirement for reduced ownership costs
More rugged and reliable
Greater specificity/reduced cross-reactivities
Requirement for reduced calibration and maintenance
Improved environmental performance
Reduced response/recovery times
Wider measuring ranges
Requirement for real-time sensing methods
Longer operating/field lives
No sensors exist for certain target gases
3.2 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS

Further discussions OptoCem.Net industry users led to the identification of a
number of specific needs and opportunities for improved gas sensors. These are
summarised in Table 13 and full technical and commercial details can be found on
the OptoCem.Net web site in a document entitled Needs and opportunities for
new and improved gas sensors.
Page 28 of 59
Table 13 Needs and opportunities for new and improved gas sensors
Gas/Concentrations
Application/Industry
Nature of
requirement
Product
type
Hydrogen fluoride at
ppm levels
Detecting HF around
alkylation units:
Petrochemicals
Overcoming
limitations of
EC HF sensors
Sensors for
use in fixed
multi-point
systems
Hydrogen sulphide at
ppm levels
Detecting H2S on
offshore platforms,
around refineries and
water/wastewater
treatment works:
Offshore oil and
gas
Petrochemicals
Water and
wastewater
Overcoming
limitations of
EC H2S
sensors
Sensors for
use in fixed
instruments
Nitric oxide at
ppm/sub-ppm levels
Detecting NO in the
workplace:
Petrochemicals
Chemicals etc.
Better LOD (~
0.1 ppm) than
existing EC
sensors due to
revised OES
Sensors for
use in fixed
& portable
instruments
Toxic organics i.e.

BTEX, butadiene etc. at
low ppm levels
Detecting BTEX etc. in

the workplace:
Petrochemicals
etc.
Requirement
for selective,
real-time
method
Sensors for
use in
portable
instruments
Combustible gases at
LEL levels
Detecting combustibles
in and around the
workplace, plant etc.:
Offshore oil and
gas
Petrochemicals
Requirement
for reduced
maintenance
and provision
of error alarms
Fixed
instruments
Toxic and combustible

gases (combined) at
ppm and LEL levels
respectively
Simultaneous detection
of combustible and toxic
species in and around
the workplace and plant
etc.:
Offshore oil and
gas
Petrochemicals
Desire for the

simultaneous
optical
detection of
combustible
and toxic
gases, i.e. CH4
and H2S
Fixed
instruments
Page 29 of 59
Combustible gas
visualisation, at
low/sub-LEL levels
Detecting leakage of
combustible gases
around refineries and
offshore platforms etc.:
Petrochemicals
Offshore oil and
gas
Desire for
automated
surveillance
systems that
can visualise
and locate gas
leaks
Fixed
systems
Gas leaks
Detecting high pressure

gas leaks around
refineries:
Petrochemicals
Desire to
improve on
existing (e.g.
ultrasonic)
methods
Fixed
systems
H2S, NH3, mercaptans,

ethers, esters,
alcohols,
ideally at ppb levels
Detection of impurities
in process gas (ethylene
and propylene) streams:
Petrochemicals
Requirement
for real-time,
high
sensitivity, online alternative
to GC
Fixed
instruments
Siloxanes at ppm
levels
Detecting siloxanes in
gases used as feeds in
CHP systems:
Water and
wastewater
Requirement
for on-line,
real-time
alternative to
lab. analysis
Fixed
instruments
Water vapour/moisture
content at levels
ranging from <1 to
>100 ppm
Detecting moisture
content during
production of LPG, LNG
and nitrogen and in
natural gas as it enters
the transmission
system:
Petrochemicals
Gas supply
Overcoming
limitations of
existing
moisture
sensors
Fixed
instruments
Methane at
concentrations from 10
ppm to 100%
Detecting leaks of town

gas:
Gas supply
Desire to
replace
existing
instruments
with a single,
wide-range
device
Portable
instruments
Gas odours, i.e. butyl

mercaptan (BM) and
dimethyl sulphide
(DMS) at low ppm
levels
Automated monitoring
of odorants in the gas
distribution system:
Gas supply
Desire to
replace human
operators with
automated
odour
Fixed
instruments
Page 30 of 59
monitoring
systems
Toxic and combustible
gases at ppm and LEL
concentrations
Health and safety

monitoring:
Offshore oil and
gas
Petrochemicals
Water and
wastewater
Gas supply?
Desire for truly

autonomous,
self-powered
sensors that
communicate
via a wireless
network which
can be simply
installed
without any
hard wiring
and which will
operate unattended for at
least 2 years
Fixed
instruments
Some of the above are highly specific to particular user sectors and/or offer
limited commercial prospects whilst others represent more general and
widespread needs and trends within the gas sensing industry. The individual
product development charts (see Section 3.3.3) concentrate on this latter
category and also consider certain other well documented requirements.
3.3 R&D AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES

