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British Literature

The British Empire was once taking over many different territories and colonizing
around the world. In the twentieth century what was accepted as British
literature because more diverse. Britain diversified its self not only around the
world but people from all over came to Britain too. Many writings in this period
show this in different ways. Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own", Salmon
Rushdie's "English Is an Indian Literary Language", Ngugi WA Thiong'O's
"Decolonising the Mind", Wole Soyinka's "Telephone Conversation" are some
works that show the diversity of British literature.
Well known for colonialism, a policy by which a nation maintains or extends its
control over foreign dependencies, Britain was growing. More and more in the
twentieth century and after is where colonialism became neocolonialism, a policy
where a major power uses economic and political means to perpetuate or extend
its influence over underdeveloped nations or areas. This is when Diversity started
to grow all over the world. People were moving to different parts of the world to
explore, to gain power and to better their own lives. This is the time when
education started growing and more and more people were getting educated.
Women were beginning to be more out spoken and technology was advancing.
With all the change going on in the twentieth century women were also big parts
of this movement of diversity. The dramatic setting of "A Room of One's Own" by
Virginia Wolf is that she has been invited to lecture on the topic of Women and
Fiction. She advances the thesis that "a woman must have money and a room of
her own if she is to write fiction" (p.2092). Her essay is constructed as a partlyfictionalized narrative of the thinking that led her to accept this idea. The
narrator then reflects on the history of the university, thinking in particular of the
materials, labor, and money upon which it was founded and maintained.
Why have women have always been so poor, the narrator wonders later on
through out the story, thinking about how different things would have been "if
only Mrs. Seton and her mother and her mother before her had learnt the great
art of making money and had left their money"(p.2103) for the education of their
daughters. She is forced to concede, however, that a great sacrifice would have
been required "There would have beenthat was the snag in the argumentno
Mary." Plus, law and custom conspired to prevent those women from having any
legal property rights at all; they were themselves considered property. Where a
man would have been given free restraint, the narrator is restricted to a narrow
path on the Oxbridge campus, nor is she permitted to enter the college library.
These obstacles signify the effects of an educational culture that radically
restricts the capacity of a woman's intellectual exposure. Woolf identifies the fact
of being denied access whether to buildings or ideas as another type of
infringement on the freedom of the female mind. This segregation is a more of a
drastic kind of interruption, one that disturbs not just a single thought or dream,
but the life-long developmental of an individual or the historical development of
an intellectual tradition.
As the Britain rule still had a lot of influence Salmon Rushdie wrote "English Is an
Indian Literary Language". English was being pushed upon the natives and many
people had different opinions on what this represented. "English is by now the

world language."(p2540) Many people thought that it was a good idea to have
English as the primary language while others thought that their language was
better and superior. From his prospective he thinks that people are taking the
English language and making it their own, sort of like how we along the border
have made spanglish our own. Depending on where people live, I would say that
the English language varies. Older generations were fighting that English would
ruin their culture and their race while the younger generations went along with
the language, accepted it and used it, "They use it as an Indian language, as one
of the tools they have to hand,"(p.2540) which is what mainly people have been
doing since.
In India being such a big country is colonized differently. In the north Hindi which
is their primary language is looked and seen as better than English and people
do not really accept change as much. But in the south they embrace the English
language, "not only because of technical vocabularies and the international
communicationbut also simply to permit Indians to talk to each other
"(p.2540).He later wonders if he is Indian or British and says " Indian-born British
writer" (p2540) explains him. In conclusion to his writing he says that they
English language was the exclusive control the English people had in the rest of
the world.
African people were also diversifying British literature. Ngugi Wa Thiong'O wrote
"Decolonising the Mind" is both an explanation of how he came to write in
Gikuyu, as well as an exhortation for African writers to embrace their native
tongues in their art. Ngugi starts out making a good case for the obvious point,
that the relation of Africans to those imposed languages is a very different one
from that which the same Africans have to the native languages they speak at
home. Speaking and writing in the language of the colonizers will naturally be
different than in the language one speaks while at play or with one's family. In
addition, the language of the colonizer is often a truly foreign one; segments of
society understand it badly, if at all, and so certain audiences can not be reached
by works in these imposed languages.
Ngugi rightly complains that an educational focus that embraced essentially only
foreign works (not only foreign in language, but also in culture) was destructive,
"Thus language and literature were taking us further and further from ourselves
to other selves, from our world to other worlds"(p. 2536). Clearly there was and
probably still is a need to create a literature that conveyed the true African
experience, from the perspective of the local, not the visitor or outsider. The local
language is an integral part of conveying that experience, often because much of
local tradition has been preserved in that language. "Decolonising the Mind" is
an interesting, and too simple to understand work. It addresses significant
issues, and Ngugi's presentation is consistently appealing. Though aspects are
already dated, it can still serve as the basis for fruitful discussion of a subject
that continues to be of interest.
Wole Soyinka a Nigerian native was also influenced in her writings by the British.
She wrote "Telephone Conversation" a poem about different races and racism.
The speaker of the poem, a dark West African man searching for a new
apartment, tells the story of a telephone call he made to a potential landlady.
Instead of discussing price, location, amenities, and other information significant

to the apartment, they discussed the speaker's skin color. The landlady is
described as a polite, well-bred woman, even though she is shown to be
shallowly racist. The speaker is described as being genuinely apologetic for his
skin color, even though he has no reason to be sorry for something which he was
born with and has no control over. In this short poem, we can see that the
speaker is an intelligent person by his use of high diction and quick wit, not the
savage that the landlady assumes he is because of his skin color. When the land
lady asks for the color of his skin he is quick to respond, "Facially I'm brunette,
but madam, you should see the rest of me. Palm of my hand, soles of my feet are
peroxide blond," (p.2530). All of these discrepancies between what appears to be
and what really is create a sense of verbal irony that helps the poem display the
ridiculousness of racism.
The British Empire grew intensively throughout the twentieth century not only
territorial wise but culturally. Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own", Salmon
Rushdie's "English Is an Indian Literary Language", Ngugi WA Thiong'O's
"Decolonising the Mind", Wole Soyinka's "Telephone Conversation" are some of
the works that added diversity to British literature.

Imitation and Literature


Imitation and Literature

Imitation is a foundational concept in the creation and study of literature. The


fundamental assumptions embedded in imitation create a distinct and divisive
method of perception. Imitation requires a basic belief in separation: appearance
apart from reality, form apart from content. Literary works possess a dual
existence, where the surface becomes most useful in its ability to reveal the
substance contained within. Because the truth remains concealed, it can only be
discerned or discovered through imitation. Thus imitation exists as an
intermediary in a variety of artistic representations, each aspiring for an accurate
depiction of meaning, perhaps even the basic truths of human existence. For
Plato, however, art imitates a world that is already far removed from authentic
reality, Truth, an inherently flawed copy of an already imperfect world. Art as an
imitation is irrelevant to what is real. Many critics since Plato have attempted to
reestablish the essential value of art by redefining or renegotiating the
boundaries between imitation and authentic reality, between the text itself and
meaning.

From ancient to more modern critics, art is defined, vilified, or redeemed


by its ability to imitate. Aristotle values imitation as a natural process of
humanity. Tragedy is simply a manifestation of the human desire to imitate. He
asserts that every person "learns his lesson through imitation and we observe
that all men find pleasure in imitations" (44). Unlike Plato's world of Forms,
knowledge of truth and goodness are rooted in the observable universe to
Aristotle. Because imitation strives to create accurate particularized images of
the real world, it is a source for potential discovery and delight. Neoclassical
criticism accepts as givens Aristotle's statements about the nature of art and
reality. Art is valuable precisely because it is imitative. As Sir Philip Sydney
states, "Poesy is an art of imitation...with this end, to teach and delight" (137).
Imitation not only entertains, but gains a moral/ethical purpose: to teach virtue.

Artists must, in addition to possessing great creative skills, also bear moral
responsibility for shaping their imitations. Samuel Johnson seems to revisit
Plato's attack upon art with his admission that an accurate imitation of morally
questionable subject matter is not only unacceptable, but potentially harmful to
those who encounter it. In order to accommodate a strong moral sense, Johnson
describes imitation as a process of interpretation. "The business of a poet... is to
examine, not the individual, but the species...He must write as an interpreter of
nature" (229). Imitation and the role of the imitator has evolved. Rather than an
indiscriminate scribe copying an endless list of details both good and bad, each
artist attempts to imitate the general qualities of humanity that promote
goodness. Even within Romanticism, a writer like Wordsworth who challenges the
literary styles and moral authority of preceding traditions, seeks to express his
art by quietly imitating the inner, visceral, and emotional world of his own mind.
Imitation is transformed into a deeply personal but ultimately universal
experience, for Wordsworth "considers...the mind of a man as naturally the
mirror of the fairest and most interesting qualities of nature" (292).

Though definitions of imitation may have expanded in some eras or


contracted in others, I would submit that most (if not all) Western literary
criticism can be seen as an espousal of or reaction against the imitative function
of art. Imitation, whether a work of art points toward an abstract truth or the
subjective consciousness of an individual mind, presents a powerful theory of
human communication. With its beginnings in Kant, Formalist criticism has
surfaced as a response to mimetic assumptions about art and reality, insisting
that the form of a text is inseparable from its meaning. Formalism does provide a
counterpoint to representational art, but the boundaries of this debate have been
determined in advance by the very notion of imitation. It may be, as Susan
Sontag states, that "all Western consciousness of and reflection upon art have
remained within the... theory of art as mimesis or representation" (545). The
questions raised by imitation may well be integral and unavoidable in any
literary or critical enterprise.

Literature

In Oxford Concise Dictionary Literary Terms by Chris Baldick, characterization is defined


as the representation of persons in narrative and dramatic works which include direct and
indirect methods in inviting the readers to infer qualities from characters actions, speech, or
appearance. However, modals in literature context serve as an eye opener to the personality
and traits of the characters in short stories. It enables the readers to learn of the characters
abilities, capabilities, prohibitions, obligations and so forth. The appearance of modals in
literary texts serves its own specific purposes in accordance to the authors wish. In David
Leavitts Territory which describes the relationship between a mother (Mrs. Campbell) and
her son (Neil) who is a homosexual, gives me an interest to explore and find out more about
the characters. Through the use of modals found in the extract, it enables me to go in depth

and examine the characterization in the story.


Firstly, in paragraph 2, line 1 of the extract, the modal must is used by David Leavitt to
show one of Neils traits indirectly The last item puzzles him: Pedro. Pedro must be the
gardener. Here, as Neil read through his mothers daily list found on the kitchen table, he
came across the name Pedro which he was unfamiliar with. Eventually, he expressed an
assumption which he believed was true. However, instead of using could to indicate
possibility, the writer chose to use the modal must to reveal Neils inner self which was
lacking in confidence and even probably having a strong need of self assurance despite the
fact that the modal is meant to express certainty. Thus, the readers are able to know more of
Neils character as the modal is used to create a reverse effect on the readers as an irony.
Secondly, in this extract, Neil the protagonist is presented by the writer as a son who was torn
between his own desire to follow his heart or to live up to the society and his mothers
expectations of him. He tried to vision himself as the son that his mother expects of him
through the use of modal could He could make a list of his own selves: the child, the
adolescent, the promiscuous faggot son, and finally the good son, settled, relatively
successful. (Paragraph 2, line 3)By using the modal could, it gives the readers a feeling
that he is capable of doing what he was expected to and it only depends on whether he is
willing or not. And again, readers can see Neils strong need of self assurance. Leavitts goal
to vividly describe Neils inner conflict and struggle was achieved through the use of could.
Despite his vision of his own self as the promising son, Neils final decision was eventually
shown in the next sentence with the help of modals such as wouldnt and will. The modal
wouldnt in But the divisions wouldnt work (Paragraph 2, line 5) suggests Neils
certainty that all he had envisioned earlier on was impossible to realize and achieve. In
addition, a sense of helplessness was also delivered through the sentence, indicating his
inability to act according to what was expected of him. Therefore, the modal wouldnt
helps the readers to sympathize and go deeper into Neils feelings as it also draws him closer
to the readers at the same time. Later on, the appearance of modal will that is used
repeatedly further confirmed and reinforced Neils certainty of what his future holds for him he is today and will always be the child being licked by the doghe will still be
everything he is ashamed of. Leavitts use of will in such a way creates a strong
impression on the readers, suggesting the strong certainty and determination of Neil in
deciding what he wants for himself in his life.
As the story goes further on, Wayne was telling Mrs. Campbell about his family including his
mother who once entered The $64,000 Question show when Neil remembered the time he
urged his mother to enter a family show When I was about ten, I wanted you to go on
Jeopardy, (Paragraph 5, line 1) In his effort to remind his mother of a pleasant memory
they once shared in the past, Neils eagerness in doing so was displayed through modals such
as should have and would have besides displaying a sense of regret that it never
happened at the same time You really should have, you know. You would have won.
(Paragraph 5, line 2) On the contrary, it was also conveyed to the readers through the modals
that despite Neils eagerness, there was also a sense of wariness and caution as he posted this
statement. Due to the unseen barrier between him and his mother, he was conscious of his
statements and remarks instead of chatting freely and affectionately with his mother as what a
son usually does. Henceforth, through the modals, readers are aware and able to identify the
strained relationship in this family.
Next, the scene moves to the movie theatre in town where the three of them went for an
underwater musical, an Esther Williams movie. Neil, who was sitting between Wayne and his
mother in the nearly empty theatre, tried to show his affection to his mother again, hoping to
make a successful move in mending the strained relationship between them. Here, in the

midst of his attempt, Leavitt uses a modal to create suspense in paragraph 9, line 7 He
does not look at her, but he can tell from her breathing that she senses what he is doing.
Neils ability to sense his mothers consciousness is portrayed through the use of can in this
sentence, besides creating a tense atmosphere as both characters were strongly aware of what
was going on despite not looking at each other face to face. In addition, the modal can is
also used by the writer to tempt the readers to continue on with the story and develop their
curiosity as they will be eager to know what happened after that.
In short, modals are used effectively by David Leavitt in this extract to create several
different effects on readers such as irony, enlightenment, assurance, and suspense as the plot
moves on. Characters in a short story is enriched and brought alive through the use of modals
which serve their various functions in revealing the traits and thoughts of characters.
Evidently, without the appearance of modals in this extract, the short story would definitely
be dull and uninteresting. Furthermore, readers would not be able to analyse the traits of Neil
and his mother, Mrs. Campbell thoroughly and in depth for the purpose of empathising the
characters.

How to Cite this Page

World War Literature and Death


How do the writers of World War Literature respond to the theme of
death?
The theme of death is a prominent one in the context of war
literature. It is an important concept to include when considering the
nature of conflict and there are several devices which writers use in
order to attempt to convey this theme to the reader. The landscape of
the piece often plays an important role in literature with the use of
pathetic fallacy being sympathetic to the writers emotions and
intentions. The harsh bitter realism of war can be used as a shocking
device to expose the true effect of the conflict and this often leads
to the questioning tone that is present in some of the literature.
However, as well as this harsh reality there often appears to be a
ethereal theme to some of the texts which adds to the idea that the
reader will have difficulties to ever fully understanding the concept
of death during the first world war.
The landscape of the literature is a way of showing how nature is
sympathetic to the emotions of the writer. It adds to the depth of the
literature, creating a more profound tone to the texts as it presents

the idea that the theme of death in war time is consuming everything,
including nature. In Isaac Rosenburg's 'Returning, We Hear the Larks'
the landscape is an essential part of the poetry with 'This poison
blasted track opens on our camp' conveying that the war is not
escapable, along with 'sombre the night is'. The language used is
harsh, showing the idea of death and destruction and particularly the
use of night seems to provide the idea that the writer is lacking
direction, lost in the concept of war. This is echoed in Richard
Aldington's 'Farewell to Memories' with 'the colourless winter dawn
hovered mournfully over a desecrated land' there still remains this
uncertain tone that the 'colourless winter' is hovering, almost
suggesting that it may stay or it may not. This is similar to the idea
of death, it was an uncertain factor of the war and therefore a battle
for survival, shown by Rosenburg: 'And though we have our lives, we
know/ what sinister threat lurks there.' This uncertainty and loss of
direction can be seen in other World War One literature such as Vera
Brittain's 'Testament of Youth' where, in response to her fianc
Roland's death she writes: 'Yet I cannot feel very acutely-I don't
feel anything but an utter, utter weariness'. The female response to
this theme is different as they are experiencing the loss from the
home front rather than trying to survive within the nature of war but
it seems to have an 'elongated' theme to it. It suggests that this
loss of direction will remain for a long time and this can also be
seen in Charlotte Mew's 'The Cenotaph' with 'There is a grave whose
earth must hold too long, too deep a stain'. The perspective of women
on the theme of war seems to support the idea of long term loss and
that memories of the event will continue for another generation.
Often, literature from the first world war can offer the reader a part
of the harsh, bitter realism that came from the war, that would
otherwise be lost in the metaphorical nature of some literature from
the war. Aldington's 'Farewell to Memories' shows the vulnerability of
the youth that experienced death due to the conflict of the war: 'That
was the symbol of the youth of a generation, lines of crosses'. This
poignant phrase was supported by other writers of the war, that a
generation of men had been taken away by death. Owen's 'Disabled'
shows that those young people who survived the war found that their
youth had been killed: 'for it was younger than his youth, last year.
Now he is old: his back will never brace.' The death of youth is an
important theme throughout first world war poetry, a poignant idea
that a generation has disappeared and Mew's reflection of this a year
after the war, standing at the Cenotaph provides the reader with some
of the hindsight at the time: 'Where only yesterday the wild sweet
blood of a wonderful youth was shed.' The tone of a piece can often be
very important in showing this harsh bitter realism and Rifleman Jack
Brown's account in Lyn Macdonald's 'The Somme' has an informal,
colloquial tone: 'They'd gone as black as pitchand, not to tell a

lie, dead bodies as well'. This tone provides the reader with evidence
of a real account, a personal account which shows the emotions of the
ordinary man in the war. The use of this informal tone is echoed in
other pieces of literature, for example Ruth Comfort-Mitchell's 'He
went for a soldier' uses the phrase 'Billy the soldier-boy!' providing
once again the idea of the death of youth and a tone which provides a
greater intimacy with the emotions.
There is evidence of questioning in this literature as to why the war
had happened. Mew's 'The Cenotaph' does this in the last stanza of her
poem:
'While looking into every busy whore's face
As they drive their bargains, is the face
Of God: and some young, piteous, murdered face.'
Once again the theme of youth is examined and questioning why so many
of a generation had to die. However, it also questions other sections
of society as well as faith. It appears to be turning to several
angles to ask why this happened, using a 'collective why'. Sassoon's
statement of wilful defiance has a similar theme and tone: 'I have
seen the sufferings of the troops, and I can no longer be a party to
prolong those sufferings for ends which I believe to be evil and
unjust' this is an important piece to show the questioning of the war
in relation to the theme of death as it is from 1917, when enthusiasm
for the war in society was wearing very thin. The language is succinct
and Sassoon is concise in making his stand. It is the voice of
soldiers who have seen the death incurred at the hands of war and wish
to prevent it and therefore it provides a greater insight into the
emotions of readers. Combined with Sassoon's poetry like 'They' with
'And the Bishop said: 'The ways of God are strange!'' it shows a
criticism of many angles of society, like Mew's 'The Cenotaph'
provoked by the extent of death from the war.
'They' by Sassoon is an important piece in showing a lack of faith due
to the destructive nature of the war. However, in some literature
there does seem to be a theme of the ethereal, which presents the idea
that the war was something that was unreal or impossible to
comprehend. The idea of slumber appears to be prominent with
Rosenburg's 'Like a blind man's dream on the sand' and Mew's 'In
splendid sleep, with a thousand brothers' as well as Anna Gordon
Keown's 'Reported Missing' with 'The world's adrowse in twilight
hushfulness'. It provides a view of a different world, that the blind
man can see his dreams but not reality, it appears to be beyond
reality and into something more like an afterlife. The language is

softer than that used to show the harsh bitter reality of war and is
reminiscent of sleep, slower and more thoughtful. It removes the idea
of death, destruction and war to create this ethereal experience,
which can be said to be closely linked with faith in God as shown in
the account by Rifleman Jack Brown: 'I just said a little prayer for
myself'. However, there is a contrasting view seen throughout some
pieces of World War One literature that, due to the nature of war and
the deaths of a generation of men, that faith in God was limited. This
is shown in 'Journey's End' by R C Sheriff with 'Damn God' as well as
Sassoon's 'They' with 'The ways of God are strange.'
The theme of death in World War One literature is prominent but dealt
with in a variety of different ways. The use of landscape, realism,
the ethereal and questioning create a disbelief as well as an attempt
to cope with the death of the conflict. The perspective of men and
women differs as the women seem express emotions in a comprehensible
fashion whilst the men, often scarred by the things that they have
experienced provide the reader with less of an insight. This is
supported by Aldington saying 'There was no room for bitterness even,
no need for speech' and Margery Lawrence commenting on the perspective
of men with 'Darkness and silence received them and smothered their
pain.' The issue is dealt with in a style that provides the reader
with an insight of the horrors of the war whilst also showing the
opinion of society of the day on the loss of a generation. The
language used varies depending on the intention of the piece from the
harsh language of the realism to the 'sleepy' language of the ethereal
theme. The writers successfully use a range of devices to respond to
the theme of death during the first world war.

English Literature Poems


Compare the methods that Presents from my Aunts in Pakistan employs
to highlight the importance of cultural identity with another poem?
I have chosen to compare Presents and Hurricane as both poems
highlight the importance of cultural identity in society. Both poets
Alvi and Nicholas employ many different and similar methods to
illustrate the importance of cultural identity.
The poem Presents is about the writer herself at a younger age
feeling insecure as she is of dual heritage (mixed race) in my
English Grandmothers dining - room. In the poem the poet begins to
conflict with herself as she believes that she is not of one set race
I was there of no fixed nationality. Throughout the poem the poet

begins to show her insecurity as she begins to respond to the presents


her aunties bought her from her native land negatively I could never
be as lovely as those clothes. A t the end of the poem the Alvi is
unable to resolve her problem as she finishes the poem feeling rather
down saying I was there of no fixed nationality. The poem
Hurricane is rather similar in the way that it is again
autobiographical. In the poem the writer is also in conflict with
herself as she has left her motherland Guyana to move to England. At
first the poet dreaded England but as soon as there was news of a
Hurricane she began to feel much at home as hurricanes happen often in
the southern equator. The writer shows her relationship with the
hurricane by referring to it as her sweeping a back home cousin. At
the end of the poem the writer resolves her problem which is her
conflict with herself as she misses her homeland Come to let me know
that the earth is the earth. The similarities of the poems are that
they both involve the same situation which is conflict with another
culture.
Both poems Presents and Hurricane are autobiographical as I is
used which is a first person pronoun. Even though the poem Presents
begins with the third person pronoun They however the poet uses many
first person references such as me, I, and My. The poem
Hurricane also uses third person references such as her which is
employed to distance the character. Presents is structured to show
the conflict of the characters culture and identity. In each paragraph
each sentence is aligned differently however in Hurricane it is
structured differently. In Hurricane the poem is structured to show
to build up the climax. The first stanza shows the emotional
detachment of the author to the hurricane. In the poem each paragraph
shows the progression to contentment as well as acceptance.
Throughout the poem the writer employs many techniques to highlight
the importance of cultural identity. In Presents the poet begins
with the first person pronoun They which is plural. This is used to
distance herself from her aunts. In the first sentence the writer uses
the culturally specific term salwar kameez to refer to the Indian
dress. This is done to add a sense of realism to the poem. Within the
poem the writer uses post modification of the noun blue when referring
to the dress as being peacock blue. The poet applies this technique
to make the poem sound more realistic and conversational as if she had
just come to her mind. He also uses post modification when it comes
to describing the sari apple green sari.
The writer post modifies the word blue with the word peacock as
a peacock is considered to be an exotic, vibrant and luxurious animal.
In the poem the poet uses verbs. In the third line of the first
paragraph Alvi uses the verb glistening as it really conveys an

expensive nature.
Throughout the poem the writer repeats I to emphasise her individual
from Pakistan. The poet also makes use of similes in the poem marvel
at the colours like stained glass. The poet uses this simile to
emphasise the beauty of the colours. Alvi also uses empathy Prickly
heat. Alvi does this show her character as being uncomfortable.
In Hurricane the writer uses the third person pronoun her even
though the poem is autobiographical. The poet does this purposely to
distance herself from her home, her identity and her culture. The poet
also uses personification as he personifies the wind as if it were a
ship The howling ship of the wind. The employs this technique as it
helps the reader build a more vivid picture. It also helps describe
the situation better (whats happening). In that same line that poet
also makes use of onomatopoeia when using the word howling. The
writer uses onomatopoeia to.
In the poem the poet uses participial adjectives gathering. The poet
uses participle adjectives as makes the reader feel like what
happening is continual in this example movement. The poet also employs
antonyms and oxymorons fearful and reassuring. The poet employs
these to. In the next stanza the poet employs repetition and triadic
structure Talk to me Huracan, Talk to me Oya, Talk to me Shango. The
writer uses repetition as it emphasises the point or the feelings, in
this case it emphasise the poets relationship with the hurricane. The
poet also uses triadic structure as things are easier to remember in
threes. The poet employs these two techniques in the same lines as it
sounds like an incantation/spell as well as it sounding like a
conversation with the storm gods. In the beginning of the second
paragraph the writer uses the first person singular pronoun me to
highlight that the lines are personal. The poet also uses rhetorical
questions tell me why u visit, An English coast. The poet uses this
technique to show her confusion as well as to make the reader think.
In this poem the poet employs metaphors the blinding illumination.
This metaphor is used to illustrate that her character (herself) is
having a revelation or as you could say an epiphany. In the third
paragraph the poet uses second person pronoun you to address the
storm. In the fourth paragraph the writer begins with the line What
is the meaning of trees. He purposely starts off with this line as it
sounds rather philosophical and spiritual. Within the poem the poet
uses the simile falling as heavy as whales. The poet uses this
simile because it helps the audience build a vivid picture in this
case the simile implies that the trees make huge impact when falling
as would a whale. Under the fourth paragraph there is a free verse
line. The free verse line starts with the word O. The poet begins
with this as it shows emotion and heightens the impact. In this free

verse line the poet uses another metaphor why is my heart unchained.
This metaphor is used to show that the character has resolved her
problem.

Relationships in Pre-twentieth Century Literature

---------------------------------The art (or artfulness) of courtship as displayed in three pieces of


pre-twentieth century literature and Trainspotting
In this essay I will be discussing the various ways in which three
pieces of pre-twentieth century literature and the film Trainspotting
went about following/not following convention in regard to
relationships. I will be discussing two poems in the forms of sonnets,
called Sonnet to Idea by Drayton, and Sonnet 130 by Shakespeare. I
will also discuss the novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, and
the screenplay Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh.
Courtship is another word for dating/courting with an eventual view to
marriage. The verb 'to court' is when attention is paid to another
person whose love and interests are pursued by another person.
Convention is a term representing how certain things are normally done
and what is the regular procedure for something, for example in this
case dating.
I will begin by discussing the sonnet written by Drayton in the 16th
century, called Sonnet to Idea. A sonnet consists of 14 lines and 10
syllables per line (lambic pentameter), with the every other line
having a rhyming pattern of AB AB, and the last couple of lines has a
CC pattern.
In this poem, Drayton attempts to persuade his mistress to spend the
night with him. He uses arguments to convince her to spend the night
with him, arguing living things are happier than her. This is shown in
the very first line of the second quatrain, 'How happy are all other
living things' and begins to address and personify the night in
quatrain three, 'Why shouldst thou, Night, abuse me only thus', which
indicates his feelings that love is best suited at night, and the
night 'abuses' him of this 'necessity'. He uses hyperbole in this
poem, and the final couplet epitomizes his anguish at fearing
rejection at night, so he may as well welcome the next day if no love
is exchanged,
Well could I wish it would be ever day, If when might comes, you bid
me goe away.

This poem follows convention in the sense Drayton compliments and


admires his mistress, 'Me thinks this time becommeth lovers best'
expressing his desire to make love to her, but we constantly feel the
frustration this man endures because of the rejection he is receiving,
'And yet tis thou doost only sever us?'
I will now discuss the other 16th century sonnet by William
Shakespeare call Sonnet 130.
In this poem, Shakespeare mocks the traditional Petrarchan Sonnet and
presents a metaphoric parody. He spends a lot of time expressing the
qualities his mistress doesn't possess, which is out of the ordinary,
'My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun' and 'coral is far more
red than her lips red' which subverts convention. He also goes on to
express how his mistress' breath is not very pleasant, which is rather
the opposite of convention as he does any thing but compliment her!
And in some perfumes is there more delight, Than in the breath that
from my mistress reeks
Shakespeare nevertheless fulfils convention in the last two sentences
of the sonnet (couplet), in that he expresses his genuine love for his
mistress. He is more honest in the declaration of his love than
Drayton, 'I think my love as rare. As any she belied with false
compare'. He critiques the poets who use soppy, sickly sweet
comparisons of love to all sorts of things and expresses that he
prefers her the way she is, and in fact what we thought of as negative
comments made by Shakespeare, turned out to be indirect compliments!
The sonnet is also about his lady and is traditional to convention in
that he states his true feelings and love for her.
I am now going to discuss Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice
written in the early 19th century, published in 1813.
"Pride and Prejudice" is a novel that pays much attention to a woman
named Elizabeth Bennet, belonging to a middle-classed family living in
Longbourne, Hertfordshire. Elizabeth, or Lizzie as she is known, is
offered two proposals of marriage by two very different men. They
belong to completely different classes and both have totally different
ways of proposing, but have some similarities.
I will begin by discussing Mr Collins' proposal as he was first in
proposing to Lizzie.
Mr Collins' is a clergyman living in Hunsford and is cousins with the
Bennet's. He is desperate to marry as he wants to set an example to
the parish. Mr Collins follows convention by asking for permission in
marrying Elizabeth (but is rather odd in doing so as he asks Mrs

Bennet instead of Mr Bennet) He sets about it in a very ordinary


manner, with all the observances he supposes a regular part of the
business. He asks Elizabeth to marry him as though it were a job
offer, as he compliments her 'qualifications' indicating there is no
love involved. This shows he doesn't understand women or courtship
convention. He also is adamant 'it adds to your perfections' when
Elizabeth politely rejects his proposal, and persists in marrying her.
He seems to think marriage is a game,
I am not now to learn, that it is usual with young ladies to reject
the addresses of the men whom they secretly mean to accept
This means he feels women play hard-to-get by saying no, but secretly
feel honoured. He shows his awareness of convention by talking to her
as though he has read an 'How to Court' instruction manual,
It is established custom of your sex to reject a man on the first
application
This shows he views marriage as a contract, and wants to get married
to fulfil his patroness' demands,
Mr Collins you must marry, a clergyman in easy circumstances must set
the example of matrimony in the parish
And he also goes by her feelings, 'Chuse a gentlewoman for my sake'.
He thinks he knows about convention because he is so confident and
complimentary of Elizabeth, but has got it horribly wrong.
I will now discuss Mr Darcy's proposal.
Mr Darcy is an upper class, extremely wealthy and well-thought of man
who follows convention but also contradicts it as well. He has a
genuine reason for wishing to marry Elizabeth, obviously not for
wealth or inheritance, but because of genuine love he gradually feels
for her the more he sees her. He follows convention because he states
his true feelings about Elizabeth,
In vain have I struggled. It will not do, my feelings will not be
repressed. You must allow me to tell you how ardently I admire and
love you.
He then contradicts this by not following convention, because he
doesn't ask permission for her hand in marriage, and didn't make his
feelings clear before his proposal. Mr Darcy feels he should dictate
whether Elizabethshould accept a proposal from such a gentleman, when
he says,
And this all the reply which I am to have the honour of expecting! I

might, perhaps, wish to be informed why, with so little endeavour at


civility, I am thus rejected.
Mr Darcy quickly recovers composure and becomes calmer when 'with
assumed tranquillity' he shows more awareness of breaking convention
when he expresses how he persuaded Mr Bingley to avoid marrying
Elizabeth's sister Jane as she is his 'inferior', but doesn't spare
himself to Lizzie.
He then wants to leave as quickly and abruptly as possible as the
whole conversation is a class issue, and so he 'hastily quit the room'
Elizabeth is faced with two dilemmas because of the utterly different
proposals offered to her. She is expected to accept their offers but
because she is aware of convention, 'the established mode to express a
sense of obligation', she indicates a woman of lower class must be
flattered a wealthy man (such as Mr Darcy) has proposed to her, and so
shocks them both when she refuses their proposals.
The final example of conventional writing is a screenplay by Irvine
Welsh called Trainspotting. The screenplay was written in the 20th
century, and is about a man called Renton attempting to chat up an
attractive woman, Diane, that has caught his attention. Diane has just
rejected a man trying to chat her up by offering a drink, and she
obliges by accepting the drink but not the man. Rentonuses an original
chat up line to impress Diane, luring her with compliments on how she
handled the man in the doorway,
Excuse me, I don't mean to harass you, but I was very impressed by the
capable and stylish manner in which you dealt with that situation. I
thought to myself: she's special.
'She's special' also becomes clichd. He follows convention in the way
he uses words like 'special' and 'impressed' to make her feel at ease
and comfortable, and he asks quick-fired questions. Diane plays hard
to get with Rentonand plays him at his own game, showing her awareness
of convention by not giving away too much information when she
answers. Both Renton and Diane play with convention, particularly the
delivery and response to the chat-up lines.
In conclusion to this essay, I think convention has evidently changed
over the last four hundred years, but there are still some of the old
age necessities that are important like, love. For example nowadays
people do not have to ask a parents consent for marriage, like in
"Pride and Prejudice", so convention has changed in that sense.
Compliments don't seem to have changed when either flattering a
mistress or when chatting-up someone, like in Sonnet 130, and in
Trainspotting. So although some aspects of courtship have changed, the
true principles, like love remain unchanged.

