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The British Empire was once taking over many different territories and colonizing
around the world. In the twentieth century what was accepted as British
literature because more diverse. Britain diversified its self not only around the
world but people from all over came to Britain too. Many writings in this period
show this in different ways. Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own", Salmon
Rushdie's "English Is an Indian Literary Language", Ngugi WA Thiong'O's
"Decolonising the Mind", Wole Soyinka's "Telephone Conversation" are some
works that show the diversity of British literature.
Well known for colonialism, a policy by which a nation maintains or extends its
control over foreign dependencies, Britain was growing. More and more in the
twentieth century and after is where colonialism became neocolonialism, a policy
where a major power uses economic and political means to perpetuate or extend
its influence over underdeveloped nations or areas. This is when Diversity started
to grow all over the world. People were moving to different parts of the world to
explore, to gain power and to better their own lives. This is the time when
education started growing and more and more people were getting educated.
Women were beginning to be more out spoken and technology was advancing.
With all the change going on in the twentieth century women were also big parts
of this movement of diversity. The dramatic setting of "A Room of One's Own" by
Virginia Wolf is that she has been invited to lecture on the topic of Women and
Fiction. She advances the thesis that "a woman must have money and a room of
her own if she is to write fiction" (p.2092). Her essay is constructed as a partlyfictionalized narrative of the thinking that led her to accept this idea. The
narrator then reflects on the history of the university, thinking in particular of the
materials, labor, and money upon which it was founded and maintained.
Why have women have always been so poor, the narrator wonders later on
through out the story, thinking about how different things would have been "if
only Mrs. Seton and her mother and her mother before her had learnt the great
art of making money and had left their money"(p.2103) for the education of their
daughters. She is forced to concede, however, that a great sacrifice would have
been required "There would have beenthat was the snag in the argumentno
Mary." Plus, law and custom conspired to prevent those women from having any
legal property rights at all; they were themselves considered property. Where a
man would have been given free restraint, the narrator is restricted to a narrow
path on the Oxbridge campus, nor is she permitted to enter the college library.
These obstacles signify the effects of an educational culture that radically
restricts the capacity of a woman's intellectual exposure. Woolf identifies the fact
of being denied access whether to buildings or ideas as another type of
infringement on the freedom of the female mind. This segregation is a more of a
drastic kind of interruption, one that disturbs not just a single thought or dream,
but the life-long developmental of an individual or the historical development of
an intellectual tradition.
As the Britain rule still had a lot of influence Salmon Rushdie wrote "English Is an
Indian Literary Language". English was being pushed upon the natives and many
people had different opinions on what this represented. "English is by now the
world language."(p2540) Many people thought that it was a good idea to have
English as the primary language while others thought that their language was
better and superior. From his prospective he thinks that people are taking the
English language and making it their own, sort of like how we along the border
have made spanglish our own. Depending on where people live, I would say that
the English language varies. Older generations were fighting that English would
ruin their culture and their race while the younger generations went along with
the language, accepted it and used it, "They use it as an Indian language, as one
of the tools they have to hand,"(p.2540) which is what mainly people have been
doing since.
In India being such a big country is colonized differently. In the north Hindi which
is their primary language is looked and seen as better than English and people
do not really accept change as much. But in the south they embrace the English
language, "not only because of technical vocabularies and the international
communicationbut also simply to permit Indians to talk to each other
"(p.2540).He later wonders if he is Indian or British and says " Indian-born British
writer" (p2540) explains him. In conclusion to his writing he says that they
English language was the exclusive control the English people had in the rest of
the world.
African people were also diversifying British literature. Ngugi Wa Thiong'O wrote
"Decolonising the Mind" is both an explanation of how he came to write in
Gikuyu, as well as an exhortation for African writers to embrace their native
tongues in their art. Ngugi starts out making a good case for the obvious point,
that the relation of Africans to those imposed languages is a very different one
from that which the same Africans have to the native languages they speak at
home. Speaking and writing in the language of the colonizers will naturally be
different than in the language one speaks while at play or with one's family. In
addition, the language of the colonizer is often a truly foreign one; segments of
society understand it badly, if at all, and so certain audiences can not be reached
by works in these imposed languages.
Ngugi rightly complains that an educational focus that embraced essentially only
foreign works (not only foreign in language, but also in culture) was destructive,
"Thus language and literature were taking us further and further from ourselves
to other selves, from our world to other worlds"(p. 2536). Clearly there was and
probably still is a need to create a literature that conveyed the true African
experience, from the perspective of the local, not the visitor or outsider. The local
language is an integral part of conveying that experience, often because much of
local tradition has been preserved in that language. "Decolonising the Mind" is
an interesting, and too simple to understand work. It addresses significant
issues, and Ngugi's presentation is consistently appealing. Though aspects are
already dated, it can still serve as the basis for fruitful discussion of a subject
that continues to be of interest.
Wole Soyinka a Nigerian native was also influenced in her writings by the British.
She wrote "Telephone Conversation" a poem about different races and racism.
The speaker of the poem, a dark West African man searching for a new
apartment, tells the story of a telephone call he made to a potential landlady.
Instead of discussing price, location, amenities, and other information significant
to the apartment, they discussed the speaker's skin color. The landlady is
described as a polite, well-bred woman, even though she is shown to be
shallowly racist. The speaker is described as being genuinely apologetic for his
skin color, even though he has no reason to be sorry for something which he was
born with and has no control over. In this short poem, we can see that the
speaker is an intelligent person by his use of high diction and quick wit, not the
savage that the landlady assumes he is because of his skin color. When the land
lady asks for the color of his skin he is quick to respond, "Facially I'm brunette,
but madam, you should see the rest of me. Palm of my hand, soles of my feet are
peroxide blond," (p.2530). All of these discrepancies between what appears to be
and what really is create a sense of verbal irony that helps the poem display the
ridiculousness of racism.
The British Empire grew intensively throughout the twentieth century not only
territorial wise but culturally. Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own", Salmon
Rushdie's "English Is an Indian Literary Language", Ngugi WA Thiong'O's
"Decolonising the Mind", Wole Soyinka's "Telephone Conversation" are some of
the works that added diversity to British literature.
Artists must, in addition to possessing great creative skills, also bear moral
responsibility for shaping their imitations. Samuel Johnson seems to revisit
Plato's attack upon art with his admission that an accurate imitation of morally
questionable subject matter is not only unacceptable, but potentially harmful to
those who encounter it. In order to accommodate a strong moral sense, Johnson
describes imitation as a process of interpretation. "The business of a poet... is to
examine, not the individual, but the species...He must write as an interpreter of
nature" (229). Imitation and the role of the imitator has evolved. Rather than an
indiscriminate scribe copying an endless list of details both good and bad, each
artist attempts to imitate the general qualities of humanity that promote
goodness. Even within Romanticism, a writer like Wordsworth who challenges the
literary styles and moral authority of preceding traditions, seeks to express his
art by quietly imitating the inner, visceral, and emotional world of his own mind.
Imitation is transformed into a deeply personal but ultimately universal
experience, for Wordsworth "considers...the mind of a man as naturally the
mirror of the fairest and most interesting qualities of nature" (292).
Literature
midst of his attempt, Leavitt uses a modal to create suspense in paragraph 9, line 7 He
does not look at her, but he can tell from her breathing that she senses what he is doing.
Neils ability to sense his mothers consciousness is portrayed through the use of can in this
sentence, besides creating a tense atmosphere as both characters were strongly aware of what
was going on despite not looking at each other face to face. In addition, the modal can is
also used by the writer to tempt the readers to continue on with the story and develop their
curiosity as they will be eager to know what happened after that.
In short, modals are used effectively by David Leavitt in this extract to create several
different effects on readers such as irony, enlightenment, assurance, and suspense as the plot
moves on. Characters in a short story is enriched and brought alive through the use of modals
which serve their various functions in revealing the traits and thoughts of characters.
Evidently, without the appearance of modals in this extract, the short story would definitely
be dull and uninteresting. Furthermore, readers would not be able to analyse the traits of Neil
and his mother, Mrs. Campbell thoroughly and in depth for the purpose of empathising the
characters.
the idea that the theme of death in war time is consuming everything,
including nature. In Isaac Rosenburg's 'Returning, We Hear the Larks'
the landscape is an essential part of the poetry with 'This poison
blasted track opens on our camp' conveying that the war is not
escapable, along with 'sombre the night is'. The language used is
harsh, showing the idea of death and destruction and particularly the
use of night seems to provide the idea that the writer is lacking
direction, lost in the concept of war. This is echoed in Richard
Aldington's 'Farewell to Memories' with 'the colourless winter dawn
hovered mournfully over a desecrated land' there still remains this
uncertain tone that the 'colourless winter' is hovering, almost
suggesting that it may stay or it may not. This is similar to the idea
of death, it was an uncertain factor of the war and therefore a battle
for survival, shown by Rosenburg: 'And though we have our lives, we
know/ what sinister threat lurks there.' This uncertainty and loss of
direction can be seen in other World War One literature such as Vera
Brittain's 'Testament of Youth' where, in response to her fianc
Roland's death she writes: 'Yet I cannot feel very acutely-I don't
feel anything but an utter, utter weariness'. The female response to
this theme is different as they are experiencing the loss from the
home front rather than trying to survive within the nature of war but
it seems to have an 'elongated' theme to it. It suggests that this
loss of direction will remain for a long time and this can also be
seen in Charlotte Mew's 'The Cenotaph' with 'There is a grave whose
earth must hold too long, too deep a stain'. The perspective of women
on the theme of war seems to support the idea of long term loss and
that memories of the event will continue for another generation.
Often, literature from the first world war can offer the reader a part
of the harsh, bitter realism that came from the war, that would
otherwise be lost in the metaphorical nature of some literature from
the war. Aldington's 'Farewell to Memories' shows the vulnerability of
the youth that experienced death due to the conflict of the war: 'That
was the symbol of the youth of a generation, lines of crosses'. This
poignant phrase was supported by other writers of the war, that a
generation of men had been taken away by death. Owen's 'Disabled'
shows that those young people who survived the war found that their
youth had been killed: 'for it was younger than his youth, last year.
Now he is old: his back will never brace.' The death of youth is an
important theme throughout first world war poetry, a poignant idea
that a generation has disappeared and Mew's reflection of this a year
after the war, standing at the Cenotaph provides the reader with some
of the hindsight at the time: 'Where only yesterday the wild sweet
blood of a wonderful youth was shed.' The tone of a piece can often be
very important in showing this harsh bitter realism and Rifleman Jack
Brown's account in Lyn Macdonald's 'The Somme' has an informal,
colloquial tone: 'They'd gone as black as pitchand, not to tell a
lie, dead bodies as well'. This tone provides the reader with evidence
of a real account, a personal account which shows the emotions of the
ordinary man in the war. The use of this informal tone is echoed in
other pieces of literature, for example Ruth Comfort-Mitchell's 'He
went for a soldier' uses the phrase 'Billy the soldier-boy!' providing
once again the idea of the death of youth and a tone which provides a
greater intimacy with the emotions.
There is evidence of questioning in this literature as to why the war
had happened. Mew's 'The Cenotaph' does this in the last stanza of her
poem:
'While looking into every busy whore's face
As they drive their bargains, is the face
Of God: and some young, piteous, murdered face.'
Once again the theme of youth is examined and questioning why so many
of a generation had to die. However, it also questions other sections
of society as well as faith. It appears to be turning to several
angles to ask why this happened, using a 'collective why'. Sassoon's
statement of wilful defiance has a similar theme and tone: 'I have
seen the sufferings of the troops, and I can no longer be a party to
prolong those sufferings for ends which I believe to be evil and
unjust' this is an important piece to show the questioning of the war
in relation to the theme of death as it is from 1917, when enthusiasm
for the war in society was wearing very thin. The language is succinct
and Sassoon is concise in making his stand. It is the voice of
soldiers who have seen the death incurred at the hands of war and wish
to prevent it and therefore it provides a greater insight into the
emotions of readers. Combined with Sassoon's poetry like 'They' with
'And the Bishop said: 'The ways of God are strange!'' it shows a
criticism of many angles of society, like Mew's 'The Cenotaph'
provoked by the extent of death from the war.
'They' by Sassoon is an important piece in showing a lack of faith due
to the destructive nature of the war. However, in some literature
there does seem to be a theme of the ethereal, which presents the idea
that the war was something that was unreal or impossible to
comprehend. The idea of slumber appears to be prominent with
Rosenburg's 'Like a blind man's dream on the sand' and Mew's 'In
splendid sleep, with a thousand brothers' as well as Anna Gordon
Keown's 'Reported Missing' with 'The world's adrowse in twilight
hushfulness'. It provides a view of a different world, that the blind
man can see his dreams but not reality, it appears to be beyond
reality and into something more like an afterlife. The language is
softer than that used to show the harsh bitter reality of war and is
reminiscent of sleep, slower and more thoughtful. It removes the idea
of death, destruction and war to create this ethereal experience,
which can be said to be closely linked with faith in God as shown in
the account by Rifleman Jack Brown: 'I just said a little prayer for
myself'. However, there is a contrasting view seen throughout some
pieces of World War One literature that, due to the nature of war and
the deaths of a generation of men, that faith in God was limited. This
is shown in 'Journey's End' by R C Sheriff with 'Damn God' as well as
Sassoon's 'They' with 'The ways of God are strange.'
The theme of death in World War One literature is prominent but dealt
with in a variety of different ways. The use of landscape, realism,
the ethereal and questioning create a disbelief as well as an attempt
to cope with the death of the conflict. The perspective of men and
women differs as the women seem express emotions in a comprehensible
fashion whilst the men, often scarred by the things that they have
experienced provide the reader with less of an insight. This is
supported by Aldington saying 'There was no room for bitterness even,
no need for speech' and Margery Lawrence commenting on the perspective
of men with 'Darkness and silence received them and smothered their
pain.' The issue is dealt with in a style that provides the reader
with an insight of the horrors of the war whilst also showing the
opinion of society of the day on the loss of a generation. The
language used varies depending on the intention of the piece from the
harsh language of the realism to the 'sleepy' language of the ethereal
theme. The writers successfully use a range of devices to respond to
the theme of death during the first world war.
expensive nature.
Throughout the poem the writer repeats I to emphasise her individual
from Pakistan. The poet also makes use of similes in the poem marvel
at the colours like stained glass. The poet uses this simile to
emphasise the beauty of the colours. Alvi also uses empathy Prickly
heat. Alvi does this show her character as being uncomfortable.
In Hurricane the writer uses the third person pronoun her even
though the poem is autobiographical. The poet does this purposely to
distance herself from her home, her identity and her culture. The poet
also uses personification as he personifies the wind as if it were a
ship The howling ship of the wind. The employs this technique as it
helps the reader build a more vivid picture. It also helps describe
the situation better (whats happening). In that same line that poet
also makes use of onomatopoeia when using the word howling. The
writer uses onomatopoeia to.
In the poem the poet uses participial adjectives gathering. The poet
uses participle adjectives as makes the reader feel like what
happening is continual in this example movement. The poet also employs
antonyms and oxymorons fearful and reassuring. The poet employs
these to. In the next stanza the poet employs repetition and triadic
structure Talk to me Huracan, Talk to me Oya, Talk to me Shango. The
writer uses repetition as it emphasises the point or the feelings, in
this case it emphasise the poets relationship with the hurricane. The
poet also uses triadic structure as things are easier to remember in
threes. The poet employs these two techniques in the same lines as it
sounds like an incantation/spell as well as it sounding like a
conversation with the storm gods. In the beginning of the second
paragraph the writer uses the first person singular pronoun me to
highlight that the lines are personal. The poet also uses rhetorical
questions tell me why u visit, An English coast. The poet uses this
technique to show her confusion as well as to make the reader think.
In this poem the poet employs metaphors the blinding illumination.
This metaphor is used to illustrate that her character (herself) is
having a revelation or as you could say an epiphany. In the third
paragraph the poet uses second person pronoun you to address the
storm. In the fourth paragraph the writer begins with the line What
is the meaning of trees. He purposely starts off with this line as it
sounds rather philosophical and spiritual. Within the poem the poet
uses the simile falling as heavy as whales. The poet uses this
simile because it helps the audience build a vivid picture in this
case the simile implies that the trees make huge impact when falling
as would a whale. Under the fourth paragraph there is a free verse
line. The free verse line starts with the word O. The poet begins
with this as it shows emotion and heightens the impact. In this free
verse line the poet uses another metaphor why is my heart unchained.
This metaphor is used to show that the character has resolved her
problem.
and middle-upper class family background gives her the ability to be in more
control of her future whereas Tess' future lies in the hands of the work that she is
able to get and the wealth of the man she decides to marry. In her essay Gender
and the Victorian Novel, Nancy Armstrong suggests that the nineteenth century
woman would Marry a man with whom [they] were compatible if [they] could' to
avoid degradation of impoverishment or worse, the need to work for a living'
In terms of Catherine Earnshaw or Tess Durbeyfield embracing the former
statement by Armstrong, in their own individual manner, they show signs of
conforming to it. Catherine could' marry Heathcliff, but chooses Edgar to avoid
impoverishment or degradation. Heathcliff is unstable as a husband as he has no
firm family ties. As Catherine points out, It would degrade me to marry
Heathcliff' but she is fighting her true love for him, she says, If all else perished
and he remained I should still continue to be.' Tess on the other hand would
initially rather work than be in any way involved with the repulsive and
malevolent Alec. It is clear that she is uncomfortable working as a farmhand and
milkmaid when she struggles to socialise with the other workers in communally
singing lower-class folk ballads. It is at this stage that we can clearly see the
aristocracy within Tess, visible in her graceful beauty and unease in the lowerclass environment. However, on the unfortunate death of Tess' father she is
forced to go to Alec, after her rejection from Angel, in order to avoid the
inevitable poverty of herself and her family. Although both women ultimately
choose the socially acceptable roles, it is apparent in their behaviour and private
thoughts that they have made the wrong decisions. The love between Tess and
Angel is portrayed by Hardy as pure and romantic and as a reader we begin to
feel pleasure in Tess' happiness as she forgets about her traumatic past and
embraces her new found love. On Angel's proposal to her she feels guilty that he
is unaware of the sordid events of the past and dutifully decides to tell him.
Although she is afraid of his reaction she feels that loves counsel would prevail.'
Her honest and integral qualities combined with her deep and true love for him is
what persuades Tess to tell him. Hardy captures this moment of Tess' angst
perfectly:
Every see-saw of her breath, every wave of the blood, every pulse singing in
her ears, was a voice that joined with nature in revolt against her
scrupulousness. Reckless inconsiderate acceptance of him; to close with him at
the altar, revealing nothing, and chancing discovery; to snatch ripe pleasure
before the iron teeth of pain could have time to shut upon her: that was what
love counselled; and in almost terror of ecstasy Tess divined that despite her
many months of lonely self-chastisement, wrestlings, communings, schemes to
lead a future of austere isolation loves counsel would prevail'
Tess is heroically choosing the man she loves rather than falling into a marriage
with Alec but in her integral and brave honesty she looses him and for the sake
of her family is obligated to accept Alec's proposal. Catherine, on the other hand,
in Wuthering Heights completely disregards her love for Heathcliff in preference
of Edgar Linton.
On her return from Thrushcross Grange Catherine behaviour has changed
considerable from a fierce young girl to an elegant young woman. Her education
at the Grange has secured that the manners of a lady have been forced upon her
as well as the conformities of a woman. Once married to Edgar Catherine strives
to become an independent woman but the social rules indoctrinated in society
leave her trapped as once a woman married she became a feme covert'. All
her personal property became her husbands,' including her body. Catherine feels
degraded to have become a woman and wishes she were a girl again, half
savage and hardy, and free' Catherine has been converted at a stroke into
Mrs. Linton' Sandra M. Gilbert states that Given the patriarchal nature of
culture, women must fall that is, they are already fallen because doomed to
fall' Catherine also expresses her misery in the separation that Hindley ordered
between me and Heathcliff' It is clear to see in this chapter that Catherine's joy
and happiness lies with Heathcliff, she has ultimately conformed to her sociable
acceptable role and in doing so make everyone around her miserable as if she
cannot be happy she will not allow anyone else to be. She attempts and fails to
force Edgar into submission and looses what she loves the most in life. Her death
symbolises her will to be free from the social restriction cast upon her as she
shows no pain in death, just a total outburst of her freedom of thought. Gilbert
expresses Catherine as a princess in love with a prisoner in a dungeon'
To conclude, in the 1850's and 1860's, it seems that fiction made the selection of
a husband the most important thing a woman did. This view is prominent in both
novels as ultimately the downfall of Catherine and Tess is rooted from their poor
decision of husband. Hardy and Bront choose these paths for their heroines but
are explicit in their story-telling to make the reader aware that they are unhappy
women and although choosing to conform in the hope that it will benefit their
positions, theis choices finally lead to their deaths. It was common to perceive
female characters as passive in the novel and it was the preferred perception.
However, David states, in the defence of women's passivity, What femininity
looses in terms of socio economic independence, it thus regains with a
vengeance in symbolic terms as women become the arbiters of taste and
gentility' . In their conformity, both Catherine and Tess cannot hide the way they
truly feel and it is in this integrity of emotion and mental strength that we can
see these heroines develop in their female roles.
magnifying glass that Twain uses to illuminate overall the corruption and hypocrisy that
drives society. It is not Twains solution, but instead his attempt to arouse awareness of the
flaws in society and the flaws ourselves. While proceeding within these boarders, I believe
that this book can produce a heightened sense of awareness and maturity out of its readers.