3.3.1 OVERVIEW
As noted in Section 2.1, there are no generic technological developments which
will revolutionise the industry. However, all manner of technologies and
disciplines contribute to the advancement of sensors, including:
Basic technologies;
Materials;
Components;
Sensing effects and phenomena.
Examples of the above with the potential to impact future generations of optical
gas sensors are shown in Table 14.
Page 31 of 59
Table 14 Technologies and disciplines influencing future generations of

optical gas sensors
Electronics
ASICS, processors,
software, chemometrics,
data fusion, radio
communications etc.
Basic technologies
Nanotechnology
Silicon/MEMS
Integrated optics
Materials
Effects and
phenomena
Components
Optically-active CNTs,
other nano-materials,
nano-fibres, quantum dot
lasers etc.
Micro-spectrometers,
silicon sources, microphotoacoustics, optical
MEMS etc.
Planar waveguides,
interferometers,
integrated sources etc.
Silicon, silicon carbide, III-V semiconductors, nanomaterials, doped glasses, non-linear optical materials,
fluorophores, chromophores, thin films, optically-active
polymers etc.
CRDS, TDLAS, FTIR, DOAS, other spectroscopy, SPR,

photoacoustics, interferometry, scatter, backscatter,
fluorescence, chemiluminescence, photo-ionisation etc.
Sources
Others
QCLs, laser diodes, LEDs,

CNTs, fibre lasers, silicon
optics, OPOs etc.
Detectors, specialist
fibres, gratings, filters
etc.
Page 32 of 59
3.3.2 SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGIES AND DEVELOPMENTS

3.3.2.1 Introduction
The body of research into optical gas sensors and associated topics is extensive
and it is impossible to review it here. As well as the numerous classes of sensors
under development, Table 14 illustrates well the wide range of other factors that
can influence innovation in this field. To gain an insight into prevailing research,
readers are referred to journals such as Sensors & Actuators: B, Spectrochemica
Acta, the various optics journals (Applied Optics etc.) and, for a broader and
somewhat less academic view, Sensor Review. Two reviews of university gas
sensor research, one covering the UK and the other continental Europe, have
been published recently by the GASG (Bogue 2003; Bogue 2005).
The following sections consider some of the more important developments that
are viewed as most likely to impact the industry during the next few years and
which are most relevant to the needs and opportunities identified in Table 13.
3.3.2.2 Optical sources and detectors
Optical sources are the topic of a major, global research effort, much being driven
by the needs of the telecoms and IT industries. A smaller yet widespread activity
concerns sources aimed principally at gas detection. Some topics of research
include:
LEDs;
Laser diodes;
QCLs;
Fibre lasers;
UV sources;
OPOs/CWOPOs;
Light emitting CNTs;
Silicon sources.
Although most optical gas sensors operating at mid-IR wavelengths still employ
filament lamps as the sources, the use of LEDs and particularly diode lasers is
growing. Even though the power of a diode laser is low, being highly monochromatic and tuned to the key absorption wavelength, it allows all of the energy
to be absorbed by the gas molecules which is not usually the case in non-laserbased devices. These sources are therefore of particular interest to the gas
sensing community because of the high sensitivity that can be achieved and the
many gases that can de detected in this spectral region, typically 3-15 m. Thus,
lasers and laser diodes are potentially key components within future generations
of IR gas sensors and some of the more important types are listed in Table 15.
Page 33 of 59
Table 15 Solid state laser with the potential to be used in gas sensing
Laser type
Wavelength
Power
Comments
Galium nitride
(GaN) lasers
Blue/violet to near
UV (400-480 nm)
< 5 mW
Aluminium gallium
arsenide (AlGaAs)
lasers
NIR or visible
(750-1,000 nm)
10 mW
Room temperature, low

cost
Vertical cavity
lasers
NIR or visible
(650-1,680 nm)
Room temperature,
low cost, widely
tunable
InGaAsP
communications
lasers
NIR (1,200-2,000
nm)
10 mW
Room temperature,
fiber-optic
Antimonide lasers
NIR to mid-IR
(2,000-4,000 nm)
1 mW
Room temperature or
cooled
QCLs
Mid-IR (3,00015,000 nm)
Tens of W
pulsed,
tens of mW
CW
Falling prices, no need

now for cryogenic
cooling
Lead salt lasers
Mid-IR (3,00030,000 nm)
<1 mW
Require cryogenic
cooling
Extensive efforts are underway to improve, and extend the wavelength range of,
mid-IR diode lasers. Research efforts focus on achieving room temperature
operation and single frequency (monochromatic) outputs through the use and
development of novel structures and materials, e.g. III-V compounds. Some UK
university groups working on IR sources are shown in Table 16.
Table 16 UK university groups working on optical sources
University
Topics of research
Lancaster
Room temperature mid-IR laser diodes and LEDs
Page 34 of 59
London, Imperial College
Room temperature mid-IR laser diodes and LEDs
St Andrews
Mid-IR CWOPOs
Heriot-Watt
Mid-IR LEDs
Strathclyde
Photonic crystal fibre lasers, VECSELs
Sheffield
Mid-IR quantum dot/cascade lasers/photodetectors
The critical requirements for laser diodes for use in gas sensing are shown in
Table 17.
Table 17 Critical requirements for mid-IR laser diodes
Characteristics
Operate at room temperature
Low cost
Cover the spectral range ~2-20 m
Readily tuneable within this range
Exhibit high wavelength and thermal stability
QCLs, in particular, are attracting a great deal of interest. In these, electrons