Nineteenth Century Literature Heroines and Conformity


By definition, a heroine is a woman who would typically encompass the qualities
of nobility, courage, independence and strength. Nineteenth century English
women would have struggled to accomplish any of these particular acts of
heroism within their social environment as ultimately, their roles within
civilisation saw them becoming a good wives and mothers and before that,
obliging and caring daughters. Within this ubiquitous discourse of separate
spheres, Kathryn Gleadle suggests that women were encouraged to see
themselves as relative creatures', whose path in life was to nurture the family
and to provide unstinting support for the head of the household' In this respect,
the nineteenth century British woman conforming to this path' would prove to
be the heroine of that time as a free-spirited independent individual would have
been cast aside as socially unacceptable. Essentially, although it would appear
that many women wished to lead active, working lives and so make an important
contribution, either to their families or to social welfare, the woman's position
[was] to preside over a loving home whilst men were to brave the vicissitude and
demands of public and business life' Novelists Thomas Hardy and Emily Bront
present us with two strong and independent females Tess Durbeyfield and
Catherine Earnshaw. These women are far from the idealistic view of nineteenth
century females; Tess, intelligent and strikingly attractive, strives to uphold the
values expected of her but outside forces beyond her control determine her fate.
Catherine on the other hand begins her life free-spirited, rebellious and of a wild
nature. However, her inner desire craves social ambition which, in turn, shows
her slowly representing culture and civilisation.
Tess, the protagonist and heroine of Hardy's novel, becomes a victim of rape and
in turn, her life grows to become degraded, humiliating and depressing; of which
none of these things she deserves. Although initially striving to be heroic and
providing for her family, (after she was responsible for the death of Prince) the
position she takes on at the d'Urbervilles' ultimately leads to her death as she is
raped and then pursued by her seducer Alec d'Urberville until she must murder
him. This courageous yet dangerous decision to murder Alec epitomises her
character as a heroine as she is brave enough to perform such a malicious act in
order to kill her suffering at the root rather than being passive and perhaps
choosing to take her own life instead. By murdering Alec, Tess redeems herself
from the passive role that she has been forced into. Alec's rapacious use of her
body represents the male manipulation of female frailty. Through Tess' tyranny it
may not seem that she possesses many traits of a heroine but Hardy has
injected his character with an ever present sense of hope; Tess felt the pulse of
hopeful life still warm within her; she might be happy in some nook which had no
memories. To escape the past and all that appertained thereto was to annihilate
it'. It is this admirable and feisty attitude that gives Tess the will and strength to
be virtuous.
In Wuthering Heights, Bront depicts her heroine as an admirable and feisty
woman like Tess, however Catherine's arrogance and need for social
advancement differentiates her from Tess in the way that her character comes
across as more in control of her destiny. Fortunately, for Catherine her wealth

and middle-upper class family background gives her the ability to be in more
control of her future whereas Tess' future lies in the hands of the work that she is
able to get and the wealth of the man she decides to marry. In her essay Gender
and the Victorian Novel, Nancy Armstrong suggests that the nineteenth century
woman would Marry a man with whom [they] were compatible if [they] could' to
avoid degradation of impoverishment or worse, the need to work for a living'
In terms of Catherine Earnshaw or Tess Durbeyfield embracing the former
statement by Armstrong, in their own individual manner, they show signs of
conforming to it. Catherine could' marry Heathcliff, but chooses Edgar to avoid
impoverishment or degradation. Heathcliff is unstable as a husband as he has no
firm family ties. As Catherine points out, It would degrade me to marry
Heathcliff' but she is fighting her true love for him, she says, If all else perished
and he remained I should still continue to be.' Tess on the other hand would
initially rather work than be in any way involved with the repulsive and
malevolent Alec. It is clear that she is uncomfortable working as a farmhand and
milkmaid when she struggles to socialise with the other workers in communally
singing lower-class folk ballads. It is at this stage that we can clearly see the
aristocracy within Tess, visible in her graceful beauty and unease in the lowerclass environment. However, on the unfortunate death of Tess' father she is
forced to go to Alec, after her rejection from Angel, in order to avoid the
inevitable poverty of herself and her family. Although both women ultimately
choose the socially acceptable roles, it is apparent in their behaviour and private
thoughts that they have made the wrong decisions. The love between Tess and
Angel is portrayed by Hardy as pure and romantic and as a reader we begin to
feel pleasure in Tess' happiness as she forgets about her traumatic past and
embraces her new found love. On Angel's proposal to her she feels guilty that he
is unaware of the sordid events of the past and dutifully decides to tell him.
Although she is afraid of his reaction she feels that loves counsel would prevail.'
Her honest and integral qualities combined with her deep and true love for him is
what persuades Tess to tell him. Hardy captures this moment of Tess' angst
perfectly:
Every see-saw of her breath, every wave of the blood, every pulse singing in
her ears, was a voice that joined with nature in revolt against her
scrupulousness. Reckless inconsiderate acceptance of him; to close with him at
the altar, revealing nothing, and chancing discovery; to snatch ripe pleasure
before the iron teeth of pain could have time to shut upon her: that was what
love counselled; and in almost terror of ecstasy Tess divined that despite her
many months of lonely self-chastisement, wrestlings, communings, schemes to
lead a future of austere isolation loves counsel would prevail'
Tess is heroically choosing the man she loves rather than falling into a marriage
with Alec but in her integral and brave honesty she looses him and for the sake
of her family is obligated to accept Alec's proposal. Catherine, on the other hand,
in Wuthering Heights completely disregards her love for Heathcliff in preference
of Edgar Linton.
On her return from Thrushcross Grange Catherine behaviour has changed

considerable from a fierce young girl to an elegant young woman. Her education
at the Grange has secured that the manners of a lady have been forced upon her
as well as the conformities of a woman. Once married to Edgar Catherine strives
to become an independent woman but the social rules indoctrinated in society
leave her trapped as once a woman married she became a feme covert'. All
her personal property became her husbands,' including her body. Catherine feels
degraded to have become a woman and wishes she were a girl again, half
savage and hardy, and free' Catherine has been converted at a stroke into
Mrs. Linton' Sandra M. Gilbert states that Given the patriarchal nature of
culture, women must fall that is, they are already fallen because doomed to
fall' Catherine also expresses her misery in the separation that Hindley ordered
between me and Heathcliff' It is clear to see in this chapter that Catherine's joy
and happiness lies with Heathcliff, she has ultimately conformed to her sociable
acceptable role and in doing so make everyone around her miserable as if she
cannot be happy she will not allow anyone else to be. She attempts and fails to
force Edgar into submission and looses what she loves the most in life. Her death
symbolises her will to be free from the social restriction cast upon her as she
shows no pain in death, just a total outburst of her freedom of thought. Gilbert
expresses Catherine as a princess in love with a prisoner in a dungeon'
To conclude, in the 1850's and 1860's, it seems that fiction made the selection of
a husband the most important thing a woman did. This view is prominent in both
novels as ultimately the downfall of Catherine and Tess is rooted from their poor
decision of husband. Hardy and Bront choose these paths for their heroines but
are explicit in their story-telling to make the reader aware that they are unhappy
women and although choosing to conform in the hope that it will benefit their
positions, theis choices finally lead to their deaths. It was common to perceive
female characters as passive in the novel and it was the preferred perception.
However, David states, in the defence of women's passivity, What femininity
looses in terms of socio economic independence, it thus regains with a
vengeance in symbolic terms as women become the arbiters of taste and
gentility' . In their conformity, both Catherine and Tess cannot hide the way they
truly feel and it is in this integrity of emotion and mental strength that we can
see these heroines develop in their female roles.

Huckleberry Finn in High School Literature Courses


---------------------------------I Believe that Huckleberry Finn should be taught and read in high school American literature
courses, but only if students are provided with a teacher who can properly analyze and teach
in a way that effectively shows this books true purpose as a satire of society. For if this is
inefficiently done, the book can most certainly become offensive and crude, and as Wallace
adamantly expresses can be "humiliating and insulting to black students" (source A). This
book requires a mature audience of readers who must be able to look beyond the seemingly
insulting surface. And readers must also understand that the message provided is not meant to
have a similar effect as a speech by Martin Luther King. It is instead something more of a

magnifying glass that Twain uses to illuminate overall the corruption and hypocrisy that
drives society. It is not Twains solution, but instead his attempt to arouse awareness of the
flaws in society and the flaws ourselves. While proceeding within these boarders, I believe
that this book can produce a heightened sense of awareness and maturity out of its readers.
At its simplest form, disregarding all racial content, this book is a classic and holds literary
value that is important for young readers and writers to experience. It shows effective use of
irony and satire, both literary tools that should be taught to high school students. Also, Twain
was one of the first authors to produce a righting style that was anything but the traditional
romanticism. Twain sparked the literary switch into realism which vastly affects our literature
today. In this way, this book has an essential place in the history of literature and is therefore
important to be taught.
Yet, no amount of literary stature can make this book's contentious content ignorable. Critics
rave that Twain's use of the word "nigger", his creation of Jim to be simpleminded and
submissive, and the torturous end of the novel all together make this book "the most
grotesque example of racist trash ever written"(Wallace). However I believe that twain uses
all of his racy content for a specific purpose. Weather it be to contradict or to criticize, I don't
think that twain ever throws anything in just for his own enjoyment or to cause problems. If
looked at with a careful eye, it can be seen how each and every part of this novel is a crucial
element to Twains overall discussion of society.
Primarily it is my belief that the use of the word "nigger" is simply Twain trying to properly
depict the time period in which he is writing about. Twain spent years studying the speech of
all of the types of people in the Mississippi region, so that he could precisely depict the
culture. At this time, the word "nigger" was just part of common vernacular. However, more
than just accuracy drives Twain to use this word. All through out the book, we see Huck's
subconscious leading him to love and respect Jim. We also see Jim proving time and time
again his equality to Huck. However, Huck can never escape calling Jim a nigger. So why is
it that with all that Jim has proven to be, Huck can never consider Jim his equal? Either this is
twain trying to make Huck a bad person, or it is twain trying to show the extremity to which
society can brain wash and take control of a person.
Along with the use of offensive language, critics often claim that twain advocates racist
stereotypes through out the personality and traits of the character Jim. Julius Lester in source
C criticizes that that twain also makes "odious parallels" such as one between Huck's being
locked in a cabin, and Jim's legal enslavement. I agree, that there are many parallels in this
book, however I believe that twain uses them to do quite the opposite and promote Jim's
character. For example, the scenes of Huck's captivity that Lester discusses are provided for
an alternative purpose. If twain was trying to create some sort of connection between Huck's
being locked in a cabin, and slavery, I would like to think that he would at last give the reader
some clue into this notion. As a reader I certainly never made that connection, but that could
just be my lack of insight. However, I did find a seemingly more obvious parallel between
Huck's dad and Jim. Twain sets them both in fatherly positions towards Huck, and therefore
sets them up for comparison. There is even a specific scene in which Jim confesses to Huck
about the one time he hit his child, from which the reader draws a direct connection to pap.
We see that Pap is a drunkard who beats his child daily, where as Jim after hitting his child
once, cries and regrets it so much that he is unable to ever forgive himself. We see Jim
constantly sacrificing himself for the happiness and safety of Huck, while the only reason
why Pap even took Huck in was so that he could get a hold of Huck's fortune, naturally so
that he could get drunk. As So by providing the character of pap, Twain is purposefully trying
to show Jim to be superior emotionally and morally, both which directly contradict the
common stereotype of blacks at this time.
Another parallel that twain provides involves the many tricks that are played through out this

book. Huck seems to be constantly playing tricks on Jim, something that critics might say
fortifies that boundary of slave/master, and makes Jim seem simpleminded and dumb.
However Jim is not the only one who is victim to trickery in this book. There are also the
southern town's people who are constantly being fooled by the king and the duke.
Interestingly what we see happen is that when Jim is tricked, weather it is consciously or
subconsciously, he always seems to turn it around and provide for his own favor. This is what
Smith depicts in his essay, with the examples of the "witch" and the "hairball" incident where
Jim raises his status and gets usable money. Another incident is that on the river where Huck
and Jim get separated. This is a crux scene in the novel because for the first time we see Jim
humbling Huck. He says to Huck " Dat truck dah is trash; en trash is what people is dat puts
dirt on de head er dey fren's en makes 'em ashamed.'" and intern show that the equality that
exists between them. However in all the incidents with the king and the duke, the town's
people never seem to bring any good out of their predicaments, as Jim does. They seem to
always end up low down, back stabbing, and broke. So it is because of this that I disagree
with the former critics. I believe that twain uses these parallels, not trying to promote the idea
that black people are simpleminded and gullible, but instead and show Jim to be "in most
ways a better man than the men who regarded him as their inferior"(smith).
Some critics do recognize this, and agree that twain provides Jim with positive status.
However they argue that all of this is torn down in the end of the book when Jim is tortured
and humiliated for the imaginative pleasure of tom sawyer. "on the raft he (Jim) was an
individual, man enough to denounce Huck when Huck made him the victim of a practical
joke. In the closing episode however, we loose sight of Jim in the maze of farcical invention."
(Source D). Then there are some who don't think that the end of the book is intended to be
racially demeaning, but are still baffled and suppose that twain just ran out of ideas. However
I think that twains' ending was very much intentional, and is used for achieving a specific
goal. I think that this ending instead provides a humorous but direct criticism of the
submissiveness that exists as a whole in our society, but also inside everyone. Twain is
playing off human's tendency to be passive, to go with the flow, to do what is simplest and
causes least disruption, even if that goes against, which it often does, our inner morals and
"naked" instincts. Twain depicts the lack of initiative stand up for what we know deep down
to be right, especially if it were to go against the will of a loved and revered one. That is why
this ending is so painful for us to read. It provides to the submissiveness that lies within all of
us. And so through this he provides his message. If we don't like what Huck is doing, we are
more likely to apply it and do this opposite in our lives. Therefore twain is implementing for
humans to act against this passivity and stand up for our instincts.
Through all of his racy or offensive content, twain is truly trying to depict the deep extent to
which society controls us. Twain has shown that often times, even in the people that we most
despise instincts can be good. However it is a rare case in which a person can acknowledge
and stand up for these instincts if they go against what society has taught us.
Through all of this, Huck fin does more than just show a new style of righting to achiever its
title of "masterpiece." This book gives shows us a society of the past, and how this societies
embedded stereotypes and biases smudged the hopeful fates of two friends. And although
stereotypes may have changed, the overall message of twain's book is timeless. If we
constantly try to prove ourselves by the standards of society, we will end up succumbing to
the submissiveness, and may not be able to escape it.
Literature of the 1970s

The literature of the 1970s contains a divergent amount of writers and genres.
Poems, novels, and short stories are the main forms of expression, and these
were produced by writers from around the world. Many of the books in the
1970s revolve around a general theme of mans alienation from his spiritual
roots(Gillis).
One author of the seventies is John Updike. He portrayed his characters trying
to find the meaning in a society spiritually empty and in a state of moral
decay(Gillis).
Interest in the 1970s focused on writers as disparate in the concerns and styles
as V.S. Pritchett and Doris Lessing(English Literature). V.S. Pritchett is noted as
a literary critic of remarkable education. She is also considered a master of the
short story. Doris Lessing went from writing short stories collected as African
novels concerning the role of women in contemporary society.
No playwright dominated this decade of both social and artistic unrest. Among
the most acknowledged were Sam Shepherd, Lanford Wilson, David Mamet, and
Neil Simon(Gillis). Another noted playwright is Edward Franklin Albee. He is an
American playwright whose most successful plays focus on familial relationships.
His early plays are characterized by themes typical of the theater of the absurd.
The characters suffer from an inability or unwillingness to communicate
meaningfully or to sympathize or empathize with one another(English
Literature).
Another author of the seventies is Iris Murdoch. A teacher of philosophy as well
as a writer, she is esteemed for slyly comic analyses of contemporary lives in her
many novels such as The Black Prince. Murdochs effects are made by the
contrast between her eccentric characters and the underlying seriousness of her
ideas(English Literature).
Eudora Welty, an American writer was born in Jackson, Mississippi. Some of her
novels include The Robber Bridegroom, Delta Wedding, The Ponder Heart, and
Losing Hearts. Her skillful re-creation of regional patterns of speech and thought
make her well-noted. Weltys main subject is the intricacies of human
relationships, particularly as revealed through her characters interactions in
intimate social encounters(Eudora Welty: Biography). Most of her novels and
short stories are tales of eccentric and even hideous characters. She portrays
them with charm and sympathetic humor. Many of the stories that brought her
fame first appeared in The New Yorker Magazine.
Another American novelist during the seventies was Michael Shaara. He was a
short-story writer whose writing on military matters is known for its historical
accuracy and realism. Shaaras fiction examines the behavior of men faced with
difficult circumstances. He finished writing The Killer Angels in 1974. Its a novel
about the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War. The book re-creates the
battle from the points of view of both Northern and Southern officers. Praised for

its attention to detail and its historical accuracy, the book won the 1975 Pulitzer
Prize(English Literature).
Nadine Gordimer is a novelist and short-story writer. In her books, Gordimer
sympathetically presents the position of non-whites while conveying the
conflicting feelings of liberal whites who live under a system they believe to be
wrong(Gordimer, Nadine). She won the Booker Prize in 1974 for her novel, The
Conservationist.
Sir Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul is a Trinidadian-British writer and essayist. He
is one of the masters of English narrative. In fiction and essays marked by
stylistic virtuosity and psychological insight, he focuses on his childhood, his
travels beyond Trinidad, and the difficulties facing the Third World(Naipaul,
V.S.). Two of his noted works are, India: A Wounded Civilization and A Bend In
the River.
Toni Morrison was one of the strongest literary voices to emerge from this
decade. He wrote about the Black American experience as never before(Gillis).
His book, The Bluest Eye won the National Book Award which marked the
emergence of successful African-American writers. Other black writers who
emphasize personal experiences and the musicality of will include Alice Walker
and August Wilson(Arts and Culture: 1970s)
The Vietnam War was a major event of the seventies. Whether or not Americans
agreed with U.S. involvement in Vietnam, or supported politicians who agreed
with U.S. involvement, the war shaped the way Americans defined themselves
and one another(Stewart 8). Many young Americans protested the involvement
of the U.S. in the Vietnam War. They turned to a counterculture of sex, drugs, and
rock n roll. Their confidence in the presidency, and middle class values and
power collapsed under weight of defeat and corruption. During Richard Nixons
presidential campaign, he stressed the need for peace in Vietnam. Here is a
quote from Nixon, I pledge to you, new leadership will end the war and win
peace in the Pacific. All he needed was six months time to end the war(Stewart
11). Nixon did not keep his promise and in early 1970 he did not decrease U.S.
military activity in Vietnam and he authorized an expansion of the war into
neutral Cambodia.
In 1974 the last troops left Vietnam after Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho signed
a treaty in Paris. American diplomats stayed in Saigon but Vietnamese forces
began to crumble. U.S. helicopters take out the last American and allied
Vietnamese personnel in a flurry of chaos as the North Vietnamese army rumbles
into Saigon(War & Peace: 1970s).
Five men were arrested on June 17, 1972 and charged with burglary at the
Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate. The burglars
were in the Democratic headquarters because they needed to fix electronic
eavesdropping equipment which they planted during a previous break-in. It was

later found out that the burglars had worked for the Committee to Re-Elect the
President-an agency which would be known as CREEP.
Nixon assured Americans that he and his staff were not involved in the break-in
and wiretapping of the office at Watergate. While this was going on, people close
to Nixon were arranging to payoff those who were arrested, in exchange for their
silence. In a national speech, Nixon insisted, People have to know whether or
not their president is a crook. Well, I am not a crook. Those words would haunt
Nixon(Stewart 20).
Watergate hearings began in May 1973. In July 1973 the White House staff
revealed that Nixon regularly taped conversations in the Oval Office. Eventually a
Supreme Court decision forced Nixon to turn over the tapes to prosecutors. In a
speech to the American people on August 8, 1974, Nixon explained that he
would resign the next day. Vice President Gerald Ford succeeded him(Stewart
21).
English Literature

My greatest strength lies in my ability to communicate effectively through my


writing skills. As a freshman, I entered college certain that I wanted to be an
English major because of my love of literature. I had a rather romantic picture in
my mind as to what my studies would include: late nights relaxing with a cup of
tea and a Virginia Woolf novel. Though my courses did offer me the opportunity
to read many fabulous works of literature, they also challenged my analytical
skills far more than I ever imagined. Most of the late nights I spent were not with
a cup of tea, but in the library researching critical theory or at my computer,
devising my own critical perspective on a novel. Though my course of study was
in reality far different from what I imagined as an eighteen-year-old, I soon
learned that the sense of satisfaction I gained from critical thinking and writing
far outweighed the guilty pleasures of reading. Thus, in my junior and senior
years, I have learned to use my love of literature to enhance my practical writing
skills, further my own knowledge, and help those in need.

My Senior Honors Thesis in English is a major researching and writing


undertaking. During my junior year, I was one of a few students selected on the
basis of grades and faculty recommendations to participate in the Junior Honors
Seminar, where we learned the techniques for in-depth literary research and
critical writing. In this time, I developed a thesis topic in the area of literature
that holds the most interest for me. My specialty is Romantic Poetry (the time
period of Wordsworth, Shelley, Coleridge, Keats and Byron), and my thesis
examines the history of light and optic metaphors in their works. To accomplish
this thesis topic, I have had to do far more than just read poetry. I spent my

summer researching the tradition of light metaphors in Antiquity, and found


myself engrossed in the works of Saint Augustine, Plotinus and Plato.
Furthermore, I am spending this fall acquainting myself with critical theory from
all disciplines to gain a comprehensive view of the Romantic Poets' works. Most
of my days are now spent doing intensive research and writing for this
independent study. The Honors Program has offered me the opportunity to delve
deeply into a subject of my own choosing, and has taught me the importance of
self-motivation and scholarly discipline. At the end of the year, my work will
culminate in an approximately sixty-page honors thesis, as well as an extensive
oral examination on my chosen subject. Though this project is by far the most
difficult, and at times the most frightening scholastic endeavor I have
undertaken, it has challenged me to put forth my best effort in my writing and
researching. The result is a sense of pride I have gained from the finding
inspiration in my own work.

Though the Honors Program has taught me the value of academic research in my
writing skills, my on-going internship with the National Fallen Firefighters
Foundation has taught me the practical importance of the real-life applications of
writing skills in the business world. During my internship, I have applied the
writing skills I learned in my English classes to many projects. By far the most
exciting project I worked on was one in which I saw my writing skills have major
results for the Foundation and the families of fallen firefighters. I wrote a grant
proposal to the Allstate Foundation requesting fifty thousand dollars to help
create a National Memorial Park to honor and remember America's fallen fire
heroes and their families. This grant proposal is now the template the Foundation
will use to ask other major corporations for donations. To accomplish this, I
researched how other non-profit corporations received grant money, and
modeled out grant proposal after successful requests. I sought expertise by
meeting with the former head of the Allstate Foundation to gain insight into what
components are key to a grant proposal. In other words, I used the research skills
I learned as an English major to teach myself how to write for a major grant. This
September I learned the results of my efforts: the Foundation was awarded the
grant, and later this year there will be a groundbreaking ceremony to begin work
on the Park. Though I am pleased with the results of my work, I find greater
pleasure in the personal difference this Park will make for the families of fire
heroes across the nation.

My skills in English have helped make a personal difference in another area of


my life. The man who has taught me the most during my college career is not
one of my professors. I have learned the importance of good communication and
dedication to a difficult enterprise through my good friend -- a Vietnamese
refugee. Since my sophomore year, he and I have met faithfully twice a week to
work on his English skills, as well as prepare for the Citizenship Exam. This

October 14th, he successfully took the notoriously difficult citizenship exam. We


have faced many challenges together, and navigated the difficult immigration
system with much effort. Due to the vast language barrier, I learned to express
my ideas clearly and concisely, and find alternative solutions to problems our
cultural differences could not overcome. Yet most of all, I learned to value and
appreciate the incredible courage it takes for a man of such dignity to arrive in
our country with nothing, and work so hard to achieve what comes naturally to
so many Americans. Both his hard work for a good life, and his dedication to
learning English and passing the citizenship exam have taught me that the most
important practical implication of my major is that I can help others succeed.

Although the progress of my English career has been radically different than I
originally envisioned, the work has been extremely satisfying. I have learned that
writing and researching skills are crucial in many different areas of life, be it
writing a piece of scholarly literary work, a business-oriented grant request, or
teaching English to an immigrant. I hope to parlay my talents into scholarly work
in the field of English literature, where I will be constantly challenged to expand
my mind through writing, research and effective communication.

The Unjust Classification of Literature


The content of literature has been criticized and classified throughout history.
Occasionally, stories become known as immoral literature in the eyes of society.
This can be damaging both to sales of the book and the reputation of the author.
Kate Chopin wrote two stories that are examples of literature deemed immoral
by society. The storm and The Story of an Hour were written and the end of
the nineteenth century. A time without many liberal opinions towards literature,
as well as civil rights. Often critics judge a piece of literature only on the literal
meaning of the phrases inside, while ignoring the actual message from the
author. Chopins two stories were criticized for the impression she gave of
womans attitudes towards their husbands and marriage. Although her stories
seem to contain women that do not respect marriage, the women actually have
total love and respect for their husbands The misinterpretation of stories leads to
the unjust classification of literature as immoral.
The story of an Hour and The Storm have different plots, but both convey
a similar message from Chopin. The Story of an Hour was written about a
wife ,Mrs. Mallard, who receives the sad news of her husbands death. She is
flushed with conflicting emotions of sadness from the death, but also joy for the
freedom from marriage that his death brings. A twist in the story takes place
when she is confronted with her still living husband and she dies from the shock.
Chopin wrote of a woman so caught up in married life, she forgot all of the
liberties that she had sacrificed for the marriage. The storm tells of another

wife, Calixta, living what was a normal life for a woman in the late nineteenth
century. While her husband and son are kept inside a store by a passing storm,
Calixta is greeted unexpectedly by an old boyfriend, Alcee. Spending time with
Alcee releases feelings from Calixta that had been building up throughout her
marriage. Calixta and Alcee give in to temptation, but never lose their sight of
love for their families. Both stories suggest women in marriages sometimes feel
imprisoned by the relationship and seek an outlet for their emotions.
Marriage is a sacred bond and should always be honored. Infidelity is the
worst act that can be perpetrated on a significant other. The wife, Calixta,
betrayed her family and the church by cheating on them. Also, Mrs. Mallard
experiences joy at the suffering and death of her husband. Both women commit
acts that are both dishonorable and disrespectful to marriage and their families.
Chopin suggests Calixta and Alcee enjoyed and took pleasure in dishonoring
their marriage vows. The generous abundance of her passion, without guile or
trickery, was like a white flame which penetrated and found response in depths
of his sensuous nature that had never yet been reached. The emotions felt
during their love making overwhelmed Calixta and gave her an orgasm, which
her husband had not. The passion created by Calixta and Alcee created
conflicting feelings like a separate storm inside the house. Moments of weakness
do not excuse infidelity in a marriage. Calixta shared something with Alcee,
something that should only be shared by married woman with her husband.
Understanding the stifling feelings that marriage can bring is essential to
understand what conjures up feelings of confinement. The story could also be
interpreted with another point of view. Alcee and Calixta may have shared a
physical connection, but never really shared their love with each other. Calixta
was living her life in times of tension. Calixta was in a situation that figuratively,
left her gasping for air. The marriage life for a woman did not offer many options.
Women did not have a choice to find a well paying job and support a family.
Women were often confined to housework such as cooking, cleaning, and other
house maintenance. Being restricted to only house work may have reduce the
level of self-esteem of the women. Alcee found Calixta at a vulnerable time in her
life. However, the isolated incident she had with Alcee did not drive her away
from her husband , but reminded her of her love and commitment for her family.
Chopin displays Calixtas love for her son. She had clasped Bibi and was
kissing him effusively. Calixta held her son tightly and poured out her love for
her son. In addition, Chopin reveals Calixtas lasting love for her husband.
Bobinots explanations and apologies which he had been composing all along
the way, died on his lips as Calixta felt him to see if he were dry, and seemed to
express nothing but satisfaction at their safe return. All of Bobinots worries
melted away, as Calixta embraced his return with open arms. Calixtas love for
her family never hesitated or ceased to exist.
Finding pleasure in the pain and suffering of others is unimaginable and cruel.
In The Story of an Hour Mrs. Mallard acts completely selfish when faced with
the news of her husbands death. Instead of mourning his death, Mrs. Mallard
envisioned her freedom from the marriage. The immoral behavior displayed by
Mrs. Mallard is shocking. Most people faced with the death of others, especially
family members would find it disturbing. Mrs. Mallard was a cruel woman with

little concern and appreciation for the well being of those around her.
Mrs. Mallards selfish tendencies are implied by Chopin. But she saw beyond
that bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would belong to her
absolutely. She looked ahead of the sad time to a point in her life that nobody
could claim. Mrs. Mallard was able to disregard the fact that her husband had
just died. She was easily able to move on from his death as if she has no cares
for him. Often widows wonder how they will ever be able to move on from their
husbands death. Mrs. Mallard cold heartedly was able to surpass any mourning
process.
Again Chopin emphasized Mrs. Mallards pleasure from Mr. Mallards death.
There would be no powerful will bending her in that blind persistence with which
men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow
creature. Nobody would oversee her actions and control her as people think it is
their duty to enforce their own beliefs on others. Mrs. Mallard was not concerned
with the death of another, but rather considered how it benefitted her. However, I
have a different outlook on this quote and the story. Mr. Mallard may have been
an over controlling husband in another stifling marriage. The words powerful will
bending her suggests to me that the marriage was more like an institution or
prison. Mrs. Mallard was a prisoner of the marriage. People unite in marriage to
share their love with each other in the eyes of God. Nobody wants to commit to a
situation where someone else imposes their will and controls them.
Men and women must both make sacrifices and compromise in order to make a
marriage joyful and successful. Calixta and Mrs. Mallard were starved of the
liberties that all people deserve. Yet they both loved their husbands so dearly,
they remained silent even with a powerful will controlling them for years.
Mrs. Mallard was not as cold hearted as she has been perceived. She was
deeply saddened and troubled by the news of her husbands death. Yes, she
looked ahead to better times during a time for mourning. But it is human nature
to try our best to manage everything in our lives. Mrs. Mallard was so burdened
by his death, her only escape was to slip out of that moment and look ahead to
easier times. Mrs. Mallard, only for a brief period wondered what life would be
like now without her husband.
Chopin suggests Mrs. Mallard was saddened by her husbands death. She did
not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed
inability to accept its significance. Mrs. Mallard heard the news differently than
anyone else, in the sense that she could not begin to comprehend its meaning.
The news had shocked her into a state of disbelief. She was so disturbed as to be
paralyzed by the news. These are not the responses and actions of a woman with
no concern for anothers well being.
Chopin also points out Mrs. Mallard was not entirely experiencing joy. A kind
intention or a cruel intention made the act seem no less a crime as she looked
upon it in that brief moment of illumination. Neither intention made her actions
look less devious during her transitory thought of freedom. Her fleeting thoughts
did not remain with her, but lasted only a short period. It is not inhuman to try
and think positively during times of doubt and tremendous sadness. Literature
functions as a source of education and entertainment, not as lessons of reality.
Francoise Sagan discusses the contrasts among life and literature. Of course the

illusion of art is to make one believe that great literature is very close to life, but
exactly the opposite is true. Life is amorphous, literature is formal. The false
impression of art causes one to think that literature is similar to life, but this
contradicts the reality. Life does not take on a form, in which the outcome can be
predicted. However, life is not just a series of events without significance, but
can be given direction and meaning. Literature has a structure to the events and
certain relationships among occurrences.
Kate Chopins life was changed by the effect her literature had on the society.
Her controversial literature was the reason for her being ostracized from the
community. In fact, she never attempted to have The Storm published, perhaps
out of fear of persecution. Chopins main intention was to scrutinize marriage
and enlighten people to the oppression of women in marriage. Instead, The
Storm and The Story of an Hour were scrutinized for their questionable
content. In reading literature it is important not just to read the story, but to note
the authors comment about the topic. The most interesting and profound
literature is that which is controversial because its ability to challenge peoples
beliefs and values.