At its simplest form, disregarding all racial content, this book is a classic and holds literary
value that is important for young readers and writers to experience. It shows effective use of
irony and satire, both literary tools that should be taught to high school students. Also, Twain
was one of the first authors to produce a righting style that was anything but the traditional
romanticism. Twain sparked the literary switch into realism which vastly affects our literature
today. In this way, this book has an essential place in the history of literature and is therefore
important to be taught.
Yet, no amount of literary stature can make this book's contentious content ignorable. Critics
rave that Twain's use of the word "nigger", his creation of Jim to be simpleminded and
submissive, and the torturous end of the novel all together make this book "the most
grotesque example of racist trash ever written"(Wallace). However I believe that twain uses
all of his racy content for a specific purpose. Weather it be to contradict or to criticize, I don't
think that twain ever throws anything in just for his own enjoyment or to cause problems. If
looked at with a careful eye, it can be seen how each and every part of this novel is a crucial
element to Twains overall discussion of society.
Primarily it is my belief that the use of the word "nigger" is simply Twain trying to properly
depict the time period in which he is writing about. Twain spent years studying the speech of
all of the types of people in the Mississippi region, so that he could precisely depict the
culture. At this time, the word "nigger" was just part of common vernacular. However, more
than just accuracy drives Twain to use this word. All through out the book, we see Huck's
subconscious leading him to love and respect Jim. We also see Jim proving time and time
again his equality to Huck. However, Huck can never escape calling Jim a nigger. So why is
it that with all that Jim has proven to be, Huck can never consider Jim his equal? Either this is
twain trying to make Huck a bad person, or it is twain trying to show the extremity to which
society can brain wash and take control of a person.
Along with the use of offensive language, critics often claim that twain advocates racist
stereotypes through out the personality and traits of the character Jim. Julius Lester in source
C criticizes that that twain also makes "odious parallels" such as one between Huck's being
locked in a cabin, and Jim's legal enslavement. I agree, that there are many parallels in this
book, however I believe that twain uses them to do quite the opposite and promote Jim's
character. For example, the scenes of Huck's captivity that Lester discusses are provided for
an alternative purpose. If twain was trying to create some sort of connection between Huck's
being locked in a cabin, and slavery, I would like to think that he would at last give the reader
some clue into this notion. As a reader I certainly never made that connection, but that could
just be my lack of insight. However, I did find a seemingly more obvious parallel between
Huck's dad and Jim. Twain sets them both in fatherly positions towards Huck, and therefore
sets them up for comparison. There is even a specific scene in which Jim confesses to Huck
about the one time he hit his child, from which the reader draws a direct connection to pap.
We see that Pap is a drunkard who beats his child daily, where as Jim after hitting his child
once, cries and regrets it so much that he is unable to ever forgive himself. We see Jim
constantly sacrificing himself for the happiness and safety of Huck, while the only reason
why Pap even took Huck in was so that he could get a hold of Huck's fortune, naturally so
that he could get drunk. As So by providing the character of pap, Twain is purposefully trying
to show Jim to be superior emotionally and morally, both which directly contradict the
common stereotype of blacks at this time.
Another parallel that twain provides involves the many tricks that are played through out this
book. Huck seems to be constantly playing tricks on Jim, something that critics might say
fortifies that boundary of slave/master, and makes Jim seem simpleminded and dumb.
However Jim is not the only one who is victim to trickery in this book. There are also the
southern town's people who are constantly being fooled by the king and the duke.
Interestingly what we see happen is that when Jim is tricked, weather it is consciously or
subconsciously, he always seems to turn it around and provide for his own favor. This is what
Smith depicts in his essay, with the examples of the "witch" and the "hairball" incident where
Jim raises his status and gets usable money. Another incident is that on the river where Huck
and Jim get separated. This is a crux scene in the novel because for the first time we see Jim
humbling Huck. He says to Huck " Dat truck dah is trash; en trash is what people is dat puts
dirt on de head er dey fren's en makes 'em ashamed.'" and intern show that the equality that
exists between them. However in all the incidents with the king and the duke, the town's
people never seem to bring any good out of their predicaments, as Jim does. They seem to
always end up low down, back stabbing, and broke. So it is because of this that I disagree
with the former critics. I believe that twain uses these parallels, not trying to promote the idea
that black people are simpleminded and gullible, but instead and show Jim to be "in most
ways a better man than the men who regarded him as their inferior"(smith).
Some critics do recognize this, and agree that twain provides Jim with positive status.
However they argue that all of this is torn down in the end of the book when Jim is tortured
and humiliated for the imaginative pleasure of tom sawyer. "on the raft he (Jim) was an
individual, man enough to denounce Huck when Huck made him the victim of a practical
joke. In the closing episode however, we loose sight of Jim in the maze of farcical invention."
(Source D). Then there are some who don't think that the end of the book is intended to be
racially demeaning, but are still baffled and suppose that twain just ran out of ideas. However
I think that twains' ending was very much intentional, and is used for achieving a specific
goal. I think that this ending instead provides a humorous but direct criticism of the
submissiveness that exists as a whole in our society, but also inside everyone. Twain is
playing off human's tendency to be passive, to go with the flow, to do what is simplest and
causes least disruption, even if that goes against, which it often does, our inner morals and
"naked" instincts. Twain depicts the lack of initiative stand up for what we know deep down
to be right, especially if it were to go against the will of a loved and revered one. That is why
this ending is so painful for us to read. It provides to the submissiveness that lies within all of
us. And so through this he provides his message. If we don't like what Huck is doing, we are
more likely to apply it and do this opposite in our lives. Therefore twain is implementing for
humans to act against this passivity and stand up for our instincts.
Through all of his racy or offensive content, twain is truly trying to depict the deep extent to
which society controls us. Twain has shown that often times, even in the people that we most
despise instincts can be good. However it is a rare case in which a person can acknowledge
and stand up for these instincts if they go against what society has taught us.
Through all of this, Huck fin does more than just show a new style of righting to achiever its
title of "masterpiece." This book gives shows us a society of the past, and how this societies
embedded stereotypes and biases smudged the hopeful fates of two friends. And although
stereotypes may have changed, the overall message of twain's book is timeless. If we
constantly try to prove ourselves by the standards of society, we will end up succumbing to
the submissiveness, and may not be able to escape it.
Literature of the 1970s
The literature of the 1970s contains a divergent amount of writers and genres.
Poems, novels, and short stories are the main forms of expression, and these
were produced by writers from around the world. Many of the books in the
1970s revolve around a general theme of mans alienation from his spiritual
roots(Gillis).
One author of the seventies is John Updike. He portrayed his characters trying
to find the meaning in a society spiritually empty and in a state of moral
decay(Gillis).
Interest in the 1970s focused on writers as disparate in the concerns and styles
as V.S. Pritchett and Doris Lessing(English Literature). V.S. Pritchett is noted as
a literary critic of remarkable education. She is also considered a master of the
short story. Doris Lessing went from writing short stories collected as African
novels concerning the role of women in contemporary society.
No playwright dominated this decade of both social and artistic unrest. Among
the most acknowledged were Sam Shepherd, Lanford Wilson, David Mamet, and
Neil Simon(Gillis). Another noted playwright is Edward Franklin Albee. He is an
American playwright whose most successful plays focus on familial relationships.
His early plays are characterized by themes typical of the theater of the absurd.
The characters suffer from an inability or unwillingness to communicate
meaningfully or to sympathize or empathize with one another(English
Literature).
Another author of the seventies is Iris Murdoch. A teacher of philosophy as well
as a writer, she is esteemed for slyly comic analyses of contemporary lives in her
many novels such as The Black Prince. Murdochs effects are made by the
contrast between her eccentric characters and the underlying seriousness of her
ideas(English Literature).
Eudora Welty, an American writer was born in Jackson, Mississippi. Some of her
novels include The Robber Bridegroom, Delta Wedding, The Ponder Heart, and
Losing Hearts. Her skillful re-creation of regional patterns of speech and thought
make her well-noted. Weltys main subject is the intricacies of human
relationships, particularly as revealed through her characters interactions in
intimate social encounters(Eudora Welty: Biography). Most of her novels and
short stories are tales of eccentric and even hideous characters. She portrays
them with charm and sympathetic humor. Many of the stories that brought her
fame first appeared in The New Yorker Magazine.
Another American novelist during the seventies was Michael Shaara. He was a
short-story writer whose writing on military matters is known for its historical
accuracy and realism. Shaaras fiction examines the behavior of men faced with
difficult circumstances. He finished writing The Killer Angels in 1974. Its a novel
about the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War. The book re-creates the
battle from the points of view of both Northern and Southern officers. Praised for
its attention to detail and its historical accuracy, the book won the 1975 Pulitzer
Prize(English Literature).
Nadine Gordimer is a novelist and short-story writer. In her books, Gordimer
sympathetically presents the position of non-whites while conveying the
conflicting feelings of liberal whites who live under a system they believe to be
wrong(Gordimer, Nadine). She won the Booker Prize in 1974 for her novel, The
Conservationist.
Sir Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul is a Trinidadian-British writer and essayist. He
is one of the masters of English narrative. In fiction and essays marked by
stylistic virtuosity and psychological insight, he focuses on his childhood, his
travels beyond Trinidad, and the difficulties facing the Third World(Naipaul,
V.S.). Two of his noted works are, India: A Wounded Civilization and A Bend In
the River.
Toni Morrison was one of the strongest literary voices to emerge from this
decade. He wrote about the Black American experience as never before(Gillis).
His book, The Bluest Eye won the National Book Award which marked the
emergence of successful African-American writers. Other black writers who
emphasize personal experiences and the musicality of will include Alice Walker
and August Wilson(Arts and Culture: 1970s)
The Vietnam War was a major event of the seventies. Whether or not Americans
agreed with U.S. involvement in Vietnam, or supported politicians who agreed
with U.S. involvement, the war shaped the way Americans defined themselves
and one another(Stewart 8). Many young Americans protested the involvement
of the U.S. in the Vietnam War. They turned to a counterculture of sex, drugs, and
rock n roll. Their confidence in the presidency, and middle class values and
power collapsed under weight of defeat and corruption. During Richard Nixons
presidential campaign, he stressed the need for peace in Vietnam. Here is a
quote from Nixon, I pledge to you, new leadership will end the war and win
peace in the Pacific. All he needed was six months time to end the war(Stewart
11). Nixon did not keep his promise and in early 1970 he did not decrease U.S.
military activity in Vietnam and he authorized an expansion of the war into
neutral Cambodia.
In 1974 the last troops left Vietnam after Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho signed
a treaty in Paris. American diplomats stayed in Saigon but Vietnamese forces
began to crumble. U.S. helicopters take out the last American and allied
Vietnamese personnel in a flurry of chaos as the North Vietnamese army rumbles
into Saigon(War & Peace: 1970s).
Five men were arrested on June 17, 1972 and charged with burglary at the
Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate. The burglars
were in the Democratic headquarters because they needed to fix electronic
eavesdropping equipment which they planted during a previous break-in. It was
later found out that the burglars had worked for the Committee to Re-Elect the
President-an agency which would be known as CREEP.
Nixon assured Americans that he and his staff were not involved in the break-in
and wiretapping of the office at Watergate. While this was going on, people close
to Nixon were arranging to payoff those who were arrested, in exchange for their
silence. In a national speech, Nixon insisted, People have to know whether or
not their president is a crook. Well, I am not a crook. Those words would haunt
Nixon(Stewart 20).
Watergate hearings began in May 1973. In July 1973 the White House staff
revealed that Nixon regularly taped conversations in the Oval Office. Eventually a
Supreme Court decision forced Nixon to turn over the tapes to prosecutors. In a
speech to the American people on August 8, 1974, Nixon explained that he
would resign the next day. Vice President Gerald Ford succeeded him(Stewart
21).
English Literature
Though the Honors Program has taught me the value of academic research in my
writing skills, my on-going internship with the National Fallen Firefighters
Foundation has taught me the practical importance of the real-life applications of
writing skills in the business world. During my internship, I have applied the
writing skills I learned in my English classes to many projects. By far the most
exciting project I worked on was one in which I saw my writing skills have major
results for the Foundation and the families of fallen firefighters. I wrote a grant
proposal to the Allstate Foundation requesting fifty thousand dollars to help
create a National Memorial Park to honor and remember America's fallen fire
heroes and their families. This grant proposal is now the template the Foundation
will use to ask other major corporations for donations. To accomplish this, I
researched how other non-profit corporations received grant money, and
modeled out grant proposal after successful requests. I sought expertise by
meeting with the former head of the Allstate Foundation to gain insight into what
components are key to a grant proposal. In other words, I used the research skills
I learned as an English major to teach myself how to write for a major grant. This
September I learned the results of my efforts: the Foundation was awarded the
grant, and later this year there will be a groundbreaking ceremony to begin work
on the Park. Though I am pleased with the results of my work, I find greater
pleasure in the personal difference this Park will make for the families of fire
heroes across the nation.
Although the progress of my English career has been radically different than I
originally envisioned, the work has been extremely satisfying. I have learned that
writing and researching skills are crucial in many different areas of life, be it
writing a piece of scholarly literary work, a business-oriented grant request, or
teaching English to an immigrant. I hope to parlay my talents into scholarly work
in the field of English literature, where I will be constantly challenged to expand
my mind through writing, research and effective communication.
wife, Calixta, living what was a normal life for a woman in the late nineteenth
century. While her husband and son are kept inside a store by a passing storm,
Calixta is greeted unexpectedly by an old boyfriend, Alcee. Spending time with
Alcee releases feelings from Calixta that had been building up throughout her
marriage. Calixta and Alcee give in to temptation, but never lose their sight of
love for their families. Both stories suggest women in marriages sometimes feel
imprisoned by the relationship and seek an outlet for their emotions.
Marriage is a sacred bond and should always be honored. Infidelity is the
worst act that can be perpetrated on a significant other. The wife, Calixta,
betrayed her family and the church by cheating on them. Also, Mrs. Mallard
experiences joy at the suffering and death of her husband. Both women commit
acts that are both dishonorable and disrespectful to marriage and their families.
Chopin suggests Calixta and Alcee enjoyed and took pleasure in dishonoring
their marriage vows. The generous abundance of her passion, without guile or
trickery, was like a white flame which penetrated and found response in depths
of his sensuous nature that had never yet been reached. The emotions felt
during their love making overwhelmed Calixta and gave her an orgasm, which
her husband had not. The passion created by Calixta and Alcee created
conflicting feelings like a separate storm inside the house. Moments of weakness
do not excuse infidelity in a marriage. Calixta shared something with Alcee,
something that should only be shared by married woman with her husband.
Understanding the stifling feelings that marriage can bring is essential to
understand what conjures up feelings of confinement. The story could also be
interpreted with another point of view. Alcee and Calixta may have shared a
physical connection, but never really shared their love with each other. Calixta
was living her life in times of tension. Calixta was in a situation that figuratively,
left her gasping for air. The marriage life for a woman did not offer many options.
Women did not have a choice to find a well paying job and support a family.
Women were often confined to housework such as cooking, cleaning, and other
house maintenance. Being restricted to only house work may have reduce the
level of self-esteem of the women. Alcee found Calixta at a vulnerable time in her
life. However, the isolated incident she had with Alcee did not drive her away
from her husband , but reminded her of her love and commitment for her family.
Chopin displays Calixtas love for her son. She had clasped Bibi and was
kissing him effusively. Calixta held her son tightly and poured out her love for
her son. In addition, Chopin reveals Calixtas lasting love for her husband.
Bobinots explanations and apologies which he had been composing all along
the way, died on his lips as Calixta felt him to see if he were dry, and seemed to
express nothing but satisfaction at their safe return. All of Bobinots worries
melted away, as Calixta embraced his return with open arms. Calixtas love for
her family never hesitated or ceased to exist.
Finding pleasure in the pain and suffering of others is unimaginable and cruel.
In The Story of an Hour Mrs. Mallard acts completely selfish when faced with
the news of her husbands death. Instead of mourning his death, Mrs. Mallard
envisioned her freedom from the marriage. The immoral behavior displayed by
Mrs. Mallard is shocking. Most people faced with the death of others, especially
family members would find it disturbing. Mrs. Mallard was a cruel woman with
little concern and appreciation for the well being of those around her.
Mrs. Mallards selfish tendencies are implied by Chopin. But she saw beyond
that bitter moment a long procession of years to come that would belong to her
absolutely. She looked ahead of the sad time to a point in her life that nobody
could claim. Mrs. Mallard was able to disregard the fact that her husband had
just died. She was easily able to move on from his death as if she has no cares
for him. Often widows wonder how they will ever be able to move on from their
husbands death. Mrs. Mallard cold heartedly was able to surpass any mourning
process.
Again Chopin emphasized Mrs. Mallards pleasure from Mr. Mallards death.
There would be no powerful will bending her in that blind persistence with which
men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow
creature. Nobody would oversee her actions and control her as people think it is
their duty to enforce their own beliefs on others. Mrs. Mallard was not concerned
with the death of another, but rather considered how it benefitted her. However, I
have a different outlook on this quote and the story. Mr. Mallard may have been
an over controlling husband in another stifling marriage. The words powerful will
bending her suggests to me that the marriage was more like an institution or
prison. Mrs. Mallard was a prisoner of the marriage. People unite in marriage to
share their love with each other in the eyes of God. Nobody wants to commit to a
situation where someone else imposes their will and controls them.
Men and women must both make sacrifices and compromise in order to make a
marriage joyful and successful. Calixta and Mrs. Mallard were starved of the
liberties that all people deserve. Yet they both loved their husbands so dearly,
they remained silent even with a powerful will controlling them for years.
Mrs. Mallard was not as cold hearted as she has been perceived. She was
deeply saddened and troubled by the news of her husbands death. Yes, she
looked ahead to better times during a time for mourning. But it is human nature
to try our best to manage everything in our lives. Mrs. Mallard was so burdened
by his death, her only escape was to slip out of that moment and look ahead to
easier times. Mrs. Mallard, only for a brief period wondered what life would be
like now without her husband.
Chopin suggests Mrs. Mallard was saddened by her husbands death. She did
not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed
inability to accept its significance. Mrs. Mallard heard the news differently than
anyone else, in the sense that she could not begin to comprehend its meaning.
The news had shocked her into a state of disbelief. She was so disturbed as to be
paralyzed by the news. These are not the responses and actions of a woman with
no concern for anothers well being.
Chopin also points out Mrs. Mallard was not entirely experiencing joy. A kind
intention or a cruel intention made the act seem no less a crime as she looked
upon it in that brief moment of illumination. Neither intention made her actions
look less devious during her transitory thought of freedom. Her fleeting thoughts
did not remain with her, but lasted only a short period. It is not inhuman to try
and think positively during times of doubt and tremendous sadness. Literature
functions as a source of education and entertainment, not as lessons of reality.
Francoise Sagan discusses the contrasts among life and literature. Of course the
illusion of art is to make one believe that great literature is very close to life, but
exactly the opposite is true. Life is amorphous, literature is formal. The false
impression of art causes one to think that literature is similar to life, but this
contradicts the reality. Life does not take on a form, in which the outcome can be
predicted. However, life is not just a series of events without significance, but
can be given direction and meaning. Literature has a structure to the events and
certain relationships among occurrences.
Kate Chopins life was changed by the effect her literature had on the society.
Her controversial literature was the reason for her being ostracized from the
community. In fact, she never attempted to have The Storm published, perhaps
out of fear of persecution. Chopins main intention was to scrutinize marriage
and enlighten people to the oppression of women in marriage. Instead, The
Storm and The Story of an Hour were scrutinized for their questionable
content. In reading literature it is important not just to read the story, but to note
the authors comment about the topic. The most interesting and profound
literature is that which is controversial because its ability to challenge peoples
beliefs and values.
the appearance of Grendel, whoin g amyrrede, or squandered, his men. The languages
differ structurally as well. Old English was a highly inflectional, synthetic language.
Grammar was founded on cases, leaving a rather liberal syntactical structure. Middle English,
however, was a lesser inflectional, analytic language, which relied on grammar in the syntax
itself. Old English and Middle English would have been mutually unintelligible.
Another striking difference between the two is how and why they were written. Beowulf was
a heroic epic; authorship is unknown, and though it is presently viewed as being the work of
one individual, epics in a society of oral tradition may have been passed down form one
generation to the next by sceops, and many people could have contributed their own
sensibility to the poems. The heroic epic was written as entertainment but also as history. The
poems were passed down from one generation to the next by scoeps, or poets. Chaucer wrote
the Canterbury Tales, and in it the Millers Tale, but there is no doubt about authorship. He
wrote Canterbury Tales to entertain, but also as a satire on the class structure and social
conventions. It is not about glory, or heroes, like Beowulf, but about sex and foolery, as in the
Millers tale, among other satirical topics.
The culture and societal structure of the two periods, reflected in the literature, is also
strikingly different. Beowulf lived in a simpler world than Chaucer, a very different world.
Beowulf lived in a warrior society that consisted mainly of tribes or clans. The king led his
people more in war than in politics, and was seen as a patriarch. The society was selfsufficient. Beowulf didnt go to the local pub to buy a beer, as Chaucers miller would have.