cascade down a series of quantum wells which result from the growth of very thin
layers of semiconductor materials. Whereas a single electron-hole recombination
can only ever produce a single photon, the QCL electrons can cascade down
between 20 and 100 quantum wells producing a photon at each step. This yields
a major increase in lasing efficiency, enabling QCLs to emit several watts of peak
power in pulsed mode and tens of mW in CW mode.
A QCLs lasing wavelength is determined not by the choice of semiconductor
material as with conventional solid-state lasers but by adjusting the physical
thickness of the layers themselves. This removes the material barriers commonly
associated with conventional semiconductor lasers and opens up the possibility of
NIR through to THz spectral coverage. Wavelength-tuneable devices are now
available which offer prospects for multi-gas sensing applications. Until very
recently, the major limitations were the need for cryogenic cooling and high
prices but room-temperature devices are now available and prices have fallen and
further price reductions are expected during the next 12 months or so, as volume
applications emerge. The degree of interest in this technology is well illustrated
by the recent announcement (May 2006) that the US National Science Foundation
has agreed to fund a research centre at Princeton University to the tune of $15
million over five years. Dubbed MIRTHE, for Mid-Infrared Technologies for Health
and the Environment, the centre aims to develop gas and chemical sensing
products based on mid-IR QCLs.
Page 35 of 59
Whilst the emphasis of most optical gas sensing is on the IR region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, UV wavelengths are attracting growing interest. As
with IR, UV radiation is characterised by subdivision into various regions:
Near UV
Far or vacuum UV
Extreme UV
( = 380200 nm);
( = 20010 nm, abbreviated as FUV or VUV);
( = 131 nm, EUV or XUV).
When considering the effect of UV on human health or the environment, UV

wavelengths are often subdivided into:
UVA ( = 380315 nm), also called long wave or blacklight;
UVB ( = 315280 nm), also called medium wave;
UVC ( <280 nm), also called short wave or germicidal, due to its use in
water sterilisation.
As yet, relatively few gas measurements are made at UV wavelengths, reflecting
in part the lack of small, ideally tuneable, and inexpensive sources and also,
perhaps, that UV spectra are less rich in features than their IR counterparts,
requiring more complex signal analysis and data processing. Many UV
measurements involve relatively large and costly instruments, e.g. open-path
DOAS systems and ambient O3 and SO2 analysers. The characteristics and uses of
some UV sources are shown in Table 18.
Table 18 Characteristics and uses of UV sources
Lamp
type
Wavelength range
Hg vapour
253.7 nm (peak) and weaker lines in

the near-UV and visible
DOAS systems,
O3 analysers
Deuterium
~200-370 nm
DOAS systems, PIDs
Xenon arc
~300-1300 nm
Ambient
PIDs
Zinc
213.9 nm (peak), plus other weaker

lines in the UV
Ambient SO2 analysers
SO2
ambient
analysers,
Deuterium lamps have the advantages of being relatively small and inexpensive
and cover a wide spectral range. Further, recent developments which eliminate
the need for internal electrodes (i.e. RF powered) have extended the operating
lives of these devices to well beyond 1000 hours. However, the availability of
small and low cost UV sources such as laser diodes and LEDs will invariably
extend the capabilities of detecting gases at these wavelengths. UV LEDs covering
the spectral range 250-430 nm are now commercially available (e.g. from Roither
Lasertechnik, Austria, www.roither-laser.com) and an LED fabricated from
magnesium-doped aluminium nitride (AlN) has recently been reported which
operates down at 210 nm. As yet, however, there is little evidence of UV LEDs
being applied to gas sensing, although detectors, fabricated from SiC and which
cover the spectral range ~200-380 nm, already exist (e.g. from Cree Research in
Page 36 of 59
the US, see also Table 19, below). UV laser diodes are anticipated in the near
future and blue/violet devices operating at 405 nm are now available.
Detector technology is also developing rapidly and some detector types are
shown in Table 19.
Table 19 Some detectors used in gas sensing and related fields
Detector
type
Wavelength range
(nm)
SiC
200-400
Si
200/400-1000/1150
Ge
800-1800
InGaAs
800-1700
Extended InGaAs
800-2300/2700
PbS
1000-3000
PbSe
1000-4700
PC-HgCdTe
1000-3000/6500
PV-HgCdTe
2000-10,000/20,000
As with sources, the main thrust of research is to develop low cost detectors that
operate at room temperature and which cover the wavelengths of interest within
the mid-IR. Sensitivity is also a critical consideration. Within the UK, the
Lancaster group is particularly active and has developed uncooled detectors
based on materials such as InAsSb and InGaAs which operate at 6.4 m and 2-3
m respectively (see:
www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/physics/research/condmatt/mid-ir/gas-sen5.htm).
For many high sensitivity optical sensing instruments, PMTs are used to detect
light but whilst highly sensitive they are bulky and costly and require high
operating voltages. Recent developments by the Irish company SensL have
yielded a family of silicon photomultiplier devices which are essentially arrays of
around 1000 photon counting photodiodes connected in parallel. These offer high
gains (106) yet operate at <100 volts (see www.sensl.com).
3.3.2.3 MEMS technology
Being something of a high profile technology, MEMS warrants mention. It has
been outstandingly successful in the physical sensing context (accelerometers,
pressure sensors etc.) and more recently the various techniques have been used
to fabricate miniaturised analytical instruments such as GCs and MSs.
Page 37 of 59
In the optical context, the main application has been the development of microspectrometers which offer the benefits of small size, potentially low prices and
rugged construction. Their availability is expected to allow techniques such as
FTIR and perhaps UV absorption spectroscopy to be more widely deployed. Given
price and size reductions, prospects exist for small, hand-held instruments based
on these techniques.
Some other optical gas sensing uses of MEMS include:
Miniaturised silicon photoacoustic sensors. Limited LODs;