---------------------------------Literature and Time Periods


As history has a tendency to categorize events into eras by the time periods that surround
them, so does literature with its works. Both categorizations are superficial, ignoring
significant distinctions that separate material for the sake of convenience, or present
perception. The prehistoric era, for example, is a superficial designation for all time before
written historical records, even though there are distinctions within this period, which are
markedly different in historical terms. Medieval is defined by Websters II New Riverside
Dictionary as the period of European History extending approximately from A.D. 476 to
1453. Fortunately, for convenience, this span of time encompasses both the Old English
period and the Middle English period as well. As exemplified by the Old English poem
Beowulf and the Middle English poetry of Chaucer and the Canterbury Tales and their
cohabitation under the heading of Medieval Literature, this categorization is not only
superficial, but also inaccurate.
One defining difference between the two periods of literature and their selected
representatives is the language from which they are spawned. Old English was a Germanic
dialect spoken by a people who were composed mainly of Angles and Saxons, intermixed
with Jutes, Frisians, and Celts, with some Roman blood still in the veins of some inhabitants.
Middle English is the result of the Norman Conquest, and was spoken by the now native
English people, intermixed with the French. The assimilation of the French language of that
already spoken on the Island made for great changes. The lexicon of Old English differed
somewhat from Middle English, most of which is completely lost today. There are some
words that still have reflexives present in both Modern and Middle English. Beowulf offered
his help to the Danish cyning, Old English for king. Chaucer lays mention of a song in
the Millers tale, the Kinges Note (108). The word is similar but certainly not the same.
Beowulf eats hlaf, Old English for bread, while Nicholas, Alisoun, and John eat
breed(520) in the Millers Tale. Until Grendel came, Hrothgar lived lsan, or luxury, before

the appearance of Grendel, whoin g amyrrede, or squandered, his men. The languages
differ structurally as well. Old English was a highly inflectional, synthetic language.
Grammar was founded on cases, leaving a rather liberal syntactical structure. Middle English,
however, was a lesser inflectional, analytic language, which relied on grammar in the syntax
itself. Old English and Middle English would have been mutually unintelligible.
Another striking difference between the two is how and why they were written. Beowulf was
a heroic epic; authorship is unknown, and though it is presently viewed as being the work of
one individual, epics in a society of oral tradition may have been passed down form one
generation to the next by sceops, and many people could have contributed their own
sensibility to the poems. The heroic epic was written as entertainment but also as history. The
poems were passed down from one generation to the next by scoeps, or poets. Chaucer wrote
the Canterbury Tales, and in it the Millers Tale, but there is no doubt about authorship. He
wrote Canterbury Tales to entertain, but also as a satire on the class structure and social
conventions. It is not about glory, or heroes, like Beowulf, but about sex and foolery, as in the
Millers tale, among other satirical topics.
The culture and societal structure of the two periods, reflected in the literature, is also
strikingly different. Beowulf lived in a simpler world than Chaucer, a very different world.
Beowulf lived in a warrior society that consisted mainly of tribes or clans. The king led his
people more in war than in politics, and was seen as a patriarch. The society was selfsufficient. Beowulf didnt go to the local pub to buy a beer, as Chaucers miller would have.
He went to his lords meadhall to feast with him and his men. Chaucer is exemplifying the
emerging class structure with his tales. The Pilgrimes he describes in the General Prologue
are representative of upper, lower, and the new middle class. He includes a knight to
represent the nobility and aristocracy, as well as a prioress. He adds to the group a clerk and a
reeve, part of the new emerging middle class, and of course has the miller of the lower class.
The goal of Beowulfs society was survival, and often the gaining of wealth or land. The goal
of Chaucers society was wealth, self-improvement, power, and often success in a trade.
The religions and law systems were also remarkably different. Eventhough Beowulf is
written by an author of the Christian persuasion, Beowulf himself was most likely pagan. The
belief system of the Druids, who were the most prevalent pagans in England at the time, still
believed in one supreme god, eventhough there were others to assist him. They believed in
mystical powers, magical herbs, and sacred rituals such as sacrificing. In this sense, and in
their habits of war, they are considered barbaric. Even at the time the poem was written, there
were still pagans running around. By the time Chaucer wrote, the pagans had been
annihilated, and those who remained did so in hiding. Chaucers time was that of Christianity,
churches, clergy, sins, and the threat of eternal damnation or salvation. Purity was not how
you fought in battle, but how you acted in society and in piety. The issues facing Beowulf
were that of the wergild, or death vengeance. He killed Grendel, so Grendels mother had to
revenge her sons death, which was again revenged by her own death. Beowulf, in coming to
the Danes from Geatland, was himself paying up on an old wergild. This was the law. In
Chaucers work, vengeance can be seen in the Millers Tale by Absolon putting a hot poker to
the buttocks of Nicholas in payment for the tricks played on him by Nicholas himself and
Alisoun. The law was a Christian one, and killing was only done in recompense for a crime
by the executions ordered by the court.
The content of the works are also true to their time and put them in a separate genre. The
Beowulf poet writes of heroic deeds, of battles lost and won, of treasure and mirth. There is

no mention of chivalry (as it was likely not yet a concept) or of women and romance. There
are no pilgrimages, only quests to fight, and monsters and dragons. The mythical creatures
and beasts in Beowulf are of the unbelievable sort, those which only appear in lore and
legends, which no one today has actually seen. Chaucer writes of sex and tricks, stupidity,
morals, and chivalry. Though Chaucer does write of beast, they are far from mythical, as
everyone has seen a fox or at least a rooster.
The works of Old English and Middle English vary in many respects. The languages they
were written in were mutually unintelligible, not only in vocabulary and the people that spoke
them, but in form as well. Their purposes differed greatly, as did their content, and the
cultures from which they came were two different worlds. In consideration of these
differences, to place them under one heading is unjust. Instead of placing them under the
superficial category of Medieval Literature, they should get a designation of their own.
High School Literature
The story Brownies by ZZ Packer could be looked at as a work of literature from
certain views, but in the opinion of Prose, the author of I Know Why the Caged
Bird Cannot Read, I do not believe that this story would be looked at as a work
of literature. This story does not seem very uplifting as Prose would want it to
be for a high school reader. Although it is a very interesting story and it holds
many important messages about our society and culture, it does not hold up to
Proses standards as a work of literature.
Prose believes that we have rushed to sacrifice complexity for diversity. (Prose,
76) This is exactly why I do not think that Prose would choose this story as a
something she would want students to read. The reader is being squandered on
regimens of trash and semi-trash, taught for reasons that have nothing to do
with how well the book is written. (Prose, 76) Prose often talks about how stories
that are chosen for our societys high school curriculum are not complicated
enough. The stories read by students are easy to read, and demand very little
thought from the reader. Prose uses words such as transformative, complex,
powerful, and profound for the books she believes should be used. These words
do not describe the story Brownies by ZZ Packer.
Although there are many accurate similes and decently used language in the
story Brownies, the overall point of the story seems very simple for a high
school student to pick up on. I do not think it would engender a feeling of deep
thought for students, as Prose would want. The story Brownies seems like it
would be easy to analyze. It seems like more of the type of story that would
evoke more of a response, which in my opinion would not be greatly valued by
Prose. She seems like she would be more interested in having a high school
student have to work to analyze a story, than respond about how they felt about
a certain piece of writing.
Racism is a strong message in the story Brownies. There are two troops of
brownies camping in the same area. One of the troops is black girls, and the

other is all white girls. Although these troops see each other, they never have
any scheduled interactions. The only time the two troops really cross each other
is going in and out of the bathroom. The most popular girl in the black troop
decides that their troop should kick the asses of each and every girl in Brownie
Troop 909. (Packer, 92) The most popular girl says that one of the white girls
called one of the black girls a nigger. From this point on they black Brownie troop
constantly tries to find ways in which they can get their revenge on the white
troop. They finally get the opportunity in the bathroom, when they realize that
the troop of white brownies were retarded.
The story is a very clear-cut story. Although there may be some small themes
and statements that could be looked at as hidden meanings, the story is far from
being an uplifting and life changing story. Rather this story might help students
to see from a different point of view than their own. (My high school curriculum)
Although you can look at some aspects of this story as a work of literature, I
believe that to be best put to use, it should be used as a cultural reference of our
societys historical past. This story by no means could be used to sharpen a
students vocabulary, or to make a student think differently about writing. To be
well used this story could be looked at only through points of culture.
If I was in charge of teaching this story to high school students I think that I
would probably focus on the differences in which the story portrays the two
troops of Brownies. There are many examples in the story, of how the mother of
one of the black troopers is constantly getting depressed and talking about it
with the whole brownie troop. On the other hand, after the two troops meet in
the bathroom to fight, and the two troop leaders talk you can see the difference
in white culture and black culture in our past.
The black troop leader gets very upset with the troop and clearly shows her
anger, while the white troop leader has a perfect smile throughout the whole
conversation. Another clear difference that is significant in learning our societys
past is the way in which the white troop leaders is takes no real responsibility
and puts it all in the faults of the black girls. The white troop leader says, See.
It could have happened. Im not calling your girls fibbers or anything. It could
have happened, see. Our girls are not retarded. They are delayed learners. She
said this in a very syrupy instructional voice, as though our troop might be
delayed learners as well. (Packer, 99) Although the white woman takes a very
slight amount of responsibility for the incident, she blames it all on the girls
illnesses.
The white troop leader is greatly looking down on the black troop throughout the
whole conservation. She basically assumes that the black whole incident was
cause singularly by the black Brownie troop. This is one very good example of
how a text such as this can be useful in high school classroom.
Rather than to have the student read about segregation and what life was like in

the past through a textbook, a class can read a story such as this one. This will
help students to get more of a real idea of what it would have been like to be
black and the kind of discrimination in which blacks were faced with. It would be
very hard to send a strong message of our societys past problems without
including stories such as this in our schools curriculum.
Although I do believe that it is important for students to read and struggle with
complex literature in high school English classes, I do not believe that stories
such as Brownies should be completely cut out of the curriculum. I think that
this story serves a valuable cultural and historical purpose. These stories should
be read by high school students because they are often the type of reading
which students enjoy the most and will often motivate students to read more.

Liberalism in Early American Literature


Liberalism is the foundation of America. This ideology is found in the countrys
early fledgling literature and in the very document that made America free. Both
the selected works of Phyllis Wheatley and Thomas Jefferson are actively working
for the ideology of liberalism, which is a political ideology that is against any
system that threatens the freedom of the individual and his natural rights and
prevents the individual from becoming all the individual can be, specifically the
importance of human individuality and the freedom of humanity from
subservience to another group. The natural rights of man, in the words of John
Locke, are life, liberty and property. These passages compliment each other
because they are both in the support of the ideology of liberalism and support
the freedom of all members of the human race. The big picture that is at stake is
that the ideology of liberalism was the principle founding ideology in America
and it was presence was felt in the social context via literature.
The importance of human individuality and the freedom of humanity from
subservience to another group was a crucial point in the ideology of liberalism.
Therefore, when liberalism is found in literature, it carries the same determining
factors. In a section of the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson,
Jefferson writes He has incited treasonable insurrections in our fellow-subjects,
with the allurements of forfeiture and confiscation of our property. This
language supports liberalism because Jefferson makes it clear that the
treasonable insurrections were not caused by the people themselves but by
King George III, i.e. an overbearing government and therefore it places the
fellow-subjects in a subservient position. Another support of liberalism by this
quote is the mentioning of the confiscation of our property which is, by way of
John Locke, an infringement of natural rights and therefore an infringement of
human individuality. Since Jefferson is condemning these infringements, he is
then supporting the opposing view, which is liberalism. Jefferson also writes He
has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most sacred rights
of life and liberty in the persons of a distant people This statement is actively

working for the ideology of liberalism by stating the lifes most sacred rights are
life and liberty, which goes back to the statement by John Locke. By using the
term sacred, Jefferson has created a sense of religiousness in his argument. This
sense makes these rights divine and therefore places his ideology above the
kings because, in a Christian context, there is no authority higher than that of
the divine. Even further in the passage, Jefferson writes the warfare of the
CHRISTIAN king of Great Britain [sic], which places great emphasis on the faith
of the king and makes the previous sense of religiousness even stronger because
if the king is Christian then the king must appeal to divine will, which by
Jeffersons use of sacred is the will of liberalism and really strengthens Jeffersons
argument. Jefferson has been, of course, discussing the nature and practice of
slavery, which he condemns via his liberalist ideology. But what of the slaves
themselves? What do they feel? One can find the answer to this in the poetry of
Phyllis Wheatley.
The poetry of Phyllis Wheatley gives us support of liberalism in literature,
specifically the notion that all men are created equal. Phyllis Wheatley was a
slave who was born in Africa and was brought to Boston. She was purchased by a
tailor named John Wheatley for his wife, where she was taught to read and write.
This is crucial in understanding the context and tone in which Phyllis Wheatley
was writing. She is, by virtue of her poetry, a supporter of liberalism by her tone
and her language choice. The second stanza of her poem To Mcenas
discusses why Terence, a slave from North Africa who came to Rome and
received great fame as a writer of comic plays in Latin, lacks the same respect
and place in history as Mcenas, who was a patron of poetry and Roman
statesman. Phyllis Wheatley writes:
The happier Terence all the choir inspired, His soul replenished, and bosom
fired; But say, ye Muses, why this partial grace; To one alone of Africs sable race,
From age to age transmitting thus his name, With the first glory in the realms of
fame?
In this passage, Terence is equal, if not better then Mcenas. Terence is the
representative for the black race and by making a comparison to Mcenas; it
brings the races to an equal ground. The first indictor of this is the choice of the
calling Terence happier. It is not enough for Wheatley to write that Terence is
happy. She makes it a competition by adding the ier to happy, thus Terence is
more enlightened than his counterpart. And yet Terence has only partial grace
in the realms of fame. It is clear that there is an inequality in the current
system, even though the black writer is as good. This is a support of liberalism
because it makes it clear that a black writer is as good as a white writer which
ties into the belief that all men are created equal. Like Jefferson, Phyllis Wheatley
recognizes the current inequality of her system and remedies to the best of her
abilities. Black women really did not have any rights at the time, so Phyllis
Wheatley wrote to record the injustice that was placed before her.
The big picture of all of this is that liberalism was the founding ideology of these

United States. Phyllis Wheatley, whose works were published before Jeffersons,
in 1773, gave insight to the attitude of slave. Her work, by being accepted by
New Englanders that challenged the role of slavery in a Christian life, proves
that, to an extent, her work was found acceptable by whites. Phyllis Wheatley
was imparting an idea of men are equal and by finding a social acceptance is
proof that liberalism was alive and well in the United States. Thomas Jeffersons
Declaration of Independence was the document that would break ties with Great
Britain. It was unheard of that colonies break free from their motherlands. But
liberalism guided its way to the very heart of the document and in essence, the
declaration of independence is liberalism. Look at the name of the document.
Independence is what liberalism is. The natural rights of man can and will not be
infringed upon by anybody, no king, no peasant. This is such a powerful idea that
a nation is founded upon. It seeps though all classes and all levels of education
that from slave to philosopher, we are one in the same.

Social Psychology
There are many explanations for the origins of modern social psychology.
It is therefore important to consider that social psychology cannot be traced back
to one single source of origin (Burr, 2003). Hence, this is the reason why there
are debates of what social psychology is. Allport (1985) described social
psychology as the study an individuals thoughts, feelings, and behaviours which
are influenced by the actual, imagines, or implied presence of others. As seen
from this definition there is a direct link between social science and the individual
psychology (Sewell, 1989). Social psychology cannot be seen as a linear
phenomenon. This is because social psychology has been derived from a
combination of influences. The development of social psychology can be
discussed in two different ways. Firstly, social psychology is argued to be found
upon political movements and social philosophies in the United Stated of
America (US). Secondly, it can be argued that social psychology has developed in
response to social and political needs.
There have been debates regarding whether social psychology should be
dealt as a natural science or not. The ideology of natural science is very
important as it affects the way the social psychologist deals with the situations.
For example, if there are specific scientific objectives then the study can be
laboratory based and use experimental procedures in order to gain knowledge.
Psychologists who use this positivistic method are classified as experimental
social psychologists. On the other hand, critical-social psychologists have
competed with the experimental-social psychologists. The strength of the criticalsocial psychologists is that theyve used a range of different methods in
research, and have not limited to scientific knowledge. This includes both
qualitative and quantitative methods. Overall, critical social psychologists are
described as having a critical ideology in order to uncover meanings of social
phenomena (Gough &ump; McFadden, 2001). Both critical and experimental
social psychology form the modern social psychology, due to their important
historical context. Experimental-social psychology is argued to have been

derived from the American tradition, and a critical-social psychology is argued to


have been derived from the European tradition. Although this has formed two
distinct approaches in the use of methodology within psychology, there are still
on-going debates over psychology as a science or not.
An important contribution that has made a great impact on the modern
social psychology was from William McDougall. McDougall proposed for an
evolutionary psychology, which was influenced by Darwins theory. Especially
with the dominant fields of sociology and anthropology, McDougall was able to
link science, sociology and psychology (McDougall, 1919). However, McDougalls
research in social evolution was also interpreted as radical due to the racism
involved in the concept of behaviour gene inheritance. This shows that even
though McDougalls work had been a start point to the origins of social
psychology, it also led to misconcepts especially in the Western society. Another
person who contributed to the origins of social psychology was William James
which introduced the theory of stream of consciousness. The reason why James
made an influence in social psychology is due to the step taken from
introspection. Therefore, this implied that human behaviour can be interpreted
by their emotions and thoughts.
Although both McDougall and James made a great contribution to social
psychology, especially in the context of theories and research, their
interpretations were different from each other. This difference is due to the
debate of human nature of free will. Overall, McDougall can be described as the
origin of the European tradition of social psychology. This is because he believed
an individual lacks free will due to social and cultural forces. Whereas James can
be described as the origins of the American tradition of social psychology. This is
because James explained that individuals are conscious of their own decisions.
Furthermore, James is an influencing figure in the philosophical movement of
Pragmatism. Pragmatism approached ideologies and propositions with practical
ideas, e.g. experimental validity.
Volkerpsychologie was a movement in Germany in the late nineteenth
century. The Volkerpsycholgie disciple tried to explain the reasons behind social
groupings due to collective dimension (Rogers, 2003). The social groups in
Germany where mainly dominant of specific German nationalist characters. From
these German characters it was proposed that language and culture had a role in
individual perception and thinking. This led to Wundts proposition of using
experimental psychology in order to investigate language and culture. Hence,
Wundt is described as the founder of experimental psychology (Burr, 2003). As
an experimental psychologist Wundt believed psychology was a natural science,
which is the reason why Wundt used introspection technique to interpret the
consciousness, inner-thoughts, desires and sensations of individuals (Blumenthal,
1975). However he did not ignore the philosophy of psychology, particularly with
the rise of crowd psychology. The history of crowd psychology can be links to the
French Revolution within 1789-1799. Crowd psychology can be described as a
collectivist approach, in which the term social is critical to our understandings
of which are largely due to group influence and culture.
Between the periods of French revolution a lot of philosophical thinkers, including
Comte and Durkheim, became interested on how the society and individuals

influence each other. With the vast amount of literature emerging in France on
social ideas the French-social theory began to develop. The French-social theory
introduced Positivism, as of Comte. The doctrine of positivism allowed philosophy
and science to be separated in order for science to become distinguished.
However, the positivistic approach also was a major factor in the separation of
American and European social psychology (Farr, 1996). This is why Comte can be
perceived as the founder of social psychology (Allport, 1954). Comtes work was
influenced but also debated by Durkheim (Gianfranco, 2000). Durkheims
addition to French-social theory was the method of comparative, which is devised
of observations (Collins, 1994). The study of social representation became very
famous in the French revolution period, particularly Durkheims research which
showed collective representation within a society (Farr, 1996). One of the major
influences this had on the modern social psychology was from Moscovicis study.
Moscovici noted Durkheim as his influence for his study in social representation
(Farr, 1996). Overall, social representation theory brought a new development to
the social psychology, which is now described as critical social psychology.
With the French revolution the philosophical era of Enlightenment emerged.
Enlightenment era brought civilisation to individuals which were away from the
religious authority of the church (Burr, 2003). This allowed individuals to search
for truth of reality, by means of reasoning. The search for truth allowed
individuals to explore social phenomena. For example; the ideology of Marx on
social class and labour, and Piagets reasoning of child development. Within the
period of Enlightenment two different theoretical concepts arose; Modernism and
Postmodernism. The assumption of science as the foundation to knowledge is
constructed by modernism. The principles of modernism are described as;
democracy, liberal individualism, liberal humanism, and science (Roger, 2003).
The science established by modernism, brought progress from the knowledge
gained from the religious beliefs to the knowledge gained from scientific
methods. However, postmodernism argues that knowledge is not discovered but
rather constructed. Postmodernism also argue that there are multiple variety of
knowledge, which the individual constructs by means of reasoning. The
individuals construct their knowledge due to situation factors including culture
and society in different locations. For example, the psychological illness of
depression cannot always be diagnosed with the same scientific tests in different
cultures. The principle of the postmodernisms has had a key impact on critical
social psychology. Even though modernism and postmodernism are opposite
terms, critically speaking both have established a European tradition of
collectivistic approach.
The emergence of experimental social psychology is very different to critical
social psychology. Rogers (2003) clarified the first social psychology experiments
to be Tripletts study on dynamogenic influence. In basic terms Tripletts noticed
that children performed better when in competition with others. Tripletts study
can now interpreted as social influence. However, Hogg &ump; Vaughan (1998)
argues that Tripletts study cannot be explained as the first social psychology
study because it was recognised later on when the study was reformed.
Nevertheless, Tripletts study established the use of experimental methodology
in his investigation.

One of the most significant event is social psychology was the World War 2
(WWII). Post war issues of social warfare arouse, which had an influence on social
science applications. This event of WWII made the start of social psychology in
the US in 20th century (Cartwright, 1979). This was mainly due the large amount
of research conducted to investigate the reasons behind the Nazis attack on the
Jews in WWII. Some psychologist including Lewin migrated from Germany to the
US in order to conduct research on the areas of organisations and groups. He is
now generally described as the founder of social psychology. Another
researcher who also migrated to the US was Milgram who presented
revolutionary findings in social representation in the field of authority (Gergen,
1973). However, the main aim of social psychology research in the US was on
government regulations of propaganda. Throughout this period the American
tradition of social psychology started to emerge. The American tradition was an
individualistic one which emphasises on individual importance, e.g. the society is
made up of individual 1, individual 2, individual 3, ect.
Overall the American tradition can be interpreted as the historical roots of social
psychology. Whereas the European tradition can be interpreted as the
philosophical roots of social psychology. The American root of social psychology
now has a great impact on social cognitive approach. Social cognition includes
attribution, stereotypes, autism, (Striano &ump; Reid, 2008). The European roots
of social psychology have led to social constructionism and social representation.
The modern social psychology is now constructed with the American and
European doctrines. However, due to the political events and developing
researches in social psychology, the disciple has only been able to contain within
America (Cartwright, 1979). On the other hand, Gergen (1973) argued that social
psychology cannot be interpreted as a science because social psychology is
historically and culturally specific, which is the reason why the discipline is
continuously changing. Critically speaking, there is an advantage of different
approaches to social psychology, as it views dilemmas in different perspectives.

Investigative Psychology
As stated by Bartol and Bartol (2008), investigative psychology is the
application of psychological research and principles to the investigation of
criminal behavior (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). Investigative psychology is closely
associated with criminal profiling, but there are other areas in which a forensic
psychologist can participate in this particular subspecialty. An investigative
psychologist maybe asked to perform a psychological autopsy, forensic hypnosis,
or produce a geographical mapping. Psychological autopsies are generally
performed in suspected suicide cases where the insurance company or family
member questions the cause of death. Forensic hypnosis is an interview or
interrogation method used by trained and credentialed professionals. Lastly,
geographic mapping is a method of research concerned with analyzing spatial
patterns of crimes committed by numerous offenders over a period of time
(Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). Geographic profiling is the analysis of a single

serial offenders geographic movement.


Due to the complexities of investigative psychology these methods have
been scrutinized. In order for these methods to be admissible in a court of law,
they must pass the Daubert standard for empirically based evidence. The use of
such standards has sparked an array of studies. For example criminal profiling
has been under a magnifying glass for several years. Snook et al. (2007) found
that there is inadequate empirical evidence that suggest whether criminal
profiling is an effective method (Snook, Eastwood, Gendreau, Goggin, &ump;
Cullen, 2007). However, Kocsis, Middledorp, and Karpin (2008) reported that
expert profilers are more accurate at prediction of unknown offender
characteristics than non profilers were (Kocsis, Middledorp, &ump; Karpin, 2008).
There have been several court cases that relate to profiling. One case is State v.
Parkinson, where the Idaho Appellate Court decided to exclude an FBI sex
offender profile. Conversely, Alabama Criminal Court of appeals allowed an FBI
profiler to testify about motivational analysis.
If a profiler uses false information in an investigation to delay the
apprehension of an offender, the misuse of criminal profiling can produce an
ethical predicament. An ethical dilemma such as this speaks to the character of
the individual. The Ethical Principles of Psychologist and Code of Conduct, and
the Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists prohibit psychologist from
presenting false information as fact. They also state that psychologist should be
able to provide evidence that proves their findings. Ultimately, preventive
measures are in place to deter instances like this.
Profiling is not the only method which has generated research and
controversy. Forensic hypnosis is another controversial method of investigative
psychology that has generated several studies. Braffman and Kirsch (1999)
reported that the experiences and responses during hypnosis can be produced in
a normal state without the use of hypnosis. Hypnosis can generate a
hypersuggestibility which creates the hypnotized state (Braffman &ump; Kirsch,
1999). Forensic hypnosis has been used in cases such as Bundy v. Florida.
Forensic hypnosis is generally used on witnesses, but it has been implemented
on offenders as well. Two cases in which this occurred is the Boston Strangler and
Sam Sheppard (Ritzel, 2004). However, hypnosis can produce confabulation, or
more commonly known as memory distortion.
Confabulation can present forensic psychologist who chose to implement
hypnosis with an ethical dilemma. Jensen (2008) reported that hypnosis works by
recalling the events a person believe they saw (Jensen, 2008). Orne et al. (1988)
discovered that when a person is under hypnosis they present a heightened
willingness to accept fantasy as reality creating a false confidence to recall false
information as being true (Orne, Whitehouse, Dinges, &ump; Orne, 2008). The
APA does not have any ethical principles that are explicitly related to the use of
hypnosis in investigative psychology. In the Ethical Principles of Psychologist and
Code of Conduct, it states that psychologists should refrain from engaging in a
professional role where their objectivity, competence or effectiveness in
performing their functions as a psychologist is impaired; or expose the person or
organization with whom their professional relationship exists to harm or
exploitation (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 2010). In

order to prevent ethical issues as this, forensic psychologist should ensure that
an expert in hypnosis is used and if the psychologist has a conflict of interest
they should refrain from participating in forensic hypnosis.
Correctional Psychology
Correctional psychologist can be distinguished from psychologists who merely
work in correctional institutions. The correctional psychologist is typically trained
in areas such as correctional philosophy, systems, offender management,
treatment aimed at reducing recidivism, and outcome research. Correctional
psychologist work in a system where they are faced with a high volume of
individuals, from coworkers to violent offenders, correctional psychology is a
challenging, stressful, unique, and dangerous subspecialty of forensic
psychology. Psychologist in this particular area should be prepared to consult
correctional administration with mental health program design; screening of
security staff employed in specialized mental health unit; classification for
mental health program assignments; training of staff; assessment, diagnosis,
and treatment of mental illnesses of inmates or pretrial detainees; crisis
intervention; and advocacy for and evaluation of mental health programs and
services (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008).
Correctional psychologists engage in the assessment of inmates throughout their
experience in correctional facilities, beginning with their entry into the institution
to their out processing. Research conducted by Lamb, Weinberger, and Gross
(2004) has indicated that at a minimum 10 to 15 percent of incarcerated
individuals have severe mental disorders (Lamb, Weinberger, &ump; Gross,
2004). In the case of Estelle v. Gamble (1976) inmates with mental disorders
were granted the right to treatment. In 1990, Washington v. Harper ruled that
inmates can refuse treatment, as long as the inmate is not disordered and a
danger to themselves or others (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). In the case of
Singleton v. Norris (2003) the United States Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled
that an inmate on death row can be involuntarily medicated if the inmate meets
the standard outlines by the case of U.S. v. Sell (2001) (Zonana, 2003). These
cases had a direct impact on correctional psychology and the ability of
psychologist to treat inmates who present severe mental disorders.
Treatment of inmates is an area that has created a large amount of research as
well as some controversy. Treatment of inmates is not exclusive to inmates who
are diagnosed with a mental illness. Some of the most common treatments
offered in correctional institutions are person-centered therapy, cognitive
therapy, behavior therapy, group and milieu therapy, transactional analysis,
reality therapy, and responsibility therapy (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). The
knowledge about effective treatment of offenders can be attributed to
approximately 2,000 studies performed over the past half century. Controversy
surrounds this research because recidivism is a unified concept without a
unifying definition (Wormith, Althouse, Simpson, Reitzel, Fagan, &ump; Morgan,
2007). Therefore, conclusive research as to whether a specific program or type of
treatment is effective is dependent upon the conductors definition of recidivism.
Recidivism of an offender may affect the release of an offender. In this situation,

the warden may ask the correctional psychologist to assess an inmate prior to a
parole hearing. The inmate maybe a repeat offender and the warden may
request a psychological evaluation to determine if release of the inmate is in
societys best interest. However it is unlikely that the individual with agree to an
assessment if they know the information gained can work against their release.
This can evolve into an ethical issue involving confidentiality. To best prevent an
issue such as this, the psychologist should follow the Specialty Guidelines for
Forensic Psychologist. Specifically the guideline that states,
Forensic psychologists inform their clients of the limitations to the
confidentiality of their services and their products by providing them with an
understandable statement of their rights, privileges, and the limitations of
confidentiality (Committee on Ethical Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists,
1991).
Multiple relationships in a correctional institution can cause ethical dilemmas. An
example of this would be if an inmate refuses to comply with a random drug
screening and then attempts to commit suicide. After the suicide attempt the
correctional psychologist examines the inmate and discovers a history of suicide
attempts. He recommends that the inmate participate in group therapy and be
granted a pass on future drug screening. Other members of the prison staff
believe the inmate attempted suicide to escape the urinalysis. In this case the
psychologist is faced with the dilemma of what is in the best interest of the
patient and what is the best interest of the correctional institution.

History of Psychology

In this essay I am looking at where Psychology as a discipline has come from and
what affects these early ideas have had on psychology today, Psychology as a
whole has stemmed from a number of different areas of study from Physics to
Biology,
But the first Psychological foundations are rooted in philosophy, which to this day
propels psychological inquiry in areas such as language acquisition,
consciousness, and even vision among many others.
While the great philosophical distinction between mind and body in western
thought can be traced to the Greeks, it is to the influential work of Ren
Descartes, French mathematician, philosopher, and physiologist, that we owe the
first systematic account of the mind/body relationship. As the 19th century
progressed, the problem of the relationship of mind to brain became ever more
pressing.
The word Psychology comes from two Greek words: Psyche and Logos. The
term ?psychology? used early on described the study of the spirit. It was in the
18th century when psychology gained its literal meaning: The study of behaviour.
In studies today psychology is defined as the scientific and systematic study of
human and animal behaviour. The term psychology has a long history but the

psychology as an independent discipline is fairly new.


Psychology started, and had a long history, as a topic within the fields of
philosophy and physiology. It then became an independent field of its own
through the work of the German Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental
psychology and structuralism. Wundt stressed the use of scientific methods in
psychology, particularly through the use of introspection. In 1875, a room was
set-aside for Wundt for demonstrations in what we now call sensation and
perception. This is the same year that William James set up a similar lab at
Harvard. Wilhelm Wundt and William James are usually thought of as the fathers
of psychology, as well as the founders of psychology?s first two great ?schools?
Structuralism and Functionalism. Psychologist Edward B Titchner said; ?to study
the brain and the unconscious we should break it into its structural elements,
after that we can construct it into a whole and understand what it does.?
(psicafe.com)
Functionalism, an early school of psychology, focuses on the acts and functions
of the mind rather than its internal contents. Its most prominent American
advocate is William James. William James is the author of ?The Principles of
Psychology? a book that is considered to be one of the most important texts in
modern psychology.
?The subject matter of psychology is consciousness and it maybe understood in
terms of what it is (structure), or in terms of what it does (function).? (Benjafield,
1996, p.123)
The psychodynamic approach focuses largely on the role of motivation and past
experiences in the development of personality and behaviour. In 1986 the
founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, introduced the term in a scholarly
paper. Freud's psychoanalytic approach suggests that people are motivated by
powerful, unconscious drives and conflicts. The psychodynamic approach has
been drawn from Freud?s psychoanalytic theories. Many of Freud?s insights into
the human mind, which seemed so revolutionary at the turn of the century, are
now widely accepted by most schools of psychological thought.
Through his work with patients and through his theory building, he showed that
factors which influence thought and action exist outside of awareness, that
unconscious conflict plays a part in determining both normal and abnormal
behaviour, and that the past influences the present. Freud?s text ?Interpretation
of dreams? was published in 1900 was the first of 24 books that he would come
to write and in The Interpretation of Dreams Freud both developed the argument
that the unconscious exists, and described a method for gaining access to it.
But Freud was criticised for his lack of statistical data and the fact that he used a
limited number of disturbed adults, who were what his research was based on,
this was seen to be very unscientific.
Founded by John B Watson in 1915 the behaviourist approach studies observed

behavioural responses of humans and animals. The behaviourist approach


believes we learn to behave in response to our environment, either by stimulusresponse association, or as a result of reinforcement.
Behaviourists focus on the influence of the environment, they chose not to be
concerned with the internal mechanisms that occur inside the organism, they
believe that your behaviour depends on what factors are present in the
environment at any given time. Another big contributor to this approach is Ivan
Pavlov who was made famous for conditioning in which he used dogs in an
experiment.
?The behaviourist approach has been a dominant influence in psychology, it
represents one of the ?hardcore? approaches, which has contributed a great deal
to our understanding of psychological functioning ? (Malim & Birch, 1998)
a common criticism of this approach is that it does not address the possible role
of biological factors in human behaviour. And also that it leaves no room for the
free will of an individual.
In the wake of psychoanalysis and behaviourism, humanistic psychology
emerges as the "third force" in psychology led by Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow. This approach came about just before the cognitive approach in 1954.
This approach centres on the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the
capacity for self-actualization. Humanistic psychologists emphasize the
uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny and
they regard scientific methods as inappropriate for the study of humans. The
main aim of psychology they believe is to help people to maximise their potential
psychological growth. Maslow gave the humanistic approach his theory of selfactualisation as illustrated by his hierarchy of needs. Rogers extended Maslow?s
work into the field of humanistic person-centred psychotherapy. This approach
has been criticized, like psychoanalysis, because it is based mainly on case
studies and interviews, which unlike experiments are not very scientific.
There is not one leading psychologist when it comes to the cognitive approach,
founded in 1956, like the others. One thing that the cognitive psychologists have
in common is an approach that stresses the importance of studying the mental
processes. The cognitive approach studies our information processes of
perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking, and how they influence
our thoughts, feelings and behaviours. It considers each, and their contribution
to our ability to operate successfully in our world. The cognitive approach views
us as active processors of information from our outside world, and we are not
just passive learners, as behaviourists would have us believe. An early
application of the cognitive approach was George A. Miller's 1956 article "The
Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two?. The cognitive approach has been
criticised because of its increased emphasis on the internal processes of
learners, has strayed a bit too far from the importance of active learning.