He went to his lords meadhall to feast with him and his men. Chaucer is exemplifying the
emerging class structure with his tales. The Pilgrimes he describes in the General Prologue
are representative of upper, lower, and the new middle class. He includes a knight to
represent the nobility and aristocracy, as well as a prioress. He adds to the group a clerk and a
reeve, part of the new emerging middle class, and of course has the miller of the lower class.
The goal of Beowulfs society was survival, and often the gaining of wealth or land. The goal
of Chaucers society was wealth, self-improvement, power, and often success in a trade.
The religions and law systems were also remarkably different. Eventhough Beowulf is
written by an author of the Christian persuasion, Beowulf himself was most likely pagan. The
belief system of the Druids, who were the most prevalent pagans in England at the time, still
believed in one supreme god, eventhough there were others to assist him. They believed in
mystical powers, magical herbs, and sacred rituals such as sacrificing. In this sense, and in
their habits of war, they are considered barbaric. Even at the time the poem was written, there
were still pagans running around. By the time Chaucer wrote, the pagans had been
annihilated, and those who remained did so in hiding. Chaucers time was that of Christianity,
churches, clergy, sins, and the threat of eternal damnation or salvation. Purity was not how
you fought in battle, but how you acted in society and in piety. The issues facing Beowulf
were that of the wergild, or death vengeance. He killed Grendel, so Grendels mother had to
revenge her sons death, which was again revenged by her own death. Beowulf, in coming to
the Danes from Geatland, was himself paying up on an old wergild. This was the law. In
Chaucers work, vengeance can be seen in the Millers Tale by Absolon putting a hot poker to
the buttocks of Nicholas in payment for the tricks played on him by Nicholas himself and
Alisoun. The law was a Christian one, and killing was only done in recompense for a crime
by the executions ordered by the court.
The content of the works are also true to their time and put them in a separate genre. The
Beowulf poet writes of heroic deeds, of battles lost and won, of treasure and mirth. There is
no mention of chivalry (as it was likely not yet a concept) or of women and romance. There
are no pilgrimages, only quests to fight, and monsters and dragons. The mythical creatures
and beasts in Beowulf are of the unbelievable sort, those which only appear in lore and
legends, which no one today has actually seen. Chaucer writes of sex and tricks, stupidity,
morals, and chivalry. Though Chaucer does write of beast, they are far from mythical, as
everyone has seen a fox or at least a rooster.
The works of Old English and Middle English vary in many respects. The languages they
were written in were mutually unintelligible, not only in vocabulary and the people that spoke
them, but in form as well. Their purposes differed greatly, as did their content, and the
cultures from which they came were two different worlds. In consideration of these
differences, to place them under one heading is unjust. Instead of placing them under the
superficial category of Medieval Literature, they should get a designation of their own.
High School Literature
The story Brownies by ZZ Packer could be looked at as a work of literature from
certain views, but in the opinion of Prose, the author of I Know Why the Caged
Bird Cannot Read, I do not believe that this story would be looked at as a work
of literature. This story does not seem very uplifting as Prose would want it to
be for a high school reader. Although it is a very interesting story and it holds
many important messages about our society and culture, it does not hold up to
Proses standards as a work of literature.
Prose believes that we have rushed to sacrifice complexity for diversity. (Prose,
76) This is exactly why I do not think that Prose would choose this story as a
something she would want students to read. The reader is being squandered on
regimens of trash and semi-trash, taught for reasons that have nothing to do
with how well the book is written. (Prose, 76) Prose often talks about how stories
that are chosen for our societys high school curriculum are not complicated
enough. The stories read by students are easy to read, and demand very little
thought from the reader. Prose uses words such as transformative, complex,
powerful, and profound for the books she believes should be used. These words
do not describe the story Brownies by ZZ Packer.
Although there are many accurate similes and decently used language in the
story Brownies, the overall point of the story seems very simple for a high
school student to pick up on. I do not think it would engender a feeling of deep
thought for students, as Prose would want. The story Brownies seems like it
would be easy to analyze. It seems like more of the type of story that would
evoke more of a response, which in my opinion would not be greatly valued by
Prose. She seems like she would be more interested in having a high school
student have to work to analyze a story, than respond about how they felt about
a certain piece of writing.
Racism is a strong message in the story Brownies. There are two troops of
brownies camping in the same area. One of the troops is black girls, and the
other is all white girls. Although these troops see each other, they never have
any scheduled interactions. The only time the two troops really cross each other
is going in and out of the bathroom. The most popular girl in the black troop
decides that their troop should kick the asses of each and every girl in Brownie
Troop 909. (Packer, 92) The most popular girl says that one of the white girls
called one of the black girls a nigger. From this point on they black Brownie troop
constantly tries to find ways in which they can get their revenge on the white
troop. They finally get the opportunity in the bathroom, when they realize that
the troop of white brownies were retarded.
The story is a very clear-cut story. Although there may be some small themes
and statements that could be looked at as hidden meanings, the story is far from
being an uplifting and life changing story. Rather this story might help students
to see from a different point of view than their own. (My high school curriculum)
Although you can look at some aspects of this story as a work of literature, I
believe that to be best put to use, it should be used as a cultural reference of our
societys historical past. This story by no means could be used to sharpen a
students vocabulary, or to make a student think differently about writing. To be
well used this story could be looked at only through points of culture.
If I was in charge of teaching this story to high school students I think that I
would probably focus on the differences in which the story portrays the two
troops of Brownies. There are many examples in the story, of how the mother of
one of the black troopers is constantly getting depressed and talking about it
with the whole brownie troop. On the other hand, after the two troops meet in
the bathroom to fight, and the two troop leaders talk you can see the difference
in white culture and black culture in our past.
The black troop leader gets very upset with the troop and clearly shows her
anger, while the white troop leader has a perfect smile throughout the whole
conversation. Another clear difference that is significant in learning our societys
past is the way in which the white troop leaders is takes no real responsibility
and puts it all in the faults of the black girls. The white troop leader says, See.
It could have happened. Im not calling your girls fibbers or anything. It could
have happened, see. Our girls are not retarded. They are delayed learners. She
said this in a very syrupy instructional voice, as though our troop might be
delayed learners as well. (Packer, 99) Although the white woman takes a very
slight amount of responsibility for the incident, she blames it all on the girls
illnesses.
The white troop leader is greatly looking down on the black troop throughout the
whole conservation. She basically assumes that the black whole incident was
cause singularly by the black Brownie troop. This is one very good example of
how a text such as this can be useful in high school classroom.
Rather than to have the student read about segregation and what life was like in
the past through a textbook, a class can read a story such as this one. This will
help students to get more of a real idea of what it would have been like to be
black and the kind of discrimination in which blacks were faced with. It would be
very hard to send a strong message of our societys past problems without
including stories such as this in our schools curriculum.
Although I do believe that it is important for students to read and struggle with
complex literature in high school English classes, I do not believe that stories
such as Brownies should be completely cut out of the curriculum. I think that
this story serves a valuable cultural and historical purpose. These stories should
be read by high school students because they are often the type of reading
which students enjoy the most and will often motivate students to read more.
working for the ideology of liberalism by stating the lifes most sacred rights are
life and liberty, which goes back to the statement by John Locke. By using the
term sacred, Jefferson has created a sense of religiousness in his argument. This
sense makes these rights divine and therefore places his ideology above the
kings because, in a Christian context, there is no authority higher than that of
the divine. Even further in the passage, Jefferson writes the warfare of the
CHRISTIAN king of Great Britain [sic], which places great emphasis on the faith
of the king and makes the previous sense of religiousness even stronger because
if the king is Christian then the king must appeal to divine will, which by
Jeffersons use of sacred is the will of liberalism and really strengthens Jeffersons
argument. Jefferson has been, of course, discussing the nature and practice of
slavery, which he condemns via his liberalist ideology. But what of the slaves
themselves? What do they feel? One can find the answer to this in the poetry of
Phyllis Wheatley.
The poetry of Phyllis Wheatley gives us support of liberalism in literature,
specifically the notion that all men are created equal. Phyllis Wheatley was a
slave who was born in Africa and was brought to Boston. She was purchased by a
tailor named John Wheatley for his wife, where she was taught to read and write.
This is crucial in understanding the context and tone in which Phyllis Wheatley
was writing. She is, by virtue of her poetry, a supporter of liberalism by her tone
and her language choice. The second stanza of her poem To Mcenas
discusses why Terence, a slave from North Africa who came to Rome and
received great fame as a writer of comic plays in Latin, lacks the same respect
and place in history as Mcenas, who was a patron of poetry and Roman
statesman. Phyllis Wheatley writes:
The happier Terence all the choir inspired, His soul replenished, and bosom
fired; But say, ye Muses, why this partial grace; To one alone of Africs sable race,
From age to age transmitting thus his name, With the first glory in the realms of
fame?
In this passage, Terence is equal, if not better then Mcenas. Terence is the
representative for the black race and by making a comparison to Mcenas; it
brings the races to an equal ground. The first indictor of this is the choice of the
calling Terence happier. It is not enough for Wheatley to write that Terence is
happy. She makes it a competition by adding the ier to happy, thus Terence is
more enlightened than his counterpart. And yet Terence has only partial grace
in the realms of fame. It is clear that there is an inequality in the current
system, even though the black writer is as good. This is a support of liberalism
because it makes it clear that a black writer is as good as a white writer which
ties into the belief that all men are created equal. Like Jefferson, Phyllis Wheatley
recognizes the current inequality of her system and remedies to the best of her
abilities. Black women really did not have any rights at the time, so Phyllis
Wheatley wrote to record the injustice that was placed before her.
The big picture of all of this is that liberalism was the founding ideology of these
United States. Phyllis Wheatley, whose works were published before Jeffersons,
in 1773, gave insight to the attitude of slave. Her work, by being accepted by
New Englanders that challenged the role of slavery in a Christian life, proves
that, to an extent, her work was found acceptable by whites. Phyllis Wheatley
was imparting an idea of men are equal and by finding a social acceptance is
proof that liberalism was alive and well in the United States. Thomas Jeffersons
Declaration of Independence was the document that would break ties with Great
Britain. It was unheard of that colonies break free from their motherlands. But
liberalism guided its way to the very heart of the document and in essence, the
declaration of independence is liberalism. Look at the name of the document.
Independence is what liberalism is. The natural rights of man can and will not be
infringed upon by anybody, no king, no peasant. This is such a powerful idea that
a nation is founded upon. It seeps though all classes and all levels of education
that from slave to philosopher, we are one in the same.
Social Psychology
There are many explanations for the origins of modern social psychology.
It is therefore important to consider that social psychology cannot be traced back
to one single source of origin (Burr, 2003). Hence, this is the reason why there
are debates of what social psychology is. Allport (1985) described social
psychology as the study an individuals thoughts, feelings, and behaviours which
are influenced by the actual, imagines, or implied presence of others. As seen
from this definition there is a direct link between social science and the individual
psychology (Sewell, 1989). Social psychology cannot be seen as a linear
phenomenon. This is because social psychology has been derived from a
combination of influences. The development of social psychology can be
discussed in two different ways. Firstly, social psychology is argued to be found
upon political movements and social philosophies in the United Stated of
America (US). Secondly, it can be argued that social psychology has developed in
response to social and political needs.
There have been debates regarding whether social psychology should be
dealt as a natural science or not. The ideology of natural science is very
important as it affects the way the social psychologist deals with the situations.
For example, if there are specific scientific objectives then the study can be
laboratory based and use experimental procedures in order to gain knowledge.
Psychologists who use this positivistic method are classified as experimental
social psychologists. On the other hand, critical-social psychologists have
competed with the experimental-social psychologists. The strength of the criticalsocial psychologists is that theyve used a range of different methods in
research, and have not limited to scientific knowledge. This includes both
qualitative and quantitative methods. Overall, critical social psychologists are
described as having a critical ideology in order to uncover meanings of social
phenomena (Gough &ump; McFadden, 2001). Both critical and experimental
social psychology form the modern social psychology, due to their important
historical context. Experimental-social psychology is argued to have been
influence each other. With the vast amount of literature emerging in France on
social ideas the French-social theory began to develop. The French-social theory
introduced Positivism, as of Comte. The doctrine of positivism allowed philosophy
and science to be separated in order for science to become distinguished.
However, the positivistic approach also was a major factor in the separation of
American and European social psychology (Farr, 1996). This is why Comte can be
perceived as the founder of social psychology (Allport, 1954). Comtes work was
influenced but also debated by Durkheim (Gianfranco, 2000). Durkheims
addition to French-social theory was the method of comparative, which is devised
of observations (Collins, 1994). The study of social representation became very
famous in the French revolution period, particularly Durkheims research which
showed collective representation within a society (Farr, 1996). One of the major
influences this had on the modern social psychology was from Moscovicis study.
Moscovici noted Durkheim as his influence for his study in social representation
(Farr, 1996). Overall, social representation theory brought a new development to
the social psychology, which is now described as critical social psychology.
With the French revolution the philosophical era of Enlightenment emerged.
Enlightenment era brought civilisation to individuals which were away from the
religious authority of the church (Burr, 2003). This allowed individuals to search
for truth of reality, by means of reasoning. The search for truth allowed
individuals to explore social phenomena. For example; the ideology of Marx on
social class and labour, and Piagets reasoning of child development. Within the
period of Enlightenment two different theoretical concepts arose; Modernism and
Postmodernism. The assumption of science as the foundation to knowledge is
constructed by modernism. The principles of modernism are described as;
democracy, liberal individualism, liberal humanism, and science (Roger, 2003).
The science established by modernism, brought progress from the knowledge
gained from the religious beliefs to the knowledge gained from scientific
methods. However, postmodernism argues that knowledge is not discovered but
rather constructed. Postmodernism also argue that there are multiple variety of
knowledge, which the individual constructs by means of reasoning. The
individuals construct their knowledge due to situation factors including culture
and society in different locations. For example, the psychological illness of
depression cannot always be diagnosed with the same scientific tests in different
cultures. The principle of the postmodernisms has had a key impact on critical
social psychology. Even though modernism and postmodernism are opposite
terms, critically speaking both have established a European tradition of
collectivistic approach.
The emergence of experimental social psychology is very different to critical
social psychology. Rogers (2003) clarified the first social psychology experiments
to be Tripletts study on dynamogenic influence. In basic terms Tripletts noticed
that children performed better when in competition with others. Tripletts study
can now interpreted as social influence. However, Hogg &ump; Vaughan (1998)
argues that Tripletts study cannot be explained as the first social psychology
study because it was recognised later on when the study was reformed.
Nevertheless, Tripletts study established the use of experimental methodology
in his investigation.
One of the most significant event is social psychology was the World War 2
(WWII). Post war issues of social warfare arouse, which had an influence on social
science applications. This event of WWII made the start of social psychology in
the US in 20th century (Cartwright, 1979). This was mainly due the large amount
of research conducted to investigate the reasons behind the Nazis attack on the
Jews in WWII. Some psychologist including Lewin migrated from Germany to the
US in order to conduct research on the areas of organisations and groups. He is
now generally described as the founder of social psychology. Another
researcher who also migrated to the US was Milgram who presented
revolutionary findings in social representation in the field of authority (Gergen,
1973). However, the main aim of social psychology research in the US was on
government regulations of propaganda. Throughout this period the American
tradition of social psychology started to emerge. The American tradition was an
individualistic one which emphasises on individual importance, e.g. the society is
made up of individual 1, individual 2, individual 3, ect.
Overall the American tradition can be interpreted as the historical roots of social
psychology. Whereas the European tradition can be interpreted as the
philosophical roots of social psychology. The American root of social psychology
now has a great impact on social cognitive approach. Social cognition includes
attribution, stereotypes, autism, (Striano &ump; Reid, 2008). The European roots
of social psychology have led to social constructionism and social representation.
The modern social psychology is now constructed with the American and
European doctrines. However, due to the political events and developing
researches in social psychology, the disciple has only been able to contain within
America (Cartwright, 1979). On the other hand, Gergen (1973) argued that social
psychology cannot be interpreted as a science because social psychology is
historically and culturally specific, which is the reason why the discipline is
continuously changing. Critically speaking, there is an advantage of different
approaches to social psychology, as it views dilemmas in different perspectives.
Investigative Psychology
As stated by Bartol and Bartol (2008), investigative psychology is the
application of psychological research and principles to the investigation of
criminal behavior (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). Investigative psychology is closely
associated with criminal profiling, but there are other areas in which a forensic
psychologist can participate in this particular subspecialty. An investigative
psychologist maybe asked to perform a psychological autopsy, forensic hypnosis,
or produce a geographical mapping. Psychological autopsies are generally
performed in suspected suicide cases where the insurance company or family
member questions the cause of death. Forensic hypnosis is an interview or
interrogation method used by trained and credentialed professionals. Lastly,
geographic mapping is a method of research concerned with analyzing spatial
patterns of crimes committed by numerous offenders over a period of time
(Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). Geographic profiling is the analysis of a single
order to prevent ethical issues as this, forensic psychologist should ensure that
an expert in hypnosis is used and if the psychologist has a conflict of interest
they should refrain from participating in forensic hypnosis.
Correctional Psychology
Correctional psychologist can be distinguished from psychologists who merely
work in correctional institutions. The correctional psychologist is typically trained
in areas such as correctional philosophy, systems, offender management,
treatment aimed at reducing recidivism, and outcome research. Correctional
psychologist work in a system where they are faced with a high volume of
individuals, from coworkers to violent offenders, correctional psychology is a
challenging, stressful, unique, and dangerous subspecialty of forensic
psychology. Psychologist in this particular area should be prepared to consult
correctional administration with mental health program design; screening of
security staff employed in specialized mental health unit; classification for
mental health program assignments; training of staff; assessment, diagnosis,
and treatment of mental illnesses of inmates or pretrial detainees; crisis
intervention; and advocacy for and evaluation of mental health programs and
services (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008).
Correctional psychologists engage in the assessment of inmates throughout their
experience in correctional facilities, beginning with their entry into the institution
to their out processing. Research conducted by Lamb, Weinberger, and Gross
(2004) has indicated that at a minimum 10 to 15 percent of incarcerated
individuals have severe mental disorders (Lamb, Weinberger, &ump; Gross,
2004). In the case of Estelle v. Gamble (1976) inmates with mental disorders
were granted the right to treatment. In 1990, Washington v. Harper ruled that
inmates can refuse treatment, as long as the inmate is not disordered and a
danger to themselves or others (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). In the case of
Singleton v. Norris (2003) the United States Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled
that an inmate on death row can be involuntarily medicated if the inmate meets
the standard outlines by the case of U.S. v. Sell (2001) (Zonana, 2003). These
cases had a direct impact on correctional psychology and the ability of
psychologist to treat inmates who present severe mental disorders.
Treatment of inmates is an area that has created a large amount of research as
well as some controversy. Treatment of inmates is not exclusive to inmates who
are diagnosed with a mental illness. Some of the most common treatments
offered in correctional institutions are person-centered therapy, cognitive
therapy, behavior therapy, group and milieu therapy, transactional analysis,
reality therapy, and responsibility therapy (Bartol &ump; Bartol, 2008). The
knowledge about effective treatment of offenders can be attributed to
approximately 2,000 studies performed over the past half century. Controversy
surrounds this research because recidivism is a unified concept without a
unifying definition (Wormith, Althouse, Simpson, Reitzel, Fagan, &ump; Morgan,
2007). Therefore, conclusive research as to whether a specific program or type of
treatment is effective is dependent upon the conductors definition of recidivism.
Recidivism of an offender may affect the release of an offender. In this situation,
the warden may ask the correctional psychologist to assess an inmate prior to a
parole hearing. The inmate maybe a repeat offender and the warden may
request a psychological evaluation to determine if release of the inmate is in
societys best interest. However it is unlikely that the individual with agree to an
assessment if they know the information gained can work against their release.
This can evolve into an ethical issue involving confidentiality. To best prevent an
issue such as this, the psychologist should follow the Specialty Guidelines for
Forensic Psychologist. Specifically the guideline that states,
Forensic psychologists inform their clients of the limitations to the
confidentiality of their services and their products by providing them with an
understandable statement of their rights, privileges, and the limitations of
confidentiality (Committee on Ethical Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists,
1991).
Multiple relationships in a correctional institution can cause ethical dilemmas. An
example of this would be if an inmate refuses to comply with a random drug
screening and then attempts to commit suicide. After the suicide attempt the
correctional psychologist examines the inmate and discovers a history of suicide
attempts. He recommends that the inmate participate in group therapy and be
granted a pass on future drug screening. Other members of the prison staff
believe the inmate attempted suicide to escape the urinalysis. In this case the
psychologist is faced with the dilemma of what is in the best interest of the
patient and what is the best interest of the correctional institution.
History of Psychology
In this essay I am looking at where Psychology as a discipline has come from and
what affects these early ideas have had on psychology today, Psychology as a
whole has stemmed from a number of different areas of study from Physics to
Biology,
But the first Psychological foundations are rooted in philosophy, which to this day
propels psychological inquiry in areas such as language acquisition,
consciousness, and even vision among many others.
While the great philosophical distinction between mind and body in western
thought can be traced to the Greeks, it is to the influential work of Ren
Descartes, French mathematician, philosopher, and physiologist, that we owe the
first systematic account of the mind/body relationship. As the 19th century
progressed, the problem of the relationship of mind to brain became ever more
pressing.