MEMS integrated NDIR sensors. Limited LODs;
Miniaturised IMS (arguably an optical technique if a UV ionisation source is
used). Mostly still at the research stage;
IR lasing in silicon. (Observed in nanoporous silicon for the first time in
2005);
Although the first two, above, have enjoyed a limited degree of

commercialisation, their performance lags behind that of their conventional
counterparts and MEMS technology has yet to make a significant impact on
optical gas sensing practices. A recent report (Anon., 2004), predicts that, by
2008, the global market for optical MEMS-based spectrometers will reach a
relatively modest $96 million/annum. The report notes that the Spectrometer
market appeared in 2000 and is growing slowly because current applications
volumes are small and new high volume applications have to be found.
3.3.3 KEY TECHNOLOGIES
Table 20 lists the key technological developments that will facilitate many of the
new product opportunities considered above and in Section 3.4, below. A number
are likely to contribute also to progress in other sectors of the optical gas sensing
industry. Novel mid-IR sources, in particular, are expected by many to exert a
significant impact in all manner of gas sensing applications and could result in
something of an optical gas sensing revolution.
Table 20 Key technological developments

Components/developments
Leading to:
Low cost, room temperature, tuneable

mid-IR sources (~2-20 m)
Low cost, optical high sensitivity toxic

and combustible gas sensors
Low cost, optical water vapour sensors
Improved room temperature mid-IR

detectors
New means of increasing the effective
path-length in absorption-based
sensors
Combined optical toxic and combustible

gas sensors
Low cost CRDS (trace gases and water
vapour)
Page 38 of 59
Batteries/other power sources

Power management techniques
Autonomous toxic and combustible gas

sensors
Low cost, low power gas sensors

Radio communications and associated
standards
Low cost, room temperature, tuneable
UV sources
Advanced spectral analysis techniques
Sensors for toxic VOCs (portable

instruments, personal monitors)
MEMS spectrometers (UV)

MEMS spectrometers (mid-IR)
High power, eye-safe laser diodes (e.g.

at 3.3 m for CH4)
Low cost FTIR (hand-portable

instruments for gas mixtures?)
Hand-held gas leak/cloud imagers
Improved mid-IR detector arrays with

on-chip signal processing?
3.3.4 THE UK ACADEMIC ACTIVITY

The UK has one of the strongest academic gas sensor research activities in
Europe, second only to that in Germany. During the period 1999-2002 (latest
quantitative data available), 52 groups from 36 universities were actively
engaged in this highly fragmented endeavour. Groups ranged in size from just 2
to a maximum of around 15. Some statistics are reproduced in Table 21, below,
and are taken from a GASG report (Bogue, 2003), which also provides details of
the activities of the 52 groups.
Page 39 of 59
Table 21 Gas sensing research at UK universities

Statistics
Number of universities active or publishing (1999-2002)
36
Number of individual groups active or publishing (1999-2002)
52
Approximate number of workers active in 2002
200
Mean number of workers per group
Number of groups with 10 or more workers
Number of publications located (1999-2002)
>180
Published in
>50 journals
The UK has national strength in the overall optics field and in gas sensing in
particular. Around 30 groups worked on optical gas sensing during 1999-2002.
Some of the technologies and techniques concerned are listed in Table 22.
Table 22 Optical gas sensing research at UK universities
Topics
Optically-active polymers and organo-metallic compounds
CRDS, THz-frequency CRDS, e-CRDS
TDLAS, FTIR, correlation spectroscopy, other spectroscopic techniques
Interferometry
Photoionisation
Fluorescence, fluorescence decay/quenching
UV and IR absorption
Fibre optic gas sensors (intrinsic, extrinsic, distributed, multi-point)
SPR sensors
Gas-responsive optical biosensors
Optical sources (lasers, LEDs, laser diodes, CWOPOs) and detectors
Integrated optics
Page 40 of 59
UK academics have a good record of working with industry and exploiting the
fruits of their research and almost all of the UKs major gas sensor manufacturers
have, at one time or another, collaborated with them. Around 77% of the groups
mentioned in Table 21 reported some form of industrial collaboration. In total,
this involved working with over 80 UK and overseas sensor manufacturers, users
and other non-academic organisations and took the form of both directly funded
research and government-supported collaborative projects such as the former
LINK schemes. Further, a number of optical (and other) gas sensing university
spin-off companies have been set up in recent years (Table 9 above).
3.4 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ROADMAPS

3.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The following section comprises product development roadmaps, in tabular form,
for the more important needs and opportunities shown in Table 13 and as listed
below. Note that siloxanes, gas odours and trace impurities in process gas
streams all represent needs for sensors to determine hitherto unmonitored
species and are considered collectively (Monitoring new gas species).
Optical toxic gas sensors and combined toxic/combustible gas sensors;

Sensors for monitoring toxic organic vapours;
Improved moisture sensors;
Autonomous gas sensors;
Gas cloud/leak imaging;
Monitoring new gas species.
A development roadmap on CEMs was planned but it transpires that many of the
technological innovations will be associated with industries outside the present
remit (power generation, incineration etc.). However, Table 23 provides brief
details of some of these.
Table 23 Some innovations in CEM technology

Analyte
Present monitoring technique
Future technological prospects
Mercury
Catalysis followed by UV atomic

absorption
photometry,
with
detection typically at 253.7 nm.
Some systems can resolve 1
ng/m3 Hg
More simple and less costly

techniques required. Legislatively
driven high growth market
Other
toxic
metals
Sampling plus lab analysis, e.g.