Conclusion
I believe that the birth of psychology was an accident, I think someone asked a
question that nobody had the answer to, which was link closely to philosophy but
at the same time not quite, and more and more questions stemmed from the
original one till some had to make an effort to find the answers. I believe this is
where the psychological discipline originated from, the fact that there was a
whole psychological world at the end of that question may have been just luck.
Psychology as an independent discipline developed over the years with keen
philosophers, biologists and physicists taking an interest in this new area of
study and putting in their pennies worth, more and more questions arose over
the years and new schools of psychology were formed looking at the discipline
from different perspectives. From what started off as an idea (I guess) turned into
one of the most interesting and sought after areas to study of all the social
sciences.
Over the years psychologists from all the different ?schools? have collectively
made psychology what it is today. If the last two centuries have brought
psychology this far, where will psychology be in the 23rd century?

-----------------------------Psychology is the investigation of the mind and how it processes and directs our thoughts,
actions and conceptions. However, in 1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology
laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Nevertheless, the origins of psychology
go all the way back thousands of years starting with the early Greeks. This foundation is
closely connected to biology and philosophy; and especially the subfields of physiology
which is the study of the roles of living things and epistemology, which is the study of
comprehension and how we understand what we have learned. The connection to physiology
and epistemology is often viewed as psychology, which is the hybrid offspring of those two
fields of investigation.
It was not until the later part of the 19th century that psychology would emerge as a science.
Rene Descartes, a famous French philosopher, contributed a major work to the development
of psychology. Descartes presented his theory of dualism as a response to the body and mind
conflict between scholars (Schultz &ump; Schultz, 2008). According to Descartes, humans
are made up of two dimensions: body and mind. Before the body mind concept, it was
believed that humans thought with their souls (Wozniak, 1995). Descartes also believed that
humans had tendencies of a mechanism but are different from animals because of the ability
to think and reason. His perception of humans led to the theory of dualism. The dualism
theory contended that the humans mind is a separate function form the body. However, the
mind and soul work in unison in the brain, through the pineal gland to create human behavior.
The mind was considered to develop and use innate ideas and derived ideas. Essentially,
Descartes came to the conclusion that the mind has influence on the body, but the body has a
greater impact on the mind.
Theory of innate ideas suggested that thought does not depend on external factors instead it is
the consciousness of a person that develops the ideas. The relevance of innate ideas had great
influence on empiricists and associationist, which would be useful in the progress of
psychology. Derived ideas are produced from external factors, which depend upon the
experiences of the senses. Descartes mind and body theory influenced many of his
contemporaries to discard the thinking of the mind working independently of the body. The
view of the mind and body with his knowledge of physiology influenced other concepts such

as the proposal on how external motions affect nerve fibrils (Unknown author, 2011). These
articulations led to the founding of the reflex theory, which became of great use to
psychology. Descartes work on mechanization had impact on behaviorism. The concept of
the brain being the most important organ heavily influenced the theories of Sigmund Freud.
Descartes work is still prevalent today and can be seen in the field of neuropsychology.
Philosophy laid the foundation for the application of scientific method to be used for the
study of mental functioning. Gustav Fechner, Helmholtz and Weber aided in understanding
the full potential of implementing philosophy to psychology. Gustav Theodor Fechner, born
in 1801 performed experiments which founded the formal start of experimentation
psychology. His work is still the foundation of the new psychology (New world
encyclopedia, 2008). Fechner viewed the mind as the link to human reality. Similar to
Descartes, Fechner had concerns with the perennial mind and body problem.
Fechners theory to answer this dilemma was the formulation of the identity hypothesis. The
identity hypothesis suggested that the mind and body are not truly a dualism. Unlike the
theories of Descartes, Fechner concluded that the mind and body are on separate sides of one
reality, because of sensation and stimulus (Gale encyclopedia of psychology, 2001). Fechner
formulated a law which according to his theory dualism is incorrect. Fechner also developed
three methods of mental measurement, specifying just noticeable differences, constant
stimuli, and average error. The establishment of mental methods conceived the start of
quantitative experimental psychology. The work of Fechner is still celebrated today for his
contribution to psychology. Many years of research on Fechners theory of sensation and
perception enabled advances in technology, new methods for observations of behavior and
describing and analyzing neuroscientist, just as the work of Descartes.
John Watson if the founder of behaviorism, who can be found in the Psychological Review,
published in 1913. The founding of behaviorism echoes two conscious explanations and the
modification in the zeitgeist in American psychology. The first conscious purpose is
engrained in Watsons belief that behavior is stimulating and significant (Watson, 1999).
Watson could not endure the objectives of structuralism and functionalism to examine
consciousness. Watson felt that the direct investigation of behavior was functional and
compelling. Behavior has the operational purpose for an organism. Watson did not disclaim
the creation of consciousness. However, he did not see it as the principle target of
psychology. The second conscious purpose revolved on Watsons opinion of self-analysis.
Watson conceived that self-analysis failed to recognize the framework of function of
consciousness throughout the first 50 years of psychology (Wozniak, 1997).
Watson recognized that the only true facts that followed from the self analysis were in
memory, response time, and bodily modification. Watson believed in the flavor of philosophy.
The zeitgeist in psychology had adapted and there was discontent between both structuralism
and functionalism (Wozniak, 1997). Psychology was prepared for modification, and
behaviorism appeared to present that change. The modification in zeitgeist was mainly due to
the emergence of functionalism, particularly the growing work in the domains of mental
testing and psychopathology. Watson endeavored to execute behavioristic principles in every
concern in psychology.
Watson was strictly advocating objective methodologies. At the core of every method
exercised by Watson was an observation, and he remained far from introspection. Watson
viewed personality as a mass of behaviors. He believed all of a persons reactions, possible
responses, and internal replies made up for personality. Personality is the outcome of a
persons learned habit system (Wozniak, 1997). Watson declared that habit systems comprise
of a persons work, divine beliefs, recreational hobbies and more. Distinctive personality
models are characteristic of distinctive groupings of habit systems. Watson declared that
ones personality changes continuously during life.

Watsons principle contribution to psychology was establishing behaviorism, beginning with


behavioristic revolution in psychology. Revolution had extreme effects on the course of
psychology, which took place in the early mid 20th century. Behaviorism controlled
psychological reasoning from the 1900s though the 1950s, and its effect is still noticed
today (Wozniak, 1997). Another enduring affect of Watsons investigation was his opinions
on the sources of psychological disorders. His work, like others predicted modern day
methods such as methodical desensitization along with counter conditioning. Watson
conceived that psychology could be directed to the improvement of the human race. He
supported a behaviorally oriented scientific appeal to child rearing. Although a number of his
concepts were basic, they aimed notice on the way psychology can be executed in everyday
problems.
Psychology is always changing, and it was not before there was a new movement. Miller.,
Pribram., &ump; Galanter (1960) explained in a landmark book entitled Plans and the
structure of behavior, which is a transition from animal research of the behaviorists who
transit toward the human investigation of knowledge. The theory that is set forth by these
authors is entitled the information processing theory of learning. It bears a resemblance to
Tolmans thoughts concerning cognitive maps and elaboration on the concept of cybernetic
recurrent coils. This information process uses a computer model to help comprehend human
reasoning.
George A. Miller delivered two theoretical concepts that are essential to the information
processing structure and cognitive psychology. The chief thought is chunking and the volume
of short term memory. Miller (1956) presented the notion that short term memory might hold
5-9 portions of information in any meaningful component. A portion might refer to numbers,
words, chess locations, or peoples faces. The notion of a portion and the limited volume of
short term memory can be seen as a basic component of all theories of memory.
Millers next great impact was the perception of information processing, using a computer
model of human knowledge. The human mind can take in information, and execute
operations to alternate its method and content, stores and traces it to generate a response.
Each function is similar to how digital computers input and process. Therefore, the process
consists of collecting and representing information, and encoding; retaining information; and
getting the information when necessary. A significant thought is information processing,
which takes place in a sequence of steps. The information processing theorists method of
learning is primarily by way of the study of memory.
Presently, because of the hybrid heritage, psychology is not thought over as one of the social
sciences such as sociology, economic science, government science, and cultural
anthropology. Psychology is viewed as an ally to the natural sciences such as biology,
chemistry, laws of nature, and mathematics (Thornton, 2009). Psychology is also seen as
humanities, which are philosophy, human speeches, music and art. Most psychologists join
forces on research and other conceptions with intellectuals and scientists in distinctive fields.
This adds to the diversity of interests, which can be seen in the modern psychology
department.
The Forty Studies That Changed Psychology
Eldridge Cleaver.a black American essayist, editor, and public enemy number
one in the mist of McCarthyism present in the days of the protest movement.
Cleavers [Soul on Ice] personifies Leftism at its core, with its unique combination

of sex and revolution that personified the New left image to the masses. Critic
Horst Kruger describes this mixture by how its perceived in West Germany: the
era of Sex and Socialism. Eros is on the Left and beautiful is our youthful
rebellion. Make love and carry the banner of Vietcong high. {Painting Black
Cardboard Figures, 1968) this emphasized Cleavers violent approach and skill
quite evident in his writing. Cleaver discusses his infatuation with white women
that was constantly imbedded within the root of the subjects mentioned in the
book. In Soul on Ice Cleaver made negative references to African American
women as bitches amazons and etc. Theres softness about white women
he explained but a nigger bitch seems to be full of steel.The white women is
like a goddess . I worship her. I love white womens dirty drawers. Cleavers
fixation gave way to calling himself a self professed rapist that targeted white
women that arose after practicing on his own kind. Cleaver solely believed that
this was caused by madness as an act of revenge by the means of accumulated
racial injustices. After 400 years minus my balls, I have the right to proceed any
white women I desire. Cleavers reasoning on depravity, manipulation, and
betrayal that manifested its self in America, but Cleavers insight on the Negro
today by portraying oneself as obtaining a turbulent internal stance, Cleavers
justifications defined by narrowing them to a profound sense of explanation to
those who are not black, the book had not been subjected to pre conceived
notions on approval or disapproval making this book even more authentic
staying true to Cleavers inner most thoughts. Cleaver describes this period in
American culture purely in accuracy to the grueling irony bestowed, to the form
of the most voluntary truth. Cleaver successfully clarifies the distortion caused
by hypocrisy that has altered are historical consciousness. Cleaver for warns
America that after years of oppression Gives shape to the time bomb ticking in
the black mans skull( Shane Stevens Quest for Dignity Progressive 1968).This
bomb would soon explode due to traditional standards that Cleaver has definitely
not conformed to. But yet he is desired by scholars and critics to teach
something that resonate. Even though Cleaver has spent almost twelve years in
California prisons for crimes raging in rape and assault with intent to kill .Cleaver
was still much praised for his work in Soul on Ice which was the by- product his
incarceration. He was also noted as the Minister of Information for the Black
Panther movement (Professor on Ice, Times magazine 1968).Cleaver was then
appointed as an unpaid lecturer guest in the Social Analysis 139X, a innovative
course in which the matters of race relations in the University of California at
Berkeley. He was to be one of twelve speakers. Once the knowing of Cleavers
appearance to speak in front of Berkeley students emerged; who were perceived
to be easily influenced by non conformity. Thus snow balling the experimental
course into complete out rage. The first to oppose this gathering was State
Schools Superintendent Max Rafferty, a Republican candidate for the U.S Senate.
Cleaver in certainly as well qualified to lecture on urban unrest as Attila the Hun
would be qualified to lecture on international mass murder said by Rafferty
(Professor on Ice, Times magazine 1968).Governor Ronald Reagan, who was a
member of the University of California regents had dealt with this dilemma at
Berkeley before, Reagan compared the appearance to asking that famous
Bluebeard of Paris, the wife murderer, to be a marriage counselor. This soon

cultivated into an assembly to vote the censure university official by Cleavers


appearance. After the board of regents settled to an agreement, Cleaver and
fellow guest speakers had been enforced by the board to limit one lecture to
each speaker. That fall 1968 students were predicted to cause havoc on
campuses more than ever before. But the one institution deemed to be expected
of leading the disturbance failed at the attempt to assemble in the University of
California at Berkeley, the home of riots that took at the University about Mario
Savio and his Free Speech Movement that had occurred four years ago. The week
before the attempt their was a call for a campus wide strike that only yielded
20% of Berkeleys 28,000 students (Professor on Ice Time Magazine 1968).The
cause was the decision made by California regents that Black Panther Leader
Eldridge Cleaver could not give ten lectures for a credit course on racism this
violated decision engraved in the curriculum by faculty and staff since the
1920s. To students, regents were believed to restrain students from being
exposed to the Black Panther Movement. Before Cleaver had a chance to lecture
in the Social Analysis 139X course; regents thoroughly diced Cleavers lectures
that were to be presented. Concluded by regents that course could not be given
full credit for. The faculty protested the regents solution made and demanded
that the course would be given full credit for. Chancellor Roger Heyns supported
the professors and allow Cleaver to give ten lectures this debate continued back
and forth between regents on the conflict whether or not to give credit to the
course. To students, the regents decision to withdrawal the Cleaver lesson was a
political backlash in terms of interfering free speech and academic liberties. This
amounted to the faculty only predicting the worse outcome then the disruption
that of 1964.Thousands of determined students formed a meeting to organize a
protest movement. But during the moment of collaborative actions amongst
students soon disintegrated and became a clashing of interest over tactics on
how to retrieve the course. Chancellor Heyns agreed to meet protesters on
campus to elaborate on concern about regents anti sentiment to Cleaver. Heyns
was told specifically by regents not to tolerate instability on campus grounds.
But unfortunately Heyns had to coincide with campus regulations and call
campus police to arrest 105 students that stayed in Sproul hall for ten hours. The
oddity of this scenario resulted into students not resisting arrest and cop
surprisingly being courteous. But with the extreme end of the student
demonstrators that occupied Moses Hall, merely only damaged furniture an files.
But this only infuriated Heyns. He ordered campus cops seize to 72 of the
students that were held accountable for vandalism; the accused were
automatically suspended. Chancellors approach was an success because he was
able receive understanding between the more militant groups by negotiating
firmly on views of extreme tactics, while maintaining tolerance for open protest.
Heyns gained faculty support. That was considered an open door policy of
reasoning with the student body in a civilized matter. Heyns approach also won
regents over without insulting the majority of the student body. But this would
not be the end of another radical uprising to occur.

Clinical Psychology

---------------------------------Clinical psychology aims to reduce psychological distress and to enhance and promote
psychological well-being by the systematic application of knowledge derived from
psychological theory and data (British Psychological Society Division of Clinical
Psychology, 2001). To this end clinical psychology has distinguished itself from other helping
professions by an enduring reliance on its foundation of scientific research.
Within scientific research there is always a strong debate between those that prefer
quantitative methods and those who prefer qualitative ones. proponents of quantitative
methods have built the standards in experimental research and in researches performed on a
large number of subjects and which use sampling criteria and statistical analysis techniques.
On the other side, the qualitative method uses procedures of qualitative nature both at the
level of collecting the data as well as the level of analyzing them (Tagliapietra, Trifan, Raineri
&ump; Lis, 2009). The gathering data procedures include: interviews, group discussions,
observations, journals; while the analysis procedures include coding, categorizations and
systematic confrontation between the categories and their dimensions. Such research is often
defined as an explorative one, opposite to classical scientific research aiming to confirm /
disconfirm initial hypothesis. Among the qualitative methods used in the scientific research
we can list: Focus Group, Speech Analysis, Conversation Analysis, Grounded Theory and
Phenomenological Interpretative Analysis (Tagliapietra, Trifan, Raineri &ump; Lis, 2009).
This tension between an emphasis on a positivist science base and an emphasis on therapy
and professional issues runs through many debates in clinical psychology also. Thus, on the
one hand, clinical psychology has often seemed wedded to quantitative research methods
drawing on an implicit naively realist epistemology and yet, on the other hand, many
commentators note the similarities between the kinds of analysis undertaken in qualitative
research and the judgements practitioners have to make in making sense of clinical material
(Good and Watts, 1995).
According to Barker and Pistrang (2002) the main advantages of using qualitative methods in
clinical context in comparison to the quantitative research are: i) they avoid the
simplifications imposed by quantification, since some things cannot be easily expressed
numerically. That is, they enable more complex aspects of experience to be studied and
impose fewer restrictions on the data or the underlying theoretical models than quantitative
approaches. ii) They allow the researcher to address research questions that do not easily lend
themselves to quantification, such as the nature of individual experiences of a psychological
condition (e.g., eating disorders) or event (e.g., being a victim of crime). iii) They enable the
individual to be studied in depth and detail. iv) the raw data are usually vivid and easy to
grasp: good qualitative research report makes the participants come alive for the reader. In
general, the reports of qualitative studies are often more readable than those of quantitative
studies v) Qualitative methods are good for hypothesis generation, and for exploratory,
discovery-oriented research. They permit a more flexible approach, allowing the researcher to
modify his or her protocol in mid-stream. The data collection is not constrained by preexisting hypotheses. vi) qualitative self-report methods usually give more freedom to the
participant than structured quantitative methods. For example, open-ended questions give
interviewees a chance to respond in their own words and in their own way. vii) Since the data
collection procedures are less constrained, the researchers may end up in the interesting

position of finding things that they were not originally looking for or expecting (Barker and
Pistrang 2002).
Gibson, Timlin, Curran, &ump; Wattis, (2004) states that within clinical and health services
research, qualitative approaches view the world more subjectively, acknowledging that the
researcher is part of what is researched, focusing on meanings and understanding of
experience, rather than on what can be reduced to quantitative measures. They can develop
new ideas through induction from data, rather than confirming or refuting hypotheses.
Qualitative methods have improved our understanding of the experiences of people with
dementia and, if used alongside clinical trials, could be used to improve the relevance of
outcomes to patients, compliance and user involvement. They could also possibly generate
new measures of efficacy and effectiveness in severe dementia
Qualitative researches have a number of contributions in clinical psychology for example
qualitative researches are said to have a contribution in different theoretical developments in
clinical psychology and other related fields. According to Burman et, al. (1998) critical
qualitative research has begun to have a moderate influence on the development of theory and
practice in clinical psychology (e.g. Parker et al, 1995), for example, offering new insights
into how therapeutic practitioners might understand cultural and gender identities. Some
important work here has been conducted by the psychiatrists Pat Bracken and Phil Thomas
who have developed the notion of postpsychiatry (Bracken and Thomas, 2005). Thomas has
also been involved with innovative work into the experience of hearing voices which is partly
based on qualitative research into the voice-hearing experience and has led to therapeutic
innovations very much in tune with other developments in the field like the Hearing Voices
Movement (Romme and Escher, 2000). Some qualitative researchers have also used postStructuralist ideas in their research to explore the embodied nature of the experience of voicehearing, focusing on the work of the Hearing Voices Network (Blackman, 2001).
Furthermore, qualitative research are claimed to have enormous contributions in intervention
studies in a variety of ways. For example, some researchers have used qualitative methods to
design an intervention for subsequent testing (DeJoseph, Norbeck, Smith, &ump; Miller,
1996). Many other researchers have addressed conceptual and methodological issues
surrounding an intervention. In these approaches, data typically are obtained through focus
groups or individual interviews and used to identify the needs of a target population and/or
acceptable ways to implement an intervention. Researchers also have conducted qualitative
studies of interventionists records or logs to describe patient problems and nursing
interventions or to improve understanding of the nature of an intervention in its natural
context (Jennings-Sanders &ump; Anderson, 2003; Lawler, Dowswell, Hearn, Forster,
&ump; Young, 1999 as cited Schumacher et, al. 2005).). Others have used qualitative
methods to enhance their understanding of research participants who dropped out or did not
adhere to the intervention (Jolly et al., 2003 as cited Schumacher et, al. 2005).
Qualitative research also plays important roles in developing effective practice for clinical
psychology and public health interventions. Qualitative findings are often the first type of
evidence available relating to innovations and contextual constraints relating to existing
practice (Thomas 2000). Indeed for some topics, qualitative data gathering may be the only
type possible. In line with this, Thomas (2000) suggest that in clinical psychology, qualitative
researches can be useful in the following circumstances: (1) Topics for which there is little or
no previous research. (2) Implementation of social policies and changes where the use of
Randomized Controlled Trails or other types of experiments is not possible. (3) To
complement quantitative data gathering. For instance, provide data about unanticipated

impacts of interventions. In some instances qualitative procedures may uncover information


not obtainable using quantitative methods (4) a preliminary research phase that assists the
design of subsequent quantitative research. Qualitative evidence may often be the best
available evidence until quantitative research is carried out (Thomas 2000). In addition,
researcher have conducted qualitative interviews following an intervention study to elucidate
the content and interpersonal processes of the intervention, to elicit participants experiences
of having received the intervention, to evaluate the intervention, or to explain study findings
(Gamel, Grypdonck, Hengeveld, &ump; Davis, 2001). In these studies, sequential research
designs, in which qualitative inquiry precedes or follows the intervention study, are most
common (Schumacher et, al. 2005).
Researchers also have conducted qualitative studies of interventionists records or logs to
describe patient problems and nursing interventions or to improve understanding of the nature
of an intervention in its natural context (Jennings-Sanders &ump; Anderson, 2003; Lawler,
Dowswell, Hearn, Forster, &ump; Young, 1999 as cited Schumacher et, al. 2005).). Others
have used qualitative methods to enhance their understanding of research participants who
dropped out or did not adhere to the intervention (Jolly et al., 2003 as cited Schumacher et, al.
2005). Critical qualitative researchers have also offered new perspectives in the area of child
sexual abuse and there is now a broad array of approaches. New perspectives have led to
alternative therapeutic interventions and innovative approaches to the training of
professionals involved with child protection (Warner, 2003).
According to Gibson, et, al. (2004), the integration of qualitative research into intervention
studies is a research strategy that is receiving increasing attention across disciplines recently.
Although once viewed as philosophically incongruent with experimental research, qualitative
research is now recognized for its ability to add a dimension to intervention studies that
cannot be obtained through measurement of variables alone. (Featherstone, 1998 as cited in
Gibson, et, al. 2004) further state that, qualitative methods have a wide scope of use within
clinical trials. They can address issues such as informed consent and randomisation. They can
allow those undertaking treatments and their carers to share their own experiences of the
benefits and impacts that drug treatments bring, perhaps particularly relevant in severe
dementia. Beyond the clinical trial, they can explore reasons for inequity of access to
treatment (Gardner , Chapple &ump; Green, 1999). Because of the respect shown to the
participants views, qualitative research can be useful in improving the design of randomised
controlled trials, and in improving recruitment (Featherstone, 1998). Because they do not
have to decide in advance which rating scales to use, qualitative methods in drug evaluation
can increase the likelihood of discovering new kinds of information about the experiences of
patients and those who care for them.
In summary, quantitative research method as a research tool has an several contribution in the
field of clinical psychology. Opportunities are unlimited in rehabilitation to describe and
interpret phenomena via qualitative study. The qualitative research method is needed in
addition to or concurrently with the quantitative perspective in improving the practices of
clinical psychology. Using qualitative methods in clinical practices has several advantages
compared to the quantitative methods. Moreover qualitative method as a research tool has
been proven by different researchers that it contributes in development of new theories and
new treatment approaches in clinical psychology.

The Psychology of Kenneth Lay


------------------------Kenneth Lay was the CEO and Chairman of a successful energy trading company called
Enron. Kenneth Lay was born April-15-1942 (Johnson, 2004). His company was widely
known to have the most innovated accounting procedures. Kenneth Lay grew up as son to a
religious Baptist family. Kenneth Lay is also an educated man; his highest academic
achievement is a Ph.D in economics. Kenneth Lay also served the U.S Navy for around 3
years. Kenneth was brought up knowing that he had to always provide for his family.
Kenneth Lay married a woman named Linda and in total they have five children. Kenneth
Lay was once seen as a Good Man due to his charity commitments and his dedication to
the minority communities. However In todays society Kenneth Lay is more known to be one
of the biggest conspirators of the globally known pension wipe out and Freud scandal.
Kenneth Lay was at the height of his career in April 2001, when Fortune magazine had
claimed Enron to be the seventh largest company in the United States (G.Velasquez, 2006).
However Kenneth Lays journey of success had a terrible downfall six month later when his
company filed for bankruptcy December 2, 2001 (G.Velasquez, 2006). The claim of Enrons
bankruptcy is considered to be one of the largest corporate bankruptcies in U.S history.
Throughout Kenneth Lays trial he still claimed that he did nothing wrong and he had no part
of what happened to his company and turn the blame on Andrew Fastrow. Down the line
Kenneth Lays company was convicted for wiping out, $60 million in market values, 56
hundred jobs, and hundreds of employees life savings. Kenneth Lay claimed that Fastrow
was the one behind the entire operation of the pension wipe out.
Furthermore there are many theories to why one commits a crime such as Potential (ICAP)
Theory, Social Control Theory and Behavioral Theory. One theory that is most intriguing to
combine with criminology is Jeremy Benthams Rational Choice Theory. Rational choice
theory is explain by stating that the person whom is about to commit the crime weighs his or
her potential repercussion of their actions. More so if the award of this crime is bigger then
what might be their punishment then their actions are going lean more on going through with
committing the crime. Jeremy Benthams Rational Choice Theory places a persons mine set
and ethical values on the line for the reason they chose to follow through with committing a
crime. With rational choice theory the criminal is evaluating the level of risk that a certain
crime will impose.
Based on rational choice theory by Jeremy Bentham, the potential criminal does not just
decide they are going to commit the crime overnight. Instead most of the crime that follows
rational choice theory is planned out in every detail such as the time, day and victim (etc.).
Moreover rational choice theory tries to explain that the target of the potential criminal is not
chosen at random. The victims are selected with much consideration by the level of challenge
they will impose on the criminal (DEREK B. CORNISH1, 2006). For instance lets take 250
pound bully as our criminal. Now the bully is not going to pick on a person who has equal or
greater strength as the bully. Instead the bully will choose someone who is 100-120 pounds
and looks defenseless as their victim. This is because the bully knows they have a greater
chance of getting away and coming out successful with a more defenseless opponent as
appose to someone on his/her same or greater level. Under rational choice theory one can say
that the criminal choose their victims that might be considered as easy targets.
Moreover no theory goes without debates of its weaknesses as well as strength. Rational
theory has several weaknesses as well as strength. One of Jeremy Benthams rational choice

theory weakness is that it has always been debated is that it has to broad of a definition. It
also claims that most of the potential criminals are fully capable of thinking rationally and/or
logically with the exception of the mentally ill. Furthermore it does not take into account are
those crimes that considered being hate crimes, crimes of passion and emotion (etc.). There
are also many criminal who rather commit crimes in the spur of the moment and do not have
a detailed plan to commit the crime. It is also hard to prove that this theory is the best suited
for a certain criminal. Another weakness of rational choice theory is that it is hard to combine
with other aspects of ones thinking such as religious belief, and moral values. Rational theory
cannot be combined with ones will power. One last weakness of rational choice theory is that
the theory claims that crimes in this category are mainly economically based (Siegel, 2007).
Although there are many weaknesses to rational theory there is also strength that allows
rational choice to become a theory of exploration. One of the strength of rational choice
theory is that is it one of the most common explanation to human behavior (Cornish &ump;
Clarke, 1986). Another strength that pertains to rational choice theory is that this theory
claims that once an offender has committed a crime then their upcoming crimes become
predictable. With rational theory the victims also get a theory to why they have been chosen
to be victims of the perpetrators. Rational choice theory also explains that the potential
perpetrator has the choice of not becoming a criminal. Many of the defenders of rational
choice theory believe that one of the strength of this theory is that it creates a non-tautology
prognosis.
One policy implication to prevent crime in rational choice theory is to make targets seem
more unlikely to be targets. For instance instead of walking alone down an ally walk with a
group of people. In neighborhoods where there is a higher likelihood of criminal acts
occurring try to implement more security in place. Studies shows that neighborhoods that
have security or frequent neighborhood watch in place are less likely to be a neighborhood of
committed crimes (Keel, 1994). One of the actions that should be done based on rational
choice theory is that once one commits a crime their sentencing should not be taken lightly
since they become predictable. There sentencing should be given with much consideration
to what will actually be affective and leave the criminal noticing that the reward does not and
in the future will not out way the punishment.
One case that Rational Choice Theory is well represented in is the case that was discussed
earlier in this paper. The case of Kenneth Lay where his company called Enron had a tragic
downfall. Rational choice theory explains that the perpetrator weighs the reward and the
punishment before making a decision. One of the rewards that Kenneth Lay and others high
in power in the cooperation received was $55 million in bonuses just a few days before
claiming bankruptcy (Ingrassia, 2006). Kenneth knew that his charity work and his good
reputation would follow him throughout this case (Velasquez, 2009). Kenneth believes that he
could easily push the blame onto Andrew Fastrow making it more logical for him (ken) to
bypass any criminal accusation. During Kenneth Lays trial day he continue to say that he did
nothing wrong and only continue to provide for his family as his father had taught him.
Kenneth felt that everything he did was for his family so he did not commit a crime even
though the evidence proved that he did commit the crime. And Kenneth was indicted for his
role in the companys collapse, including 11 counts of securities fraud, wire fraud, and
making false and misleading statements (Associated Press, 2006).
Throughout the last years of Enron, Kenneth Lay and Andrew Fastrow was placing small
amount of money (also known as entities) into accounts with unusual names such as Jedi and
Chewco. By disguising theses account they were never entered into the data systems
(Velasquez, 2009). Therefore the money laundering scheme would not be easily discovered
making the punishment unlikely and the reward higher and of more value. Furthermore since
Kenneth was covering up the losses of the company and making investors and employees

believe that the company was making profit instead drastically loosing. Kenneth knew that
his investors and employees trusted him. And as long as he made it seem that the company
was on the right path no one would become suspicious or question him. Therefore this
allowed him to pick his target very well and plan out his entire scheme perfectly as those who
fall into rational choice theory do.

Compounds That Compose the Human Body


There are five major groups of compounds that compose the human body.
They are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleotides, and water. These are all
very important to humans and without them we would not be able to survive.
They have many functions that encourage a human cell and a human body to
function.
Carbohydrates include sugars and starches, contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen which appears in a ratio of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates are classified according
to size as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. The primary
function of carbohydrates is to serve as sources of energy. Carbohydrates are
some of the most numerous molecules in living organisms. They play a major
role as food molecules in the cell, being broken down to produce energy.
Polysaccharides play an important role serving as energy reserves also. It
provides a quick-release energy source that keeps us going between meals.
Small amounts of carbohydrates are also used for structural purposes and others
are attached to outer surfaces of cell membranes to guide cellular interactions.
For many cells, sugars are the most important source of energy.
Lipids are important because they function as structural components of cell
membranes, sources of insulation, and a mean of energy storage. The lipid
molecules are most well known as forming basic structures of cell membranes
and as energy storage molecules as well. In this group of lipids, there are about
three main types: true fats (triglycerides), phospholipids, and steroids. True fats
represent the bodys most abundant and concentrated source of usable energy.
When they are oxidized, they yield large amounts of energy. They are stored
chiefly in fat deposits beneath the skin and around body organs, where they help
insulate the body and protect deeper body tissues from heat loss and bumps.
True fats are a storage form for excess food, they are stored energy. Any type of
food consumed in excess need to be converted to fat and stored. Phospholipids
although similar in structure to the true fats, are not stored energy but rather
structural components of cells. Lecithin is a phospholipid that is part of our cell
membranes and myelin provides electrical insulation for nerve impulse
transmission. The third group is steroids and cholesterol is an important steroid.
Cholesterol is another component of cell membranes and a form of cholesterol in
the skin is changed to vitamin D on exposure to sunlight. All of the sex hormones
like estrogen and testosterone are also steroids. So despite the links to bad
effects, cholesterol is an essential substance for human beings.
Proteins are very important in biological systems as control and structural
elements. Proteins do almost everything in the body, from catalyzing reactions,

fighting off foreign things, storing and transporting oxygen, to forming muscle,
skin, hair, and a variety of other structural tissues. They exist in a multitude of
forms, but almost all are constructed from a basic set of just 20 common amino
acids. They account for over fifty percent of the organic matter in the body. The
building blocks of protein are small molecules called amino acids. Proteins are
classed as either fibrous or globular proteins. The fibrous proteins often called
structural proteins appear most often in body structures. They are very important
in binding structures together and for providing strength in certain body tissues.
Collagen is found in bones, cartilage, and tendons, while Keratin is the structural
proteins of hair and nails, the waterproofing material of the skin. Globular
proteins are molecules that play crucial roles in virtually all biological process.
Some of these are antibodies, which help provide immunity, hormones, which
help regulate growth and development. There are also others that are called
enzymes, which are biological catalysts that regulate essentially every chemical
reaction that goes on within the body. Enzymes are functional proteins that act
as biological catalysts. Although there are hundreds of different kinds of enzymes
in body cells, they are very specific in their activities, each controlling only one
chemical reaction and acting only on specific molecules. The enzymes also
promote blood clotting so if it were not for them, then there would be potentially
large numbers of lethal blood clots.
Nucleic acids are polymers composed of monomer units known as
nucleotides. The main functions of nucleotides are information storage (DNA),
protein synthesis (RNA), and energy transfers (ATP and NAD). They make up the
genes, which provide the basic blueprint of life. They also direct your growth and
development. They do all of this by dictating protein structure. Nucleic acids are
composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorous atoms. There
are two major kinds of nucleic acids; they are deoxyribonucleic acid and
ribonucleic acid. DNA is the genetic material found within the cell nucleus. It
makes up the genes that an organism inherits from its parents, and these tell the
cells which proteins to make. Each gene directs the production of a particular
protein in the cell. The proteins, in the form of enzymes, then initiate and
regulate all the chemical reactions within the cell. DNA also replicates itself
ensuring that the genetic information in every body cell is identical. Then it also
provides the instructions for building every protein in the body. RNA is located
outside of the nucleus and this is considered the slave of the DNA. The RNA
carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA.
Water is also very important for the functioning of a human cell or a human
body. Without water, there would be no life on earth. Water makes up sixty to
seventy percent of the human body, and is essential for several reasons. Water is
a solvent so it is able to dissolve many substances. Nutrients and vitamins are
dissolved in blood, which is mostly water and is transported to cells throughout
the body. The excretion of waste products is also possible because they are
dissolved in the water of urine. Water also has a very high heat capacity. It
changes temperature slowly. So water will absorb a lot of heat before its
temperature rises significantly. This factor helps the body maintain a constant
temperature. This makes excess body heat evaporate sweat on the skin surfaces,
rather than overheating the bodys cells and raising our temperature so fast.