The word Psychology comes from two Greek words: Psyche and Logos. The
term ?psychology? used early on described the study of the spirit. It was in the
18th century when psychology gained its literal meaning: The study of behaviour.
In studies today psychology is defined as the scientific and systematic study of
human and animal behaviour. The term psychology has a long history but the
Conclusion
I believe that the birth of psychology was an accident, I think someone asked a
question that nobody had the answer to, which was link closely to philosophy but
at the same time not quite, and more and more questions stemmed from the
original one till some had to make an effort to find the answers. I believe this is
where the psychological discipline originated from, the fact that there was a
whole psychological world at the end of that question may have been just luck.
Psychology as an independent discipline developed over the years with keen
philosophers, biologists and physicists taking an interest in this new area of
study and putting in their pennies worth, more and more questions arose over
the years and new schools of psychology were formed looking at the discipline
from different perspectives. From what started off as an idea (I guess) turned into
one of the most interesting and sought after areas to study of all the social
sciences.
Over the years psychologists from all the different ?schools? have collectively
made psychology what it is today. If the last two centuries have brought
psychology this far, where will psychology be in the 23rd century?
-----------------------------Psychology is the investigation of the mind and how it processes and directs our thoughts,
actions and conceptions. However, in 1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology
laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Nevertheless, the origins of psychology
go all the way back thousands of years starting with the early Greeks. This foundation is
closely connected to biology and philosophy; and especially the subfields of physiology
which is the study of the roles of living things and epistemology, which is the study of
comprehension and how we understand what we have learned. The connection to physiology
and epistemology is often viewed as psychology, which is the hybrid offspring of those two
fields of investigation.
It was not until the later part of the 19th century that psychology would emerge as a science.
Rene Descartes, a famous French philosopher, contributed a major work to the development
of psychology. Descartes presented his theory of dualism as a response to the body and mind
conflict between scholars (Schultz &ump; Schultz, 2008). According to Descartes, humans
are made up of two dimensions: body and mind. Before the body mind concept, it was
believed that humans thought with their souls (Wozniak, 1995). Descartes also believed that
humans had tendencies of a mechanism but are different from animals because of the ability
to think and reason. His perception of humans led to the theory of dualism. The dualism
theory contended that the humans mind is a separate function form the body. However, the
mind and soul work in unison in the brain, through the pineal gland to create human behavior.
The mind was considered to develop and use innate ideas and derived ideas. Essentially,
Descartes came to the conclusion that the mind has influence on the body, but the body has a
greater impact on the mind.
Theory of innate ideas suggested that thought does not depend on external factors instead it is
the consciousness of a person that develops the ideas. The relevance of innate ideas had great
influence on empiricists and associationist, which would be useful in the progress of
psychology. Derived ideas are produced from external factors, which depend upon the
experiences of the senses. Descartes mind and body theory influenced many of his
contemporaries to discard the thinking of the mind working independently of the body. The
view of the mind and body with his knowledge of physiology influenced other concepts such
as the proposal on how external motions affect nerve fibrils (Unknown author, 2011). These
articulations led to the founding of the reflex theory, which became of great use to
psychology. Descartes work on mechanization had impact on behaviorism. The concept of
the brain being the most important organ heavily influenced the theories of Sigmund Freud.
Descartes work is still prevalent today and can be seen in the field of neuropsychology.
Philosophy laid the foundation for the application of scientific method to be used for the
study of mental functioning. Gustav Fechner, Helmholtz and Weber aided in understanding
the full potential of implementing philosophy to psychology. Gustav Theodor Fechner, born
in 1801 performed experiments which founded the formal start of experimentation
psychology. His work is still the foundation of the new psychology (New world
encyclopedia, 2008). Fechner viewed the mind as the link to human reality. Similar to
Descartes, Fechner had concerns with the perennial mind and body problem.
Fechners theory to answer this dilemma was the formulation of the identity hypothesis. The
identity hypothesis suggested that the mind and body are not truly a dualism. Unlike the
theories of Descartes, Fechner concluded that the mind and body are on separate sides of one
reality, because of sensation and stimulus (Gale encyclopedia of psychology, 2001). Fechner
formulated a law which according to his theory dualism is incorrect. Fechner also developed
three methods of mental measurement, specifying just noticeable differences, constant
stimuli, and average error. The establishment of mental methods conceived the start of
quantitative experimental psychology. The work of Fechner is still celebrated today for his
contribution to psychology. Many years of research on Fechners theory of sensation and
perception enabled advances in technology, new methods for observations of behavior and
describing and analyzing neuroscientist, just as the work of Descartes.
John Watson if the founder of behaviorism, who can be found in the Psychological Review,
published in 1913. The founding of behaviorism echoes two conscious explanations and the
modification in the zeitgeist in American psychology. The first conscious purpose is
engrained in Watsons belief that behavior is stimulating and significant (Watson, 1999).
Watson could not endure the objectives of structuralism and functionalism to examine
consciousness. Watson felt that the direct investigation of behavior was functional and
compelling. Behavior has the operational purpose for an organism. Watson did not disclaim
the creation of consciousness. However, he did not see it as the principle target of
psychology. The second conscious purpose revolved on Watsons opinion of self-analysis.
Watson conceived that self-analysis failed to recognize the framework of function of
consciousness throughout the first 50 years of psychology (Wozniak, 1997).
Watson recognized that the only true facts that followed from the self analysis were in
memory, response time, and bodily modification. Watson believed in the flavor of philosophy.
The zeitgeist in psychology had adapted and there was discontent between both structuralism
and functionalism (Wozniak, 1997). Psychology was prepared for modification, and
behaviorism appeared to present that change. The modification in zeitgeist was mainly due to
the emergence of functionalism, particularly the growing work in the domains of mental
testing and psychopathology. Watson endeavored to execute behavioristic principles in every
concern in psychology.
Watson was strictly advocating objective methodologies. At the core of every method
exercised by Watson was an observation, and he remained far from introspection. Watson
viewed personality as a mass of behaviors. He believed all of a persons reactions, possible
responses, and internal replies made up for personality. Personality is the outcome of a
persons learned habit system (Wozniak, 1997). Watson declared that habit systems comprise
of a persons work, divine beliefs, recreational hobbies and more. Distinctive personality
models are characteristic of distinctive groupings of habit systems. Watson declared that
ones personality changes continuously during life.
of sex and revolution that personified the New left image to the masses. Critic
Horst Kruger describes this mixture by how its perceived in West Germany: the
era of Sex and Socialism. Eros is on the Left and beautiful is our youthful
rebellion. Make love and carry the banner of Vietcong high. {Painting Black
Cardboard Figures, 1968) this emphasized Cleavers violent approach and skill
quite evident in his writing. Cleaver discusses his infatuation with white women
that was constantly imbedded within the root of the subjects mentioned in the
book. In Soul on Ice Cleaver made negative references to African American
women as bitches amazons and etc. Theres softness about white women
he explained but a nigger bitch seems to be full of steel.The white women is
like a goddess . I worship her. I love white womens dirty drawers. Cleavers
fixation gave way to calling himself a self professed rapist that targeted white
women that arose after practicing on his own kind. Cleaver solely believed that
this was caused by madness as an act of revenge by the means of accumulated
racial injustices. After 400 years minus my balls, I have the right to proceed any
white women I desire. Cleavers reasoning on depravity, manipulation, and
betrayal that manifested its self in America, but Cleavers insight on the Negro
today by portraying oneself as obtaining a turbulent internal stance, Cleavers
justifications defined by narrowing them to a profound sense of explanation to
those who are not black, the book had not been subjected to pre conceived
notions on approval or disapproval making this book even more authentic
staying true to Cleavers inner most thoughts. Cleaver describes this period in
American culture purely in accuracy to the grueling irony bestowed, to the form
of the most voluntary truth. Cleaver successfully clarifies the distortion caused
by hypocrisy that has altered are historical consciousness. Cleaver for warns
America that after years of oppression Gives shape to the time bomb ticking in
the black mans skull( Shane Stevens Quest for Dignity Progressive 1968).This
bomb would soon explode due to traditional standards that Cleaver has definitely
not conformed to. But yet he is desired by scholars and critics to teach
something that resonate. Even though Cleaver has spent almost twelve years in
California prisons for crimes raging in rape and assault with intent to kill .Cleaver
was still much praised for his work in Soul on Ice which was the by- product his
incarceration. He was also noted as the Minister of Information for the Black
Panther movement (Professor on Ice, Times magazine 1968).Cleaver was then
appointed as an unpaid lecturer guest in the Social Analysis 139X, a innovative
course in which the matters of race relations in the University of California at
Berkeley. He was to be one of twelve speakers. Once the knowing of Cleavers
appearance to speak in front of Berkeley students emerged; who were perceived
to be easily influenced by non conformity. Thus snow balling the experimental
course into complete out rage. The first to oppose this gathering was State
Schools Superintendent Max Rafferty, a Republican candidate for the U.S Senate.
Cleaver in certainly as well qualified to lecture on urban unrest as Attila the Hun
would be qualified to lecture on international mass murder said by Rafferty
(Professor on Ice, Times magazine 1968).Governor Ronald Reagan, who was a
member of the University of California regents had dealt with this dilemma at
Berkeley before, Reagan compared the appearance to asking that famous
Bluebeard of Paris, the wife murderer, to be a marriage counselor. This soon
Clinical Psychology
---------------------------------Clinical psychology aims to reduce psychological distress and to enhance and promote
psychological well-being by the systematic application of knowledge derived from
psychological theory and data (British Psychological Society Division of Clinical
Psychology, 2001). To this end clinical psychology has distinguished itself from other helping
professions by an enduring reliance on its foundation of scientific research.
Within scientific research there is always a strong debate between those that prefer
quantitative methods and those who prefer qualitative ones. proponents of quantitative
methods have built the standards in experimental research and in researches performed on a
large number of subjects and which use sampling criteria and statistical analysis techniques.
On the other side, the qualitative method uses procedures of qualitative nature both at the
level of collecting the data as well as the level of analyzing them (Tagliapietra, Trifan, Raineri
&ump; Lis, 2009). The gathering data procedures include: interviews, group discussions,
observations, journals; while the analysis procedures include coding, categorizations and
systematic confrontation between the categories and their dimensions. Such research is often
defined as an explorative one, opposite to classical scientific research aiming to confirm /
disconfirm initial hypothesis. Among the qualitative methods used in the scientific research
we can list: Focus Group, Speech Analysis, Conversation Analysis, Grounded Theory and
Phenomenological Interpretative Analysis (Tagliapietra, Trifan, Raineri &ump; Lis, 2009).
This tension between an emphasis on a positivist science base and an emphasis on therapy
and professional issues runs through many debates in clinical psychology also. Thus, on the
one hand, clinical psychology has often seemed wedded to quantitative research methods
drawing on an implicit naively realist epistemology and yet, on the other hand, many
commentators note the similarities between the kinds of analysis undertaken in qualitative
research and the judgements practitioners have to make in making sense of clinical material
(Good and Watts, 1995).
According to Barker and Pistrang (2002) the main advantages of using qualitative methods in
clinical context in comparison to the quantitative research are: i) they avoid the
simplifications imposed by quantification, since some things cannot be easily expressed
numerically. That is, they enable more complex aspects of experience to be studied and
impose fewer restrictions on the data or the underlying theoretical models than quantitative
approaches. ii) They allow the researcher to address research questions that do not easily lend
themselves to quantification, such as the nature of individual experiences of a psychological
condition (e.g., eating disorders) or event (e.g., being a victim of crime). iii) They enable the
individual to be studied in depth and detail. iv) the raw data are usually vivid and easy to
grasp: good qualitative research report makes the participants come alive for the reader. In
general, the reports of qualitative studies are often more readable than those of quantitative
studies v) Qualitative methods are good for hypothesis generation, and for exploratory,
discovery-oriented research. They permit a more flexible approach, allowing the researcher to
modify his or her protocol in mid-stream. The data collection is not constrained by preexisting hypotheses. vi) qualitative self-report methods usually give more freedom to the
participant than structured quantitative methods. For example, open-ended questions give
interviewees a chance to respond in their own words and in their own way. vii) Since the data
collection procedures are less constrained, the researchers may end up in the interesting
position of finding things that they were not originally looking for or expecting (Barker and
Pistrang 2002).
Gibson, Timlin, Curran, &ump; Wattis, (2004) states that within clinical and health services
research, qualitative approaches view the world more subjectively, acknowledging that the
researcher is part of what is researched, focusing on meanings and understanding of
experience, rather than on what can be reduced to quantitative measures. They can develop
new ideas through induction from data, rather than confirming or refuting hypotheses.
Qualitative methods have improved our understanding of the experiences of people with
dementia and, if used alongside clinical trials, could be used to improve the relevance of
outcomes to patients, compliance and user involvement. They could also possibly generate
new measures of efficacy and effectiveness in severe dementia
Qualitative researches have a number of contributions in clinical psychology for example
qualitative researches are said to have a contribution in different theoretical developments in
clinical psychology and other related fields. According to Burman et, al. (1998) critical
qualitative research has begun to have a moderate influence on the development of theory and
practice in clinical psychology (e.g. Parker et al, 1995), for example, offering new insights
into how therapeutic practitioners might understand cultural and gender identities. Some
important work here has been conducted by the psychiatrists Pat Bracken and Phil Thomas
who have developed the notion of postpsychiatry (Bracken and Thomas, 2005). Thomas has
also been involved with innovative work into the experience of hearing voices which is partly
based on qualitative research into the voice-hearing experience and has led to therapeutic
innovations very much in tune with other developments in the field like the Hearing Voices
Movement (Romme and Escher, 2000). Some qualitative researchers have also used postStructuralist ideas in their research to explore the embodied nature of the experience of voicehearing, focusing on the work of the Hearing Voices Network (Blackman, 2001).
Furthermore, qualitative research are claimed to have enormous contributions in intervention
studies in a variety of ways. For example, some researchers have used qualitative methods to
design an intervention for subsequent testing (DeJoseph, Norbeck, Smith, &ump; Miller,
1996). Many other researchers have addressed conceptual and methodological issues
surrounding an intervention. In these approaches, data typically are obtained through focus
groups or individual interviews and used to identify the needs of a target population and/or
acceptable ways to implement an intervention. Researchers also have conducted qualitative
studies of interventionists records or logs to describe patient problems and nursing
interventions or to improve understanding of the nature of an intervention in its natural
context (Jennings-Sanders &ump; Anderson, 2003; Lawler, Dowswell, Hearn, Forster,
&ump; Young, 1999 as cited Schumacher et, al. 2005).). Others have used qualitative
methods to enhance their understanding of research participants who dropped out or did not
adhere to the intervention (Jolly et al., 2003 as cited Schumacher et, al. 2005).
Qualitative research also plays important roles in developing effective practice for clinical
psychology and public health interventions. Qualitative findings are often the first type of
evidence available relating to innovations and contextual constraints relating to existing
practice (Thomas 2000). Indeed for some topics, qualitative data gathering may be the only
type possible. In line with this, Thomas (2000) suggest that in clinical psychology, qualitative
researches can be useful in the following circumstances: (1) Topics for which there is little or
no previous research. (2) Implementation of social policies and changes where the use of
Randomized Controlled Trails or other types of experiments is not possible. (3) To
complement quantitative data gathering. For instance, provide data about unanticipated
theory weakness is that it has always been debated is that it has to broad of a definition. It
also claims that most of the potential criminals are fully capable of thinking rationally and/or
logically with the exception of the mentally ill. Furthermore it does not take into account are
those crimes that considered being hate crimes, crimes of passion and emotion (etc.). There
are also many criminal who rather commit crimes in the spur of the moment and do not have
a detailed plan to commit the crime. It is also hard to prove that this theory is the best suited
for a certain criminal. Another weakness of rational choice theory is that it is hard to combine
with other aspects of ones thinking such as religious belief, and moral values. Rational theory
cannot be combined with ones will power. One last weakness of rational choice theory is that
the theory claims that crimes in this category are mainly economically based (Siegel, 2007).
Although there are many weaknesses to rational theory there is also strength that allows
rational choice to become a theory of exploration. One of the strength of rational choice
theory is that is it one of the most common explanation to human behavior (Cornish &ump;
Clarke, 1986). Another strength that pertains to rational choice theory is that this theory
claims that once an offender has committed a crime then their upcoming crimes become
predictable. With rational theory the victims also get a theory to why they have been chosen
to be victims of the perpetrators. Rational choice theory also explains that the potential
perpetrator has the choice of not becoming a criminal. Many of the defenders of rational
choice theory believe that one of the strength of this theory is that it creates a non-tautology
prognosis.
One policy implication to prevent crime in rational choice theory is to make targets seem
more unlikely to be targets. For instance instead of walking alone down an ally walk with a
group of people. In neighborhoods where there is a higher likelihood of criminal acts
occurring try to implement more security in place. Studies shows that neighborhoods that
have security or frequent neighborhood watch in place are less likely to be a neighborhood of
committed crimes (Keel, 1994). One of the actions that should be done based on rational
choice theory is that once one commits a crime their sentencing should not be taken lightly
since they become predictable. There sentencing should be given with much consideration
to what will actually be affective and leave the criminal noticing that the reward does not and
in the future will not out way the punishment.
One case that Rational Choice Theory is well represented in is the case that was discussed
earlier in this paper. The case of Kenneth Lay where his company called Enron had a tragic
downfall. Rational choice theory explains that the perpetrator weighs the reward and the
punishment before making a decision. One of the rewards that Kenneth Lay and others high
in power in the cooperation received was $55 million in bonuses just a few days before
claiming bankruptcy (Ingrassia, 2006). Kenneth knew that his charity work and his good
reputation would follow him throughout this case (Velasquez, 2009). Kenneth believes that he
could easily push the blame onto Andrew Fastrow making it more logical for him (ken) to
bypass any criminal accusation. During Kenneth Lays trial day he continue to say that he did
nothing wrong and only continue to provide for his family as his father had taught him.
Kenneth felt that everything he did was for his family so he did not commit a crime even
though the evidence proved that he did commit the crime. And Kenneth was indicted for his
role in the companys collapse, including 11 counts of securities fraud, wire fraud, and
making false and misleading statements (Associated Press, 2006).
Throughout the last years of Enron, Kenneth Lay and Andrew Fastrow was placing small
amount of money (also known as entities) into accounts with unusual names such as Jedi and
Chewco. By disguising theses account they were never entered into the data systems
(Velasquez, 2009). Therefore the money laundering scheme would not be easily discovered
making the punishment unlikely and the reward higher and of more value. Furthermore since
Kenneth was covering up the losses of the company and making investors and employees
believe that the company was making profit instead drastically loosing. Kenneth knew that
his investors and employees trusted him. And as long as he made it seem that the company
was on the right path no one would become suspicious or question him. Therefore this
allowed him to pick his target very well and plan out his entire scheme perfectly as those who
fall into rational choice theory do.
fighting off foreign things, storing and transporting oxygen, to forming muscle,
skin, hair, and a variety of other structural tissues. They exist in a multitude of
forms, but almost all are constructed from a basic set of just 20 common amino
acids. They account for over fifty percent of the organic matter in the body. The
building blocks of protein are small molecules called amino acids. Proteins are
classed as either fibrous or globular proteins. The fibrous proteins often called
structural proteins appear most often in body structures. They are very important
in binding structures together and for providing strength in certain body tissues.
Collagen is found in bones, cartilage, and tendons, while Keratin is the structural
proteins of hair and nails, the waterproofing material of the skin. Globular
proteins are molecules that play crucial roles in virtually all biological process.
Some of these are antibodies, which help provide immunity, hormones, which
help regulate growth and development. There are also others that are called
enzymes, which are biological catalysts that regulate essentially every chemical
reaction that goes on within the body. Enzymes are functional proteins that act
as biological catalysts. Although there are hundreds of different kinds of enzymes
in body cells, they are very specific in their activities, each controlling only one
chemical reaction and acting only on specific molecules. The enzymes also
promote blood clotting so if it were not for them, then there would be potentially
large numbers of lethal blood clots.
Nucleic acids are polymers composed of monomer units known as
nucleotides. The main functions of nucleotides are information storage (DNA),
protein synthesis (RNA), and energy transfers (ATP and NAD). They make up the
genes, which provide the basic blueprint of life. They also direct your growth and
development. They do all of this by dictating protein structure. Nucleic acids are
composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorous atoms. There
are two major kinds of nucleic acids; they are deoxyribonucleic acid and
ribonucleic acid. DNA is the genetic material found within the cell nucleus. It
makes up the genes that an organism inherits from its parents, and these tell the
cells which proteins to make. Each gene directs the production of a particular
protein in the cell. The proteins, in the form of enzymes, then initiate and
regulate all the chemical reactions within the cell. DNA also replicates itself
ensuring that the genetic information in every body cell is identical. Then it also
provides the instructions for building every protein in the body. RNA is located
outside of the nucleus and this is considered the slave of the DNA. The RNA
carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA.
Water is also very important for the functioning of a human cell or a human
body. Without water, there would be no life on earth. Water makes up sixty to
seventy percent of the human body, and is essential for several reasons. Water is
a solvent so it is able to dissolve many substances. Nutrients and vitamins are
dissolved in blood, which is mostly water and is transported to cells throughout
the body. The excretion of waste products is also possible because they are
dissolved in the water of urine. Water also has a very high heat capacity. It
changes temperature slowly. So water will absorb a lot of heat before its
temperature rises significantly. This factor helps the body maintain a constant
temperature. This makes excess body heat evaporate sweat on the skin surfaces,
rather than overheating the bodys cells and raising our temperature so fast.