AAS
Laser
induced
breakdown
spectroscopy
(LIBS),
for
the
selective determination of As, Pb,
Cd, Zn, Cu etc.
Page 41 of 59
Dioxins
Sampling plus lab analysis (e.g.

GC/MS).
Continuous
dioxin
samplers recently developed
SRI (US) has demonstrated a realtime CEM technique termed JetREMPI, based on supersonic jet
expansion and cooling* followed by
resonantly enhanced, multiphoton
ionisation (REMPI) and a mass
spectrometer
*The supersonic cooling results in low sample temperatures, increasing the electronic
ground state population and narrowing the resonance line-widths through a reduction in
the molecular velocities and transition-perturbing collisions. The reduced line-widths
eliminate the ionisation of other molecular species leading to improved selectivity and
make the peak absorption larger, leading to improved sensitivity.
(For details of the Jet-REMPI technique, see Oser et al., 2001).
Page 42 of 59
3.4.2 DEVELOPMENT ROADMAPS
Optical toxic gas sensors and combined optical

toxic/combustible gas sensors
Market
drivers/needs
User
industries
and applications
Present practices
Anticipated
products
Desire to overcome certain limitations of EC toxic gas

sensors, principally in fixed systems, e.g. limited field
lives, limited environmental performance, cost of
ownership and cross-reactivities.
Petrochemicals;
Chemicals;
Gas;
Water.
Health and safety monitoring;

Process monitoring.
Widespread use of EC toxic gas sensors. Small but growing

use of high cost optical systems based on TDLAS in some
critical applications.
Low cost optical toxic gas sensors for use in fixed

detectors and systems (e.g. for H2S, CO, HF, NOx
etc.);
Similar devices for the simultaneous detection of

methane and toxic species.
Sensing technique
Mid-IR absorption.
Critical
technologies and
developments
Low cost tuneable mid-IR sources (e.g. laser

diodes, QCLs), operating in the ~2-12 m region.
Novel detectors (in some instances) e.g. for sensing
H2S at 7-8 m with QCLs.
Comments
Likely
timescale
for development
Until such time when widely tuneable sources become

available, simultaneous toxic and combustible gas
detection will probably require two separate sources, e.g.
one at 3.3 m for methane and another at 2.3 m for NH3.
Low cost optical toxic gas sensors

Optical toxic/combustible gas sensors
2-4 years
3-5 years
Page 43 of 59
Sensors for monitoring toxic organic vapours

Market
drivers/needs
Desire for real-time techniques to monitor toxic VOCs,

notably BTEX, in the workplace, selectively and at low ppm
concentrations. Benzene is a known carcinogen.
User
industries
and applications
Present practices
Petrochemicals (refineries);
Chemicals.
Health and safety monitoring.
Limited use of non-real-time methods, e.g. sampling

followed by GC or (cumulative) exposure badges. Also
some non-selective detection with PIDs.
Anticipated
products
Sensing
techniques
Portable instruments that can selectively determine

BTEX compounds at low ppm levels;
Longer term: small personal BTEX monitors.
Several techniques potentially offer prospects, i.e.
UV absorption spectroscopy, perhaps combined

with advanced signal processing techniques;
UV TDLAS;
High resolution FTIR spectroscopy*;
Longer term possibility: absorption spectroscopy at
THz frequencies (gas absorption spectra at these
wavelengths are yet to be fully characterised).
Sigrist (1994) has shown that BTEX compounds can be

readily identified and discriminated from their IR
absorption spectra; even the three isomers of xylene (o-,
m- and p-) can be distinguished, albeit with long path
lengths.
Page 44 of 59
Critical
technologies and
developments
Comments
Low cost, possibly MEMS-based, UV spectrometers;

Advanced signal processing techniques to separate
the key (UV) spectral characteristics;
UV sources, i.e. laser diodes, emitting at ~220-260
nm. These are viewed as critical for the
development of small, personal UV-based BTEX
monitors;
Low cost, tuneable IR sources;
Means of achieving high sensitivity without
physically long path-lengths.
VOC detection is a major theme of academic gas sensor

research; between 1999 and 2002, 16 UK university
groups reported work on this topic.
A non-optical alternative might be a MEMS-based microGC or GC/MS. IMS also offers prospects. There is also a
significant body of research concerning various solid-state
techniques such as nano-particulate metal oxides, etc.
Likely
timescale
for development
Portable instruments
Low cost personal monitors
2-4 years
3-5 years
Page 45 of 59
Improved Moisture Sensors

Market
drivers/needs
Desire to overcome limitations of existing (non-optical)

moisture sensing techniques, i.e. slow response and
recovery times, effects of contaminants, high ownership
costs (calibration etc.), limited range and resolution.
User
industries
and applications
Natural gas (entry into the transmission system,

LNG production etc.);
Petrochemicals (LPG production etc.);
Chemicals (pure gas production);
Semiconductor processing.
Process monitoring and control;

Product quality monitoring;
Fiscal transfer.
Present practices
Use of a variety of electrochemical technologies, e.g. Al2O3,