Water is very important to all living things and the unique characteristics of it
help our bodies to grow and function normally.
These are the five major groups of compounds that compose the human body.
They have many important functions all special and made just for humans. Their
chemical structures promote and encourage a human cell and a human body to
function normally and well. Without any of these things, we would not be able to
survive nor would any other living organism on Earth. They help us greatly in our
everyday lives but we just don not realize how they work and keep us strong,
healthy, and unique human beings

------------------------------Biology
1. The virus is made up of five parts and is in the size range of 10
nm-300 nm in diameter. The first is the coat made up of protein that protects
the virus to a point. Next is the head that contains the genetic material for
the virus. The genetic material for a virus is DNA. The two other parts are
the tail sheath and the tail fibers that are used for odd jobs. I believe that a
virus is not considered to be a living creature due to the fact it is a
parasitic reproducer. To me it is just like ripping up a piece of paper because
it is still the same thing and it isn't carrying out any other function besides
reproduction. Since the virus cannot continue to do its functions without
taking from a host and being a parasite it is considered an obligated parasite.
2. The adult fern plant in its dominate generation (sporophyte)
develops sporangium on one side of its leaf. When meiosis is finished inside
the sporangia and the spores are completed the annulus dries out releasing the
spores. The spore germinates and grows into a prothallus which is the
gametophyte generation. The antheridia and the archegonia are developed on the
bottom of the prothallus. The archegonia are at the notch of the prothallus and
the antheridia are located near the tip. Fertilization occurs when outside
moisture is present and the sperm from the antheridia swim to the eggs of the
archegonia. A zygote is formed on the prothallus and a new sporophyte grows.
4. Flowering plants have unique characteristics that help them survive.
One is the flower itself that contains the reproductive structures. The color
of the flower helps because it may attract birds and insects that spread the
plants pollen which diversify the later generation of plants. Flowers also
produce fruits that protect their seeds and disperses them with the help of
fruit eating animals.
5. Fungi, Animalia, and, Plantae are all believed to be evolved from
Protista. All 3 of these kingdoms are eukaryotic and their cells have a nucleus
and all the other organelles. Fungi live on organic material they digest,
Plants produce their own organic material, and Animals go out and find their
food. Animalia are heterotrophic whereas Plantae are photosynthetic. Fungi who

digest their own food on the outside are different from animals who digest their
food on the inside. Plants and animals both have organs systems but animals
have organized muscle fibers and plants do not.
8. The Gasreopoda , Pelecypoda, and the Cephalapoda all have three of
the same characteristics. The first one is the visceral mass that includes
internal organs like a highly specialized digestive tract, paired kidneys, and
reproductive organs. The mantle is the second one. It is a covering that
doesn't completely cover the visceral mass. The last one is the foot that can
be used for movement, attachment, food capture, or a combination of these. The
Gastropods are the snails and slugs. They use their foot for crawling and their
mantle (shell) to protect their visceral mass. The class Pelecypoda consists of
clams, oysters, scallops, and mussels. These animals have two shells that are
hinged together by a strong muscle and these shells protect the visceral mass.
They use their foot for making threads so they can attach to things. Cephalopods
consist of octopuses, squids, and nautiluses. These guys use their mantle
cavity to squeeze water out and causes locomotion. The foot has evolved into
tentacles around the head that are used to catch prey. Nautiluses have an
external shells, squids have smaller but internal shell and octopuses lack
shells entirely.
9. The word Arthropod means jointed foot which come to some of the
features of an arthropod that are the jointed appendages, compound eyes, an
exoskeleton, and a brain with a ventral solid nerve cord. The class Crustacea
has compound eyes and five pairs of appendages two of which are sensory antenni.
Some examples are shrimp, cray, lobsters, and crabs. Insecta has 900,000
species in its class. For example in a grasshopper they have compound eyes with
five pair of appendages, three that are legs, one of which is for hopping, and
two pairs of wings. Spiders that belong to the class Arachnidia have six pair
of appendages. The first pair of appendage are modified fangs and the second
pair are used for chewing. The other four are walking legs ending in claws.
Spiders don't have compound eyes, instead, they have simple eyes. More examples
are scorpions, ticks, mites, and chiggers. To similar classes are Diplopoda and
Chilopoda because they are segmented in the same way and each segment has a pair
of walking legs but in the Diplopoda some segments fuse together and seem to
have two pair of legs to one segment.
10.The Phylum Chordata contains creatures that would have bilateral symmetry,
well developed coelom, and segmentation. In order to be placed in this phylum
they must have had a dorsal hollow nerve cord, a dorsal supporting rod called a
notochord, and gill slits or pharyngeal pouches sometime in their life history.
In the subphylum Urochordata the only one of the three traits they carry on into
adulthood is the gill slits. In their tadpole form of their life they contained
all three of these characteristics. Subphylum Cephalochordata retain all three
qualifications into adult form and have segmented bodies. In subphylum
Vertebrata it has all three traits as usual but its notochord is replaced by a
vertebral column.
11. In these fish the sac-like lungs were placed at the end of the
fishes digestive tract. In their case when the oxygen level in the water they

were in was low they could still collect oxygen by breathing. After time these
sac-like lungs became swim bladders that control the up and down motion of a
fish.
12. The reptiles most helpful advancement in reproduction that helped
them live on land was the use of internal fertilization and the ability to lay
eggs that are protected by shells. The shells got rid of the swimming larva
stage and the eggs did everything inside of the shell. The eggs has
extraembryonic membranes that protect the embryo , get rid of wastes, and give
the embryo oxygen, food, and water. Inside the shell there is a membrane called
the amnion and is filled with fluid and is used as a pond where the embryo
develops and keeps the embryo from drying out.
13. The three subclasses of mammalia all have hair and mammary glands
that produce milk. Each of these classes also have well developed sense organs,
limbs for movement, and an enlarged brain. In the subclass Prototheria the
animals lay their eggs in a burrow and incubate. When the young hatch they
receive milk by licking it off the modified sweat glands that are seeping milk.
Subclass Metatheria the young begin developing inside the female but are born at
a very immature age. The newborn crawl into their mothers pouch and begin
nursing. While they are nursing they continue to develop. With the subclass
Eutheria the organisms contain a placenta that exchanges maternal blood with
fetal blood. The young develops inside the mothers uterus and exchanges
nutrients and wastes until it is read to be born.
--------------------------------Biology and Philosophy of Love
What does it mean to love another person? This question is one that virtually every person
has asked himself at some point; virtually every school of thought that exists has attempted to
provide an answer of some sort. In this paper I will explain my own attempt at answering that
question, from the perspective of an amateur philosopher; then I shall delineate the answers
that some biologists have given. We shall see that, while at first these two sets of answers
might appear to be quite different, there are in fact some interesting and notable similarities.
I have heard many different accounts of what it is to love someone - to care truly for that
person's best interest, to be willing to sacrifice one's own life for that person's well-being, and
so on, the list is infinite. To be sure, these accounts all have a measure of validity; there are
many different forms of love. However, there is one aspect that all of them have in common,
which is the same point at which I think they fail to capture what it really is to love someone:
they are too altruistic. Humans, it seems to me, are essentially self-centered creatures; and I
do not intend that statement to have the extreme negative connotations that usually
accompany the term "self-centered". I mean it in the most literal sense: humans are centered
around the self. Much as we may try, the self is un-transcend-able. At this point in scientific
and spiritual progress, we cannot ever truly experience anything through another person's
frame of reference - all that we can know for certain is that which we think and feel. Thus, it
makes no sense to speak of love as a sort of "leaving the self".

How, then, are we to think about it? I offer this alternative: so as to avoid the mistake of
treating love as a form of altruism, we should think of loving another person as the act of
loving oneself through another person - in other words, we love the people that make us feel
best about ourselves, that bring out the best in ourselves. It is important to note that by no
means does this definition entail that we do not genuinely care about the people we
supposedly love. We can see this as follows: by this definition, it is essential that we like the
people we love (it would be impossible for someone I did not like truly to make me feel good
about myself); we want the people we like to be happy; we are best suited to making other
people happy by being happy ourselves; we cannot be happy unless we like ourselves. And
how can we accomplish this feat? By seeking out the company of those people who, for
whatever reason, make it easier to like ourselves. Upon reflection, this account seems to me
to be the only one that allows us to love others without requiring that love to be a pure act of
altruism.
And what does biology have to say about love? First of all, it seems to be widely agreed
amongst biologists who study the subject that love is an essential part of human functioning.
Dr. Arthur Janov, author of The Biology of Love, brings up a developmental fact essential to
understanding this point: "The right hemisphere, which is larger than the left, is the site of
feelings and emotions and of holistic, global thinking. Thoughts, planning, and concepts are
the domain of the left hemisphere. The right brain is largely mature at the second year of life;
the left brain is only beginning its maturation at that time. Feelings pre-date thoughts. In
terms of evolution we are feeling beings long before we are thinking ones." (1) Furthermore,
it has been shown that neglect, or lack of love, has a serious impact on human ability to
survive and develop properly. (2) Dr. Janov notes that infants who are neglected have brains
that are significantly different from normal brains: the number of stress-hormone receptors,
for example, are much lower in the brain of a neglected infant, which entails a higher level of
stress - and therefore unhappiness - in that person. (1)
Biology, as of this point in time, has successfully determined what processes exactly occur in
the brain when one loves another person. However, there are studies that have been done that
show some interesting correlations. Dr. Helen Fisher posits a dramatic increase in the amount
of dopamine and norepinephrine present in the brain when one first becomes infatuated with
another person, which would account for the feelings of euphoria, giddiness and so on that
one would experience at that point. (3) Another study showed that, in the brains of people
who had recently fallen in love, serotonin levels were significantly higher than those in the
brains of the control group. (4) Yet another study demonstrated the possibility of a correlation
between the ability of adults to bond emotionally with one another and the presence of the
hormone oxytocin, which is normally associated with human reproductive processes such as
lactation and, interestingly, male and female orgasm. (5)
How can these findings be applied to my theory as outlined above? Most notably, there is a
correlation between the notion of loving another person as a form of self-love and the types
of chemicals that scientists have found to be present in the brains of people who are in love.
All of the chemicals stated above are associated not only with being in love but with other
forms of gratification. Oxytocin, as stated above, is released in the brain during orgasm;
dopamine is associated with pain relief (6) and euphoric feelings in general, as is evidenced
by the role it plays in the effects of amphetamines and cocaine; serotonin is associated with
feelings of calm and happiness. In other words: when we are in love, chemicals associated
with pleasure are released into our brains; loving another person is comparable to selfgratification. To love another person in the philosophical sense is to love oneself; to love

another person in the biological sense is to give oneself pleasure.


References
1. The Biology of Love; online excerpt of Dr. Janov's book
http://www.primal.es/primal/books/janov/biologyoflove.htm
2. article on love and its biological necessity to human life
http://members.ozemail.com.au/~jcull/articles/bol.htm
------------------------My Experience with Biology
To all who know me, they know how I cant stand anything that is gross and slimy, or
possibly get me in any way, shape, or form dirty. (I cant stand to be dirty at all!) When I go
to the doctors, I cant even stand to see the nurses poke my arm with a long, cold, sharp
needle, so they can get a blood sample. I cant even stand to watch the shows on the
Discovery channel where they are operating on any part of the human body and there is blood
oozing from the open flesh of a human being. I find it very hard to swallow when I even get a
glimpse of it on television. This has always been my feeling ever since I was little, but when I
entered high school and took a College Prep Biology course my feelings on things that are
gross and slimy changed quite a bit.
In high school I took a Biology class as every high school student has to do. I felt a little
smarter than some of the others, because I was not only taking Biology, but I was taking
college prep Biology. The only drawback to the class was I was going to have to a lot of
dissecting to do. Now, I know in Biology everyone had to dissect the traditional earthworms
and frogs, which I can handle without any problems. The problem I encountered after I
entered the Biology class was not the fact that I had to dissect worms and frogs, but I had to
actually dissect a fetal pig.
I was not looking forward to this part of the class; I was even considering transferring into the
normal, calm Biology class every one of my sane friends had done, but it was too late to turn
back now. I vividly remember my teacher passing out the syllabus of his course and talking in
a very excited manner about the dissecting of the fetal pig. Now class, I know the tradition is
to just dissect earthworms and frogs, which we will do, but I am anxious to get to the
dissection of the fetal pig section of the class. Why, oh why, would he be that excited to hack
into a dead pig was the question that was going through my head the entire time the teacher
was talking about the exciting semester ahead of us. I wanted to pretend that I wasnt even in
the class at all; I tried to imagine myself shrinking into nothingness just so I wouldnt have to
participate.
As I looked at the schedule I decided on the day of the dissection I would simply be absent,
so I wouldnt have to participate in the massacre of the pig. I figured I could make up the
work by doing some meaningless worksheet, or a paper with a really cool topic that the
teacher would like. As I looked down to the point section of the syllabus my very clever plan
was quickly unraveling when I read that attendance on that day was mandatory and there

wouldnt be any way to make up the grade for missing. I felt like I was just sentenced to a life
in prison. I couldnt believe I had to actually go through with this. I faced my sentence with
the shame and fear of actually having to tamper with an already dead animal.
I wasnt sure if I was going to get over my fear of having to look at something being hacked
into. I think the truth of the matter is I was feeling sorry for the pigs that died to become the
subject for our own amusement. When the time drew nearer for the dissection I asked Mr.
Johnson why we were dissecting pigs in the first place. The answer to my question was
something I never really thought of. Mr. Johnson told the entire class the reason why we were
dissecting fetal pigs was because it is the closest thing to a human being. The feel of pig skin
has the almost exact same feel as human skin does and since we couldnt actually dissect a
human he thought that the pigs were the next best thing. After all, this is Biology and some of
you might want to become doctors. Mr. Johnson wanted to give us all a really great
experience after all, so I thought I might as well give it a whirl. What did I have to lose!
The day of the dissection had finally come and the buzz was all around us. After making it
through earthworms and frogs with my all male partners I was getting just as excited as they
were. I finally realized why my partners chose me as a group member after being with them
for almost the whole semester. I told them that they would have to do a lot more of the
answering questions on the worksheet this time if they wanted any help from me. My group
members were letting me pretty much do the worksheets, because they said I was the smartest
out of all of them. This is coming from a group of juniors and I was only a sophomore. I call
it complete laziness on their part, so I told them I would not do the work anymore without
help from all of them. I told them I wanted to be as much a part of the dissection as the rest of
them. I had finally understood the excitement my teacher gushed about at the beginning of
the quarter. I was just as eager to discover as the next guy.
Standing around our work station with the materials we would need for this assignment all
cleaned from the previous dissections of the frogs from two weeks ago. I was ready to jump
right on in and play doctor for the day. The members of my group started acting weird as the
pigs were being place on our trays. I found this behavior kind of odd, because during the
other dissections they were making the earthworms and frogs dance, sing and tell awful
jokes. As the pig was placed in front of us the guys backed away quickly as if the pig was
going to somehow come back to life and attack them. I started to wonder if they were just
pretending to act scared on my behalf, because they all knew how I felt about this section of
class. When Mr. Johnson said go ahead and begin my group members didnt even fight
over who got to make the first cut. I was stunned beyond belief, because nobody but me
wanted to begin dissecting the pig. In unison they told me to go ahead and we will do the
worksheet. I was dumbfounded; I couldnt believe these strong guys didnt want anything to
do with the pig. So there I was, left alone to tackle the beast all by myself without their help.
There I was standing with my group silently behind me in from of a dead pig. I picked up the
scalpel and slowly made my first incision. I followed the diagram that was given to us by Mr.
Johnson. I slowly made the cut from the pigs neck all the way down to his belly. I carefully
folded back the skin just as we did with the earthworms and frogs. I was starting to get more
excited to explore everything inside of the pig. I became the doctor and my group members
had become my nurses. I began to bark out orders to them scalpel, scissors, tweezers and
just like in real life they handed me everything I asked for. I had a great time looking and
showing the heart, liver, and kidneys to my squirmy group members. They would nod their
heads and quickly look away to fill out the worksheet. For this moment in time I felt how it

would be to be an actual doctor. To actually be able to look at a heart regardless if it is an


animal or humans heart was incredible. For the first time I was actually able to work without
being disgusted and scared about the blood and fluids that came out.
Our group was the first to finish with the required part of the assignment, so I asked Mr.
Johnson if it was ok to look at the brain. Mr. Johnson was excited by this question and said
yes go right ahead! So there I was eagerly trying to saw my way to the brain of my already
mutilated pig. I hate to report that I wasnt able to get to the brain before class was over. The
skull of the pig was just too tough to saw through, so I wasnt able to see the brain. I was
quite bummed about it, but my group members were not. They were actually relieved when
Mr. Johnson said we had 10 minutes left of class, so start cleaning up. With a sad expression I
began to help my partners to clean up my mess. My partners were actually impressed with
my enthusiasm of dissecting the pig. I was also impressed with myself on how I got over my
fear of blood and guts.
Till this day I sometimes still have problems when it comes to blood, slime and watching
people being cut open on the discovery channel. What helps me through is thinking back to
my Biology class and then I calm down long enough to watch an open heart surgery (for 5
seconds). I still dont like to be dirty, but I dont mind as much, because of my son. Anytime I
freak out about the disgusting stuff in our world I think back to that one day in Biology class
when I was the doctor for that 1 hour and 45 minutes.
------------------The Story of Evolution as a Utopia and the Evolution of the Story of Utopia
In my first semester I had the college seminar that focused on the idea of Utopia in fiction,
politics, and philosophy. Our discussions and readings went through a process of evolution
that begin as rather simplistic and then followed a steady path to much more involved.
Honestly, a reason that I chose the class was because I had done many of the readings before,
but once the work began I realized that myself, and all the others in the class, would be
looking at works, such as Candide and 1984, in an entirely different fashion. Many of the
stories we read were written a substantial amount of time in the past and it was interesting to
see how their meaning changed and evolved over different generations. While reading the
books on biological evolution I could not help but see aspects of a desired Utopia in the
theory of evolution. In this paper I hope to explore the evolution of selected works from my
class last semester and address my feelings on the idea that the theory of evolution is a
utopian notion.
One of the works we focused on a great deal was George Orwell's 1984. This counted as a
utopian and distopian society because the higher powers in the book were able to control the
underlings exactly as they wanted to; whereas the underlings who were suffering it all, lived
in great fear and unhappiness. Orwell wrote the book in 1948 as a warning to what he felt the
world may become. As we well know, his prophecies were not entirely fulfilled but the
meaning of the story has evolved over time and still has relevance in today's society. When
1984 was written it was a lightly disguised reflection of the communism and capitalism. It
also served as a warning for where the world might become if there came to power only a few
dictators to reign over the entire world. My father read the book in 1983 on the suggestion of
my mother and he said that, at the time he only felt like it was fiction but in the newspapers

everyone was raving about how IBM and other up and coming corporations were turning into
exactly what the book made them out to be. He then added that society today is more like the
society in the book than ever before, especially with the war going on. Random bombings,
general oppression on the lower classes, and the government taking complete control no
matter was the mass public desires. Watching how different generations perceive Orwell's
1984 proves that an evolution of the original product has occurred.
Perhaps one of the utopian traditions that went through the most changes was the story of
"Cockaigne." Cockaigne was an oral tradition passed around the lower classes about a city
made of food. Thought to be originally produced in Italy, there was a different version in
every European country. The story was evolved into something more fitting for every culture,
seeing as people in France were not as excited about fish as they were about cheeses. A
general description of the land of Cockaigne is as follows, "The walls are made of sausages. /
Windows and doors, though it may seem odd, / Are made of salmon, sturgeon, and cod. / The
tabletops are pancakes. Do not jeer, / For the jugs themselves are made of beer" (Unknown
22-26). For decades in the medieval times this story was told to alleviate the pain and
suffering that the lower classes had to deal with. Over the years the idea of a Cockaigne as
changed, especially during the post modern art era. Recently, a photograph was shown to the
class portraying one of today's artists', Vince Desiderio, vision of Cockaigne. In his painting
there are six centuries of Western art scattered on the floor surrounding a table with empty
dishes. Desiderio explains his work as "cultural bulimia" relating it back to the original
meaning of Cockaigne. The meaning of the Land of Cockaigne began as a gastronomic utopia
in the medieval times and evolved into a desire for new and different types of art (the postmodern view: everything has been done before, therefore artists have to figure out new ways
of remaking the old).
I have an underdeveloped theory that the story of biological evolution is, itself, a form of
Utopia. A large aspect to this theory is my personal belief that no matter how fantastic a
created utopia is, there must be at least one member of the community who is not happy in
their surroundings. The biological story of evolution includes many individual aspects which
make it a whole, including natural selection, new species, and surviving together (parasitic,
symbiotic, commensalism). The way that evolution includes all things natural having to learn
to cohabitate, and at the top of this line is humans, makes me think of a community living
together in a perfect way. Natural selection is a form of elimination by nature, meaning if the
species is unable to survive in the habitat they began in, or cannot move to one where they
will survive, their species will become extinct over time. Personally, I find this way of
eliminating weak and unproductive organisms perfect. Although, according to Timothy
Anders (an author of biology), the root of all human suffering, and hence of all created is
evolution by natural selection. This proves my speculation that not all find a utopia the
perfect place to be.
In conclusion, all stories have the ability to evolve. It could simply be through different
versions where either the author or publisher demands that something significant be changed.
It could be through translation where words, meaning, and structure are lost (take Cinderella
and the fur/glass slippers for example). Specifically, the genre of a utopian story has much
room to evolve because time, desire, and access are always changing which causes the view
of a perfect world to change a considerable amount. A large discussion in the beginning of
this semester was whether or not the theory of evolution is a story; and both Professor Dalke
and Professor Grobestein have been pressing the students to see that yes, it is a story.
Therefore, because all stories have the ability and notion to evolve, the story of evolution has
surely changed over the years. The system of evolution can be seen as a utopia, especially by

its creators. They did not agree with Creationism and knew there was another explanation;
therefore, they went out into the world and found it, forming it using their own beliefs and
knowledge; thus creating their own, workable utopia.
Works Cited:
Orwell, George. 1984. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1954.
Unknown Author. This is about the wonderful Land of Cockaigne. NP. NC. ND.

-------------------------------Evolution Is
Has the narrative of Mayr and his fellow naturaliststhose evolutionists who include natural
selection in their explanations and who comprise a strong majority of evolutionist voices
todaynow entered a sort of evolutionary stasis? Not yet.
For example, consider Mayr's central theory of speciation as it applies to a creative species
such as humans. There are cultural and creative aspects of our so-called "higher level" species
that have the potential to perturb whether and how new species taxa might evolve from homo
sapiens: mobility and its effect on isolation, technology applied to environmental and
physiological conditions, artificial constraints on reproduction, social cultures, and our
creative abilities. Whether our species is better equipped to survive or more likely to
accelerate towards extinction may, in part, be determined by these factors and their
interactions.
Evolution is. Therefore, we are. The human species is an infinitesimally improbable out-come
of countless, unrepeatable iterations of a process that itself is a fluke. To paraphrase the late
naturalist Stephen J. Gould, erase the tape, have one player move a few feet to the left for
good measure, do a retake, do a trillion trillion retakes, and nothing akin to homo sapiens is
likely to emerge. Evolution is not intuitive, nor would any sane gambler bet on its odds.
There are no "proofs," no conclusions based upon experimentation and testing. What we
know about evolution derives from historical narrativethe evolutionary biologists'
reconstruction of what might have happened. Their scenario has also evolved through
iterations of accumulating, adapting, and eliminating ideas according to new findings, new
observations, and new knowledge. In the process, the narrative's woof and warp have
tightened. Gaps narrowed to the point that, in "What Evolution Is," biologist Ernst Mayr
could proclaim, "Evolution is not merely an idea, a theory, or a concept, but is the name of a
process in nature, the occurrence of which can be documented by mountains of evidence that
nobody has been able to refute...It is now actually misleading to refer to evolution as a theory,
considering the massive evidence that has been discovered over the last 140 years
documenting its existence. Evolution is no longer a theory, it is simply a fact" [Mayr 275].
Central to this "simple fact" is the concept of speciation, which was developed in the 1930s
by Dobzhansky and Mayr. According to them, allopatric speciation is contingent upon the
spatial and temporal integrity of a population, a species taxon. That population must be

isolated from others of its species, either by some geographical barrier or by the
establishment of a founder population beyond the reach of its parent. Members of the taxon
interbreed freely but in isolation. Over time, selection for phenotype occurs. Some
phenotypes are eliminated while others prevail based upon how well they can adapt to
changing conditions (selection pressures) in their surroundings. Individuals (and their genes)
who cannot adapt are eliminated. If too many indi-viduals succumb, that species will become
extinct. Variation and elimination under large-scale pressures can also lead to the creation of
new space, new niches that a population may exploit through adaptationa better chance to
thrive. Generational turns of a species do not result in improvement in any directional sense,
only in change that is useful for the species to survive or exploit the latest shift in conditions.
However, evolution of a species does involve cumulative adaptations, and the number of
attributes that can combine to adapt increases with each turn. No sweeping strategies are in
play, just short-term, reactive, tactical maneuvers.
But what happens when a species is not isolated, does not allow its members to breed freely,
has the wherewithal to re-engineer its surroundings and even itself, is inclined to react and
make decisions based upon the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors established by social groups,
and transcends other species in its ability to communicate, imagine, and create? How do these
attributes affect speciation, which is central to evolution, which is central to our continuance?
Or is it?
Mobility and its affect on isolation: Whether allopatric speciation is dichopatric (geography
separates two or more taxa) or peripatric (a smaller founder population becomes isolated),
speciation depends upon reproductive isolation. Among members of the humans species there
is no such condition. Invention has led to mobility, and humans can now reach everywhere on
the planet. Our taxon is our species and we have inadvertently denied ourselves the option of
morphing to adapt. Perhaps we could artificially isolate populations, but that is not
sociologically feasible. While proximity is a dominant factor in who reproduces with whom,
none of us is geographically removed from the opportunity to reproduce with any of the
others. At some point, the process of speciation among humans could be compromised by this
factor.
Technology applied to environmental and physiological conditions: From bioengineering the
body to artificially remediating an ecosystem, material nature no longer exists independent of
overt, directed human intervention. Humans are exceedingly clever beings. We can eliminate
an increasing number and complexity of selection pressures as they arise in our environment
and in our bodieswithout the traditional operators of reproduction, inheritance, and
elimination. We can prolong, improve, and create life unnaturally. We may even learn how to
prolong cellular life indefinitelyand make death a process of elective or artificial selection.
Our applied intelligence had already precipitated the rapid, simultaneous extinction of species
coexisting in a geographical region, e.g., the rainforests of the Amazon River. According to
paleontologist Neil Eldredge who, along with Stephen Gould, developed the idea of stasis
and its affect on speciation, "most adaptive evolutionary change occurs in conjunction with
speciation...Natural selection shapes most evolutionary adaptive changes nearly
simultaneously in genetically independent lineages as speciation is triggered by extinction in
"turnover" events...such turnover events have causal roots that are deeply ecological and
arise, at base, from large-scale changes in the physical envi-ronment..." Humans manufacture
large-scale change. To what degree are our technological "ad-vancements" affecting our own
speciation and even the ability for us to evolve via this process?

Artificial constraints on reproduction: So far, evolutionary change depends upon heritable


variation. For a vast majority of humans, society, religion, and/or law governs mating. In
many societies, close relatives are not permitted to reproduce, thereby removing the powerful
genetic effects of inbreeding from the process and biasing the gene pool. Each human has two
copies of any given gene (two alleles at each locus)one from each parent. If the parents are
related, the alleles have a higher probability of being identical. Therefore, inbreeding tends to
amplify both beneficial and detrimental traits. At what point is speciationwhich depends
upon random inbreeding and out-crossingcompromised by cultural constraints regarding
sex and marriage? If variability is damped because of regulation that takes place within
human genomes, then the lack of in-breeding might skew inheritance even more dramatically.
Social culture: In the article "The Objects of Selection," Ernst Mayr wrote: "There is, however, also a second kind of selection... better referred to as "selection for reproductive
success." It includes such phenomena as parent-offspring conflict, sibling rivalry, unequal
parental investment, unequal rates of division of prokaryotes, and many of the phenomena
studied by sociobiology. In all cases, genuine selection is involved, unlike survival selection.
Considering how many new kinds of selection for reproductive success are discovered year
after year, I am beginning to wonder whether it is not even more important than survival
selection, at least in certain higher organisms." Mayr's conclusion is not trivial. The two
phenomena of biological evolution and cultural evolution co-evolve us. If sociologically
driven selection criteria that are to some degree under our control can have more influence
over our evolution, then what is the relative future impact of speciation?
Creativity: Our evolution and the process of evoltion may be co-dependent, even recursive.
According to neuro-biologist William H. Calvin, "We have achieved an extraordinary ability
to pretend, fantasize, lie, deceive, contrast alternatives, and simulate. Our minds can operate
on the unreal, and the formation of unreal, blended spaces says a lot about our creativity."
Add to that that humans can communicate with words, teach each other (and other species),
and learn in social groups. These creativity factors separate our species from all others.
Manifested as cultural variation and in the creation and exchange of knowledge, what effect
do these traits have on human speciation and the future impact of the evolutionary process?
All of these modern human characteristicsmobility, technology, sexual selection, culture,
creativityappear to have the potential to significantly impact speciation opportunities for
our species. On the other hand, if all species begin with speciation followed by stasis and at
some point thereafter, abrupt descent to extinction, perhaps we are creating our own
advantage.
Evolution is. Therefore, we are, but will we go on because of evolution's protocols ac-cording
to Darwin and Mayr or in spite of them? Just as Napoleon took the crown from the hands of
the Pope and crowned himself emperorand with the risk that our sense of control and
prowess may be equally delusionalas we evolve, we are taking evolution into our own
hands.
Works Cited
Calvin, William H. "Why Create a Brain?" 2003. http://williamcalvin.com/2003/Why%20a
%20creative%20brain.htm
Eldredge, Neil. "Species, Speciation and the Environment." 2000.