Water is very important to all living things and the unique characteristics of it
help our bodies to grow and function normally.
These are the five major groups of compounds that compose the human body.
They have many important functions all special and made just for humans. Their
chemical structures promote and encourage a human cell and a human body to
function normally and well. Without any of these things, we would not be able to
survive nor would any other living organism on Earth. They help us greatly in our
everyday lives but we just don not realize how they work and keep us strong,
healthy, and unique human beings
------------------------------Biology
1. The virus is made up of five parts and is in the size range of 10
nm-300 nm in diameter. The first is the coat made up of protein that protects
the virus to a point. Next is the head that contains the genetic material for
the virus. The genetic material for a virus is DNA. The two other parts are
the tail sheath and the tail fibers that are used for odd jobs. I believe that a
virus is not considered to be a living creature due to the fact it is a
parasitic reproducer. To me it is just like ripping up a piece of paper because
it is still the same thing and it isn't carrying out any other function besides
reproduction. Since the virus cannot continue to do its functions without
taking from a host and being a parasite it is considered an obligated parasite.
2. The adult fern plant in its dominate generation (sporophyte)
develops sporangium on one side of its leaf. When meiosis is finished inside
the sporangia and the spores are completed the annulus dries out releasing the
spores. The spore germinates and grows into a prothallus which is the
gametophyte generation. The antheridia and the archegonia are developed on the
bottom of the prothallus. The archegonia are at the notch of the prothallus and
the antheridia are located near the tip. Fertilization occurs when outside
moisture is present and the sperm from the antheridia swim to the eggs of the
archegonia. A zygote is formed on the prothallus and a new sporophyte grows.
4. Flowering plants have unique characteristics that help them survive.
One is the flower itself that contains the reproductive structures. The color
of the flower helps because it may attract birds and insects that spread the
plants pollen which diversify the later generation of plants. Flowers also
produce fruits that protect their seeds and disperses them with the help of
fruit eating animals.
5. Fungi, Animalia, and, Plantae are all believed to be evolved from
Protista. All 3 of these kingdoms are eukaryotic and their cells have a nucleus
and all the other organelles. Fungi live on organic material they digest,
Plants produce their own organic material, and Animals go out and find their
food. Animalia are heterotrophic whereas Plantae are photosynthetic. Fungi who
digest their own food on the outside are different from animals who digest their
food on the inside. Plants and animals both have organs systems but animals
have organized muscle fibers and plants do not.
8. The Gasreopoda , Pelecypoda, and the Cephalapoda all have three of
the same characteristics. The first one is the visceral mass that includes
internal organs like a highly specialized digestive tract, paired kidneys, and
reproductive organs. The mantle is the second one. It is a covering that
doesn't completely cover the visceral mass. The last one is the foot that can
be used for movement, attachment, food capture, or a combination of these. The
Gastropods are the snails and slugs. They use their foot for crawling and their
mantle (shell) to protect their visceral mass. The class Pelecypoda consists of
clams, oysters, scallops, and mussels. These animals have two shells that are
hinged together by a strong muscle and these shells protect the visceral mass.
They use their foot for making threads so they can attach to things. Cephalopods
consist of octopuses, squids, and nautiluses. These guys use their mantle
cavity to squeeze water out and causes locomotion. The foot has evolved into
tentacles around the head that are used to catch prey. Nautiluses have an
external shells, squids have smaller but internal shell and octopuses lack
shells entirely.
9. The word Arthropod means jointed foot which come to some of the
features of an arthropod that are the jointed appendages, compound eyes, an
exoskeleton, and a brain with a ventral solid nerve cord. The class Crustacea
has compound eyes and five pairs of appendages two of which are sensory antenni.
Some examples are shrimp, cray, lobsters, and crabs. Insecta has 900,000
species in its class. For example in a grasshopper they have compound eyes with
five pair of appendages, three that are legs, one of which is for hopping, and
two pairs of wings. Spiders that belong to the class Arachnidia have six pair
of appendages. The first pair of appendage are modified fangs and the second
pair are used for chewing. The other four are walking legs ending in claws.
Spiders don't have compound eyes, instead, they have simple eyes. More examples
are scorpions, ticks, mites, and chiggers. To similar classes are Diplopoda and
Chilopoda because they are segmented in the same way and each segment has a pair
of walking legs but in the Diplopoda some segments fuse together and seem to
have two pair of legs to one segment.
10.The Phylum Chordata contains creatures that would have bilateral symmetry,
well developed coelom, and segmentation. In order to be placed in this phylum
they must have had a dorsal hollow nerve cord, a dorsal supporting rod called a
notochord, and gill slits or pharyngeal pouches sometime in their life history.
In the subphylum Urochordata the only one of the three traits they carry on into
adulthood is the gill slits. In their tadpole form of their life they contained
all three of these characteristics. Subphylum Cephalochordata retain all three
qualifications into adult form and have segmented bodies. In subphylum
Vertebrata it has all three traits as usual but its notochord is replaced by a
vertebral column.
11. In these fish the sac-like lungs were placed at the end of the
fishes digestive tract. In their case when the oxygen level in the water they
were in was low they could still collect oxygen by breathing. After time these
sac-like lungs became swim bladders that control the up and down motion of a
fish.
12. The reptiles most helpful advancement in reproduction that helped
them live on land was the use of internal fertilization and the ability to lay
eggs that are protected by shells. The shells got rid of the swimming larva
stage and the eggs did everything inside of the shell. The eggs has
extraembryonic membranes that protect the embryo , get rid of wastes, and give
the embryo oxygen, food, and water. Inside the shell there is a membrane called
the amnion and is filled with fluid and is used as a pond where the embryo
develops and keeps the embryo from drying out.
13. The three subclasses of mammalia all have hair and mammary glands
that produce milk. Each of these classes also have well developed sense organs,
limbs for movement, and an enlarged brain. In the subclass Prototheria the
animals lay their eggs in a burrow and incubate. When the young hatch they
receive milk by licking it off the modified sweat glands that are seeping milk.
Subclass Metatheria the young begin developing inside the female but are born at
a very immature age. The newborn crawl into their mothers pouch and begin
nursing. While they are nursing they continue to develop. With the subclass
Eutheria the organisms contain a placenta that exchanges maternal blood with
fetal blood. The young develops inside the mothers uterus and exchanges
nutrients and wastes until it is read to be born.
--------------------------------Biology and Philosophy of Love
What does it mean to love another person? This question is one that virtually every person
has asked himself at some point; virtually every school of thought that exists has attempted to
provide an answer of some sort. In this paper I will explain my own attempt at answering that
question, from the perspective of an amateur philosopher; then I shall delineate the answers
that some biologists have given. We shall see that, while at first these two sets of answers
might appear to be quite different, there are in fact some interesting and notable similarities.
I have heard many different accounts of what it is to love someone - to care truly for that
person's best interest, to be willing to sacrifice one's own life for that person's well-being, and
so on, the list is infinite. To be sure, these accounts all have a measure of validity; there are
many different forms of love. However, there is one aspect that all of them have in common,
which is the same point at which I think they fail to capture what it really is to love someone:
they are too altruistic. Humans, it seems to me, are essentially self-centered creatures; and I
do not intend that statement to have the extreme negative connotations that usually
accompany the term "self-centered". I mean it in the most literal sense: humans are centered
around the self. Much as we may try, the self is un-transcend-able. At this point in scientific
and spiritual progress, we cannot ever truly experience anything through another person's
frame of reference - all that we can know for certain is that which we think and feel. Thus, it
makes no sense to speak of love as a sort of "leaving the self".
How, then, are we to think about it? I offer this alternative: so as to avoid the mistake of
treating love as a form of altruism, we should think of loving another person as the act of
loving oneself through another person - in other words, we love the people that make us feel
best about ourselves, that bring out the best in ourselves. It is important to note that by no
means does this definition entail that we do not genuinely care about the people we
supposedly love. We can see this as follows: by this definition, it is essential that we like the
people we love (it would be impossible for someone I did not like truly to make me feel good
about myself); we want the people we like to be happy; we are best suited to making other
people happy by being happy ourselves; we cannot be happy unless we like ourselves. And
how can we accomplish this feat? By seeking out the company of those people who, for
whatever reason, make it easier to like ourselves. Upon reflection, this account seems to me
to be the only one that allows us to love others without requiring that love to be a pure act of
altruism.
And what does biology have to say about love? First of all, it seems to be widely agreed
amongst biologists who study the subject that love is an essential part of human functioning.
Dr. Arthur Janov, author of The Biology of Love, brings up a developmental fact essential to
understanding this point: "The right hemisphere, which is larger than the left, is the site of
feelings and emotions and of holistic, global thinking. Thoughts, planning, and concepts are
the domain of the left hemisphere. The right brain is largely mature at the second year of life;
the left brain is only beginning its maturation at that time. Feelings pre-date thoughts. In
terms of evolution we are feeling beings long before we are thinking ones." (1) Furthermore,
it has been shown that neglect, or lack of love, has a serious impact on human ability to
survive and develop properly. (2) Dr. Janov notes that infants who are neglected have brains
that are significantly different from normal brains: the number of stress-hormone receptors,
for example, are much lower in the brain of a neglected infant, which entails a higher level of
stress - and therefore unhappiness - in that person. (1)
Biology, as of this point in time, has successfully determined what processes exactly occur in
the brain when one loves another person. However, there are studies that have been done that
show some interesting correlations. Dr. Helen Fisher posits a dramatic increase in the amount
of dopamine and norepinephrine present in the brain when one first becomes infatuated with
another person, which would account for the feelings of euphoria, giddiness and so on that
one would experience at that point. (3) Another study showed that, in the brains of people
who had recently fallen in love, serotonin levels were significantly higher than those in the
brains of the control group. (4) Yet another study demonstrated the possibility of a correlation
between the ability of adults to bond emotionally with one another and the presence of the
hormone oxytocin, which is normally associated with human reproductive processes such as
lactation and, interestingly, male and female orgasm. (5)
How can these findings be applied to my theory as outlined above? Most notably, there is a
correlation between the notion of loving another person as a form of self-love and the types
of chemicals that scientists have found to be present in the brains of people who are in love.
All of the chemicals stated above are associated not only with being in love but with other
forms of gratification. Oxytocin, as stated above, is released in the brain during orgasm;
dopamine is associated with pain relief (6) and euphoric feelings in general, as is evidenced
by the role it plays in the effects of amphetamines and cocaine; serotonin is associated with
feelings of calm and happiness. In other words: when we are in love, chemicals associated
with pleasure are released into our brains; loving another person is comparable to selfgratification. To love another person in the philosophical sense is to love oneself; to love
wouldnt be any way to make up the grade for missing. I felt like I was just sentenced to a life
in prison. I couldnt believe I had to actually go through with this. I faced my sentence with
the shame and fear of actually having to tamper with an already dead animal.
I wasnt sure if I was going to get over my fear of having to look at something being hacked
into. I think the truth of the matter is I was feeling sorry for the pigs that died to become the
subject for our own amusement. When the time drew nearer for the dissection I asked Mr.
Johnson why we were dissecting pigs in the first place. The answer to my question was
something I never really thought of. Mr. Johnson told the entire class the reason why we were
dissecting fetal pigs was because it is the closest thing to a human being. The feel of pig skin
has the almost exact same feel as human skin does and since we couldnt actually dissect a
human he thought that the pigs were the next best thing. After all, this is Biology and some of
you might want to become doctors. Mr. Johnson wanted to give us all a really great
experience after all, so I thought I might as well give it a whirl. What did I have to lose!
The day of the dissection had finally come and the buzz was all around us. After making it
through earthworms and frogs with my all male partners I was getting just as excited as they
were. I finally realized why my partners chose me as a group member after being with them
for almost the whole semester. I told them that they would have to do a lot more of the
answering questions on the worksheet this time if they wanted any help from me. My group
members were letting me pretty much do the worksheets, because they said I was the smartest
out of all of them. This is coming from a group of juniors and I was only a sophomore. I call
it complete laziness on their part, so I told them I would not do the work anymore without
help from all of them. I told them I wanted to be as much a part of the dissection as the rest of
them. I had finally understood the excitement my teacher gushed about at the beginning of
the quarter. I was just as eager to discover as the next guy.
Standing around our work station with the materials we would need for this assignment all
cleaned from the previous dissections of the frogs from two weeks ago. I was ready to jump
right on in and play doctor for the day. The members of my group started acting weird as the
pigs were being place on our trays. I found this behavior kind of odd, because during the
other dissections they were making the earthworms and frogs dance, sing and tell awful
jokes. As the pig was placed in front of us the guys backed away quickly as if the pig was
going to somehow come back to life and attack them. I started to wonder if they were just
pretending to act scared on my behalf, because they all knew how I felt about this section of
class. When Mr. Johnson said go ahead and begin my group members didnt even fight
over who got to make the first cut. I was stunned beyond belief, because nobody but me
wanted to begin dissecting the pig. In unison they told me to go ahead and we will do the
worksheet. I was dumbfounded; I couldnt believe these strong guys didnt want anything to
do with the pig. So there I was, left alone to tackle the beast all by myself without their help.
There I was standing with my group silently behind me in from of a dead pig. I picked up the
scalpel and slowly made my first incision. I followed the diagram that was given to us by Mr.
Johnson. I slowly made the cut from the pigs neck all the way down to his belly. I carefully
folded back the skin just as we did with the earthworms and frogs. I was starting to get more
excited to explore everything inside of the pig. I became the doctor and my group members
had become my nurses. I began to bark out orders to them scalpel, scissors, tweezers and
just like in real life they handed me everything I asked for. I had a great time looking and
showing the heart, liver, and kidneys to my squirmy group members. They would nod their
heads and quickly look away to fill out the worksheet. For this moment in time I felt how it
everyone was raving about how IBM and other up and coming corporations were turning into
exactly what the book made them out to be. He then added that society today is more like the
society in the book than ever before, especially with the war going on. Random bombings,
general oppression on the lower classes, and the government taking complete control no
matter was the mass public desires. Watching how different generations perceive Orwell's
1984 proves that an evolution of the original product has occurred.
Perhaps one of the utopian traditions that went through the most changes was the story of
"Cockaigne." Cockaigne was an oral tradition passed around the lower classes about a city
made of food. Thought to be originally produced in Italy, there was a different version in
every European country. The story was evolved into something more fitting for every culture,
seeing as people in France were not as excited about fish as they were about cheeses. A
general description of the land of Cockaigne is as follows, "The walls are made of sausages. /
Windows and doors, though it may seem odd, / Are made of salmon, sturgeon, and cod. / The
tabletops are pancakes. Do not jeer, / For the jugs themselves are made of beer" (Unknown
22-26). For decades in the medieval times this story was told to alleviate the pain and
suffering that the lower classes had to deal with. Over the years the idea of a Cockaigne as
changed, especially during the post modern art era. Recently, a photograph was shown to the
class portraying one of today's artists', Vince Desiderio, vision of Cockaigne. In his painting
there are six centuries of Western art scattered on the floor surrounding a table with empty
dishes. Desiderio explains his work as "cultural bulimia" relating it back to the original
meaning of Cockaigne. The meaning of the Land of Cockaigne began as a gastronomic utopia
in the medieval times and evolved into a desire for new and different types of art (the postmodern view: everything has been done before, therefore artists have to figure out new ways
of remaking the old).
I have an underdeveloped theory that the story of biological evolution is, itself, a form of
Utopia. A large aspect to this theory is my personal belief that no matter how fantastic a
created utopia is, there must be at least one member of the community who is not happy in
their surroundings. The biological story of evolution includes many individual aspects which
make it a whole, including natural selection, new species, and surviving together (parasitic,
symbiotic, commensalism). The way that evolution includes all things natural having to learn
to cohabitate, and at the top of this line is humans, makes me think of a community living
together in a perfect way. Natural selection is a form of elimination by nature, meaning if the
species is unable to survive in the habitat they began in, or cannot move to one where they
will survive, their species will become extinct over time. Personally, I find this way of
eliminating weak and unproductive organisms perfect. Although, according to Timothy
Anders (an author of biology), the root of all human suffering, and hence of all created is
evolution by natural selection. This proves my speculation that not all find a utopia the
perfect place to be.
In conclusion, all stories have the ability to evolve. It could simply be through different
versions where either the author or publisher demands that something significant be changed.
It could be through translation where words, meaning, and structure are lost (take Cinderella
and the fur/glass slippers for example). Specifically, the genre of a utopian story has much
room to evolve because time, desire, and access are always changing which causes the view
of a perfect world to change a considerable amount. A large discussion in the beginning of
this semester was whether or not the theory of evolution is a story; and both Professor Dalke
and Professor Grobestein have been pressing the students to see that yes, it is a story.
Therefore, because all stories have the ability and notion to evolve, the story of evolution has
surely changed over the years. The system of evolution can be seen as a utopia, especially by
its creators. They did not agree with Creationism and knew there was another explanation;
therefore, they went out into the world and found it, forming it using their own beliefs and
knowledge; thus creating their own, workable utopia.
Works Cited:
Orwell, George. 1984. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1954.
Unknown Author. This is about the wonderful Land of Cockaigne. NP. NC. ND.
-------------------------------Evolution Is
Has the narrative of Mayr and his fellow naturaliststhose evolutionists who include natural
selection in their explanations and who comprise a strong majority of evolutionist voices
todaynow entered a sort of evolutionary stasis? Not yet.
For example, consider Mayr's central theory of speciation as it applies to a creative species
such as humans. There are cultural and creative aspects of our so-called "higher level" species
that have the potential to perturb whether and how new species taxa might evolve from homo
sapiens: mobility and its effect on isolation, technology applied to environmental and
physiological conditions, artificial constraints on reproduction, social cultures, and our
creative abilities. Whether our species is better equipped to survive or more likely to
accelerate towards extinction may, in part, be determined by these factors and their
interactions.
Evolution is. Therefore, we are. The human species is an infinitesimally improbable out-come
of countless, unrepeatable iterations of a process that itself is a fluke. To paraphrase the late
naturalist Stephen J. Gould, erase the tape, have one player move a few feet to the left for
good measure, do a retake, do a trillion trillion retakes, and nothing akin to homo sapiens is
likely to emerge. Evolution is not intuitive, nor would any sane gambler bet on its odds.
There are no "proofs," no conclusions based upon experimentation and testing. What we
know about evolution derives from historical narrativethe evolutionary biologists'
reconstruction of what might have happened. Their scenario has also evolved through
iterations of accumulating, adapting, and eliminating ideas according to new findings, new
observations, and new knowledge. In the process, the narrative's woof and warp have
tightened. Gaps narrowed to the point that, in "What Evolution Is," biologist Ernst Mayr
could proclaim, "Evolution is not merely an idea, a theory, or a concept, but is the name of a
process in nature, the occurrence of which can be documented by mountains of evidence that
nobody has been able to refute...It is now actually misleading to refer to evolution as a theory,
considering the massive evidence that has been discovered over the last 140 years
documenting its existence. Evolution is no longer a theory, it is simply a fact" [Mayr 275].
Central to this "simple fact" is the concept of speciation, which was developed in the 1930s
by Dobzhansky and Mayr. According to them, allopatric speciation is contingent upon the
spatial and temporal integrity of a population, a species taxon. That population must be
isolated from others of its species, either by some geographical barrier or by the
establishment of a founder population beyond the reach of its parent. Members of the taxon
interbreed freely but in isolation. Over time, selection for phenotype occurs. Some
phenotypes are eliminated while others prevail based upon how well they can adapt to
changing conditions (selection pressures) in their surroundings. Individuals (and their genes)
who cannot adapt are eliminated. If too many indi-viduals succumb, that species will become
extinct. Variation and elimination under large-scale pressures can also lead to the creation of
new space, new niches that a population may exploit through adaptationa better chance to
thrive. Generational turns of a species do not result in improvement in any directional sense,
only in change that is useful for the species to survive or exploit the latest shift in conditions.
However, evolution of a species does involve cumulative adaptations, and the number of
attributes that can combine to adapt increases with each turn. No sweeping strategies are in
play, just short-term, reactive, tactical maneuvers.
But what happens when a species is not isolated, does not allow its members to breed freely,
has the wherewithal to re-engineer its surroundings and even itself, is inclined to react and
make decisions based upon the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors established by social groups,
and transcends other species in its ability to communicate, imagine, and create? How do these
attributes affect speciation, which is central to evolution, which is central to our continuance?
Or is it?
Mobility and its affect on isolation: Whether allopatric speciation is dichopatric (geography
separates two or more taxa) or peripatric (a smaller founder population becomes isolated),
speciation depends upon reproductive isolation. Among members of the humans species there
is no such condition. Invention has led to mobility, and humans can now reach everywhere on
the planet. Our taxon is our species and we have inadvertently denied ourselves the option of
morphing to adapt. Perhaps we could artificially isolate populations, but that is not
sociologically feasible. While proximity is a dominant factor in who reproduces with whom,
none of us is geographically removed from the opportunity to reproduce with any of the
others. At some point, the process of speciation among humans could be compromised by this
factor.