P2O5 etc. Some limited use of high cost TDLAS and CRDS
systems in critical applications.
Anticipated
products
Sensors for use in fixed systems (single and multi-point)

with wide operating ranges and low/sub-ppb LODs. Fast
response/recovery times (i.e. <1 sec.) are critical in
several applications, as is immunity to contaminants such
as CO2, H2S and glycol etc.
In some applications there is a desire to monitor water
vapour, CO2 and H2S simultaneously and optical products
offering this capability are under development.
Sensing
techniques
Critical
technologies and
developments
TDLAS;
CRDS.
Low cost, tuneable optical sources (TDLAS and
CRDS);
Lower cost means of extending the path-length (L)
in TDLAS systems (i.e. alternatives to Herriott
cells)*;
Lower cost high finess mirrors or other means of
beam reflection.
Perhaps L could be extended using guided wave

technology, e.g. gas-filled hollow optical fibres (see Fetzer
et al., 2002)
Page 46 of 59
Nano-fibres, where the light is guided around the outside

of the fibre and could thus interact with a gas, may offer
prospects in the longer term.
Comments
Likely
timescale
for development
Cost reductions are vital if these high sensitivity, optical

techniques are to gain more widespread use.
Lower cost TDLAS

Lower cost CRDS
Multi-sensing of H2O, H2S and CO2
2-3 years
2-3 years
2-4 years
Page 47 of 59
Autonomous gas sensors

Market
drivers/needs
User
industries
and applications
Requirement for fully autonomous, battery-powered gas

sensors with radio communications which will operate
unattended for at least two years. These will result in
greatly simplified installation and reduced ownership costs,
allowing larger numbers of measuring points to be
deployed.
Petrochemicals (refineries and offshore);

Gas processing;
Water industry.
Conventional gas sensor applications (i.e. health and

safety monitoring);
New uses (longer term), e.g. in inaccessible locations
and/or where no external power is available.
Present practices
Use of conventional fixed-point gas sensors which require

hard wiring, mains power and often regular maintenance.
Anticipated
products
Fixed, wire-free, battery-powered toxic and combustible gas

sensors with radio communications.
Sensing
techniques
Toxic and combustible gas sensors need to be low power,

low cost and offer operating lives of at least 2 years.
Possible technologies might include low-power optics (NDIR)
or perhaps nano-sensors and MEMS-based devices.
In the short term it may be possible to use conventional
sensors, given the availability of suitable batteries and
power management techniques, although the life/ownership
cost issues would remain.
Critical
technologies and
developments
Comments
Battery/other power sources;

Power management techniques;
Low cost, low power gas sensors;
Establishment of a widely-accepted wireless protocol
(e.g. Mesh and ZigBee, see below);
Chip sets for the above.
The Wireless Sensing Interest Group (WiSIG) has recently

been established To explore the opportunities, applications
and successful deployment of wireless technologies and
subsequently inform and advise the UK sensing community
Page 48 of 59
on its uses and benefits. WiSIG is supported by the

Sensors KTN.
Presently, there are more than 70 competing schemes for
routing data packets across Mesh networks. The IEEE is
developing a set of standards under the title 802.11s to
define an architecture and protocol for Mesh networking.
ZigBee is a specification for a suite of high-level
communication protocols using small, low-power digital
radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for wireless
personal area networks. The ZigBee Alliance is an
association of companies working together to enable
reliable, cost-effective, low-power, wirelessly networked,
monitoring and control products based on an open global
standard, see www.zigbee.org.
Likely timescale
for development
Devices based on conventional sensors

Devices based on novel sensors
2-4 years
3-6 years
Page 49 of 59
Combustible gas cloud and leak imaging

Market
drivers/needs
User
industries
and applications
Desire for improved real-time detection of flammable gases

by overcoming the shortcomings of point and open-path
detectors, i.e. limited spatial coverage.
Present practices
Anticipated
products
Petrochemicals (refineries, offshore);

Natural gas (terminals, offshore, tankers, town gas
leak detection);
Environment? (landfill etc.).
Safety monitoring (combustible gases);
Surveillance of greenhouse gas emissions (landfill
sites etc.).
Catalytic sensors, point and open-path NDIR sensors, FIDs

(portable detectors). Limited uses of first generation, fixed
passive imaging systems (see below).
Fixed imaging systems (active and passive see

below);
Hand-portable instruments (active).
Both would generate real-time images of combustible gas

clouds and leaks at concentrations below the LELs. The
advantage of active systems is that they are fail-safe;
passive systems can fail to detect a leak if the difference in
temperature between the gas and the background is
insufficient.
Sensing
techniques
Critical
technologies and
developments
IR absorption on scanned laser light, backscattered

from a remote target (active technique);
IR absorption on reflected ambient thermal IR
(passive technique, needs a significant temperature
difference between target gas and background to
operate).
Key technologies for detecting methane both actively and

passively in fixed systems already exist, i.e. 1.65 m laser
diodes (active) and InGaAs detectors (both). For some
uses, systems should ideally respond to a range of
combustible gases (e.g. methane, propane, propylene etc.).
For (active) hand-portable systems, a critical issue to be
resolved is the weight and size of the collecting lens
(diameter ~15 cm) and the drive motor. The lens size is
Page 50 of 59
necessary as the amount of incident light is very low

(source power typically 10 mW). Several possibilities exist:
Higher power laser diode sources but these must

operate in another part of the methane absorption
spectrum which is eye-safe (i.e. ~3.3 m);
Higher sensitivity detectors;
Eliminate scanning through the use of detector
arrays.
All of these approaches presently remain problematic.