ActionBioscience.org. http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/eldredge.html
Mayr, Ernst. What Evolution Is. New York. Basic Books. 2001.
Mayr, Ernst. "The Objects of Selection." 1997. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America. March 18; 94 (6): 20912094.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=33654

-------------------------We Must be More Cynical of Human Evolution Theories


The history of human existence is a highly speculated and heated subject of debate. Many
seek for origins of mankind through religious and cultural contexts. Although no definitive
answer has been established, society often tends to look towards science for explanation of
this mystery. Surprisingly, much of what is presented in regards to human evolution is taken
as fact. There is an underlying de-emphasis on particulars such as hypothesis and theory.
Rather than disillusionment resulting from constant discoveries which discredit previous
beliefs, a reinterpretation is created and subsequently taken as truth. Although a great deal of
testing and physical evidence accompanies these theories, none provide complete concrete
validation.
A prime example of such reinterpretation stemming from new discovery is the recent finding
of fossilized skulls in Ethiopia. On November 16, 1997 the skulls of two adults and one child
were found in the Afar region bordering the Middle Awash River in a village called Herto.
After roughly three years of reconstructing the fragments of skull together (the childs skull
alone is composed of over 800 pieces), further profane discoveries were brought to the
publics attention. Testing and analysis reveals that the skulls are 16,000 years old and thus
makes them the oldest modern human fossils to date1[1]. The skulls significance however is
of even greater importance. The Herto skulls prove that the current and widely accepted
theory of evolution is flawed.
The age of the skulls pre-dates Neanderthal fossils. Therefore, we could not have evolved
from them2[2]. Neanderthals split of the human tree (a popular metaphor in reference to
evolutionary lineage) more than 300,000 years ago and died out 30,000 years ago. This in
turn brings yet another theory into questioning. The skulls display that near humans evolved
in Africa before the Neanderthals disappeared. This can be viewed as directly contrasting the
hypothesis that early human hominids came from Africa and spread to Eurasia. The skulls
serve as evidence of primary evolution in Africa then proceeded by a migration to
Eurasia3[3]. In addition, scientists tracking evolution through analysis of change in
mitochondrial DNA (mother to daughter) help discredit previous notions. They estimate
lineage in Africa to what has been dubbed Eve around 150,000 years ago which is the exact
time period the Herto skulls are believed to be from4[4].
Now before continuing mentally digesting new contradictions in evolutionary theory, one

must consider how much stock to place in these new discoveries. The Herto skulls pre-date
most Neanderthals, key word being most and not all. Explanation for the exceptions is
unaddressed and consequently makes subscribing to new views difficult. Logically, if there is
an exception of a statement, then the statement can not be true. Also, proof that we do not
descend from Neanderthals does not necessarily prove unequivocally that we come from the
Herto species dubbed idaltu either5[5]. The skulls also provide support for a particular
migration theory, key word being theory. But as aforementioned, once some new discovery
discredits the inferences of the previous, a reinterpretation, not necessarily proven, will be
accepted as common truth until the next. The fact that the new discoveries still only lead to
mere theories as opposed to definite evidence becomes irrelevant via excitement and
sensationalism of new findings.
One rationalized justification now being used to contradict previous theories is the human
fossil record. The Herto skulls fits a time frame that fulfills a now fixed gap of lacking
intermediate fossils between pre and modern humans (between 100,000-300,000 years
ago)6[6]. Be reminded and take into account that there will always be a gap to fill as long as
new discoveries are made. Attention is also drawn to previous fossil findings as being
younger in age, scattered site-wise, poorly dated, and incomplete7[7]. This implies that the
Herto skulls are of better quality while not appearing to share Neanderthal and Erectus
characteristics found in the earlier unsatisfactory discoveries. These details may be true but
are not substantial enough to qualify as evidence to sufficiently prove or disprove ancestry.
Technological advances of the future will certainly make current findings able to be judged as
scattered and incomplete.
Upon comparison to other fossils, similarities are also now being used as evidence for
speculation. The skulls less prominent brow ridges and higher cranial vault8[8] differentiates
them from pre-humans and, through process of elimination, links them to modern humans.
The Herto skulls are also linked by observed similarity found in some Australian and Oceanic
individuals in terms of morphology (branch of biology that deals with the form and structure
of organisms) and facial features9[9]. In order to further validate this notion of connected
resemblance, the skulls were compared with a worldwide sample of 3,000 other skulls. Less
stressed is the fact these skulls were not found with the rest of their bodies and there is no
way of knowing why. Instead, anthropologists theories of similarity are offered to add to
further supposition. For example, in New Guinea the skulls of ancestors were preserved and
worshipped10[10]. Since the Herto skulls (in particular the one belonging to the child) bear
marks suggesting modification after death, a tangent is easily insinuated.
During the excavation of the Herto skulls, tools and other skeletal remains were found as
well. These tools (600 in total)11[11] further contribute to speculative validation. Since
hippopotamus bones bearing cut marks from stone tools were found and some of the tools
with the Herto skulls included hand axes, an assumption that this species had developed a
taste for hippo is made. Other prospects are not considered even though no one can disregard
the possibility of the hippo being killed out of defense or used as another natural resource
other than sustenance. Even if the taste development theory is correct, many questions will
never be answered. Whether hippos were killed or scavenged still remains unknown. The
other tools are, like the hand axes, of the same time period. However, the initial intent and
actual uses of these tools can not be proven one way or another. These findings may provide
some insight and embody historical significance but are still in need of much clarification and
investigation.

Combined assumptions have actually been used as rationalization for even more unproved
ideas. These were people using a sophisticated stone technology. Using chipped hand axes
and other stone tools, they were butchering carcasses of large mammals like hippos and
buffalo and undoubtedly knew how to exploit plants (Tim White,
paleoanthropologist)12[12]. Mr. White does not back up his statements with any hard
evidence but assumes botanical knowledge must be an accompanied characteristic of
supposed hippo hunting and craftsmanship of tools. The possibility of plant knowledge is not
an outrageous concept but to guarantee this as truth with descriptions using words like
undoubtedly is overly presumptuous.
Due to the constant disproving of theories and hypothesis via profound discovery, one may
understandably resist accepting new information as truth. Especially when considering how
much reliable scientific discovery has already been reevaluated and even proven
completely false. Exploring the roots of human evolution is not totally irrelevant because it
does and can provide great insight. However, a more cynical style perspective should be
taken when one is informed of new breakthroughs and findings. After all, what is popularly
taken as true this month may actually be considered ridiculous rhetoric in the aftermath of a
new discovery soon to come.
Notes:
1[1] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
2[2] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
3[3] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
4[4] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
5[5] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669_fs.html
6[6] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
7[7] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
8[8] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01670_fs.html
9[9] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
10[10] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01670_fs.html
11[11] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
12[12] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669_fs.html
---------------------Perfection According to Mayr's What is Evolution
In his book titled What is Evolution, Ernst Mayr bravely attempts to explain the complex
biological processes of the development of plants and animals. His book, however, reaches
beyond the realm of the science text book. With What is Evolution he attempts to educate an
audience which may not have a strong science background but instead a strong literary
background. Through this book Mayr strives for "a mid-level account of evolution, written
not just for scientists but for the educated public." In short, he attempts to write a (nonfiction) scientific novel. Though his attempt to combine great literature and hard science is
admirable he often gets himself into awkward situations when trying to please both the

scientific and artistic sensibilities. His major problem in the book surrounds the use of the
word "perfect." As a biologist, it may be easy to pass this word off as a synonym of
"adaptedness," simply meaning well-suited to one's environment. As a literary-minded
person, let alone English major, however, this word cannot slip by so easily. To the novelreader, more than to the science-reader, this word carries a lot of baggage which cannot be
ignored. So, why does Mayr use this word and what is he really trying to say? Does Mayr
truly believe that evolution can be perfect?
The baggage that gets snared when Mayr uses the word "perfect" in his discussions of
evolution is the complicated literary definition given to this word. Exact and flawless are
some common synonyms of the word perfect. Perfection is something that has reached the
pinnacle, the zenith of existence. Nothing which is perfect needs any alterations,
modifications or changes. When something is perfect it exists with ease. It does not struggle
to remain where it is, and it does not struggle to remain alive; it works in harmony with its
environment. Going beyond the definition, something that is perfect is commonly more
highly valued than those things around it which have not yet reached perfection. People place
a certain amount of value on things that occur with ease. The human race seems constantly to
be striving for something that is faster, cleaner. Something that can achieve these goals with
ease earns the title of perfection and is highly. The only problem with perfection, as least in
the realm of science, is that once the peak of perfection is reached there is no place towards it
can further develop. This obviously presents a problem when considering evolution, which by
its very name and nature means the slow change over time of one organism into something
separate.
Mayr, as an accomplished, intelligent and well-respected scientist, could not have overlooked the fact that by believing in the process of evolution, he cannot also believe organisms
can (or have) reached perfection. The two simply cannot coexist. In fact, Mayr does not
believe in perfection manifested in natural organisms, he says so many times over through the
course of his novel. Often, when Mayr uses the word he is actually trying to distance himself
from it, to slice it out of our concept of evolution. Perfection, he tries to tell us, has no place
in the story of evolution.
Still, Mayr's approach to distancing himself from the word "perfection" is subtle and almost
hesitant, as if deep inside he still wants perfection to have its place in nature. In the beginning
of his novel he writes, "Evolution, indeed, was a change...a change towards greater
perfection, as it was said at the time..." (p. 8). Mayr begins this sentence with a claim, that
evolution is "a change towards greater perfection." This claim says that there is a purpose for
evolution, a goal towards which it strives. This goal is for an organism to reach a point at
which it lives and reproduces with complete ease within its own natural environment
(otherwise known as perfection). This claim also states that the process is still in motion; we
are moving "towards" perfection, but we have not yet attained it. Even though we have not
attained perfection quite yet, Mayr seems to be telling us that it is within reach. Then, quietly
sandwiched within the scentence Mayr writes, "it was said at the time." The subtlty he uses in
inserting these six words is surprising, since it changes the whole meaning of the sentence.
This notion, of organisms striving for a specific point at which change is no longer necessary,
"was" believed. It is a notion explored in the past tense. Not only was the idea of evolution
towards perfection conceived a long time ago but, "it was said at the time," also indicates that
it is not said now. Suddenly, perfection switches from being a truth or a viable outcome of
evolution to an out-dated, inaccurate theory. People today, Mayr included, do not care to
believe in this struggle towards perfection. The way in which Mayr includes, "it was said at

the time," however, makes him seem less convinced in the falasies of perfection than he
should be.
Mayr's use of the word "perfection" could be attributed not so much to a subconcious desire
for perfection, but as simply a sense of literary style. Since What is Evolution is not written
simply a biology text book but also as a piece of literature, Mayr is placed in a very delicate
situation. His purpose in this book is not only to declare the yet understood "facts" of biology
and evolution, and help the reader to process them; he is also responsible for keeping his
readers wrapped up in a good story. As Mike Grant writes in the Biological Sciences Review,
people, like Mayr, who wish to coherently communicate the workings of science, must "[use]
the beauty of language to communicate [their] enthusiasm for a discipline." As long as Mayr
is simply taking Grant's advice, the use of the word "perfect" can be easily explained. Using
"perfection" in this context is not so much a statement or a claim as a literary embellishment.
It is added to evoke a feeling or an image. Grant writes, "the profound implications of a
perfect DNA double-helix," to create for the common reader a sense of awe for the DNA. He
wants to recreate the same feeling a scientist might have viewing a strand without actually
meaning to attribute the dictionary understand of the word "perfect" to the DNA sequence.
Grant wants to excite his readers and make biology interesting, so too does Mayr.
Another explanation for the use of the word "perfection" in What is Evolution is that Mayr,
like many other humans, is uncontrollably attracted to the idea of the existence of
flawlessness, even if he does not necessarily belive it exists. Mayr's relationship with
"perfection" parallels the basic human relationship with genius, it is looked for in every
corner, on every street, and in every organism. In the December 2002 issue of The Atlantic
Monthly Marjorie Garber explored what she called "our genius problem." She argued that
people are naturally attracted to the idea of "a certain level of achievement, a gold standard,
that [is] nonnegotiable, beyond mere opinion." This "gold standard," is Ian McEwan's (who
Garber quotes) definition of genius, but it could just as easily be the definition for perfection.
Perfection is the peak of performance, beyond which there is no room for improvement. It is
the highest bar; it is that goal to end all goals. Genius, similarly, is the peak of human mental
and creative performance. Both perfection and genius are actively sought and rarely, if ever,
achieved.
Genius, like perfection, is measurable but elusive. People constantly search for genius
through methods such as the IQ test, which measures "intelligence quotient." People also set
standard by which they can compare and recognize genius. One of these standards is what
Garber calls "natural genius." A "natural genius" is one who possesses extraordinary natural
or god-given powers of the mind which cannot be attributed to any amount of schooling. In
other words, genius is born with someone and will emerge within their lifetime, with or
without the help of a formal education. Shakespeare and Einstein are two clear examples of
"natural genius." Shakespeare's schooling appears to have not extended much past our
equivalent of grammar school, and it is commonly believed that high school bored Einstein
so much that he skipped out on most of his classes.
Much like the people who search for genius, Mayr looks for "perfection" using tools and
units of measurement of his own design. On page one-hundred and forty he lists and
described eight measurements for perfection, or as he calls it "adaptedness," within living
organisms. These measurements all come to the conclusion that perfection is not manifest in
living organisms, still if the conditions were right some organisms could develop perfection.
"Constraints of phyletic history" is the number-four big glitch in our evolutionary pursuit of

perfection. Mayr argues that over time adaptations were made which lost their usefulness, but
which cannot now be reversed. We are forever stuck with the end of our tailbone and an
imperfect, up-right skeletal structure which places high amounts of pressure on our hips and
backs. By recognizing this phyletic history as a root to our imperfection, however, he creates
a path towards that elusive goal of flawlessness. If only there were time, if only our genetic
make-up could change or work in reverse, we could achieve perfection. After all, "The human
species...has not yet completed the transition from quadrupedal to bipedal life in all of its
structures. In that sense is it not perfect." (p. 282)
All of the tests and all of the observations that Mayr makes leads to one answer, perfection is
not the goal of evolution and is not possible to achieve through evolution. Still, Mayr insists
on using this confusing and frustrating word throughout his novel. His unwillingness to let
"perfection" slip from our scientific vocabulary may be a scienctist's attempt at expanding
and energizing a literary work. However, his subtlty in rejecting perfection, and the tools by
which he tries to measure it point to a different expaination. Mayr still clings to a hope that
some day perfection will be reached, whether through natural evolutionary processes or
alternative, man-made schemes.

--------The Role of Gene Mutation in Human Evolution


Have you ever looked at a gorilla or a monkey and considered it to be your ancestor?
Probably not, but, if you have had that thought then it was probably just because that is what
has been taught in our school systems for decades, and probably will be for a long time to
come unless proven otherwise. Sure, humans and primates have similar features: facial
expressions and structures; fingers; toes; breasts; hair; etc., but there has been no evidence
that proves that we are, undoubtedly, a product of natural selection evolving from ape-like
species. Ever since the first mentioning of our evolution from such species was introduced, it
has been primarily theory, and nothing more. Scientists have been struggling for years to find
the scientific evidence linking humans to primates. Recently, though, in the study of such a
theory, there has been a remarkable finding suggesting just that Humans are descendants
from ape-like species.
Anthropologists have long debated how humans evolved from a species with larger jaw
muscles and smaller cranial capacities (smaller brains). The new finding may be the answer
theyve been searching for. Although it is not definite proof linking the two species, it is very
convincing. Perhaps with more research, it can become factual proof that links humans to
primates. Mysosin is the major contractile protein that makes up muscle tissue, and it is this
gene that is thought to be responsible for the appearance of the genus Homo in the
evolutionary aspect of the hominid species. Myosin Heavy Chains are a critical protein
component of the sarcomeres, the engine room of skeletal muscle, from which contractile
force is derived (Currie, 373).
The study began with the discovery of a small, inactivating deletion in the human genome
sequence that had been previously studied and was known to power muscle contraction in
skeletal muscles. This gene-inactivating mutation was not found in merely a few specimens

of humans, it was found in all humans natives of Africa, South American, Europe, Iceland,
Japan, Russia, etc. However, the mutation was not found in the DNA sequences of seven
species of non-human primates, including Chimpanzees (University of Penn. Medical
Center). The particular gene in question is of the Myosin Heavy Chain, MYH16, and is
specifically related to muscles in the head, namely chewing and biting muscles. Macaque
monkeys, a non-human primate, were studied and were found to have the particular MYH16
gene present, and as predicted, only in its muscles of mastication (chewing muscles). In
humans, though, due to the mutation, the protein was not being made, and this explains why
humans have smaller and weaker jaw muscles when compared to the Macaque monkeys,
whose jaw muscles are ten times stronger than humans (University of Penn. Medical Center).
This decrease in muscle tone is due to the inactivation of MYH16 gene which causes a large
reduction in the sizes of the muscles that theyre present in (Currie, 373). This geneinactivating mutation has been traced back to a hominid ancestor about 2.4 million years ago,
and, coincidentally, about 2 million years ago, the less muscled, larger brained skulls of the
earliest members of the genus Homo began to appear in the fossil record (University of Penn.
Medical Center). This, along with the evidence of emigration of Homo species from Africa in
the fossil record, indicates a more intelligent being with higher thought processes and
reasoning.
You are probably asking yourself how a gene mutation affecting jaw muscles has anything to
do with a more sophisticated, intelligent species emerging from ape-like species. It was not
merely the muscles that changed with this mutation. Muscles exert tremendous stresses
across and/or cause bone structure to be deposited atop growth zones where the muscles
attach to bone, and this is evident where Currie states, [. . .] altering the size of different
muscles can produce dramatic alterations in the bones to which they attach (Currie, 373374). The stronger mastication muscles in primates created stresses on the skull that
demanded more boney structures to be produced, thus creating a smaller cranial capacity
which, therefore, limited the amount of space that the brain could occupy. The inactivating
myosin gene mutation found in all humans releases a large amount of stress placed upon the
cranial bones, therefore enabling the cranial capacity to become larger. This decrease in
boney structure resulted in the lighter, more delicate structure found in humans today
(University of Penn. Medical Center). This increase in cranial space allowed the brain to
expand, and this skull structure coincides with the evolution of Homo over the past 2 million
years (University of Penn. Medical Center). Without the boney structures that muscles induce
on bones, there would be no way for us to tell if this mutation actually caused the changes in
the hominid skull. But, since bone is such a strong material, and since the muscles do induce
changes in bone structure, we are able to look back at the fossil records to determine when
and where these changes first emerged. As stated by Stedman et al, This represents the first
proteomic distinction between humans and chimpanzees that can be correlated with a
traceable anatomic imprint in the fossil record (Stedman et al, 415).
As with every new scientific finding there will always be some doubt. The reduced-jaw
muscle mutation in the evolution of humans was not addressed in terms of its adaptive
significance. Sure, it allowed the cranial capacity to enlarge, along with the brain, but it is
unclear how such a mutation became fixed in the hominid population (meaning that the
mutation was somehow useful, and wasnt just wiped out of existence), leading to the vast
increase in the number of the Homo species in the world. Currie voices his opinions on this
matter when he states, Several explanations could be advanced to counter this ideological
roadblock, such as a contemporaneous shift in diet (say, to an increased reliance on meat
eating), or a growing dependence on hands rather than the jaw in food preparation (Currie,

374). These possible circumstances could have been the reason that such a mutation became
fixed in the hominid population. But, unlike the gap in the human DNA sequence that the
mutation causes, Curries suggestions remain assumptions. So, the reason why the weakerjaw muscled Homo species became fixed in evolution has yet to be answered, and will
likely draw a lot of attention in the near future from current scientists interested in such
research.
Now that I know for sure that we are true descendants of ape-like species, it will make me
look at them differently. And knowing that such a small mutation in the genome sequence of
a species can cause an entirely new species to emerge is very fascinating. Some day, maybe
in the near future, there will be a small mutation in Homo sapiens genome sequence, causing
an entirely new species to emerge that may be more intelligent than us. Maybe they will span
the entire planet as we have, taking over as the dominant species, and ending the Human rule.
The possibilities are endless and unpredictable, and this goes for everything in science which
is why it is so intriguing to so many people. You and I are both able to read and comprehend
the words on this page, along with being able to do hundreds of other tasks that no other
species is able to do, thanks to a small, muscular genetic mutation that occurred in primates
2.4 million years ago, giving rise to the genus Homo, and eventually Homo sapiens.
Works Cited
1. Currie, Pete, 2004, Muscling in on Hominid Evolution. Nature, v. 428, p351-450.
Macmillan Building, London, UK. p373-374.
2. Stedman et al, 2004, Myosin Gene Mutation Correlates with Anatomical Changes in
the Human Lineage. Nature, v. 428, p351-450. Macmillan Building, London UK.
p415-418
3. University of Pennsylvania Medical Center
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/03/040325074128.htm

ile they may seem safer from land-based hunters (such as lions), there are still many other
predators (such as crocodiles) that lurk in the waters. In addition, most large bodies of water
would probably attract land predators for drinking, anyway. (Moore)
During my research, I found the notions of AAT just as impossible as the Savanna Theory.
While AAT is an interesting concept, there are just as many uncertainties in its structure as in
the Savanna Theory. If AAT supporters point out fossilized shells and sea life found alongside
hominid remains, then their detractors will snidely reply that most fossilized digs are prebiased for easiest access and abundance. I was happy to see Marc Verhaegen offer a
compromise, that we gradually evolved from, frugi- and herbivores in gallery or tropical or
mangrove forests to short-legged bipedal waders in forest clearings or mangrove swamps,
to omnivores and partial shellfish feeders along seacoasts and rivers, and finally to longlegged bipedalists on land. The question of human evolution cannot be definitively
answered with our current knowledge. Essentially, we are just waiting for more evidence to
constantly surface. Until then, it is important to remember there is no prize for guessing the

right answer, and that only by keeping our minds open to new ideas will we come closer to
an understanding of ourselves.
References
Moore, Jim. Aquatic Ape Theory: Sink or Swim? Homepage and various links.
<http://www.aquaticape.org/index.html>
Verhaegen, Marc and Pierre-Francois Puech. Hominid lifestyle and diet reconsidered: paleoenvironmental and comparative data. Human Evolution. pp 151-162; 2000. Found at:
<http://allserv.ugent.be/~mvaneech/Fil/Verhaegen_Human_Evolution.html>
Westrup, Hugh. All Wet? Current Science. Vol 88, Issue 6. p8; Nov 8, 2002.

How to Cite this Page


---------------------------------Evolution and The Island of Doctor Moreau
There are a lot of misconceptions about Darwin's theory of evolution. One of the biggest is
that he called the theory by that name. Albrecht von Haller used the word "evolution" in 1744
to mean "to unroll," so the word was around in Darwin's time, but Darwin never used it in the
sense we use it today. It was added later by others, including Herbert Spencer, who is
responsible for the theory we call Social Darwinism. This theory is misnamed; it is not based
on Darwin's work, but Spencer's.
Darwin did not come up with his theory out of nowhere. Like anyone else who has made
discoveries, he was influenced by others. For quite a long time before Darwin, people didn't
look beyond the Biblical creation story. Such things as fossils, primitive stone tools and
visible layers in rock were said to have been placed on earth by God. There wasn't a great
deal of work done on what we now call evolution, until the age of exploration began. Around
that time people noticed that there were different types of humans in different parts of the
world. There were several attempts to classify the various types of humans, but such
classifications were generally extremely ethnocentric, and included ideas that have been
proved incorrect. For a time people believed that creatures like Dr. Moreau's Beast People
could and did exist in the world; explorers told fantastic tales of humans with the heads of
dogs, or mermaids, or islands populated by only humans of only one gender. In the
seventeenth century John Ray coined the term "species," but he believed that none of the
species had changed since the day of creation. Linnaeus, who invented the system of
binomial nomenclature used today to classify different species, was also a creationist.
Darwin gave credit to many people in a "sketch" which was added to his book, On the Origin
of Species, in the third edition, which was published in 1861. [The full title of the book is, On
the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Or the Preservation of Favored Races in
the Struggle For Life. The full title of the sketch is, "An Historical Sketch of the Progress of
Opinion on the Origin of Species, Previously to the Publication of this Work"; long titles
must have been trendy at the time.]

"Lamarck was the first man whose conclusions on the subject excited much attention," writes
Darwin. (Appleman, p. 19) Lamarck, a naturalist, upheld "...the doctrine that all species,
including man, are descended from other species." (Appleman, p. 19) Lamarck "discovered"
four laws about the process of change in all organisms: 1) Living things tend to grow; 2)
Necessity causes new organs to develop; 3) Organs that are used more get stronger ["use it or
lose it"]; 4) Inheritance of acquired characteristics. (Myers)
Inheritance of acquired characteristics means that physical changes that took place in one
generation would be passed on to the next. For example, Lamarck thought that the first
giraffes all had short necks, but they stretched their necks to reach food, and their necks grew
long; then when they mated, their descendants had long necks too. We see this idea in The
Island of Dr. Moreau, when Montgomery says that the Beast People "...actually bore
offspring, but that these generally died. There was no evidence of the inheritance of the
acquired human characteristics." (Wells, p. 61)
Darwin was also greatly influenced by Charles Lyell, a geologist whose theory of "deep time"
stated that the earth's features were not formed by the Biblical flood but by forces still present
today. Also included in the concept of deep time was the idea that the earth is very old, older
than the Bible claims. Another important influence was Malthus, who wrote an "Essay on the
Principle of Population." This essay's title is fairly self- explanatory; the essay contains ideas
about population dynamics and a theory on overpopulation. (Myers) Darwin read Lyell's
Principles of Geology and Malthus's essay during his famous voyage.
Dr. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Charles Darwin's grandfather, also dealt with concepts
relating to evolution, but "he did not arrive at the idea of natural selection..." (Fothergill, p.
63) And finally we get to Charles Darwin himself. As a young man from an elite and wealthy
family, Charles's possible career choices were limited: there weren't many professions
"respectable" enough. He started off studying medicine but couldn't stand to see blood.
Charles earned a degree in theology, but his real interest, which he pursued outside the
classroom, was natural studies. For three years as an undergraduate he "...mixed with some of
the leading scientists of his day, at a level far more intimate than would be possible for an
undergraduate today." (Ruse, p. 33)
Through his connections Darwin eventually joined the H.M.S. Beagle on a navigational trip
around the world. There is some debate as to whether Darwin was the official ship's
naturalist; by some accounts he was only a passenger, because he lacked a degree in the
natural sciences. At the time of his departure, Charles was also creationist, meaning that he
held to the Biblical view of the origins of the earth and its creatures. He spent five years
traveling on the Beagle, collecting specimens of things he encountered in his travels. He
never adapted to sea travel, and was sick for most of the time he was on the ship; when his
travels were over, he settled down permanently.
When he first returned, Darwin considered himself to be "a geologist, (not a biologist),"
(Ruse, p. 34). Some time after his return to England, however, Darwin "...discerned a certain
orderliness among species. The idea of evolution began to grow in his mind and he set
himself the task of showing that it does occur." (Fothergill, p. 105) Darwin waited many years
to make his ideas public, because he knew they were controversial. It was not until he
realized that Alfred Russel Wallace had independently come up with the same ideas and
written a paper on them, which Wallace sent to Darwin, that Darwin decided to publish his
own theory, and the two papers were published at the same time.

Darwin called his ideas the "Theory of Descent and Modification." This theory had five main
principles: 1) Life reproduces more life than can be supported in a given environment; 2)
Populations are variable, and no two individuals are exactly alike; 3) Individuals which die
are less capable of surviving, and leave behind fewer offspring; 4) Those who survive are the
fittest, and reproduce more; 5) In each generation, only part of the range of variation
survives- that which is adapted to that environment. (Myers) "Survival of the fittest" is a
phrase in common usage, but its meaning in Darwin's theory refers only to reproductive
fitness.
Dr. Moreau's Beast Men and his other creations are the product of outside intervention rather
than adaptation, which is why they do not fit into the theory as normal creatures do. The first
two principles hold true for the Beast People- Dr. Moreau has produced many creatures and is
quite possibly overpopulating his island, and the beings are each unique.
However, the animals Dr. Moreau used to build his creatures had "...their instincts fitly
adapted to their surroundings..." (Wells, p. 74) before Dr. Moreau interfered; as Beast People
their instincts are no longer adaptive, and their movements are awkward. It was Dr. Moreau
and not the creatures themselves who is responsible for their reproduction, because the
offspring of the Beast People usually died, and "...when they lived, Moreau took them and
stamped the human form upon them." (Wells, p. 62) The creations of Dr. Moreau, then, lack
reproductive fitness. They also revert to beast form very rapidly. For these reasons it is clear
that they will die out quickly.
Bibliography:
Darwin: A Norton Critical Edition, Second Edition ; ed. by Philip Appleman; copyright 1979,
1970 by W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Philip G. Fothergill, Historical Aspects of Organic Evolution, pub. 1953 by the Philosophical
Library Inc., 15 East 40th Street, New York, NY
Myers, provider of source material for Edie Heydt's notes from "Human Origins," fall 1997,
Alfred. Much of the material in the notes is paraphrased, and the original information sources
are unknown.
Michael Ruse, The Darwinian Revolution, pub. 1979 by The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago 60637
H.G. Wells, The Island of Dr. Moreau, copyright 1996 by Dover Publications, Inc., USA
[This is a reprint of the London 1896 edition.]
----------Evolution of Immunity and the Invertebrates
"Article Summery" Name: "Immunity and the Invertebrates" Periodical: Scientific
American Nov, 1996 Author: Gregory Beck and Gail S. Habicht Pages: 60 - 71 Total

Pages Read: 9
The complex immune systems of humans and other mammals evolved over
quite a long time - in some rather surprising ways. In 1982 a Russian zoologist
named Elie Metchnikoff noticed a unique property of starfish larva. When he
inserted a foreign object through it's membrane, tiny cells would try to ingest
the invader through the process of phagocytosis. It was already known that
phagocytosis occurred in specialized mammal cells but never in something less
complex like a starfish. This discovery led him to understand that phagocytosis
played a much broader role, it was a fundamental mechanism of protection in the
animal kingdom. Metchnikoff's further studies showed that the host defense
system of all animals today were present millions of years before when hey were
just beginning to evolve. His studies opened up the new field of comparative
immunology. Comparative immunologists studied the immune defenses of past and
current creatures. They gained further insight into how immunity works.
The most basic requirement of an immune system is to distinguish between
one's own cells and "non-self" cells. The second job is to eliminate the nonself cells. When a foreign object enters the body, several things happen. Blood
stops flowing, the immunity system begins to eliminate unwanted microbes with
phagocytic white blood cells. This defensive mechanism is possessed by all
animals with an innate system of immunity. Innate cellular immunity is believed
to be the earliest form of immunity. Another form of innate immunity is
complement, composed of 30 different proteins of the blood.
If these mechanisms do not work to defeat an invader, vertebrates rely
on another response: acquired immunity. Acquired immunity is mainly dealt by
specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes travel throughout
the blood and lymph glands waiting to attack molecules called antigens.
Lymphocytes are made of two classes: B and T. B lymphocytes release antibodies
while T help produce antibodies and serve to recognize antigens. Acquired
Immunity is highly effective but takes days to activate and succeed because of
it's complex nature. Despite this, acquired immunity offers one great feature:
immunological memory. Immunological Memory allows the lymphocytes to recognize
previously encountered antigens making reaction time faster. For this reason, we
give immunizations or booster shots to children.
So it has been established that current vertebrates have two defense
mechanisms: innate and acquired, but what of older organisms ? Both mechanisms
surprisingly enough can be found in almost all organisms (specifically
phagocytosis). The relative similarities in invertebrate and vertebrate immune
systems seem to suggest they had common precursors. The oldest form of life,
Protozoan produce these two immune functions in just one cell. Protozoan
phagocytosis is not uncommon to that of human phagocytic cells. Another basic
function of immunity, distinguishing self from non-self, is found in protozoan
who live in large colonies and must be able to recognize each other. In the case
of metazoan, Sponges, the oldest and simplest, are able to do this as well
refusing grafts from other sponges. This process of refusing is not the same in
vertebrates and invertebrates though. Because vertebrates have acquired
immunologic memory they are able to reject things faster than invertebrates who
must constantly "re-learn" what is and is not self. Complement and lymphocytes
are also missing from invertebrates, but which offer an alternative yet similar
response. In certain invertebrate phyla a response called the prophenoloxidase

(proPO) system occurs. Like the complement system it is activated by enzymes.