Technology applied to environmental and physiological conditions: From bioengineering the
body to artificially remediating an ecosystem, material nature no longer exists independent of
overt, directed human intervention. Humans are exceedingly clever beings. We can eliminate
an increasing number and complexity of selection pressures as they arise in our environment
and in our bodieswithout the traditional operators of reproduction, inheritance, and
elimination. We can prolong, improve, and create life unnaturally. We may even learn how to
prolong cellular life indefinitelyand make death a process of elective or artificial selection.
Our applied intelligence had already precipitated the rapid, simultaneous extinction of species
coexisting in a geographical region, e.g., the rainforests of the Amazon River. According to
paleontologist Neil Eldredge who, along with Stephen Gould, developed the idea of stasis
and its affect on speciation, "most adaptive evolutionary change occurs in conjunction with
speciation...Natural selection shapes most evolutionary adaptive changes nearly
simultaneously in genetically independent lineages as speciation is triggered by extinction in
"turnover" events...such turnover events have causal roots that are deeply ecological and
arise, at base, from large-scale changes in the physical envi-ronment..." Humans manufacture
large-scale change. To what degree are our technological "ad-vancements" affecting our own
speciation and even the ability for us to evolve via this process?
ActionBioscience.org. http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/eldredge.html
Mayr, Ernst. What Evolution Is. New York. Basic Books. 2001.
Mayr, Ernst. "The Objects of Selection." 1997. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America. March 18; 94 (6): 20912094.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=33654
must consider how much stock to place in these new discoveries. The Herto skulls pre-date
most Neanderthals, key word being most and not all. Explanation for the exceptions is
unaddressed and consequently makes subscribing to new views difficult. Logically, if there is
an exception of a statement, then the statement can not be true. Also, proof that we do not
descend from Neanderthals does not necessarily prove unequivocally that we come from the
Herto species dubbed idaltu either5[5]. The skulls also provide support for a particular
migration theory, key word being theory. But as aforementioned, once some new discovery
discredits the inferences of the previous, a reinterpretation, not necessarily proven, will be
accepted as common truth until the next. The fact that the new discoveries still only lead to
mere theories as opposed to definite evidence becomes irrelevant via excitement and
sensationalism of new findings.
One rationalized justification now being used to contradict previous theories is the human
fossil record. The Herto skulls fits a time frame that fulfills a now fixed gap of lacking
intermediate fossils between pre and modern humans (between 100,000-300,000 years
ago)6[6]. Be reminded and take into account that there will always be a gap to fill as long as
new discoveries are made. Attention is also drawn to previous fossil findings as being
younger in age, scattered site-wise, poorly dated, and incomplete7[7]. This implies that the
Herto skulls are of better quality while not appearing to share Neanderthal and Erectus
characteristics found in the earlier unsatisfactory discoveries. These details may be true but
are not substantial enough to qualify as evidence to sufficiently prove or disprove ancestry.
Technological advances of the future will certainly make current findings able to be judged as
scattered and incomplete.
Upon comparison to other fossils, similarities are also now being used as evidence for
speculation. The skulls less prominent brow ridges and higher cranial vault8[8] differentiates
them from pre-humans and, through process of elimination, links them to modern humans.
The Herto skulls are also linked by observed similarity found in some Australian and Oceanic
individuals in terms of morphology (branch of biology that deals with the form and structure
of organisms) and facial features9[9]. In order to further validate this notion of connected
resemblance, the skulls were compared with a worldwide sample of 3,000 other skulls. Less
stressed is the fact these skulls were not found with the rest of their bodies and there is no
way of knowing why. Instead, anthropologists theories of similarity are offered to add to
further supposition. For example, in New Guinea the skulls of ancestors were preserved and
worshipped10[10]. Since the Herto skulls (in particular the one belonging to the child) bear
marks suggesting modification after death, a tangent is easily insinuated.
During the excavation of the Herto skulls, tools and other skeletal remains were found as
well. These tools (600 in total)11[11] further contribute to speculative validation. Since
hippopotamus bones bearing cut marks from stone tools were found and some of the tools
with the Herto skulls included hand axes, an assumption that this species had developed a
taste for hippo is made. Other prospects are not considered even though no one can disregard
the possibility of the hippo being killed out of defense or used as another natural resource
other than sustenance. Even if the taste development theory is correct, many questions will
never be answered. Whether hippos were killed or scavenged still remains unknown. The
other tools are, like the hand axes, of the same time period. However, the initial intent and
actual uses of these tools can not be proven one way or another. These findings may provide
some insight and embody historical significance but are still in need of much clarification and
investigation.
Combined assumptions have actually been used as rationalization for even more unproved
ideas. These were people using a sophisticated stone technology. Using chipped hand axes
and other stone tools, they were butchering carcasses of large mammals like hippos and
buffalo and undoubtedly knew how to exploit plants (Tim White,
paleoanthropologist)12[12]. Mr. White does not back up his statements with any hard
evidence but assumes botanical knowledge must be an accompanied characteristic of
supposed hippo hunting and craftsmanship of tools. The possibility of plant knowledge is not
an outrageous concept but to guarantee this as truth with descriptions using words like
undoubtedly is overly presumptuous.
Due to the constant disproving of theories and hypothesis via profound discovery, one may
understandably resist accepting new information as truth. Especially when considering how
much reliable scientific discovery has already been reevaluated and even proven
completely false. Exploring the roots of human evolution is not totally irrelevant because it
does and can provide great insight. However, a more cynical style perspective should be
taken when one is informed of new breakthroughs and findings. After all, what is popularly
taken as true this month may actually be considered ridiculous rhetoric in the aftermath of a
new discovery soon to come.
Notes:
1[1] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
2[2] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
3[3] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
4[4] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
5[5] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669_fs.html
6[6] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
7[7] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
8[8] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01670_fs.html
9[9] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
10[10] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01670_fs.html
11[11] http://www.brightsurf.com/news/june_03/EDU_news_061603.html
12[12] http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?
file=/nature/journal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669_fs.html
---------------------Perfection According to Mayr's What is Evolution
In his book titled What is Evolution, Ernst Mayr bravely attempts to explain the complex
biological processes of the development of plants and animals. His book, however, reaches
beyond the realm of the science text book. With What is Evolution he attempts to educate an
audience which may not have a strong science background but instead a strong literary
background. Through this book Mayr strives for "a mid-level account of evolution, written
not just for scientists but for the educated public." In short, he attempts to write a (nonfiction) scientific novel. Though his attempt to combine great literature and hard science is
admirable he often gets himself into awkward situations when trying to please both the
scientific and artistic sensibilities. His major problem in the book surrounds the use of the
word "perfect." As a biologist, it may be easy to pass this word off as a synonym of
"adaptedness," simply meaning well-suited to one's environment. As a literary-minded
person, let alone English major, however, this word cannot slip by so easily. To the novelreader, more than to the science-reader, this word carries a lot of baggage which cannot be
ignored. So, why does Mayr use this word and what is he really trying to say? Does Mayr
truly believe that evolution can be perfect?
The baggage that gets snared when Mayr uses the word "perfect" in his discussions of
evolution is the complicated literary definition given to this word. Exact and flawless are
some common synonyms of the word perfect. Perfection is something that has reached the
pinnacle, the zenith of existence. Nothing which is perfect needs any alterations,
modifications or changes. When something is perfect it exists with ease. It does not struggle
to remain where it is, and it does not struggle to remain alive; it works in harmony with its
environment. Going beyond the definition, something that is perfect is commonly more
highly valued than those things around it which have not yet reached perfection. People place
a certain amount of value on things that occur with ease. The human race seems constantly to
be striving for something that is faster, cleaner. Something that can achieve these goals with
ease earns the title of perfection and is highly. The only problem with perfection, as least in
the realm of science, is that once the peak of perfection is reached there is no place towards it
can further develop. This obviously presents a problem when considering evolution, which by
its very name and nature means the slow change over time of one organism into something
separate.
Mayr, as an accomplished, intelligent and well-respected scientist, could not have overlooked the fact that by believing in the process of evolution, he cannot also believe organisms
can (or have) reached perfection. The two simply cannot coexist. In fact, Mayr does not
believe in perfection manifested in natural organisms, he says so many times over through the
course of his novel. Often, when Mayr uses the word he is actually trying to distance himself
from it, to slice it out of our concept of evolution. Perfection, he tries to tell us, has no place
in the story of evolution.
Still, Mayr's approach to distancing himself from the word "perfection" is subtle and almost
hesitant, as if deep inside he still wants perfection to have its place in nature. In the beginning
of his novel he writes, "Evolution, indeed, was a change...a change towards greater
perfection, as it was said at the time..." (p. 8). Mayr begins this sentence with a claim, that
evolution is "a change towards greater perfection." This claim says that there is a purpose for
evolution, a goal towards which it strives. This goal is for an organism to reach a point at
which it lives and reproduces with complete ease within its own natural environment
(otherwise known as perfection). This claim also states that the process is still in motion; we
are moving "towards" perfection, but we have not yet attained it. Even though we have not
attained perfection quite yet, Mayr seems to be telling us that it is within reach. Then, quietly
sandwiched within the scentence Mayr writes, "it was said at the time." The subtlty he uses in
inserting these six words is surprising, since it changes the whole meaning of the sentence.
This notion, of organisms striving for a specific point at which change is no longer necessary,
"was" believed. It is a notion explored in the past tense. Not only was the idea of evolution
towards perfection conceived a long time ago but, "it was said at the time," also indicates that
it is not said now. Suddenly, perfection switches from being a truth or a viable outcome of
evolution to an out-dated, inaccurate theory. People today, Mayr included, do not care to
believe in this struggle towards perfection. The way in which Mayr includes, "it was said at
the time," however, makes him seem less convinced in the falasies of perfection than he
should be.
Mayr's use of the word "perfection" could be attributed not so much to a subconcious desire
for perfection, but as simply a sense of literary style. Since What is Evolution is not written
simply a biology text book but also as a piece of literature, Mayr is placed in a very delicate
situation. His purpose in this book is not only to declare the yet understood "facts" of biology
and evolution, and help the reader to process them; he is also responsible for keeping his
readers wrapped up in a good story. As Mike Grant writes in the Biological Sciences Review,
people, like Mayr, who wish to coherently communicate the workings of science, must "[use]
the beauty of language to communicate [their] enthusiasm for a discipline." As long as Mayr
is simply taking Grant's advice, the use of the word "perfect" can be easily explained. Using
"perfection" in this context is not so much a statement or a claim as a literary embellishment.
It is added to evoke a feeling or an image. Grant writes, "the profound implications of a
perfect DNA double-helix," to create for the common reader a sense of awe for the DNA. He
wants to recreate the same feeling a scientist might have viewing a strand without actually
meaning to attribute the dictionary understand of the word "perfect" to the DNA sequence.
Grant wants to excite his readers and make biology interesting, so too does Mayr.
Another explanation for the use of the word "perfection" in What is Evolution is that Mayr,
like many other humans, is uncontrollably attracted to the idea of the existence of
flawlessness, even if he does not necessarily belive it exists. Mayr's relationship with
"perfection" parallels the basic human relationship with genius, it is looked for in every
corner, on every street, and in every organism. In the December 2002 issue of The Atlantic
Monthly Marjorie Garber explored what she called "our genius problem." She argued that
people are naturally attracted to the idea of "a certain level of achievement, a gold standard,
that [is] nonnegotiable, beyond mere opinion." This "gold standard," is Ian McEwan's (who
Garber quotes) definition of genius, but it could just as easily be the definition for perfection.
Perfection is the peak of performance, beyond which there is no room for improvement. It is
the highest bar; it is that goal to end all goals. Genius, similarly, is the peak of human mental
and creative performance. Both perfection and genius are actively sought and rarely, if ever,
achieved.
Genius, like perfection, is measurable but elusive. People constantly search for genius
through methods such as the IQ test, which measures "intelligence quotient." People also set
standard by which they can compare and recognize genius. One of these standards is what
Garber calls "natural genius." A "natural genius" is one who possesses extraordinary natural
or god-given powers of the mind which cannot be attributed to any amount of schooling. In
other words, genius is born with someone and will emerge within their lifetime, with or
without the help of a formal education. Shakespeare and Einstein are two clear examples of
"natural genius." Shakespeare's schooling appears to have not extended much past our
equivalent of grammar school, and it is commonly believed that high school bored Einstein
so much that he skipped out on most of his classes.
Much like the people who search for genius, Mayr looks for "perfection" using tools and
units of measurement of his own design. On page one-hundred and forty he lists and
described eight measurements for perfection, or as he calls it "adaptedness," within living
organisms. These measurements all come to the conclusion that perfection is not manifest in
living organisms, still if the conditions were right some organisms could develop perfection.
"Constraints of phyletic history" is the number-four big glitch in our evolutionary pursuit of
perfection. Mayr argues that over time adaptations were made which lost their usefulness, but
which cannot now be reversed. We are forever stuck with the end of our tailbone and an
imperfect, up-right skeletal structure which places high amounts of pressure on our hips and
backs. By recognizing this phyletic history as a root to our imperfection, however, he creates
a path towards that elusive goal of flawlessness. If only there were time, if only our genetic
make-up could change or work in reverse, we could achieve perfection. After all, "The human
species...has not yet completed the transition from quadrupedal to bipedal life in all of its
structures. In that sense is it not perfect." (p. 282)
All of the tests and all of the observations that Mayr makes leads to one answer, perfection is
not the goal of evolution and is not possible to achieve through evolution. Still, Mayr insists
on using this confusing and frustrating word throughout his novel. His unwillingness to let
"perfection" slip from our scientific vocabulary may be a scienctist's attempt at expanding
and energizing a literary work. However, his subtlty in rejecting perfection, and the tools by
which he tries to measure it point to a different expaination. Mayr still clings to a hope that
some day perfection will be reached, whether through natural evolutionary processes or
alternative, man-made schemes.
of humans, it was found in all humans natives of Africa, South American, Europe, Iceland,
Japan, Russia, etc. However, the mutation was not found in the DNA sequences of seven
species of non-human primates, including Chimpanzees (University of Penn. Medical
Center). The particular gene in question is of the Myosin Heavy Chain, MYH16, and is
specifically related to muscles in the head, namely chewing and biting muscles. Macaque
monkeys, a non-human primate, were studied and were found to have the particular MYH16
gene present, and as predicted, only in its muscles of mastication (chewing muscles). In
humans, though, due to the mutation, the protein was not being made, and this explains why
humans have smaller and weaker jaw muscles when compared to the Macaque monkeys,
whose jaw muscles are ten times stronger than humans (University of Penn. Medical Center).
This decrease in muscle tone is due to the inactivation of MYH16 gene which causes a large
reduction in the sizes of the muscles that theyre present in (Currie, 373). This geneinactivating mutation has been traced back to a hominid ancestor about 2.4 million years ago,
and, coincidentally, about 2 million years ago, the less muscled, larger brained skulls of the
earliest members of the genus Homo began to appear in the fossil record (University of Penn.
Medical Center). This, along with the evidence of emigration of Homo species from Africa in
the fossil record, indicates a more intelligent being with higher thought processes and
reasoning.
You are probably asking yourself how a gene mutation affecting jaw muscles has anything to
do with a more sophisticated, intelligent species emerging from ape-like species. It was not
merely the muscles that changed with this mutation. Muscles exert tremendous stresses
across and/or cause bone structure to be deposited atop growth zones where the muscles
attach to bone, and this is evident where Currie states, [. . .] altering the size of different
muscles can produce dramatic alterations in the bones to which they attach (Currie, 373374). The stronger mastication muscles in primates created stresses on the skull that
demanded more boney structures to be produced, thus creating a smaller cranial capacity
which, therefore, limited the amount of space that the brain could occupy. The inactivating
myosin gene mutation found in all humans releases a large amount of stress placed upon the
cranial bones, therefore enabling the cranial capacity to become larger. This decrease in
boney structure resulted in the lighter, more delicate structure found in humans today
(University of Penn. Medical Center). This increase in cranial space allowed the brain to
expand, and this skull structure coincides with the evolution of Homo over the past 2 million
years (University of Penn. Medical Center). Without the boney structures that muscles induce
on bones, there would be no way for us to tell if this mutation actually caused the changes in
the hominid skull. But, since bone is such a strong material, and since the muscles do induce
changes in bone structure, we are able to look back at the fossil records to determine when
and where these changes first emerged. As stated by Stedman et al, This represents the first
proteomic distinction between humans and chimpanzees that can be correlated with a
traceable anatomic imprint in the fossil record (Stedman et al, 415).
As with every new scientific finding there will always be some doubt. The reduced-jaw
muscle mutation in the evolution of humans was not addressed in terms of its adaptive
significance. Sure, it allowed the cranial capacity to enlarge, along with the brain, but it is
unclear how such a mutation became fixed in the hominid population (meaning that the
mutation was somehow useful, and wasnt just wiped out of existence), leading to the vast
increase in the number of the Homo species in the world. Currie voices his opinions on this
matter when he states, Several explanations could be advanced to counter this ideological
roadblock, such as a contemporaneous shift in diet (say, to an increased reliance on meat
eating), or a growing dependence on hands rather than the jaw in food preparation (Currie,
374). These possible circumstances could have been the reason that such a mutation became
fixed in the hominid population. But, unlike the gap in the human DNA sequence that the
mutation causes, Curries suggestions remain assumptions. So, the reason why the weakerjaw muscled Homo species became fixed in evolution has yet to be answered, and will
likely draw a lot of attention in the near future from current scientists interested in such
research.
Now that I know for sure that we are true descendants of ape-like species, it will make me
look at them differently. And knowing that such a small mutation in the genome sequence of
a species can cause an entirely new species to emerge is very fascinating. Some day, maybe
in the near future, there will be a small mutation in Homo sapiens genome sequence, causing
an entirely new species to emerge that may be more intelligent than us. Maybe they will span
the entire planet as we have, taking over as the dominant species, and ending the Human rule.
The possibilities are endless and unpredictable, and this goes for everything in science which
is why it is so intriguing to so many people. You and I are both able to read and comprehend
the words on this page, along with being able to do hundreds of other tasks that no other
species is able to do, thanks to a small, muscular genetic mutation that occurred in primates
2.4 million years ago, giving rise to the genus Homo, and eventually Homo sapiens.
Works Cited
1. Currie, Pete, 2004, Muscling in on Hominid Evolution. Nature, v. 428, p351-450.
Macmillan Building, London, UK. p373-374.
2. Stedman et al, 2004, Myosin Gene Mutation Correlates with Anatomical Changes in
the Human Lineage. Nature, v. 428, p351-450. Macmillan Building, London UK.
p415-418
3. University of Pennsylvania Medical Center
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/03/040325074128.htm
ile they may seem safer from land-based hunters (such as lions), there are still many other
predators (such as crocodiles) that lurk in the waters. In addition, most large bodies of water
would probably attract land predators for drinking, anyway. (Moore)
During my research, I found the notions of AAT just as impossible as the Savanna Theory.
While AAT is an interesting concept, there are just as many uncertainties in its structure as in
the Savanna Theory. If AAT supporters point out fossilized shells and sea life found alongside
hominid remains, then their detractors will snidely reply that most fossilized digs are prebiased for easiest access and abundance. I was happy to see Marc Verhaegen offer a
compromise, that we gradually evolved from, frugi- and herbivores in gallery or tropical or
mangrove forests to short-legged bipedal waders in forest clearings or mangrove swamps,
to omnivores and partial shellfish feeders along seacoasts and rivers, and finally to longlegged bipedalists on land. The question of human evolution cannot be definitively
answered with our current knowledge. Essentially, we are just waiting for more evidence to
constantly surface. Until then, it is important to remember there is no prize for guessing the
right answer, and that only by keeping our minds open to new ideas will we come closer to
an understanding of ourselves.
References
Moore, Jim. Aquatic Ape Theory: Sink or Swim? Homepage and various links.
<http://www.aquaticape.org/index.html>
Verhaegen, Marc and Pierre-Francois Puech. Hominid lifestyle and diet reconsidered: paleoenvironmental and comparative data. Human Evolution. pp 151-162; 2000. Found at:
<http://allserv.ugent.be/~mvaneech/Fil/Verhaegen_Human_Evolution.html>
Westrup, Hugh. All Wet? Current Science. Vol 88, Issue 6. p8; Nov 8, 2002.
"Lamarck was the first man whose conclusions on the subject excited much attention," writes
Darwin. (Appleman, p. 19) Lamarck, a naturalist, upheld "...the doctrine that all species,
including man, are descended from other species." (Appleman, p. 19) Lamarck "discovered"
four laws about the process of change in all organisms: 1) Living things tend to grow; 2)
Necessity causes new organs to develop; 3) Organs that are used more get stronger ["use it or
lose it"]; 4) Inheritance of acquired characteristics. (Myers)
Inheritance of acquired characteristics means that physical changes that took place in one
generation would be passed on to the next. For example, Lamarck thought that the first
giraffes all had short necks, but they stretched their necks to reach food, and their necks grew
long; then when they mated, their descendants had long necks too. We see this idea in The
Island of Dr. Moreau, when Montgomery says that the Beast People "...actually bore
offspring, but that these generally died. There was no evidence of the inheritance of the
acquired human characteristics." (Wells, p. 61)
Darwin was also greatly influenced by Charles Lyell, a geologist whose theory of "deep time"
stated that the earth's features were not formed by the Biblical flood but by forces still present
today. Also included in the concept of deep time was the idea that the earth is very old, older
than the Bible claims. Another important influence was Malthus, who wrote an "Essay on the
Principle of Population." This essay's title is fairly self- explanatory; the essay contains ideas
about population dynamics and a theory on overpopulation. (Myers) Darwin read Lyell's
Principles of Geology and Malthus's essay during his famous voyage.