Comments
The UK has a long history of involvement with this type of

technology. An active, transportable, prototype system has
recently been developed and evaluated in the UK (see
Gibson et al., 2006). OTIM was another, earlier MODfunded project.
A fixed, passive system with a range of up to 150 m and
which arose from research at the University of Lund has
recently been commercialised by Gas Optics (Sweden), see
www.gasoptics.com
Likely timescale
for development
Fixed imaging systems

Hand-portable instruments
1-4 years
5-8 years
Page 51 of 59
Monitoring new gas species

Market
drivers/needs
User
industries
and applications
Desire to monitor certain gas species in real-time that are

presently determined by sampling and lab analysis or which
remain largely unmonitored. This would confer various
application-specific economic and operational benefits.
Gas supply;
Water;
Petrochemicals.
Automated gas odour monitoring and control (gas);

Protection of CHP systems by real-time monitoring of
siloxanes (water);
Real-time monitoring of impurities in feed gas
streams (petrochemicals).
Present practices
Case_1. Gas odours: Trained human operators;

Case_2. Siloxanes: Sampling and lab analysis;
Case_3. Feed gas impurities: Sampling and lab analysis.
Anticipated
products
Case_1. Fixed instruments that can determine butyl

mercaptan and dimethyl sulphide (gas odorants) at low ppm
levels in town gas.
Case_2. On-line instruments that can determine siloxanes
at ppm levels in CHP feed gases.
Case_3. Probably extractive instruments that can determine
H2S, NH3, mercaptans, ethers, esters and alcohols, ideally at
ppb levels, in process gas (ethylene and propylene)
streams.
Sensing
techniques
Case_1. TDLAS using a QCL? This approach (rather than

NDIR) is probably necessary to achieve the required
resolution and to overcome interference from other species
present. Electronic noses might offer a less costly, nonoptical solution.
Case_2. Same approach as in Case_1 above, except that
electronic noses are not used.
Case_3. Uncertain, high resolution FTIR?
Page 52 of 59
Critical
technologies and
developments
Low cost QCLs or other tuneable sources operating in the

mid-IR would allow the cost-effective application of TDLAS
to Case_1 and Case_2, above.
The multi-sensing and resolution requirements of 3 suggest
a high resolution spectroscopic technique. TDLAS, using a
separate laser for each compound, is a possibility but at
present the cost would be excessive. An alternative might
be high resolution FTIR or other spectroscopic methods such
as CRDS or PAS, using broadly tuneable sources such as
CWOPOs.
Comments
In the first two instances, available technology (i.e. TDLAS)

could probably meet these requirements but presently the
costs might well preclude its use.
Likely timescale
for development
Case_1. Gas odour monitors

Case_2. Siloxane monitors
Case_3. Feed gas impurity monitor
3-5 years
3-5 years
Unclear, perhaps 4-6
years
Page 53 of 59
3.5 INDUSTRY ROADMAPS

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Roadmaps covering anticipated product developments for the three major
OptoCem.Net industries are shown in the following sections. Certain products that
might subsequently arise from those identified in Table 13 but which are not
considered therein are also included.
Timescales are very approximate. Further, even though a new product may be
developed, there is no guarantee that a particular industry will immediately use it
(or even use it at all) very often there is first an evaluation/trial period, e.g. as
we are presently seeing with TDLAS systems in the petrochemicals industry.
The UK water industry is subject to all manner of economic pressures and not
expected to be a major user of advanced optical gas sensors during the next
decade. However, it is likely to adopt a limited range of new products than can
confer real economic benefits. Conversely, the UK gas industry has a long history
of technological innovations and stands to benefit from several novel gas sensing
products, some of which are, or have recently been, the subject of industrysupported R&D. The petrochemicals sector operates on a global rather than
national basis and will be the largest user of innovative gas sensors. It is the
most technologically aware of the three industries under consideration and is
exploring the capabilities of various novel optical gas sensors, both via supported
R&D and through on-going field trials.
Page 54 of 59
3.5.2 WATER INDUSTRY
WATER INDUSTRY GAS SENSING ROADMAP

Timescale (years)
Market drivers
10
Longer term
Optical H2S: Reduced ownership costs, improved performance

Autonomous sensors: Reduced installation and ownership costs
On-line siloxane sensing: Real-time protection of CHP systems,
reduced costs
Optical H2S
sensors with
improved
performance
Optical
combined toxic
& combustible
gas sensors
Autonomous
toxic/combustible
gas sensors
Products
On-line siloxane
sensors for C HP
systems
Technological
developments
C ombined online C H4 and

siloxane
sensing
Low cost
TDLAS
New/improved
mid-IR sources
(QC Ls?)
Batteries, radio
comms, standards, low
power sensors and
electronics
Page 55 of 59
3.5.3 GAS INDUSTRY
GAS INDUSTRY GAS SENSING ROADMAP

Timescale (years)
Market drivers
10
Longer term
Wide range leak detector: Requirement to replace multiple,

limited range instruments with single instrument
Improved moisture sensors:To overcome operational limitations
and ownership costs of existing sensors
Gas odour monitor: Desire to automate process leading to
reduced costs
Hand-held gas imagers: Improved leak detection/location
Autonomous sensors: Reduced installation and ownership costs
Portable widerange leak

detectors
Hand-held gas
leak imagers
Automated gas
odour monitors
Products
Autonomous toxic &

combustible gas
sensors
Improved
moisture sensors
Technological
developments
Detectors, eye-safe
laser diodes etc.
Laser diodes
(technology
exists)
Low cost
TDLAS and/or
CRDS
New/improved, low
cost mid-IR sources
Batteries, radio
comms, standards,
low power sensors
Page 56 of 59
3.5.4 PETROCHEMICALS INDUSTRY
Page 57 of 59
PETROCHEMICALS INDUSTRY GAS SENSING