The proPO system has also been linked to blood coagulation and the killing of
invading microbes.
Invertebrates also have no lymphocytes, but have a system which suggests
itself to be a precursor of the lymph system. For instance, invertebrates have
molecules which behaving similarly to antibodies found in vertebrates. These
lectin molecules bind to sugar molecules causing them to clump to invading
objects. Lectins have been found in plants, bacteria, and vertebrates as well as
invertebrates which seems to suggest they entered the evolutionary process early
on. This same process occurs in human innate immune systems with collections of
proteins called collectins which cover microbes n a thin membrane to make them
easier to distinguish by phagocytes. And although antibodies are not found in
invertebrates a similar and related molecule is. Antibodies are members of a
super family called immunoglobulin which is characterized by a structure called
the Ig fold. It is believed that the Ig fold developed during the evolution of
metazoan animals when it became important to distinguish different types of
cells within one animal. Immunoglobulins such as Hemolin have been found in
moths, grasshoppers, and flies, as well as lower vertebrates. This suggests that
antibody-based defense systems, although only active in vertebrates, found their
roots in the invertebrate immune system.
Evolution seems to have also conserved many of the control signals for
these defense mechanisms. Work is currently being done to isolate invertebrate
molecules similar to the cytokines of vertebrates. Cytokines are proteins that
either stimulate or block out other cells of the immune system as well as
affecting other organs. These proteins are critical for the regulation of
vertebrate immunity. It is suspected that invertebrates will share common
cytokines with vertebrates or at least a close replication. Proteins removed
from starfish have been found to have the same physical, chemical, and
biological properties of interleukins (IL-1, IL-6), a common cytokine of
vertebrates. This research has gone far enough to conclude that invertebrates
possess similar molecules to the three major vertebrate cytokines. In the
starfish, cells called coelomocytes were found to produce IL-1. The IL-1
stimulated these cells to engulf and destroy invaders. It is thus believed that
invertebrate cytokines regulate much of their host's defense response, much like
the cytokines of vertebrate animals in innate immunity.
Comparative Immunology has also found defense mechanisms first in
invertebrates only later to be discovered in vertebrates. Invertebrates use key
defensive molecules such as antibacterial peptides and proteins, namely lysozyme,
to expose bacterial cell walls. Thus targeting the invader. This offers great
potential for medicinal purposes, because lysozyme is also found in the innate
immunity of humans in it's defense of the oral cavity against bacteria. Peptides
of the silk moth are currently being developed as antibacterial molecules for
use in humans. Two peptides found in the skin of the African clawed frog
actively fight bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Antibodies which bind to these two
peptides also bind to the skin and intestinal lining of humans.
The potential of these peptide antibiotics only now being discovered is
a rather considerable thing to ponder. For that reason it is surprising that
such little attention has been paid to invertebrate immune responses. In the end,
the complexity of vertebrate immune systems can only be understood by studying

the less complex systems of invertebrates. Further studies look to explain


immunity evolution as well as aid in the solving of problems of human health
-----------Evolution of The Catholic Church
Over the last thirty years, the Roman Catholic Church has undergone changes. These changes
range from the position of the Alter to the language of the Mass. This paper will illustrate a
broad overview of changes in the Catholic Church after the 1960s
Before the 1960s, Mass was said in Latin. The priests and the parish both knew the prayers,
songs, and Scriptures in Latin. Around 1965, the Catholic Church realized that the people did
not understand all of what they were saying. They began to do the Mass in English. This
increased active participation. Today, if a person would want hear a Mass in Latin, they
would have to do some traveling. For instance, Our Lady of Mount Carmel offers Latin
Masses. A parishioner may go Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Friday at 7:15P.M. or on
Thursdays at 10:10 A.M. There is also a Saturday Mass at eight Oclock A.M. The Sunday
schedule is thus, eight oclock and 10:30 A.M. For more information, check out their web
site. Http://www.archden.org/archden/parishes/pp150.htm
Catholic schools have undergone significant changes also. It use to be that it cost nothing to
go to Catholic schools. Now there is a splendid idea of tuition. Tuition makes it difficult for
some families who would want to send their children to Catholic schools. Many kids end up
in public facilities, for that very reason. Another difference is that the schools use to be run
almost completely by nun, brothers, and priests. The institutions enforced a very strict dress
code. Students were to wear their uniform to class. There is still a dress code, some schools
offer a dress-down Friday. On this day, the kids may wear whatever they would like, within
reason. Kindergarten is a new luxury. Many older people never went to Kindergarten, it was
not offered. Years later, you could send your children to a public school for it. Now it is part
of the curriculum. It is a very exciting attribute. Catholic schools have also experienced a
significant increase if enrollment. Sister Catherine T. McNamee states that "this years total
Catholic School enrollment of 2.6 million students represents an increase of nearly 17,000
students over the last year, an increase of 0.6 percent from that of the 1994-95 school year."
Ponessa. This is a tremendous jump in school Population.
The congregation itself has gone through tremendous change. When a family went to church
before the 1960s, the whole family went. There was a nursery, but it was not encouraged.
Patents just took their kids to church. It was considered important for children to get a good
basic foundation of Religion at young age. For convenience, they built crying rooms. This
way, the parents could stay for Mass. Today, you cant go to almost any church and drop your
kids off for the hour. Another change would be the dress of the church. It use to be that you
dressed up for Sunday Mass. The women wore dresses and the men wore slacks and dress
shirts. Walk through a church today and you will see children in soccer uniforms and adults
wearing jeans and tee-shirts. You might even see children spilling cheerios all over the peu
and coloring in the hymnals. Parents allow this activity as long as it keeps the children quiet.
Laws of fast and abstinence differ greatly. It use to be that you would fast and not eat meat
every Friday throughout the year. Now it is only on the Fridays of Lent. Lent has changed
also. According to Catholic Online, "Originally the forty days of penance were counted from

the eve of the first Sunday of Lent to the Last Supper or Holy Thursday. Then began the
Paschal Mystery, to which the forty days were a preparation." Now "Lent consists of two
parts, the first, the four days from Ash Wednesday to the First Sunday of Lent, and the thirty
six days between then and Passion Sunday (Palm Sunday). The second part of Lent is the
time of Passiontide." Catholic Online. Many of the older generation of the church, stick to the
original set of rules. This was a major turn for the church.
The Churches stand on certain issues is till the same. Abortion is still considered wrong, but
they will fight to preserve the life of the mother. Preservation of human life is the most
important factor. Capitol punishment is still a major problem and the church holds the view
that we should preserve life. They are sold on the idea of rehabilitation, and no one has the
right to deny any one person that right. Everyone is responsible. A new development is
cloning. Catholics do not like this idea because it tampers with the original ideas of Creation
and Conception. Everyone is an individual and not one has the right to use God like powers
to create new life. The stand the churches take on issues are the same. "The primary end of
marriage and human sexuality is the procreation of children." Based on the teachings of St.
Augistine (354-430
Before the 1960s, the Nuns and Priests wore their required clothing. Nuns wore habits. Habits
are black dresses with a type of black veil with a white starchy collar. They were often joked
about as looking like penguins. The Priest wore black suits with white collar. This use to
make the parties stand out. If you were to walk down the street today, you would probably
not be able to pick out the Sisters and the Brothers. They blend in. Right now, there is a great
shortage of Nuns and Priest. "The number of priests has been steadily declining since the
1960s. If the trend continues, there will be 40% fewer U.S. priests in 2005 than in 1966.",
Richard Schoenherr. It use to be that Catholic parents encouraged their children to become
Nuns and Priests. According to David Masci of the Congressional Quarterly, "Catholic
families are not as large as they once were, leaving many parents less enthusiastic about
loosing what may be their only son to a low-paying , low-prestige career that will not allow
him to marry or have children." Another issue for young men considering priesthood is,
"Many young men feel, I could never sign on the dotted line and promise to be celibate."
,Rev. Richard McBrien. In the nineties, it is not a major concern for parents.
Confession has experienced some variation. Today, if a person goes to confession, it is
probably not by force. Confession has become much more relaxed. The majority only go
when they are in troubled or if a holiday is coming up. Trust is still a definite factor. Catholic
Priest regard any mentioning in confession to be confidential and not for anyone person to
cheapen. No Priest would ever divulge any information. There is that special bond and the
privacy. If priests were to break that confidence, he would not be able to preside over Mass
again. All privileges would be revoked. Privacy and trust are essential to the Sacrament.
As you can see, the Catholic Church has remained constant on their social views. The only
things to have changed significantly would be the laws and practices. The Catholic Church
has a steady foundation and will continue to do well in the years to come. They may add or
subtract a brick or two from the stack, but the foundation will always remain a constant in a
society ever developing.
Works Cited Page
- Birth control and the Catholic Church A Short History of Catholic Teaching on Birth

Control Netscape Navigator. Http://members.aol.com/revising/frame.html


- Catholic Online. History of Lenten Season Netscape Navigator. Released February 15,
1998 http:/www.catholic.org/lent/lent1.html
- The Detroit News American Catholic Churchs Foundation Strained under the Shortage of
Clergy by, David Masci, Netscape Navigator. Released September 24, 1995
http://detnews.com/menu/stories/17446.htm
- Our Lady of Mount Carmel Daily Mass Schedule Rev. Jose Salgado. Netscape Navigator
http://www.archden.org/archden/parishes/pp150.htm

aptation that would allow a more user-friendly interface, leading to the invention of the World
Wide Web (Berners-Lee "Answers" 2). In addition, web standards are constantly adapting to
assure the internet's continued relevancy and usability. The internet, like the world, "is not
constant but is forever changing" (Mayr 7).
The presence of vestigial structures characteristics that were once functional but are no
longer has been cited as evidence of adaptation and evolution (Mayr 30). The human
appendix is one example of this phenomenon. The Internet is littered with vestigial structures,
like the keyword meta tag. The keyword meta tag was once used to insert invisible keywords
onto pages to help search engines index them. Now, search engines no longer support this
feature, rendering it useless, yet countless webmasters continue to include this tag every time
they code a page (Sullivan 1). Because the internet's rhizomatic growth makes it difficult to
regulate, the proliferation of vestigial characteristics is difficult to curb. This regulation and
move toward consistency is one of the main functions of the W3C, which often acts on the
Internet as natural selection does in nature.
The evolutionary process is rhyzomatic, with entropy and adaptations "ceaselessly
establish[ing] connections between... chains" (Deleuze 30). In nature, the sequence of single
cell, complex single cell, multi-cell is not a linear process of becoming "better-adapted." Each
of these organisms still exists, and all of the earth's organisms are continually evolving
rhyzomatically. Collapsing this multifaceted process into a linear model does not account for
the web-like nature of environmental and taxonomic change. Additionally, the internet
being a "web" itself evolves in much the same way. Its continued usefulness is reliant upon
its continued evolution: "If the Internet is to continue as an innovative means of
collaboration, discovery, and social interaction, it will need to draw on its legacy of
adaptability" (Abbate 220). As both nature and the Internet progress toward something as yet
undefined, the only plausible goal seems to be the process of evolution itself.

Bibliography
Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1999.
Berners-Lee, Timothy. "Answers for Young People." http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-

Lee/Kids [19 February 2004]


Berners-Lee, Timothy. "Glossary." Weaving the Web. 1999.
http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/Weaving/glossary.html [19 February 2004]
Darwin, Charles. "Darwin's Model of Evolution."
http://depts.washington.edu/genetics/courses/genet453/2001/summaries/images/treedarwin.jpg [18 February 2004]
Deleuze, Gilles with Felix Guatarri. "Rhizome Versus Tree." The Deleuze Reader. Constantin
V. Boundas, ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
Garbora, Liane. "The Origin and Evolution of Culture and Creativity." Journal of Memetics Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission 1 (1997). http://jomemit.cfpm.org/1997/vol1/gabora_l.html [18 February 2004]
Jacobs, Ian. "About the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)." Copyright 1999-2003 W3C.
http://www.w3.org/Consortium/ [19 February 2004]
Leiner, Barry M., Vinton G. Cerf, David D. Clark,Robert E. Kahn, Leonard Kleinrock, Daniel
C. Lynch, Jon Postel, Larry G. Roberts, and Stephen Wolff. "A Brief History of the Internet."
Internet Society. http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml [18 February 2004]
Mayr, Ernst. What Evolution Is. New York: Basic Books, 2001.
Morris, Paul. "Rhetoric in Evolution." Athro Limited, 1999.
http://www.athro.com/evo/rhetoric.html [20 February 2004]
Sullivan, Danny. "Death of a Meta Tag" (10/01/02). Search Engine Watch.
http://www.searchenginewatch.com/sereport/article.php/2165061 [20 February 2004]

How to Cite this Page


MLA Citation:
"Evolution of the Internet: A Rhizomatic Application of Darwin." 123HelpMe.com. 15 Jun
2014
<http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=24620>.
--------------------------Good Science
Science has helped to improve the lives of people around the world. Today, science has
improved human health and medicine to help people live longer, and help people live with
diseases people had little hope of living with a few decades ago, such as AIDS. While our
scientific advances continue, ethical questions arise about how science should advance, such
as stem cell research. Mary Shelley, author of the novel Frankenstein, and Michael Bishop,
who wrote the article Enemies of Promise, have different views about how scientific
knowledge affects humanity. Mary Shelley was born the daughter of feminist Mary

Wollstonecraft and political theorist William Godwin. While on vacation with her husband,
she began to write the novel Frankenstein, about a scientist who created life. The scientists
name was Victor Frankenstein. In a selection from the novel, Frankenstein says The
dissecting room and the slaughter-house furnished many of my materials; and often did my
human nature turn with loathing from my occupation, whilst, still urged on by eagerness
which perpetually increased, I brought my work near to a conclusion (232).
Frankenstein is disgusted because he must go to a slaughter-house to get parts for his
creation. Frankensteins disgust shows how horrible and demoralizing his scientific endeavors
are, and he continues his experiment despite the negative affect his experiment has on his
health. He realizes the study to which you apply yourself has a tendency to weaken your
affections, and to destroy your taste for those simple pleasure in which no alloy can possibly
mix, then that study is certainly unlawful, that is to say, not befitting the human mind (233).
Frankenstein worked so hard to give life to his creation he thought of nothing else, and he
was living his whole life to accomplish one goal. He realizes how much time he has been
spending on his experiment and the effect his work is having on him, so he believes humans
do not have the ability to deal with work in this manner. Therefore, scientific experimentation
is not worth the negative effects the experiments have on the human mind. Eventually,
Frankenstein accomplishes his goal, but his creation does not turn out like he expected. After
giving his creation life, Frankenstein is horrified and leaves his home. Frankenstein concludes
Learn from me, if not by my precepts, at least by my example, how dangerous is the
acquirement of knowledge, and how much happier that man is who believes his native town
to be the world, than he who aspires to be greater than his nature will allow (231).
Frankenstein wanted to have the knowledge to create life, and when he final had the
knowledge to create life, he did. After he created life, he was miserable. Therefore, humans
cannot be God and create life because their nature will not allow them to be like God, and
those who try to create life will be miserable, unlike those who do not seek dangerous
knowledge. Michael Bishop is a professor of microbiology at the University of California,
San Francisco. In his article Enemies of Promise he warns about the misconceptions people
may have about scientific advances. Bishop states science has sounded the alarm about acid
rain and its principal origins in automobile emissions, but our society has not found the
political will top bridle the internal combustion engine (239). Science has helped to improve
the quality of life of people by discovering the cause of acid rain is from car emissions, and
the reduction of acid rain could result from better emission standards. Science is not to blame
for helping to create the internal combustion engine, but the lack of government funding to
find other means to propel automobiles should be blamed. Bishop says Resistance to science
is born of fear.
Fear, in turn is bred by ignorance. And it is ignorance that is our deepest malady (241).
People fear science because they do not understand how science works, and the purpose of
science is to better mankind, not to recombine DNA to create a deadly virus, or mutations. If
people are educated, then they will have a better understanding of science, and will no longer
fear science. Once all people understand science, and no longer fear science, mankind can
move towards new goals, and improve the lives of all people. When scientists perform
experiments, the scientists are trying to solve the mystery of something they do not
understand, such as stem cells. Bishop believes scientists take things apart in order to
understand the whole, to solve the mystery an enterprise that we regard as one of the great
ennobling tasks of humankind (238). Scientists experiment to better understand the world
around them, and all the things in the world, as well as the relationships between different
parts of the world. Scientists do not take things apart just because they can, but scientists have

a purpose for their actions. The experiments to understand the world around us, Bishop
believes to be a noble task for mankind, and with scientific discoveries, our lives can be
improved.
Comparing the claims of both Mary Shelley and Michael Bishop, I find Bishops claims that
science is good for mankind, to be more persuasive than Mary Shelleys warning about the
limitations of man and science. Bishop states Science has produced the vaccines required to
control many childhood infections in the United States, but our nation has failed to deploy
properly those vaccines (239). If mankind did not have the benefit of scientific knowledge,
there would be no vaccine for illnesses such as small pox, or life threatening diseases.
Humans have the ability to produce large amounts of vaccines beneficial to children in our
country and other countries around the world. Science cannot pay for, and distribute vaccines
for diseases throughout the world, but science is blamed because people in our world still
suffer from curable diseases. Also, Bishop states that resistance to science is born of fear,
which is the result of ignorance.
When the University of California, San Francisco wanted to perform biomedical research in a
residential area, which they have not been allowed to do, Bishop noted that another [agitated
citizen] declared on television her outrage that those people are bringing DNA into my
neighborhood (241). The person who stated that the University was bringing DNA into their
neighborhood does not understand what DNA is. By making the statement about bringing
DNA in their neighborhood, the person is opposing having DNA in her neighborhood
compared to the Universitys encroachment into their neighborhood. If the person who made
the statement were simply opposed to the possibility of increased traffic in the neighborhood,
then the person would have made that statement on television. The person made the statement
about DNA instead, showing that they fear DNA because they do not want DNA in their
neighborhood. Therefore, the opposition this person has to science stems from their
misunderstanding of DNA. Bishop points out a possible reason for people not understanding
science caused by a lack of education.
Bishop states In a recent international testing, U.S. high school students finished ninth in
physics among the top twelve nations, eleventh in chemistry, and dead last in biology (241).
If science is not learned by pupils in school, then the pupils will not understand science.
Judging from the international testing, students in our country do not have an understanding
of science, and the lack of understanding will breed ignorance, and will result in fear and
resistance. Therefore, some people fear science because they were not properly educated
when they were students and they do not understand how science can improve mankind as a
whole. Bishop states The price of science seems large, but to reject science is to deny the
future (242). Although science may not always give people one solid choice, and scientific
endeavors may have ethical problems, we need to work out those ethical and moral
dilemmas. Science will not go away, but will continue to explore the world around us.
Science cannot be rejected because science will help to improve the quality of life, and
rejecting science would result in the rejection of the improvement in quality of life. Other
evidence Bishop should have examined was the overall decrease in respect for institutions by
the public.
Alan H. McGowan is a program director for the Public Understanding of Science and
Technology, as well as the Directorate for Education and Human Resources at American
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). McGowan states although there seems
to have been a decrease in the respect the public has for scientists, this is part of a general

trend of decreasing trust in institutions of all kinds. While Bishop has stated that people have
been attacking science, Bishop does not compare how much science is being attacked
compared to other institutions, such as the press. If all other institutions are being attacked
more fervently than science, then science is not in as bad a shape as Bishop believes science
to be. Therefore, unless science is being attacked as much as every other institution, science
is still be viewed by the public with more respect compared to the other institutions. While
Mary Shelleys Frankenstein show the problems with mans thirst for knowledge, Michael
Bishop puts science in a positive light, showing how science has help mankind. I believe
Bishops claims about science to be more persuasive, and the positive effects of science to be
well worth the effort of scientists. Although Bishops claims could have been improved with
some more evidence about the publics view of science, science will continue to improve our
lives.
Works Cited
Bishop, Michael J. Enemies of Promise. The Presence of Others. Eds. Andrea A. Lunsford,
John J. Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2000, 237 242.
McGowan, Alan H. The Bad Image of the Scientist: Fact or Fiction? American Association
for the Advancement of Science Science and Technology Yearbook. 1999.
http://www.aaas.org/spp/yearbook/chap24.htm (13 May 2002).
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. The Presence of Others. Eds. Andrea A. Lunsford, John J.
Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2000, 231 235.

How to Cite this Page


----------------------Science and Man
Science has played an important role in this society. We know that man is a curious creature
since in the beginning that God created him. Also, we know that God gave the man
knowledge to rule over the Garden of Eden. But also, we know that the man was seeking
more knowledge. Adam and Eve wanted to be like God. With this in Mind, we can
understand that it is natural for man to think beyond his imagination. What drives human
beings to seek scientific knowledge of the world? We will take a look at what drove Victor
Frankenstein to seek more knowledge.
Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein, the protagonist of her work, Victor Frankenstein is
an ambitious young scholar who discovers how to bestow animation upon lifeless
matter(p.231). Victor certainly is seek an ambitious. The main reason that causes him to
follow his dream is that he has the capacity to create a new creation, I possessed the capacity
of bestowing animation. (231) Victor, as many other scientific individual, does not doubt
that their desire in seek more knowledge might fail. The human imagination is too much
exalted for a blind humans eye to see the reality of the consequences of their acts. I am a
Christian and as a Christian I believe that God is the almighty King that gives people
knowledge. Also, God gave man the ability to choose between right and wrong. Victor
Frankenstein is vivid example of someone who wanted to seek more knowledge that God
gave him. If we seek beyond our imagination, the consequences are going to be disastrous

because usually these ambiguous scientists do not think about the consequences of their acts.
What make scientific to seek knowledge of the world? We know that by natural man is
curios. Man wants to explore the unknown. The exploration of our planet, universe, sea and
space are consequences of the minds curiosity. If people did not have curiosity, America
would not have been discovered, we wouldnt have the high level of technology that we have
now. You would not have the opportunity to read this paper. Therefore, mans mind is like a
sponge that wants to know more and more.
Another reason that makes man seek more knowledge is that man wants power. He wants to
be popular in this society. According to teenagers, what they really want in their adolescent
age is money, popularity, and powered, because they want to fee that they can do anything.
Scientific men feel the same way as teenagers feel. Scientifits want to fulfill their eagerness
to be powerful in this world. And because of their eagerness power they only think of
themselves.
Another reason is for the Scientifics want people to remember them as heroes. Through our
history we learn from many famous scientific people that improved technology through their
discoveries. For example, we know that Alexander Graham Bell discovered the telephone,
that Christopher Columbus discovered America; all these people were seeking more
knowledge. People feel great when others talk about them. This feeling of people to be
remembered by everyone motivates them to seek their desires.
Many years ago, science was not as advanced as it is today. Every day scientists are seeking
to find new discoveries in science. Many scientific people want to improve science because
they to help people in this society. But there are scientific people that are only motivated by
their selfishness and their eagerness to be the first one to find a new discovery. Certainly,
Victor Frankenstein is one of these scientific people who are motivated by their selfish
desires. If God wants people have more knowledge, He would give the knowledge to those
scientists that are responsible for their actions. Thats why our society has advance
technology and science because God gives us the privilege to enjoy it.
Another question that I would like to discuss is whether motives good sometimes lead to
negative consequences. In the example of Victor Frankenstein, his motivation to create his
creation was based on good motives. He explained that his motivation made him believe that
he could create a being like himself. Many scientists are motivated to improve science
because want science to be developed futher. When I considered the improvement which
every day takes place in science an mechanics, I was encouraged to hope my present attempts
would at leas lay the foundations of future success. Nor could I consider the magnitude and
complexity of my plan as any argument of its impracticability(232). These reason convince
supported Victor, to continue his complicated dream. We see that these motivations lead him
to do negative actions. He workers hard, month and year, with the purpose of infusing life
into an inanimate body. But now that, he had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and
breathless horror an disgust filled his heart.(234) Victor saw his beauty turned into a
monster, dreams that had been my food an pleasant rest for so long a space were now
become a hell to me; and the change was so rapid(235).
We know that Victor Frankenstein is a science fiction character, but many scientific people
are motivated to seek their desires as Victor was. And that also those motivations bring
negative consequences. In our society, for example, the government encourages scientists to

find new discoveries. The government does not care about the results those experiments
might bring. Once again this motivation is made out of the power that they would get after
their researches ends. But what happened if the research fails. Are they going to abandon as
Victor did? Or are they going assume the consequences of their acts? Most people would
abandon their failed research because they do not want to feel that their dream failed. There
are rarely people that assume responsibility for the of consequences for their acts because
they know that it would bring a lot of controversy to their life.
The last question that I want to is discuss is if scientific knowledge benefic our lives? We are
living in a world where science is important. Science has helped to find cures for diseases
that were hard to treat. For example, many years ago vaccines did not exist to cure
tuberculosis. My grandfather died many years ago of tuberculosis. If science had not been
improved many people would died today because of the disease. Thanks to science most
people do not die of this disease. Also, science and technology have given to the society a
better life to live. Technology has created a new style of living with cars, computers and the
Internet. I remember when I was little that in my house we did not have telephone, or a car,
and I did not have expensive toys to play with. As technology improved, we did get a few
things that were in the stores, for example a car.
Many people might think that science and technology is bad for our environment. We know
that science has positive and negative consequences as a result of their experiments. But at
the same time science helps many people. Those people that have cancer or HIV are waiting
to hear from the scientific community the have discovered a cure for the disease the cure of
the disease. A very good friend of my family went to the doctor to have his normal physical.
That day his doctor found that he had a tumor in his head. The tumor was cancerous. This
happened four months ago and on Thanksgiving weekend he died. The doctors could not do
anything for him. My friend was only 34 years old. He died waiting to hear that there is a
cure for this of disease. With this example we understand that science is very important in
this world.
In conclusion, scientific always going to seek more knowledge because of their curiosity.
Humans have always been curious since the first time that God created them. Also, man seeks
knowledge because of the power the brings them and because scientists want to be
remembered through history. However, we cannot live with science and technology. Every
minute, day, month and year scientists continue to seek scientific knowledge, but everyone
needs to has positive and negative consequences.
Work Cited
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. The Presence of Others. Ed. Andrea A. Lunsford and John J.
Ruskiewicz. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins, 2000, 235-236.

How to Cite this Page


---------------------What Science Can Do
I argue that 'we' the public of the United States of America, do not have an exaggerated view
of what science can do. To support this claim I have compared and contrasted two articles:

Enemies of Promise and The Hazards of Science. Both articles cover the topic of scientific
research. Both authors are accredited scientists in their own right, and are excellent examples
to cite for my thesis which I believe very strongly in. Although, I disagree with some of the
conclusions made in the articles, I neverless hold both authors in very high regard.
Professor of microbiology and Nobel Prize winner, J. Michael Bishop continually makes the
statement in his article, Enemies of Promise, that the public has exaggerated and unrealistic
expectations as to what science can do; Just as physician-author Lewis Thomas asks in his
article, The Hazards of Science, "are there some things in science we should not be learning
about?" (238). These men both have relevant opinions about science today. I can not say that
they agree with each other because their articles are structured differently. Bishop makes
arguments for science while stating it's limitations; and Thomas highlights some of sciences'
achievements while questioning how far science should go. In discussing the topic of science,
albeit from different frameworks, they touch upon some of the same topics.
Bishop alleges that, "Science, is not the exclusive source of knowledge about human
existence." (256). Then sites Thomas as saying that science is "the best way to learn how the
world works." As Bishop cites Thomas to make his point, they both obviously agree with this
statement. However, Thomas questions the lengths that science should go to while Bishop
does not.
Lewis Thomas asks the central question, "are there some kinds of information leading to
some sorts of knowledge that human beings are really better off not having? Is there a limit to
scientific inquiry not set by what is knowable but by what we ought to be knowing? Should
we stop short of learning about some things, for fear of what we, or someone, will do with the
knowledge?" (237). The author then answers his own questions: No, but he qualifies his
answer by stating that it is an intuitive response that he is incapable of reasoning through. I
too believe that we should not place limitations on science, while admitting that it is also an
intuitive response. However, I still have concerns.
It all boils down to fear: "Should we stop short of learning about some things, for fear of what
we, or someone, will do with the knowledge?" (237). On this point J. Michael Bishop is clear.
He states that, "Resistance to science is born of fear. Fear, in turn, is bred by ignorance. And it
is ignorance that is our deepest malady." (260). But, isn't fear something that should be
considered when scientists are currently accomplishing things that not too long ago where
considered science fiction? Lewis Thomas seems to question this.
Throughout, The Hazards of Science, Lewis Thomas returns to the issue of recombinant
DNA, a technology that permits the stitching of one creature's genes into the DNA of another
to make hybrids. He claims that, "It is hubris for man to manufacture a hybrid on his own."
While he obviously questions whether or not 'we' should be doing this, he none-the-less
comes to the conclusion that we should not limit human knowledge. Put in that context I
would have to agree. However, I am still uncomfortable with this concept. And there lies the
dilemma, there are things that most question the wisdom of, but how do we address those
issues without putting restrictions on research?
Thomas listed many of the recent accomplishments of science including, psychosurgery, fetal
research, heart transplants, and cloning. Bishop reveals that he was involved in the
uncovering of the genes that are involved in the genesis of human cancer. Why than are the
publics' expectations of what science can accomplish unrealistic? They may be unreasonable

in the sense of the time that we believe things should be accomplished, but I do not believe
that necessitates that these expectations are unrealistic.
We live in a world where life expectancy is almost twice what it was just a hundred years
ago, and many ailments that were once fatal are mere annoyances to our daily living. These
improvements to life have been accomplished through science. Virtually every night on the
news one hears about some kind of scientific breakthrough or discovery. Why then are our
expectations unrealistic? I do not believe that they are. J. Michael Bishop seems to want to
accept the accomplishments of science without accepting any of the liabilities that those
accomplishments may generate.
I can understand his frustration with the criticisms of science. After all he is a scientist.
However, his use of inflammatory writing is unnecessary. The Hazards of Science is much
more objective than that of Enemies of Promise. Bishop made many good points and strong
arguments for the continuation of science without limitations, but his attempt to present
opponents of science in a negative light through the use of word structure and negative
implications makes the article weaker than it otherwise would have been.
Bishop presents Congressman George E. Brown, Jr.'s suggestion that Congress and the U.S.
citizenry should take more of a hand in determining how science is conducted, and in what
research gets funded, as something that is very negative. Why? Using the article as my
information base, Brown has not suggested outlawing certain kinds of research. Rather, he
states that the 'people' should have more say in what gets funded. Isn't that the basic ideal
behind democracy? That is to say isn't it at the very heart of the American belief system, that
the taxpayers should have a say in where their tax-dollars are going?
I have argued that I do not believe that our expectations of science are too high. However, I
do accept that scientists are sometimes limited in the application of how their discoveries are
used. Bishop asserts that while, "Science has produced the vaccines required to control many
childhood infections in the United States, our nation has failed to deploy properly those
vaccines." (237). This is a very valid point. In this regard, scientists can only do so much.
Bishop and Thomas both agree that science must continue. Although stated by Bishop, I
believe that Thomas would concur with the author's conclusion, "We offer hope for the future
but also moral conflict and ambiguous choice. The price of science seems large, but to reject
science is to deny the future." (257).
Works Cited
Bishop, J. Michael. "Enemies of Promise." chap. in The Presence of Others: Voices That Call
for Response, edited by Andrea A. Lunsford and John J. Ruszkiewicz. New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1997
Thomas, Lewis. "The Hazards of Science." chap. in The Presence of Others: Voices That Call
for Response, edited by Andrea A. Lunsford and John J. Ruszkiewicz. New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1997

As our society becomes more and more modernized so does our need for more sophisticated
ways to identify people for who they really are. Biometrics is the science of human

recognition.
With this rapid movement to develop this new technology, many companies have come out
with different ways to distinguish people. Some of these new forms of recognition include;
retinal scanning, iris recognition, finger imaging, hand geometry, face recognition, voice
recognition and signature recognition. These forms of distinguish people may be broken
down into two basic categories: physical characteristics and personal traits.
Physical characteristics are specific to each person. A physical characteristic is as unique as a
persons DNA code. A personal trait is a style that is often unique to each person. The only
problem with the recognition of this style is that it may often change as a person grows and
matures.
Retinal scanning falls into the category of scanning for physical characteristics. It is
performed by bouncing a laser beam off the cornea, which then absorbs specific frequencies
of light according to that persons specific cornea. The light that is not absorbed bounces back
into the machine and is then read. The machine is able to recognize the unabsorbed
frequencies of light as, Frank Turco.
Another new physical biometrics system is iris recognition. Iris recognition is similar to
retinal scanning. The colored area of the eye that surrounds the pupil has many lines
randomly placed. These lines are specific to each individual; like a barcode is to a product.
Again, a laser scans the eye and recognizes the bars of the iris as a person. Amazing isnt it?
Iris canning tends to be more user friendly because you dont need to be as close to the
machine when it is scanning your iris. You may be up to nine inches away, where as with
retinal scanning you may only be one to two inches away. The reason iris scanning is more
"user friendly" is because when utilized by the public many communicable diseases may be
passes along by the machine because of it close contact with the person.
Face recognition is similar to the way we recognize people. A computer would be utilized to
take a photo of each person and then analyze it. The computer's analysis of the photo would
use facial geometry to recognize each person. The geometry is unique to each person and
even with plastic surgery could not be changed. Each time your face was scanned, the
computer would then compare it to the previous photo taken and look for the same geometric
features again. This science could not be used with children, because as they grow, the shape
of their face will change. These changes would not be recorded in the computer and
therefore; the computer would not recognize the child.
Finger printing has long been used by police agencies across the world, as a way to recognize
each individual. It is used in crime scene analysis, criminal bookings and in finding missing
children. The finger printing process can be a long and daunting task for the people
performing it, sometimes almost impossible if you are working with an uncooperative
criminal. However, digital finger printing is now here and relatively easy to use. By simply
placing your finger on a piece of glass a computer takes a scan of it and maps all of the lines
and marks unique to your finger print. It is also great because police departments around the
world more easily access it so they can confirm upon scanning a criminal in France that he is
wanted in Canada for murder. The major problem with this method of finger printing is that
the glass on which the fingerprints are scanned from my collect dirt and oils from the hand,
distorting the finger print. Also if a persons hands are badly callused or scared the machine
will not be able to take an accurate fingerprint from that person, almost letting them off the

hook.
All these physical characteristics allow for the computer to recognize you. These
characteristics are unique to each person so it seems like a more convenient way to tell if a
person is really who they say they are.
There is another way to recognize a person and this is by the use of personal traits. These
personal traits are not as unique and an as exact science as recognition by physical
characteristics but, they are useful. Personal traits are almost totally unique to a person yet,
under different circumstances may chance and no longer are a valid way to recognize a
person.
Hand geometry is the recognition of a person based on the size, shape and dimensions of your
hand. Your hands measurements are taken by a computer and stored. This method of
recognition is useful but is not as specific to each person. A person may share the same
dimensions recorded by the computer for another person and may gain unlawful entry. This
form of recognition will also not work with children. Children are constantly growing and the
dimensions of their hand will change where as most of their physical characteristics will not.
Injuries to the hand would also lead to problems in recognition of a person. Swelling, crush
injuries and loss of a piece of the hand would result in denied access.
Voice recognition is another method of identifying a person by their traits; recording a
persons voice when saying a specific phrase into a computers recording device does it. The
computer then records this and analyzes it for specific speech patterns and frequencies. Every
time there after, you would repeat the same phrase and the computer would search its
memory to see if this voice is a match to all of your frequencies. If so, no problem, you are in.
There is a flaw to this type of recognition, when under sever stress or emotional
circumstance, your voice patterns will change. If your voice patterns do change the computer
will not recognize you and you are out of luck.
Finally, signature recognition is used to identify a person by their style of writing. Each
person had a specific style to their writing and these patterns may be pick up by a computer to
match the distinct patterns of your writing or signature to a sample you had previously given.
This technology is starting to pop up at more stores across the nation. Upon making a
purchase upon your credit card, your receipt is slipped into a holder with a special pad under
neith of it which is hooked up to the computer. After you sign your receipt, your signature
then shows up on the cashiers screen, the computer then reads the signature on the back of the
card and attempts to match them. This technology is accurate to a point, nonetheless upon
growing up; peoples writing styles change and the computer may not recognize their
handwriting. Also, if a person is in a hurry and does not take the time they normally do on
their signature there may be difference that would lead the computer to believe that the
cardholder is not the actual owner of the card and may deny the person.
All of these ways to recognize a person have their specific applications. They may be utilized
by companies to track a workers time, by banks to verify a persons identity, or by the police
in finding criminals. Technology does come at a price though. This technology is pricey, and
may still have its flaws because it is still in the developmental stages. And with any
technology, there comes the problem of system failures and shutdowns. If one of theses
systems were used by a large company to track employees time cards, and all of a sudden
crashed, how would you know when the employee actually worked without some form of
paper records. Paper records never crash.