Dr. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Charles Darwin's grandfather, also dealt with concepts
relating to evolution, but "he did not arrive at the idea of natural selection..." (Fothergill, p.
63) And finally we get to Charles Darwin himself. As a young man from an elite and wealthy
family, Charles's possible career choices were limited: there weren't many professions
"respectable" enough. He started off studying medicine but couldn't stand to see blood.
Charles earned a degree in theology, but his real interest, which he pursued outside the
classroom, was natural studies. For three years as an undergraduate he "...mixed with some of
the leading scientists of his day, at a level far more intimate than would be possible for an
undergraduate today." (Ruse, p. 33)
Through his connections Darwin eventually joined the H.M.S. Beagle on a navigational trip
around the world. There is some debate as to whether Darwin was the official ship's
naturalist; by some accounts he was only a passenger, because he lacked a degree in the
natural sciences. At the time of his departure, Charles was also creationist, meaning that he
held to the Biblical view of the origins of the earth and its creatures. He spent five years
traveling on the Beagle, collecting specimens of things he encountered in his travels. He
never adapted to sea travel, and was sick for most of the time he was on the ship; when his
travels were over, he settled down permanently.
When he first returned, Darwin considered himself to be "a geologist, (not a biologist),"
(Ruse, p. 34). Some time after his return to England, however, Darwin "...discerned a certain
orderliness among species. The idea of evolution began to grow in his mind and he set
himself the task of showing that it does occur." (Fothergill, p. 105) Darwin waited many years
to make his ideas public, because he knew they were controversial. It was not until he
realized that Alfred Russel Wallace had independently come up with the same ideas and
written a paper on them, which Wallace sent to Darwin, that Darwin decided to publish his
own theory, and the two papers were published at the same time.
Darwin called his ideas the "Theory of Descent and Modification." This theory had five main
principles: 1) Life reproduces more life than can be supported in a given environment; 2)
Populations are variable, and no two individuals are exactly alike; 3) Individuals which die
are less capable of surviving, and leave behind fewer offspring; 4) Those who survive are the
fittest, and reproduce more; 5) In each generation, only part of the range of variation
survives- that which is adapted to that environment. (Myers) "Survival of the fittest" is a
phrase in common usage, but its meaning in Darwin's theory refers only to reproductive
fitness.
Dr. Moreau's Beast Men and his other creations are the product of outside intervention rather
than adaptation, which is why they do not fit into the theory as normal creatures do. The first
two principles hold true for the Beast People- Dr. Moreau has produced many creatures and is
quite possibly overpopulating his island, and the beings are each unique.
However, the animals Dr. Moreau used to build his creatures had "...their instincts fitly
adapted to their surroundings..." (Wells, p. 74) before Dr. Moreau interfered; as Beast People
their instincts are no longer adaptive, and their movements are awkward. It was Dr. Moreau
and not the creatures themselves who is responsible for their reproduction, because the
offspring of the Beast People usually died, and "...when they lived, Moreau took them and
stamped the human form upon them." (Wells, p. 62) The creations of Dr. Moreau, then, lack
reproductive fitness. They also revert to beast form very rapidly. For these reasons it is clear
that they will die out quickly.
Bibliography:
Darwin: A Norton Critical Edition, Second Edition ; ed. by Philip Appleman; copyright 1979,
1970 by W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Philip G. Fothergill, Historical Aspects of Organic Evolution, pub. 1953 by the Philosophical
Library Inc., 15 East 40th Street, New York, NY
Myers, provider of source material for Edie Heydt's notes from "Human Origins," fall 1997,
Alfred. Much of the material in the notes is paraphrased, and the original information sources
are unknown.
Michael Ruse, The Darwinian Revolution, pub. 1979 by The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago 60637
H.G. Wells, The Island of Dr. Moreau, copyright 1996 by Dover Publications, Inc., USA
[This is a reprint of the London 1896 edition.]
----------Evolution of Immunity and the Invertebrates
"Article Summery" Name: "Immunity and the Invertebrates" Periodical: Scientific
American Nov, 1996 Author: Gregory Beck and Gail S. Habicht Pages: 60 - 71 Total
Pages Read: 9
The complex immune systems of humans and other mammals evolved over
quite a long time - in some rather surprising ways. In 1982 a Russian zoologist
named Elie Metchnikoff noticed a unique property of starfish larva. When he
inserted a foreign object through it's membrane, tiny cells would try to ingest
the invader through the process of phagocytosis. It was already known that
phagocytosis occurred in specialized mammal cells but never in something less
complex like a starfish. This discovery led him to understand that phagocytosis
played a much broader role, it was a fundamental mechanism of protection in the
animal kingdom. Metchnikoff's further studies showed that the host defense
system of all animals today were present millions of years before when hey were
just beginning to evolve. His studies opened up the new field of comparative
immunology. Comparative immunologists studied the immune defenses of past and
current creatures. They gained further insight into how immunity works.
The most basic requirement of an immune system is to distinguish between
one's own cells and "non-self" cells. The second job is to eliminate the nonself cells. When a foreign object enters the body, several things happen. Blood
stops flowing, the immunity system begins to eliminate unwanted microbes with
phagocytic white blood cells. This defensive mechanism is possessed by all
animals with an innate system of immunity. Innate cellular immunity is believed
to be the earliest form of immunity. Another form of innate immunity is
complement, composed of 30 different proteins of the blood.
If these mechanisms do not work to defeat an invader, vertebrates rely
on another response: acquired immunity. Acquired immunity is mainly dealt by
specialized white blood cells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes travel throughout
the blood and lymph glands waiting to attack molecules called antigens.
Lymphocytes are made of two classes: B and T. B lymphocytes release antibodies
while T help produce antibodies and serve to recognize antigens. Acquired
Immunity is highly effective but takes days to activate and succeed because of
it's complex nature. Despite this, acquired immunity offers one great feature:
immunological memory. Immunological Memory allows the lymphocytes to recognize
previously encountered antigens making reaction time faster. For this reason, we
give immunizations or booster shots to children.
So it has been established that current vertebrates have two defense
mechanisms: innate and acquired, but what of older organisms ? Both mechanisms
surprisingly enough can be found in almost all organisms (specifically
phagocytosis). The relative similarities in invertebrate and vertebrate immune
systems seem to suggest they had common precursors. The oldest form of life,
Protozoan produce these two immune functions in just one cell. Protozoan
phagocytosis is not uncommon to that of human phagocytic cells. Another basic
function of immunity, distinguishing self from non-self, is found in protozoan
who live in large colonies and must be able to recognize each other. In the case
of metazoan, Sponges, the oldest and simplest, are able to do this as well
refusing grafts from other sponges. This process of refusing is not the same in
vertebrates and invertebrates though. Because vertebrates have acquired
immunologic memory they are able to reject things faster than invertebrates who
must constantly "re-learn" what is and is not self. Complement and lymphocytes
are also missing from invertebrates, but which offer an alternative yet similar
response. In certain invertebrate phyla a response called the prophenoloxidase
the eve of the first Sunday of Lent to the Last Supper or Holy Thursday. Then began the
Paschal Mystery, to which the forty days were a preparation." Now "Lent consists of two
parts, the first, the four days from Ash Wednesday to the First Sunday of Lent, and the thirty
six days between then and Passion Sunday (Palm Sunday). The second part of Lent is the
time of Passiontide." Catholic Online. Many of the older generation of the church, stick to the
original set of rules. This was a major turn for the church.
The Churches stand on certain issues is till the same. Abortion is still considered wrong, but
they will fight to preserve the life of the mother. Preservation of human life is the most
important factor. Capitol punishment is still a major problem and the church holds the view
that we should preserve life. They are sold on the idea of rehabilitation, and no one has the
right to deny any one person that right. Everyone is responsible. A new development is
cloning. Catholics do not like this idea because it tampers with the original ideas of Creation
and Conception. Everyone is an individual and not one has the right to use God like powers
to create new life. The stand the churches take on issues are the same. "The primary end of
marriage and human sexuality is the procreation of children." Based on the teachings of St.
Augistine (354-430
Before the 1960s, the Nuns and Priests wore their required clothing. Nuns wore habits. Habits
are black dresses with a type of black veil with a white starchy collar. They were often joked
about as looking like penguins. The Priest wore black suits with white collar. This use to
make the parties stand out. If you were to walk down the street today, you would probably
not be able to pick out the Sisters and the Brothers. They blend in. Right now, there is a great
shortage of Nuns and Priest. "The number of priests has been steadily declining since the
1960s. If the trend continues, there will be 40% fewer U.S. priests in 2005 than in 1966.",
Richard Schoenherr. It use to be that Catholic parents encouraged their children to become
Nuns and Priests. According to David Masci of the Congressional Quarterly, "Catholic
families are not as large as they once were, leaving many parents less enthusiastic about
loosing what may be their only son to a low-paying , low-prestige career that will not allow
him to marry or have children." Another issue for young men considering priesthood is,
"Many young men feel, I could never sign on the dotted line and promise to be celibate."
,Rev. Richard McBrien. In the nineties, it is not a major concern for parents.
Confession has experienced some variation. Today, if a person goes to confession, it is
probably not by force. Confession has become much more relaxed. The majority only go
when they are in troubled or if a holiday is coming up. Trust is still a definite factor. Catholic
Priest regard any mentioning in confession to be confidential and not for anyone person to
cheapen. No Priest would ever divulge any information. There is that special bond and the
privacy. If priests were to break that confidence, he would not be able to preside over Mass
again. All privileges would be revoked. Privacy and trust are essential to the Sacrament.
As you can see, the Catholic Church has remained constant on their social views. The only
things to have changed significantly would be the laws and practices. The Catholic Church
has a steady foundation and will continue to do well in the years to come. They may add or
subtract a brick or two from the stack, but the foundation will always remain a constant in a
society ever developing.
Works Cited Page
- Birth control and the Catholic Church A Short History of Catholic Teaching on Birth
aptation that would allow a more user-friendly interface, leading to the invention of the World
Wide Web (Berners-Lee "Answers" 2). In addition, web standards are constantly adapting to
assure the internet's continued relevancy and usability. The internet, like the world, "is not
constant but is forever changing" (Mayr 7).
The presence of vestigial structures characteristics that were once functional but are no
longer has been cited as evidence of adaptation and evolution (Mayr 30). The human
appendix is one example of this phenomenon. The Internet is littered with vestigial structures,
like the keyword meta tag. The keyword meta tag was once used to insert invisible keywords
onto pages to help search engines index them. Now, search engines no longer support this
feature, rendering it useless, yet countless webmasters continue to include this tag every time
they code a page (Sullivan 1). Because the internet's rhizomatic growth makes it difficult to
regulate, the proliferation of vestigial characteristics is difficult to curb. This regulation and
move toward consistency is one of the main functions of the W3C, which often acts on the
Internet as natural selection does in nature.
The evolutionary process is rhyzomatic, with entropy and adaptations "ceaselessly
establish[ing] connections between... chains" (Deleuze 30). In nature, the sequence of single
cell, complex single cell, multi-cell is not a linear process of becoming "better-adapted." Each
of these organisms still exists, and all of the earth's organisms are continually evolving
rhyzomatically. Collapsing this multifaceted process into a linear model does not account for
the web-like nature of environmental and taxonomic change. Additionally, the internet
being a "web" itself evolves in much the same way. Its continued usefulness is reliant upon
its continued evolution: "If the Internet is to continue as an innovative means of
collaboration, discovery, and social interaction, it will need to draw on its legacy of
adaptability" (Abbate 220). As both nature and the Internet progress toward something as yet
undefined, the only plausible goal seems to be the process of evolution itself.
Bibliography
Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1999.
Berners-Lee, Timothy. "Answers for Young People." http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-
Wollstonecraft and political theorist William Godwin. While on vacation with her husband,
she began to write the novel Frankenstein, about a scientist who created life. The scientists
name was Victor Frankenstein. In a selection from the novel, Frankenstein says The
dissecting room and the slaughter-house furnished many of my materials; and often did my
human nature turn with loathing from my occupation, whilst, still urged on by eagerness
which perpetually increased, I brought my work near to a conclusion (232).
Frankenstein is disgusted because he must go to a slaughter-house to get parts for his
creation. Frankensteins disgust shows how horrible and demoralizing his scientific endeavors
are, and he continues his experiment despite the negative affect his experiment has on his
health. He realizes the study to which you apply yourself has a tendency to weaken your
affections, and to destroy your taste for those simple pleasure in which no alloy can possibly
mix, then that study is certainly unlawful, that is to say, not befitting the human mind (233).
Frankenstein worked so hard to give life to his creation he thought of nothing else, and he
was living his whole life to accomplish one goal. He realizes how much time he has been
spending on his experiment and the effect his work is having on him, so he believes humans
do not have the ability to deal with work in this manner. Therefore, scientific experimentation
is not worth the negative effects the experiments have on the human mind. Eventually,
Frankenstein accomplishes his goal, but his creation does not turn out like he expected. After
giving his creation life, Frankenstein is horrified and leaves his home. Frankenstein concludes
Learn from me, if not by my precepts, at least by my example, how dangerous is the
acquirement of knowledge, and how much happier that man is who believes his native town
to be the world, than he who aspires to be greater than his nature will allow (231).
Frankenstein wanted to have the knowledge to create life, and when he final had the
knowledge to create life, he did. After he created life, he was miserable. Therefore, humans
cannot be God and create life because their nature will not allow them to be like God, and
those who try to create life will be miserable, unlike those who do not seek dangerous
knowledge. Michael Bishop is a professor of microbiology at the University of California,
San Francisco. In his article Enemies of Promise he warns about the misconceptions people
may have about scientific advances. Bishop states science has sounded the alarm about acid
rain and its principal origins in automobile emissions, but our society has not found the
political will top bridle the internal combustion engine (239). Science has helped to improve
the quality of life of people by discovering the cause of acid rain is from car emissions, and
the reduction of acid rain could result from better emission standards. Science is not to blame
for helping to create the internal combustion engine, but the lack of government funding to
find other means to propel automobiles should be blamed. Bishop says Resistance to science
is born of fear.
Fear, in turn is bred by ignorance. And it is ignorance that is our deepest malady (241).
People fear science because they do not understand how science works, and the purpose of
science is to better mankind, not to recombine DNA to create a deadly virus, or mutations. If
people are educated, then they will have a better understanding of science, and will no longer
fear science. Once all people understand science, and no longer fear science, mankind can
move towards new goals, and improve the lives of all people. When scientists perform
experiments, the scientists are trying to solve the mystery of something they do not
understand, such as stem cells. Bishop believes scientists take things apart in order to
understand the whole, to solve the mystery an enterprise that we regard as one of the great
ennobling tasks of humankind (238). Scientists experiment to better understand the world
around them, and all the things in the world, as well as the relationships between different
parts of the world. Scientists do not take things apart just because they can, but scientists have
a purpose for their actions. The experiments to understand the world around us, Bishop
believes to be a noble task for mankind, and with scientific discoveries, our lives can be
improved.
Comparing the claims of both Mary Shelley and Michael Bishop, I find Bishops claims that
science is good for mankind, to be more persuasive than Mary Shelleys warning about the
limitations of man and science. Bishop states Science has produced the vaccines required to
control many childhood infections in the United States, but our nation has failed to deploy
properly those vaccines (239). If mankind did not have the benefit of scientific knowledge,
there would be no vaccine for illnesses such as small pox, or life threatening diseases.
Humans have the ability to produce large amounts of vaccines beneficial to children in our
country and other countries around the world. Science cannot pay for, and distribute vaccines
for diseases throughout the world, but science is blamed because people in our world still
suffer from curable diseases. Also, Bishop states that resistance to science is born of fear,
which is the result of ignorance.
When the University of California, San Francisco wanted to perform biomedical research in a
residential area, which they have not been allowed to do, Bishop noted that another [agitated
citizen] declared on television her outrage that those people are bringing DNA into my
neighborhood (241). The person who stated that the University was bringing DNA into their
neighborhood does not understand what DNA is. By making the statement about bringing
DNA in their neighborhood, the person is opposing having DNA in her neighborhood
compared to the Universitys encroachment into their neighborhood. If the person who made
the statement were simply opposed to the possibility of increased traffic in the neighborhood,
then the person would have made that statement on television. The person made the statement
about DNA instead, showing that they fear DNA because they do not want DNA in their
neighborhood. Therefore, the opposition this person has to science stems from their
misunderstanding of DNA. Bishop points out a possible reason for people not understanding
science caused by a lack of education.
Bishop states In a recent international testing, U.S. high school students finished ninth in
physics among the top twelve nations, eleventh in chemistry, and dead last in biology (241).
If science is not learned by pupils in school, then the pupils will not understand science.
Judging from the international testing, students in our country do not have an understanding
of science, and the lack of understanding will breed ignorance, and will result in fear and
resistance. Therefore, some people fear science because they were not properly educated
when they were students and they do not understand how science can improve mankind as a
whole. Bishop states The price of science seems large, but to reject science is to deny the
future (242). Although science may not always give people one solid choice, and scientific
endeavors may have ethical problems, we need to work out those ethical and moral
dilemmas. Science will not go away, but will continue to explore the world around us.
Science cannot be rejected because science will help to improve the quality of life, and
rejecting science would result in the rejection of the improvement in quality of life. Other
evidence Bishop should have examined was the overall decrease in respect for institutions by
the public.
Alan H. McGowan is a program director for the Public Understanding of Science and
Technology, as well as the Directorate for Education and Human Resources at American
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). McGowan states although there seems
to have been a decrease in the respect the public has for scientists, this is part of a general
trend of decreasing trust in institutions of all kinds. While Bishop has stated that people have
been attacking science, Bishop does not compare how much science is being attacked
compared to other institutions, such as the press. If all other institutions are being attacked
more fervently than science, then science is not in as bad a shape as Bishop believes science
to be. Therefore, unless science is being attacked as much as every other institution, science
is still be viewed by the public with more respect compared to the other institutions. While
Mary Shelleys Frankenstein show the problems with mans thirst for knowledge, Michael
Bishop puts science in a positive light, showing how science has help mankind. I believe
Bishops claims about science to be more persuasive, and the positive effects of science to be
well worth the effort of scientists. Although Bishops claims could have been improved with
some more evidence about the publics view of science, science will continue to improve our
lives.
Works Cited
Bishop, Michael J. Enemies of Promise. The Presence of Others. Eds. Andrea A. Lunsford,
John J. Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2000, 237 242.
McGowan, Alan H. The Bad Image of the Scientist: Fact or Fiction? American Association
for the Advancement of Science Science and Technology Yearbook. 1999.
http://www.aaas.org/spp/yearbook/chap24.htm (13 May 2002).
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. The Presence of Others. Eds. Andrea A. Lunsford, John J.
Ruszkiewicz. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2000, 231 235.
because usually these ambiguous scientists do not think about the consequences of their acts.
What make scientific to seek knowledge of the world? We know that by natural man is
curios. Man wants to explore the unknown. The exploration of our planet, universe, sea and
space are consequences of the minds curiosity. If people did not have curiosity, America
would not have been discovered, we wouldnt have the high level of technology that we have
now. You would not have the opportunity to read this paper. Therefore, mans mind is like a
sponge that wants to know more and more.
Another reason that makes man seek more knowledge is that man wants power. He wants to
be popular in this society. According to teenagers, what they really want in their adolescent
age is money, popularity, and powered, because they want to fee that they can do anything.
Scientific men feel the same way as teenagers feel. Scientifits want to fulfill their eagerness
to be powerful in this world. And because of their eagerness power they only think of
themselves.
Another reason is for the Scientifics want people to remember them as heroes. Through our
history we learn from many famous scientific people that improved technology through their
discoveries. For example, we know that Alexander Graham Bell discovered the telephone,
that Christopher Columbus discovered America; all these people were seeking more
knowledge. People feel great when others talk about them. This feeling of people to be
remembered by everyone motivates them to seek their desires.
Many years ago, science was not as advanced as it is today. Every day scientists are seeking
to find new discoveries in science. Many scientific people want to improve science because
they to help people in this society. But there are scientific people that are only motivated by
their selfishness and their eagerness to be the first one to find a new discovery. Certainly,
Victor Frankenstein is one of these scientific people who are motivated by their selfish
desires. If God wants people have more knowledge, He would give the knowledge to those
scientists that are responsible for their actions. Thats why our society has advance
technology and science because God gives us the privilege to enjoy it.
Another question that I would like to discuss is whether motives good sometimes lead to
negative consequences. In the example of Victor Frankenstein, his motivation to create his
creation was based on good motives. He explained that his motivation made him believe that
he could create a being like himself. Many scientists are motivated to improve science
because want science to be developed futher. When I considered the improvement which
every day takes place in science an mechanics, I was encouraged to hope my present attempts
would at leas lay the foundations of future success. Nor could I consider the magnitude and
complexity of my plan as any argument of its impracticability(232). These reason convince
supported Victor, to continue his complicated dream. We see that these motivations lead him
to do negative actions. He workers hard, month and year, with the purpose of infusing life
into an inanimate body. But now that, he had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and
breathless horror an disgust filled his heart.(234) Victor saw his beauty turned into a
monster, dreams that had been my food an pleasant rest for so long a space were now
become a hell to me; and the change was so rapid(235).