ROADMAP
Timescale (years)
Market drivers
10
Improved moisture sensors:To overc ome operational limitations

and ownership c osts of existing sensors
Autonomous sensors: Reduc ed installation and ownership c osts
Optical toxic gas sensors: Reduc ed ownership c osts, improved
performanc e
Monitors for toxic organics: Real-time detec tion
Feed gas impurity monitors: Real-time protec tion of proc ess
Hand-held gas leak imagers: improved safety/leak detec tion
Monitors for toxic
organics (BTEX)
Optical toxic
C ombined
optical toxic &
combustible gas
sensors
gas sensors
with improved
performance
Active, fixed gas

leak imagers
Hand-held gas
leak imagers
Products
Improved
moisture
sensors
Autonomous
toxic/combustible
gas sensors
On-line feed gas

impurity
monitors
UV sources, low cost

UV spectrometers
Technological
developments
Low cost
TDLAS
and/or CRDS
New/improved
mid-IR sources
(QC Ls?)
Broadly tunable
sources plus high
resolution mid-IR
spectroscopy?
Detectors, eyesafe laser diodes
etc.
Batteries, radio
comms, standards,
low power sensors
and electronics
Page 58 of 59
4 References
Anon., 2004. OMEMS: Analysis of Optical MEMS applications for non telecom
markets. Yole Dveloppement, France.
Bogue, R.W., 2003. A directory of gas sensor research at UK universities, edition
2, Gas Analysis & Sensing Group, Swansea.
Bogue, R.W., 2005. A directory of gas sensor research at continental European
universities. Gas Analysis & Sensing Group, Swansea.
Fetzer, G.J., Pittner, A.S., Ryder, W.L. and Brown, D.A., 2002. Tunable diode
laser absorption spectroscopy in coiled hollow optical waveguides. Appl. Opt. 41,
3613-3621.
Gibson, G., van Wel, B., Hodgkinson, J., Pride, R., Strzoda, R., Murray, S.,
Bishton, S. and Padgett, M., 2006. Imaging of methane gas using a scanning,
open-path laser system. New Journal of Physics, published on-line Feb 15th 2006.
Oser, H., Coggiola, M.J., Faris, G.W., Young, S.E., Volquardsen, B. and Crosley,
D.R., 2001. Development of a jet-REMPI continuous monitor for environmental
applications, Appl. Opt. 40, 859-865.
Sigrist, M.W., ed., 1994. Air monitoring by spectroscopic techniques. Wiley.
Page 59 of 59

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Technology Roadmap:

Optoelectronic Gas Sensors in the

1.2 ABOUT OptoCem.Net

technological and product developments and their applications within the

The nature of overall sensor industry;

It should be stressed that a market-led approach has been adopted in considering

The drivers for change;

1.5 METHOD AND DATA SOURCES

1.5.2 Data sources

Telephone and face-to-face discussions with sensor manufacturers, users,

1.6 ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

1.8 COMMENTS AND FEEDBACK

2 OPTOELECTRONIC GAS SENSING:

Health & safety,

2.2 SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR

2.3 GAS SENSING: THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ART

All gas detection

2.3.2 GAS SENSING TECHNIQUES

Table 1 Non-optical gas sensing techniques and their uses

All combustible gases

Fire and explosion

Oxygen, many toxic

Occupational health and

HCs, CO, O3, H2S, organic

Leak detection, health and

Medical, process control

Binary gas mixtures

Leak detection, process

Wide range of organic

Mainly military uses (detecting

Methane, organic vapours

Landfill site monitoring,

Table 2 Optical gas sensing techniques and their uses

Stack emissions, health

Many IR absorbing species

Stack emissions, trace gas

Many IR absorbing species

Trace gas analysis

Many IR absorbing species

Emerging uses, e.g. stack

Many IR absorbing species

Emerging uses, e.g. trace

Many species that absorb

O3, NO, H2S, HCl etc.

SO2 (modified variant for H2S)

O3, H2S, NH3, C6H6, NO2 etc.

NOx (NO, NO2)

Health and safety

of the most important optical gas sensing techniques exploit absorption

Figure 4 Some fundamental gas absorption peaks in the mid-IR

In the mid-IR, the fundamental absorption is normally measured as this may be

Some of the gases commonly detected by absorption at UV and IR wavelengths

CO, CO2, CH4, NO, SF6, NH3, H2O, HCl

O3, H2S, SO2, NO, NO2, NH3, C6H6, Cl2

Table 4 Absorption-based gas sensing techniques

Most simple technique. IR is absorbed by the target gas in path

Absorption of UV light at wavelength specific to target gas, e.g.

Open-path technique, generally using UV/visible wavelengths.

Pressure waves arising from gas absorbing pulsed IR energy at a

IR absorption using a tuneable diode laser as the source. High

Measurement of the decay time of the IR light as it is multiply

containing the gas sample. Effective path-length of several km

Light enters a Michelson interferometer before passing through

Where h is Plancks constant. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to