However, even with its minor drawbacks, biometrics is the wave of the future. It will
eliminate the need for passwords that are easily forgotten and may aid in finding missing
children and criminals. Maybe even some day you will not need a key to your own front door
or car. They will just scan your iris or the frequency of your voice to let you gain access. And
for all of use forgetful people that may misplace their keys a lot this technology cant come
fast enough.
Sources Cited:
CNN Automated fingerprinting comes of age September 9, 1999. ULR:
http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9909/09/auto.id.idg/
Laser Safety Analysis of a Retinal Scanning Display System
http://hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-97-31/
Biometrics Scanning, Law & Policy:IdentincernsDrafting the Biometric Blueprint
http://www.pitt.edu/~lawrev/59-1/woodward.htm

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MLA Citation:
"Biometrics: The Science of Human Recognition." 123HelpMe.com. 15 Jun 2014
<http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=27629>.
-------------------Maryland Science Assessments
Within the discipline of science there are facts, principles, skills, and processes of five
classified standards: earth/space, biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science. In
the State of Maryland, the main assessment tool is the MSPAP (Maryland State Performance
Assessment Program). Also, an individual teacher has to do assessment of his/her students
throughout the school year. A teacher needs to know what to assess and how. Through an
interview, a teacher of Bodkin Elementary has given her opinion about the state assessment
test MSPAP. Maryland State has one major test that brings up many opinions of professionals
in the education field. With state and classroom assessments Marylands intention is to
measure their school improvement within the discipline of science as well as mathematics,
reading, writing, language usage, and social studies.
The Maryland State Performance Assessment Program (MSPAP) is "an assessment or testing
program whose primary purpose is to provide information that can be used to improve
instruction in schools"(MSDE, 1999). Students in third, fifth, and eighth grades take the
MSPAP assessment each May. The assessment was created to be able to test the how well the
students could solve problems both individually and with others, to see if they can use
background knowledge to solve real world problems and to see if students can use knowledge
from one subject into another. Students normally work in groups to complete the task they are
given for each subject. Students are required to write extensively unlike other forms of
assessment or testing where students fill out bubble forms such as scantron. The MSPAP
assessment takes five days with 105 minutes spent each day on the assessment.
Sample problems are given to teachers to help their students prepare for they type of

activities and writing assignments they will be given on the task. One example task for eighth
grade science students is to look at scientific data on the solar system and to write at least
three questions that they can ask after looking at the data(Carr, 2000). After students have
asked the questions they then need to "describe three repeating patterns of astronomical
change that occur in the sky above us"(Carr, 2000)
The MSPAP was created in May, 1990 by many teachers and administrators after the State
Board of Education came up with learning goals that they wanted to reach by the year 2000.
The MSPAP has six sections: reading, writing, language use, mathematics, science, and social
studies. From year to year administrators and teachers can look to see how much
improvement has taken place within their grade or school and then readjust their curriculum
to help raise the scores on the test the following year.
None of the goals that the State Board of Education came up with for the year 2000, have
been met. The board expected that the scores in science would be satisfactory at 70%. In
1999, the state score for science in 3rd grade was 38.7%, 31.3% shy of the score that they
hoped for. Salisbury State University is located in Wicomico County, which scored 38.1% for
3rd grade science, about the same as the state average (MSDE, 1999).
Assessment at the state level is different from the ways teachers assess their students. In the
classroom, "Assessments are used to guide programming decisions and to documents student
development." The way you assess students must be determined by the standards and
scientific process skills that you teach in class. Smith and Welliver Educational Services
suggest teaching the following thirteen science process skills; observing, classifying,
inferring, predicting, measuring, communicating, using space/time relations, defining
operationally, formulating hypothesis, experimenting, recognizing variables, interpreting
data, and formulating models. Through teaching these process skills, a teacher is not focusing
on facts and terms, so it would only be fair to not use a traditional form of assessment. This
leads to the teacher needing a plethora of assessment strategies. The department of education
suggests using more innovative assessment strategies such as: "individual KWLs, scientific
drawings and diagrams, student questions, interviews, writing prompts, graphic organizers,
teacher observations, journal entries, designing individual investigation to answer a question,
and concept maps." These assessment strategies allow for the teacher to know whether or not
students are grasping concepts, interested in the material, and what improvements should be
made to their lessons. Another way of assessing the students skills could be through the use
of portfolios. Students can keep a section of each skill learned. An advantage to this form of
assessment is that teachers can use these as a review right before state assessments. Al
The State of Maryland approaches science assessments in one test, the MSPAP and through
individual assessments on daily material. The MSPAP raises many controversial issues
regarding the curriculum in Maryland. Some say that the MSPAP drives Maryland curriculum
in general. Diane Zoller, a fifth grade teacher at Bodkin Elementary School in Pasadena,
Maryland doesn't feel that way about her science class, but she feels that she is required to
use the MSPAP approach to education. Mrs. Zoller believes that her science class isn't
controlled by the MSPAP in curriculum because she doesn't know what to expect on future
test. However, she does prepare her children for the writing and group work approach that the
MSPAP contains. Within her daily science lessons her students are always participating in
groups answering stance questions even with the same lines as the test does. She does use any
multiple choice in her science lessons. She has her students write everything out, just like the
MSPAP. These are prime examples of how a science assessment affects Mrs. Zoller's science

classroom. Also, Mrs. Zoller believes that some modifications should be made to our state
assessments of elementary science. She believes that all children do not have the same
background or that some children are at the level of the test they are given. Some students
that are in fifth grade are not mentally prepared for fifth grade receive the same test of the
class. During the test they get very frustrated and eventually feel defeated. She says a
modification that should be made is that every student should receive a test that is at his or
her level of maturity and education. Mrs. Zoller shared also that there are no consequences
for failure of the state assessment test for the students. The staff, however, can be replaced for
low school test scores or more resource staff can be added to raise the scores for the future.
Overall, and not just science, the MSPAP has impacted the classroom by using innovative
education techniques like writing responses and learning the majority of the time in work
groups.
While Marylands intentions to improve the discipline of science, it can be seen from
interviews and research that it drives the academic approaches to the curriculum and causes
the students to do the same repeated activities with just different content. Many schools find
themselves today striving for the best MSPAP scores, which is the main factor for the overlap
of school activities in the classroom. From Mrs. Zollers interview, she is a prime example of
a teacher forced to put MSPAP approaches into her classroom. She feels like her students are
not receiving a well-rounded education because of the state assessments. Maryland science
assessments either state or teacher given are based on the facts, principles, skills, and
processes of five classified standards: earth/space, biology, chemistry, physics, and
environmental science.
Bibliography
Montgomery County Public Schools.(1999).Assessment Strategies.Retrieved February 12,
2000 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.mcps.k12.md.us/departments/eii/accelerated_and_enriched_s.htm
Science Process Test.(1998).Science Process Assessments for Elementary and Middle School
Students.Retrieved February 19, 1999 from the World Wide
Web:http://www.scienceprocesstest.com
Maryland State Department of Education .(1998).What is the Maryland School Performance
Assessment Program?. Retrieved February 19, 1999 from the World Wide
Web:http://www.mdk12.org/mspp/mspap/what-is-mspap/introl.html
Tulip Grove Elementary.(1999).Maryland State Performance Assessment Program. Retrieved
February 19, 1999 from the World Wide Web:
http://www1.marylandweb.com/marylandweb/tulipgrove/MSPAPinfo.html
Maryland State Department of Education : (1999). Maryland State Performance Assessment
Program. Retrieved: February 20, 2000 from the World Wide
Web:http://www.msde.state.md.us/mspap/
Parents Guide to MSPAP.(2000).Retrieved March 14, 2000 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.carr.lib.md.us/ccps/mspap/sample.htm

What is Social Science


What is the job of social science? Social science focuses its attention on the
social aspects of human nature; its job is to study how individuals can relate with
and communicate with each other. Social scientists study the social
environment in which we live in an attempt to understand human society and to
predict how people will interact in a given set of circumstances (Mack, 2004,
p584). In this essay, I discuss the role of social science for societies and
individuals, how individuals relate to societies and the function of rules in
societies as a main concern of social science.
Social sciences duty is to train human being how to deal with social status. As
we were born, we were part of a society; we were a member of a family; families
are the first breaks of societies. So, all of us were coping with social groups since
we were born: families, schools, peer groups and even media shape our social
environment. Mack (2004) noticed in his data, All human beings are social.
People have to interact with other people in order to survive. Since all human
beings live in a society, which is to say that every person is a member of some
human group, it is just reasonable to speak of a social environment (p584).
Social science teaches us, as members of society, how to deal and interact with
social environment. The question is why do people need to learn that
knowledge? The answer is that human being are social creatures, hence they
need social science to improve their social abilities. It is hard for a human being
to live by himself out of a society. Even thought it is possible for a human being
to survive in solitude, without any kind of social connection, not all of his talent
could flourish in isolation. Skills like communication, negotiation and cooperation
are those kinds of aptitudes which only thrive in social groups.
According to recent research, there are concurrent costs and benefits to living in
social groups. We human being are social creatures who live in largely
hierarchical societies, where people perform certain cooperative roles according
to their rank and in order to preserve the community (Alcock, 1993, p.501).
As long as we human being are social creatures we need a society to live in,
moreover we need to know how to survive in societies; that is what social
science teach us.
The role of social science is observing social interactions, plus introducing social
values and social norms. We would completely be different people if we were
born in other societies rather the one we really did. Societies have shaped our
thoughts, our ideas, our beliefs, our behaviour and our values. As Wei (2009)
discussed,
A society is an entity where people interact. The relationships among people in
the society are social relations. The judgements of right and wrong about social
relationships are social values. Social values are evinced in the form of social
norms, which are behaviour guides popular in the society, and which lie deep
within the peoples consciousness (p54).
Social science clarifies a behavioural model of interacting in a social

circumstance which individuals are supposed to follow. Social values and social
norms vary in different societies, therefore social scientists present different
behavioural model in each society. That is the reason that people react and
behave dissimilarly from one society to other.
It looks that societies were born first, and then the social science arrived on the
scene to scrutinize the society. Does society control individuals or do individuals
rule society? The answer is both. On one hand, societies have been formed by
group of people; they could not be existed without individuals, so we could say
that a society has been influenced by individuals. On the other hand, every
individual was born in a society, where he or she has learned that what is good
and what is bad; His believes, ideas, knowledge and values all have come from
his society, so individuals have been influenced by societies. Here, social science
starts to work: to study how individuals could develop societies and how
societies could improve individuals. Mack (2004) recorded that, Social scientists
study the social environment in which we live in an attempt to understand
human society and to predict how people will interact in a given set of
circumstances (p584). When individuals change their behaviours, consequently
their society will change. For example when people decide to change their
traditional believes and replace them with modern ideas, then a traditional
society will change to a modern one. Social scientists observe these kinds of
changes in individuals and societies. Overall, social scientists work and study
hard to develop societies, to make better place for people all around the world to
live and communicate to each other.

As was discussed, individuals and societies affect on each other by the


supervising of social science. The question is how social science administers
individuals and societies? What is its tool? In my opinion, its contrivances are
rules. Societies control individuals by rules. The first step for entering and living
in a society is accepting its rules. Individuals shape societies by legislation, while
societies regulate individuals behaviours by following rules.
Only the behaviour of human agents, especially in a social setting, is bound and
guided by rules, and because of this feature their behaviour can be normatively
evaluated as right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, and rational or
irrational. It is part of the education of every child at home and in school to be
taught the rules of the game in order to become a productive member of
society. Social scientists, historians, and anthropologists are thus prima facie well
advised to study the normative standards of a particular society because it is in
light of these standards that they are able to explain why individual members of
that society act the way they do; why they drive on the right side of the road
instead of the left or why they eat with knives and forks instead of their hands
(Stueber, 2005, p307).
The main key of societys constancy is ruling. According to law citizens are aware
of all the dos and donts. As Stueber( 2005) described in his data, Normally we
express the causal relevance of rules by saying that they guide the behaviour of
the individual or that individuals follow certain rules (p308).

Social science leads individuals actions in societies by asking them, or forcing


them to follow the societys rules which mostly are legislate by the work of social
scientists.
In conclusion, social science observes the relations and communications of
individuals with each other in a society. Social science determines social values,
social norms and directs the social environment. Social science knowledge is a
powerful resource for understanding and coping with the growing complexities,
uncertainties and risks in our world (Kazancigil, 2003, p379). Individuals are the
parts which form societies as a whole. Individuals have a mutual relationship
with societies. Both of them are under the control of social science; social
sciences tool for overseeing them is legislation. Various rules shape diverse
societies where individuals interact differently. It is not an option to be a part of
society or not, since we were born we became a part of society. So, as long as we
relate to societies, we should care and learn about social science. Through social
science we learn the reasons of our actions and our manners. If we required
modifying our behaviours in order to mature and boom our talents, social science
is here to help us and show us the ways.

Science Education Reform


the school year. This would allow more time for more time for instruction. An
important part of educational reform is the reform of teacher education.
Nationwide, state school systems are improving the preparation and
performance with more meticulous graduation requirements, performance based
pay, and career ladders that will require the teachers to continue their
education (Blosser, 1989). Most of this educational reform blossomed in the
1980s, a period which is now referred to as the school reform movement. It was
during this time that many of the ideas of educational reform came into public
view.
Science Teacher Education
Most colleges in the U.S. require science teacher candidates to enroll in a
vigorous course of study. There are many more areas of study beyond science
necessary in order to adequately prepare the students for the teaching world
(National Science Teachers Association, 2001). For example, at Towson
University science education students must complete special education,
psychology, communications, and information technology classes in addition to
their core science and general education courses. These additional classes help
to better prepare the candidates for what they might encounter in the
professional world (www.towson.edu, 2001)
Certification
In the state of Maryland, there are many requirements to receive and hold

certification to teach in the state. According to the Maryland State Teachers


Association, candidates who wish to obtain certification must possess an earned
bachelor's degree or higher from a regionally accredited institution of higher
education in a discipline appropriate to an assignment in the elementary or
secondary school curriculum, receive an average of "B" or better in courses
related to area of assignment, submit qualifying scores on teacher certification
tests- Praxis I and II (Basic Skills and Content tests only), and complete 135 clock
hours of study prior to employment as a resident teacher. Basically, this means
that the candidate must attend a four-year school and graduate with a degree.
They have to get a B or better in their science and education courses, pass both
Praxis exams, and complete one semester of student teaching. After being
certified, they are given a Professional Eligibility Certificate and hired by the local
school system. To keep their certification, they must continue to meet all
certification requirements, work in the school system, and continue their
education. All teachers go through certification steps. Upon being hired by a
school system, teachers are given a Standard Professional Certificate (SPC I).
This is valid for 3 years and only renewable once. During this time, the teacher
must complete 6 credit hours and have 3 years of teaching experience, 2 of
which are consecutive. When these requirements are met, the teacher is
awarded a Standard Professional Certificate II (SPC II). This certificate is valid for
7 years and the teacher must complete the SPC I and also compose a
professional development plan to be used to reach the Advanced Professional
Certificate. After verification of 4 years of full-time professional school-related
experience, 2 consecutive, within the last 7 years, and a masters degree or a
minimum of 36 semester hours of post-baccalaureate course work which must
include at least 21 semester hours of graduate credit, the Advanced
Professional Certificate is awarded and renewed every five years during their
career. Basically the teacher has 10 years after graduating from college to earn
their masters degree and to keep their certification. This is a very rigorous
course of continued study that keeps the teacher up to date with the appropriate
teaching methods. This system is constantly being updated and worked over to
come up with the best ways to keep teachers prepared for the classroom
(Maryland State Teachers Association, 2001).
Testing the Results
Preparing teachers in college and keeping them on their toes in the classroom is
a hypothetical way of improving science education. The problem is placing this
hypothetical system into the real world and hoping for the most beneficial
results.
There are many ways that the government tests the results of the improving
preparation and post-collegiate performance (Blosser, 1989) The National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is designed to measure the progress
of many areas within schools including student achievement, standards and
accountability, and improving teacher quality. From the results of the NAEP over
time, trends in science education progress can be determined
(www.edweek.com, 2001). The results of the science related portions of the

Maryland NAEP over the years of educational reform are not at all encouraging.
The trends show that although Maryland is highly ranked nationally in
performance in all areas, its scores seem to be slowly dropping. Marylands
scores are characterized by periods of decline followed by periods of recovery.
However, the periods of recovery are not significant enough to make up for the
periods of decline. Therefore, there is a downward trend in Marylands NAEP
scores (www.edweek.com, 2001) Nationally, trends seem to be stable. That
means that there is no decline, but there is also no improvement. The NAEP
shows that as a nation, science performance is about what it was in the early
1970s. There has been no real progress even after all the efforts of teacher and
student educational reform (The American Physical Society, 2000). One cause of
this situation is the problem of upkeep. It is one thing to implement all these new
systems and rules in the education of teachers and later their performance, but it
is another to maintain the procedure. There was a significant positive jump in the
progress of school performance in the 1980s when educational reform was at its
best, but since then it has fallen out of the public view and has not had as great
as an importance (Quality Counts, 2001)
Improvement
Although educational reform seems to be declining, it is known to work from the
results of the school reform movement of the 1980s. Therefore, to pick up the
reform excitement again would mean improvement in our school systems.
President Bush proposed H.R. 1, the No Child Left Behind Act to congress which
was recently passed by the House of Representatives on May 23, 2001. This act
holds states that use federal education dollars accountable for improving
student achievement, grants unprecedented new flexibility to local school
districts, empowers parents, and provides an escape route for students trapped
in failing schools (Summary, 2001) Bushs act also consolidates teacher
professional development programs to give school districts the flexibility to use
funds to reduce class sizes by recruiting, hiring, and training new teachers, or on
non professional development for existing teachers (Summary, 2001). Since the
start of President Bushs term, there has been a new excitement for educational
reform. These new laws being passed will hopefully solve the problem of
educational reform maintenance (Bush Reform, 2001).
References
Assessment tests can marginalize science education. (2000, December). The
American Physical Society.
Boehner, J. (2001). Bush reform will improve teacher quality. Education Watch.
Retrieved November 26, 2001 from http://edworkforce.house.gov/edwatch.
Boehner, J. (2001). Summary: The no child left behind act (H.R.1) as passed by
the house. House Education & the Workforce Committee. Retrieved October 5,
2001 from http://edworkforce.house.gov/issues/107th/education/nclb/sumhr1.pdf.

Blosser, P. (1989). The impact of educational reform on science education.


ERIC/SMEAC Science Education Digest. Retrieved October 5, 2001 from
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed320764.html.
Kelly, J. (2000). Rethinking the elementary science methods course: A case for
content, pedagogy, and informal science education. International Journal of
Science Education, 22, 755.
Maryland State Teachers Association, retrieved November 14, 2001 from
http://www.mstanea.org/index.html.
National Science Teachers Association, retrieved October 1, 2001 from
http://www.nsta.org.
Quality counts: Who should teach?. (2001). Retrieved on October 5, 2001 from
http://www.edweek.com.

---------------------Comparing Science and the Judicial System


Science and the Judicial System are two concepts that at face value seem to be very distinct
and unique in their own nature, but their cores share interesting parallels. They each propose
a different way of understanding how we comprehend and organize order and structure within
institutions, yet they do so with similar strategies. In this paper I'll address my understanding
of both, what characteristics they share and how these similarities prove them to be
inextricably connected by what we call life and its connection to the human experience.
Although Science is largely composed of observation, experiments and their results, it is
often controversial because perspective and experience play a key role in how data is
interpreted. And because perspective and experience undoubtedly vary with each person due
to various reasons; how is it possible that we can assign concrete truths to such a varied
conceptualization? Scientists fuse logic and philosophy.
Traditional science often fails to provide theories and explanations for phenomenons that
hold truth and validation in both a scientific context and the context of the human mind. I feel
that Science often caters to only a "black and white" way of formulating answers; failing to
recognize the gray areas. Often times people try to find the most common and accepted ways
to support their theories and in doing so they adapt to the standard and more traditional ways
of viewing the world. This leaves less room for creativity and exploration of the mind when
trying to formulate "truth". "A body of assertions is true if it forms a coherent whole and
works both in the external world and in our minds." Roger Newton (1)
Much like science, the justice system in this country is very much based on experience.
Although the understanding of these laws is largely composed of formal education, logic and

reasoning, there is more to law then these solid and concrete aspects. Experience plays a key
role because before obtaining any form of judicial authority one must practice and "get a feel"
for what the position entails. Through these experiences one acquires a very personal and first
hand knowledge and experience that is necessary before venturing out into his or her field.
The judicial system poses a similar problem to that of traditional science. I believe the laws in
our justice system are far too clear cut. There are a lot of gray areas when it comes to crimes
committed, political decision making, and societal issues. I feel our constitution, which is
what our laws are based on, is too limited and poses a problem because a lot of the pressing
issues in our society such as abortion and gun control lay on right and wrong border lines. It's
hard to come to a resolution because of the strict and limited language of our laws and also
because of the fact that there's more to these problems than laws; they involve emotions,
perceptions, culture, and perspectives; none of which are taken into consideration in
legislation.
The controversy with Pro-Life or Pro-Choice is controversial and complex because there are
so many ways to examine the issue, all of which have valid points depending on which light
you're looking at it under. Abortion is both a societal issue as well as a political issue. It
involves high sensitivity because of the direct connection to our emotions and personal
values. Politics and laws also play a major role in this debate because so many of them have
been passed concerning this issue. The Government on many levels is dealing with the issue
of abortion. The courts, federalism, judicial review and the separation of powers are all
involved in and dealing with this issue. In 1973 the Supreme Court declares abortion as a
constitutional right. (2) Scientist have clearly declared the fetus as a living thing and it is
clearly illegal by law to kill another human being, yet it is perfectly legal to have an abortion.
When this issue is examined thoroughly one can see how controversies arise and stay in
debate. So this case really depends on how one looks at it. This poses a problem because an
agreement and a middle ground are almost impossible to reach because people specifically
those with opinions about it, can only see the credibility in their value and position. Thus, the
choice is highly dependent on personal perspective, moral, and experience. Although
constitutional law governs the issue of abortions, science clearly plays a role of equal
importance and authority.
Gun control is deeply rooted in controversy and is an epitome of a gray area when dealing
with right or wrong. There are two conflicting sides, those in favor of gun regulation and
those against it. It is an issue for our nation as a whole but it stems from the division of this
country's mixed cultures. Those who have grown up in a culture where hunting is a family
and cultural tradition are strongly against gun control, but for people who did not grown up
with hunting as a sport do not see the same value. This conflict is rooted not only in value but
also politics. The respective sums of experiences for both sides are the reasoning behind their
positions on the issue. Science and the judicial system produce gray areas when trying to
understand and rationalize. Both are inextricably connected to life. Holmes convinced people
through his work and writings that the law should develop along with the society it serves. If
this is true than law should always be changing because society is constantly changing with
time and experience. "Life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience." (Oliver
Wendell Holmes). We systematically try to put life in a box to create order, order insures a
comfort, but that comfort often gets in the way of open-mindedness. The human mind by
itself is a convoluted vast universe. We as scholars, scientists, and human kind need to
understand that by assigning concrete truths, right or wrongs we are limiting the extent of our
intellectual capacities.

References
1)The Truth of Science, Physical Theories and Reality, An article from Harvard University
Press
http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/NEWTRU.html
2)An Overview of American Abortion Laws, A thorough explanation of the laws concerning
abortions
http://hometown.ao.com/abrtbng/overview.htm

Is Science Moving Too Quickly?


Before when I heard the word science the first thing came to my mind was human cloning.
However, recently I started thinking deeper toward this issue. Before, I thought everything
about science is unnatural. Scientists are going against God and Human nature. After reading
Bishop's and Rifkins's articles my view changed toward science completely. By comparing
and contrasting these great scholars, science made more sense to me.
In 1995 J. Michael Bishop wrote an article deploring the detractors of scientific advancement
and exploration. Likewise, in 1988 (republished in 1998) Jeremy Rifkin wrote an article
warning of the dangers of advances in the science of biotechnology and calling for caution in
that area. Both men agree on several issues but disagree on many more.
The credentials of both men are very different. J. Michael Bishop, a professor of
microbiology at UC San Francisco, as the result of "a seemingly obscure observation"
(Bishop 239) regarding a virus that causes cancer in chickens, has won a Nobel Prize for
identifying genes that are involved in the genesis of human cancer. Jeremy Rifkin is a wellknown, well-written, informed, respected social activist, a not-for-profit watchdog for
Everyman.
Both men mention religion. Bishop is annoyed over having to re-fight battles with "religious
zealots" like those who press for the teaching of creationism despite the finding for Darwin's
theory in the Scopes trial. Rifkin appeals to them: Human-authored creation could lead to a
"laboratory-conceived second Genesis" which could then lead to a "biological Tower of
Babel and the spread of chaos throughout the biological world, drowning out the ancient
language of creation" (Rifkin 245).
Bishop is probably more scientifically knowledgeable overall. However, in the article he
makes an interesting point unintentionally not in his favor, regarding scientific ignorance.
"[Many adult Americans] do not even know that the Earth circles the Sun" (Bishop 241).
Recently, "a prominent member of Congress betrayed his ignorance of how the prostate gland
differs from the testes" (Bishop 241). Bishop also says that even scientists do not understand
each other. After "laboring mightily" to make a text understandable by the readers of
Scientific American, (a magazine not for the uneducated), he was dismayed by the comment
of a "solid-state physicist of considerable merit" who asked him, "What exactly is a gene?"
(Bishop 242). Likewise he reports that 23 geophysicists could not distinguish between DNA

and RNA; a Nobel Prize winning chemist had never heard of plate tectonics; and biologists
who thought string theory might have something to do with pasta. (Although it's true few
people beside Stephen Hawking can explain it, much less understand it -- but it's not pasta.)
The position held by Bishop on this point, is made by a quote from Lionel Trilling: "No
successful method of instruction has been found. . . which can give a comprehension of
science. . . to those students who are not professionally committed to its mastery and
especially endowed to achieve it." There was a time, 400 years ago, when it was possible for
one person, by diligent application to study, to know all that was known. But no more. And
this, of course, should be born in mind when considering Bishop himself.
Rifkin makes frighteningly valid points regarding scientific knowledgeability. No one,
(presumably Bishop included) can predict the pervasiveness of biotechnology. The "transfer
of genes between totally unrelated species and across all biological boundaries--plant, animal
and human--creat[es] thousands of novel life forms in a brief moment of evolutionary time."
Then, we clone them, mass-produce them, "releas[e] them into the biosphere to propagate,
mutate, proliferate and migrate" (Rifkin 245). He reminds us that currently cattle are
genetically altered, chicken genes have been inserted into potatoes, fire-fly genes into corn,
and hamster genes into tobacco, to which foraging animals, seed-eating birds and soil
organisms and insects are exposed, interact, and feed. He notes that "Genetically engineered
soybeans containing a gene from a Brazil nut could create an allergic reaction in people who
were allergic to the nuts" (Rifkin 251). He makes a good case for the argument that genetic
changes are so unpredictable in the long-term as to alter all life, as we know it.
Bishop's statements do reflect some scientific caution. Although he is referring to his own
amazement when he learns of a Russian satellite that gathers solar light for Siberia, he asks,
"Is nothing sacred?" (Bishop 242). Scientists, he admits, offer "hope for the future but also
moral conflict and ambiguous choice[s]" (Bishop).
An argument made by Richard Lamm, former Colorado governor, that biomedical research
does not contribute to the improvement of human health because it has done little or nothing
about "increasing primary care, expanding medical coverage to the uninsured, dealing with
various additions and dietary excesses, and controlling violence" (Bishop 239) is debunked
by Bishop: these issues lie within the purview of social problems, he believes, not biomedical
ones. However, Bishop's statement that "the genesis of human behavior entails complexities
that still lie beyond the grasp of human reason" (Bishop 239) and that "the social and
behavioral sciences have yet to produce an antidote for even one of the common social
pathologies" (Bishop 239) leads to another realization. If humans as a race are unable to
control ourselves, our behavior, or agree with one another; if a dictator who believes he is in
the right can wage biological or atomic warfare; then what is to prevent a short-sighted,
profit-seeking person, corporation, or country carelessly introducing something genetically
altered. If as Rifkin predicts, within 10 to 15 years all major crops will be genetically
engineered, some genetic introduction might, within another 15 years, cause some major
ecosystem to be interrupted; something might become extinct which we later find was
necessary to our survival? "Each new synthetic introduction is tantamount to playing
ecological roulette. That is, while there is only a small chance of it triggering an
environmental explosion, if it does, the consequences could be significant and irreversible"
(Rifkin 248).
Bishop does not address escaped DNA fragments or mutations or growth. He makes the
general statement, "Biomedical research is one of the great triumphs of human endeavor. It

has unearthed usable knowledge at a remarkable rate. It has brought us international


leadership in the battle against disease and the search of understanding" (Bishop 240). He
censures "misplaced fears of the hazards" of science. (Bishop 241)
Bishop was aggravated when lesser-informed future neighbors refused to allow a laboratory
to be built nearby, citing recombinant DNA "had engendered the AIDS virus; and another
[person] declared on television her outrage that 'those people are bringing DNA into my
neighborhood.'" (Bishop 241). Ludicrous, and pitifully uninformed, we say. But Rifkin would
side with the neighbors in their further statement that the "right to perform biomedical
research in a residential area" (Bishop 241) was "Dangerous beyond tolerance" (Bishop 241).
Rifkin claims he is not an antitechnology zealot in general. He even supports the use of
biotechnology for pharmaceuticals and applying knowledge of biotechnology to preventative
medicine. But it is clear that he is dismayed by the failure of experimenters to reassure or
convince him that the safety of the entire planet is not at risk. He even notes that insurance
companies will not "insure the release of genetically engineered organisms into the
environment against the possibility of catastrophic environmental damage, because that
industry lacks a risk-assessment science - a predictive ecology - with which to judge the risk
of any given introduction" (Rifkin 250).
Unfortunately, and most frustrating, neither gentlemen express any method for correcting the
problem. Bishop does refer to Representative Brown (D.-Calif.) ". . . suggests that Congress
and the 'consumers' of scientific research may have to take more of a hand in determining
how science is conducted. . .." (Bishop 239). But the "suggestion" is a small whiny voice in
the face of the multi-billion dollar corporations and genetic engineering already in place.
Admittedly, Rifkin is an alarmist. Among other things, National Milk Products brand him a
"food terrorist". In the instant article he has taken a hard-line approach. But his points seem
valid and deserve further study. The fact most consumers are uneducated about, and cannot,
at this time, differentiate between genetically altered foods, and more "natural" ones in our
day-to-day life is alarming. Rifkin may be correct: "The biotech revolution will likely be
accompanied by the proliferation and spread of genetic pollution and the whole loss of
genetic diversity" (Rifkin 253). "To ignore the warnings is to place the biosphere and
civilization in harm's way in the coming years. Pestilence, famine, and the spread of new
kinds of diseases throughout the world might yet turn out to be the final act in the script being
prepared for the biotech century" (Rifkin 253).
Yet the voice of J. Michael Bishop, the wise scientist, is not to be ignored. "Resistance to
science is born of fear, which in turn is bred by ignorance," (Bishop 241) and "The price of
science seems large, but to reject science is to deny the future" he says. (Bishop 242) Without
a doubt, this is true. But Bishop would do well to re-read his own quote of Gerald Holton,
physicist and historian of science: "The lab remains our workplace, but it must not become
our hiding place." It may be that careful examination in the lab may show the price of some
biotech science, at least, to be too large.
Bishop and Rifkin are great scholars who share their views toward science. Rifkin's article is
very interesting, but what I did not like about it is that he is to alarming. However, his points
deserve further study. I agree with Bishop when he states that our society needs more
knowledge about science. The reason society fears it because the lock of knowledge they
have about it. It is a fact that science has solved many puzzles. We do definitely need science

in order to cure diseases, but we can not downgrade science if something goes wrong. We
would not have cures for tuberculoses, measles and many more diseases if it weren't for
science.
Works Cited
Bishop J. Michael. "Enemies of Promise." The Presence of Others. Ed. Andrea A. Lunsford,
John J. Ruszkiewicz. New York: Bedford / St. Martin's, 2000. 237-242.
Rifkin Jeremy. "Biotech Century: Playing Ecological Roulette with Mother Nature's
Designs." The Presence of Others. Ed. Andrea A. Lunsford, John J. Ruszkiweicz. New York:
Bedford / St. Martin's, 2000. 244-253.

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"Is Science Moving Too Quickly?." 123HelpMe.com. 15 Jun 2014
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