We know that Victor Frankenstein is a science fiction character, but many scientific people
are motivated to seek their desires as Victor was. And that also those motivations bring
negative consequences. In our society, for example, the government encourages scientists to
find new discoveries. The government does not care about the results those experiments
might bring. Once again this motivation is made out of the power that they would get after
their researches ends. But what happened if the research fails. Are they going to abandon as
Victor did? Or are they going assume the consequences of their acts? Most people would
abandon their failed research because they do not want to feel that their dream failed. There
are rarely people that assume responsibility for the of consequences for their acts because
they know that it would bring a lot of controversy to their life.
The last question that I want to is discuss is if scientific knowledge benefic our lives? We are
living in a world where science is important. Science has helped to find cures for diseases
that were hard to treat. For example, many years ago vaccines did not exist to cure
tuberculosis. My grandfather died many years ago of tuberculosis. If science had not been
improved many people would died today because of the disease. Thanks to science most
people do not die of this disease. Also, science and technology have given to the society a
better life to live. Technology has created a new style of living with cars, computers and the
Internet. I remember when I was little that in my house we did not have telephone, or a car,
and I did not have expensive toys to play with. As technology improved, we did get a few
things that were in the stores, for example a car.
Many people might think that science and technology is bad for our environment. We know
that science has positive and negative consequences as a result of their experiments. But at
the same time science helps many people. Those people that have cancer or HIV are waiting
to hear from the scientific community the have discovered a cure for the disease the cure of
the disease. A very good friend of my family went to the doctor to have his normal physical.
That day his doctor found that he had a tumor in his head. The tumor was cancerous. This
happened four months ago and on Thanksgiving weekend he died. The doctors could not do
anything for him. My friend was only 34 years old. He died waiting to hear that there is a
cure for this of disease. With this example we understand that science is very important in
this world.
In conclusion, scientific always going to seek more knowledge because of their curiosity.
Humans have always been curious since the first time that God created them. Also, man seeks
knowledge because of the power the brings them and because scientists want to be
remembered through history. However, we cannot live with science and technology. Every
minute, day, month and year scientists continue to seek scientific knowledge, but everyone
needs to has positive and negative consequences.
Work Cited
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. The Presence of Others. Ed. Andrea A. Lunsford and John J.
Ruskiewicz. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins, 2000, 235-236.
Enemies of Promise and The Hazards of Science. Both articles cover the topic of scientific
research. Both authors are accredited scientists in their own right, and are excellent examples
to cite for my thesis which I believe very strongly in. Although, I disagree with some of the
conclusions made in the articles, I neverless hold both authors in very high regard.
Professor of microbiology and Nobel Prize winner, J. Michael Bishop continually makes the
statement in his article, Enemies of Promise, that the public has exaggerated and unrealistic
expectations as to what science can do; Just as physician-author Lewis Thomas asks in his
article, The Hazards of Science, "are there some things in science we should not be learning
about?" (238). These men both have relevant opinions about science today. I can not say that
they agree with each other because their articles are structured differently. Bishop makes
arguments for science while stating it's limitations; and Thomas highlights some of sciences'
achievements while questioning how far science should go. In discussing the topic of science,
albeit from different frameworks, they touch upon some of the same topics.
Bishop alleges that, "Science, is not the exclusive source of knowledge about human
existence." (256). Then sites Thomas as saying that science is "the best way to learn how the
world works." As Bishop cites Thomas to make his point, they both obviously agree with this
statement. However, Thomas questions the lengths that science should go to while Bishop
does not.
Lewis Thomas asks the central question, "are there some kinds of information leading to
some sorts of knowledge that human beings are really better off not having? Is there a limit to
scientific inquiry not set by what is knowable but by what we ought to be knowing? Should
we stop short of learning about some things, for fear of what we, or someone, will do with the
knowledge?" (237). The author then answers his own questions: No, but he qualifies his
answer by stating that it is an intuitive response that he is incapable of reasoning through. I
too believe that we should not place limitations on science, while admitting that it is also an
intuitive response. However, I still have concerns.
It all boils down to fear: "Should we stop short of learning about some things, for fear of what
we, or someone, will do with the knowledge?" (237). On this point J. Michael Bishop is clear.
He states that, "Resistance to science is born of fear. Fear, in turn, is bred by ignorance. And it
is ignorance that is our deepest malady." (260). But, isn't fear something that should be
considered when scientists are currently accomplishing things that not too long ago where
considered science fiction? Lewis Thomas seems to question this.
Throughout, The Hazards of Science, Lewis Thomas returns to the issue of recombinant
DNA, a technology that permits the stitching of one creature's genes into the DNA of another
to make hybrids. He claims that, "It is hubris for man to manufacture a hybrid on his own."
While he obviously questions whether or not 'we' should be doing this, he none-the-less
comes to the conclusion that we should not limit human knowledge. Put in that context I
would have to agree. However, I am still uncomfortable with this concept. And there lies the
dilemma, there are things that most question the wisdom of, but how do we address those
issues without putting restrictions on research?
Thomas listed many of the recent accomplishments of science including, psychosurgery, fetal
research, heart transplants, and cloning. Bishop reveals that he was involved in the
uncovering of the genes that are involved in the genesis of human cancer. Why than are the
publics' expectations of what science can accomplish unrealistic? They may be unreasonable
in the sense of the time that we believe things should be accomplished, but I do not believe
that necessitates that these expectations are unrealistic.
We live in a world where life expectancy is almost twice what it was just a hundred years
ago, and many ailments that were once fatal are mere annoyances to our daily living. These
improvements to life have been accomplished through science. Virtually every night on the
news one hears about some kind of scientific breakthrough or discovery. Why then are our
expectations unrealistic? I do not believe that they are. J. Michael Bishop seems to want to
accept the accomplishments of science without accepting any of the liabilities that those
accomplishments may generate.
I can understand his frustration with the criticisms of science. After all he is a scientist.
However, his use of inflammatory writing is unnecessary. The Hazards of Science is much
more objective than that of Enemies of Promise. Bishop made many good points and strong
arguments for the continuation of science without limitations, but his attempt to present
opponents of science in a negative light through the use of word structure and negative
implications makes the article weaker than it otherwise would have been.
Bishop presents Congressman George E. Brown, Jr.'s suggestion that Congress and the U.S.
citizenry should take more of a hand in determining how science is conducted, and in what
research gets funded, as something that is very negative. Why? Using the article as my
information base, Brown has not suggested outlawing certain kinds of research. Rather, he
states that the 'people' should have more say in what gets funded. Isn't that the basic ideal
behind democracy? That is to say isn't it at the very heart of the American belief system, that
the taxpayers should have a say in where their tax-dollars are going?
I have argued that I do not believe that our expectations of science are too high. However, I
do accept that scientists are sometimes limited in the application of how their discoveries are
used. Bishop asserts that while, "Science has produced the vaccines required to control many
childhood infections in the United States, our nation has failed to deploy properly those
vaccines." (237). This is a very valid point. In this regard, scientists can only do so much.
Bishop and Thomas both agree that science must continue. Although stated by Bishop, I
believe that Thomas would concur with the author's conclusion, "We offer hope for the future
but also moral conflict and ambiguous choice. The price of science seems large, but to reject
science is to deny the future." (257).
Works Cited
Bishop, J. Michael. "Enemies of Promise." chap. in The Presence of Others: Voices That Call
for Response, edited by Andrea A. Lunsford and John J. Ruszkiewicz. New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1997
Thomas, Lewis. "The Hazards of Science." chap. in The Presence of Others: Voices That Call
for Response, edited by Andrea A. Lunsford and John J. Ruszkiewicz. New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1997
As our society becomes more and more modernized so does our need for more sophisticated
ways to identify people for who they really are. Biometrics is the science of human
recognition.
With this rapid movement to develop this new technology, many companies have come out
with different ways to distinguish people. Some of these new forms of recognition include;
retinal scanning, iris recognition, finger imaging, hand geometry, face recognition, voice
recognition and signature recognition. These forms of distinguish people may be broken
down into two basic categories: physical characteristics and personal traits.
Physical characteristics are specific to each person. A physical characteristic is as unique as a
persons DNA code. A personal trait is a style that is often unique to each person. The only
problem with the recognition of this style is that it may often change as a person grows and
matures.
Retinal scanning falls into the category of scanning for physical characteristics. It is
performed by bouncing a laser beam off the cornea, which then absorbs specific frequencies
of light according to that persons specific cornea. The light that is not absorbed bounces back
into the machine and is then read. The machine is able to recognize the unabsorbed
frequencies of light as, Frank Turco.
Another new physical biometrics system is iris recognition. Iris recognition is similar to
retinal scanning. The colored area of the eye that surrounds the pupil has many lines
randomly placed. These lines are specific to each individual; like a barcode is to a product.
Again, a laser scans the eye and recognizes the bars of the iris as a person. Amazing isnt it?
Iris canning tends to be more user friendly because you dont need to be as close to the
machine when it is scanning your iris. You may be up to nine inches away, where as with
retinal scanning you may only be one to two inches away. The reason iris scanning is more
"user friendly" is because when utilized by the public many communicable diseases may be
passes along by the machine because of it close contact with the person.
Face recognition is similar to the way we recognize people. A computer would be utilized to
take a photo of each person and then analyze it. The computer's analysis of the photo would
use facial geometry to recognize each person. The geometry is unique to each person and
even with plastic surgery could not be changed. Each time your face was scanned, the
computer would then compare it to the previous photo taken and look for the same geometric
features again. This science could not be used with children, because as they grow, the shape
of their face will change. These changes would not be recorded in the computer and
therefore; the computer would not recognize the child.
Finger printing has long been used by police agencies across the world, as a way to recognize
each individual. It is used in crime scene analysis, criminal bookings and in finding missing
children. The finger printing process can be a long and daunting task for the people
performing it, sometimes almost impossible if you are working with an uncooperative
criminal. However, digital finger printing is now here and relatively easy to use. By simply
placing your finger on a piece of glass a computer takes a scan of it and maps all of the lines
and marks unique to your finger print. It is also great because police departments around the
world more easily access it so they can confirm upon scanning a criminal in France that he is
wanted in Canada for murder. The major problem with this method of finger printing is that
the glass on which the fingerprints are scanned from my collect dirt and oils from the hand,
distorting the finger print. Also if a persons hands are badly callused or scared the machine
will not be able to take an accurate fingerprint from that person, almost letting them off the
hook.
All these physical characteristics allow for the computer to recognize you. These
characteristics are unique to each person so it seems like a more convenient way to tell if a
person is really who they say they are.
There is another way to recognize a person and this is by the use of personal traits. These
personal traits are not as unique and an as exact science as recognition by physical
characteristics but, they are useful. Personal traits are almost totally unique to a person yet,
under different circumstances may chance and no longer are a valid way to recognize a
person.
Hand geometry is the recognition of a person based on the size, shape and dimensions of your
hand. Your hands measurements are taken by a computer and stored. This method of
recognition is useful but is not as specific to each person. A person may share the same
dimensions recorded by the computer for another person and may gain unlawful entry. This
form of recognition will also not work with children. Children are constantly growing and the
dimensions of their hand will change where as most of their physical characteristics will not.
Injuries to the hand would also lead to problems in recognition of a person. Swelling, crush
injuries and loss of a piece of the hand would result in denied access.
Voice recognition is another method of identifying a person by their traits; recording a
persons voice when saying a specific phrase into a computers recording device does it. The
computer then records this and analyzes it for specific speech patterns and frequencies. Every
time there after, you would repeat the same phrase and the computer would search its
memory to see if this voice is a match to all of your frequencies. If so, no problem, you are in.
There is a flaw to this type of recognition, when under sever stress or emotional
circumstance, your voice patterns will change. If your voice patterns do change the computer
will not recognize you and you are out of luck.
Finally, signature recognition is used to identify a person by their style of writing. Each
person had a specific style to their writing and these patterns may be pick up by a computer to
match the distinct patterns of your writing or signature to a sample you had previously given.
This technology is starting to pop up at more stores across the nation. Upon making a
purchase upon your credit card, your receipt is slipped into a holder with a special pad under
neith of it which is hooked up to the computer. After you sign your receipt, your signature
then shows up on the cashiers screen, the computer then reads the signature on the back of the
card and attempts to match them. This technology is accurate to a point, nonetheless upon
growing up; peoples writing styles change and the computer may not recognize their
handwriting. Also, if a person is in a hurry and does not take the time they normally do on
their signature there may be difference that would lead the computer to believe that the
cardholder is not the actual owner of the card and may deny the person.
All of these ways to recognize a person have their specific applications. They may be utilized
by companies to track a workers time, by banks to verify a persons identity, or by the police
in finding criminals. Technology does come at a price though. This technology is pricey, and
may still have its flaws because it is still in the developmental stages. And with any
technology, there comes the problem of system failures and shutdowns. If one of theses
systems were used by a large company to track employees time cards, and all of a sudden
crashed, how would you know when the employee actually worked without some form of
paper records. Paper records never crash.
However, even with its minor drawbacks, biometrics is the wave of the future. It will
eliminate the need for passwords that are easily forgotten and may aid in finding missing
children and criminals. Maybe even some day you will not need a key to your own front door
or car. They will just scan your iris or the frequency of your voice to let you gain access. And
for all of use forgetful people that may misplace their keys a lot this technology cant come
fast enough.
Sources Cited:
CNN Automated fingerprinting comes of age September 9, 1999. ULR:
http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9909/09/auto.id.idg/
Laser Safety Analysis of a Retinal Scanning Display System
http://hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-97-31/
Biometrics Scanning, Law & Policy:IdentincernsDrafting the Biometric Blueprint
http://www.pitt.edu/~lawrev/59-1/woodward.htm
activities and writing assignments they will be given on the task. One example task for eighth
grade science students is to look at scientific data on the solar system and to write at least
three questions that they can ask after looking at the data(Carr, 2000). After students have
asked the questions they then need to "describe three repeating patterns of astronomical
change that occur in the sky above us"(Carr, 2000)
The MSPAP was created in May, 1990 by many teachers and administrators after the State
Board of Education came up with learning goals that they wanted to reach by the year 2000.
The MSPAP has six sections: reading, writing, language use, mathematics, science, and social
studies. From year to year administrators and teachers can look to see how much
improvement has taken place within their grade or school and then readjust their curriculum
to help raise the scores on the test the following year.
None of the goals that the State Board of Education came up with for the year 2000, have
been met. The board expected that the scores in science would be satisfactory at 70%. In
1999, the state score for science in 3rd grade was 38.7%, 31.3% shy of the score that they
hoped for. Salisbury State University is located in Wicomico County, which scored 38.1% for
3rd grade science, about the same as the state average (MSDE, 1999).
Assessment at the state level is different from the ways teachers assess their students. In the
classroom, "Assessments are used to guide programming decisions and to documents student
development." The way you assess students must be determined by the standards and
scientific process skills that you teach in class. Smith and Welliver Educational Services
suggest teaching the following thirteen science process skills; observing, classifying,
inferring, predicting, measuring, communicating, using space/time relations, defining
operationally, formulating hypothesis, experimenting, recognizing variables, interpreting
data, and formulating models. Through teaching these process skills, a teacher is not focusing
on facts and terms, so it would only be fair to not use a traditional form of assessment. This
leads to the teacher needing a plethora of assessment strategies. The department of education
suggests using more innovative assessment strategies such as: "individual KWLs, scientific
drawings and diagrams, student questions, interviews, writing prompts, graphic organizers,
teacher observations, journal entries, designing individual investigation to answer a question,
and concept maps." These assessment strategies allow for the teacher to know whether or not
students are grasping concepts, interested in the material, and what improvements should be
made to their lessons. Another way of assessing the students skills could be through the use
of portfolios. Students can keep a section of each skill learned. An advantage to this form of
assessment is that teachers can use these as a review right before state assessments. Al
The State of Maryland approaches science assessments in one test, the MSPAP and through
individual assessments on daily material. The MSPAP raises many controversial issues
regarding the curriculum in Maryland. Some say that the MSPAP drives Maryland curriculum
in general. Diane Zoller, a fifth grade teacher at Bodkin Elementary School in Pasadena,
Maryland doesn't feel that way about her science class, but she feels that she is required to
use the MSPAP approach to education. Mrs. Zoller believes that her science class isn't
controlled by the MSPAP in curriculum because she doesn't know what to expect on future
test. However, she does prepare her children for the writing and group work approach that the
MSPAP contains. Within her daily science lessons her students are always participating in
groups answering stance questions even with the same lines as the test does. She does use any
multiple choice in her science lessons. She has her students write everything out, just like the
MSPAP. These are prime examples of how a science assessment affects Mrs. Zoller's science
classroom. Also, Mrs. Zoller believes that some modifications should be made to our state
assessments of elementary science. She believes that all children do not have the same
background or that some children are at the level of the test they are given. Some students
that are in fifth grade are not mentally prepared for fifth grade receive the same test of the
class. During the test they get very frustrated and eventually feel defeated. She says a
modification that should be made is that every student should receive a test that is at his or
her level of maturity and education. Mrs. Zoller shared also that there are no consequences
for failure of the state assessment test for the students. The staff, however, can be replaced for
low school test scores or more resource staff can be added to raise the scores for the future.
Overall, and not just science, the MSPAP has impacted the classroom by using innovative
education techniques like writing responses and learning the majority of the time in work
groups.
While Marylands intentions to improve the discipline of science, it can be seen from
interviews and research that it drives the academic approaches to the curriculum and causes
the students to do the same repeated activities with just different content. Many schools find
themselves today striving for the best MSPAP scores, which is the main factor for the overlap
of school activities in the classroom. From Mrs. Zollers interview, she is a prime example of
a teacher forced to put MSPAP approaches into her classroom. She feels like her students are
not receiving a well-rounded education because of the state assessments. Maryland science
assessments either state or teacher given are based on the facts, principles, skills, and
processes of five classified standards: earth/space, biology, chemistry, physics, and
environmental science.
Bibliography
Montgomery County Public Schools.(1999).Assessment Strategies.Retrieved February 12,
2000 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.mcps.k12.md.us/departments/eii/accelerated_and_enriched_s.htm
Science Process Test.(1998).Science Process Assessments for Elementary and Middle School
Students.Retrieved February 19, 1999 from the World Wide
Web:http://www.scienceprocesstest.com
Maryland State Department of Education .(1998).What is the Maryland School Performance
Assessment Program?. Retrieved February 19, 1999 from the World Wide
Web:http://www.mdk12.org/mspp/mspap/what-is-mspap/introl.html
Tulip Grove Elementary.(1999).Maryland State Performance Assessment Program. Retrieved
February 19, 1999 from the World Wide Web:
http://www1.marylandweb.com/marylandweb/tulipgrove/MSPAPinfo.html
Maryland State Department of Education : (1999). Maryland State Performance Assessment
Program. Retrieved: February 20, 2000 from the World Wide
Web:http://www.msde.state.md.us/mspap/
Parents Guide to MSPAP.(2000).Retrieved March 14, 2000 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.carr.lib.md.us/ccps/mspap/sample.htm
circumstance which individuals are supposed to follow. Social values and social
norms vary in different societies, therefore social scientists present different
behavioural model in each society. That is the reason that people react and
behave dissimilarly from one society to other.
It looks that societies were born first, and then the social science arrived on the
scene to scrutinize the society. Does society control individuals or do individuals
rule society? The answer is both. On one hand, societies have been formed by
group of people; they could not be existed without individuals, so we could say
that a society has been influenced by individuals. On the other hand, every
individual was born in a society, where he or she has learned that what is good
and what is bad; His believes, ideas, knowledge and values all have come from
his society, so individuals have been influenced by societies. Here, social science
starts to work: to study how individuals could develop societies and how
societies could improve individuals. Mack (2004) recorded that, Social scientists
study the social environment in which we live in an attempt to understand
human society and to predict how people will interact in a given set of
circumstances (p584). When individuals change their behaviours, consequently
their society will change. For example when people decide to change their
traditional believes and replace them with modern ideas, then a traditional
society will change to a modern one. Social scientists observe these kinds of
changes in individuals and societies. Overall, social scientists work and study
hard to develop societies, to make better place for people all around the world to
live and communicate to each other.
Maryland NAEP over the years of educational reform are not at all encouraging.
The trends show that although Maryland is highly ranked nationally in
performance in all areas, its scores seem to be slowly dropping. Marylands
scores are characterized by periods of decline followed by periods of recovery.
However, the periods of recovery are not significant enough to make up for the
periods of decline. Therefore, there is a downward trend in Marylands NAEP
scores (www.edweek.com, 2001) Nationally, trends seem to be stable. That
means that there is no decline, but there is also no improvement. The NAEP
shows that as a nation, science performance is about what it was in the early
1970s. There has been no real progress even after all the efforts of teacher and
student educational reform (The American Physical Society, 2000). One cause of
this situation is the problem of upkeep. It is one thing to implement all these new
systems and rules in the education of teachers and later their performance, but it
is another to maintain the procedure. There was a significant positive jump in the
progress of school performance in the 1980s when educational reform was at its
best, but since then it has fallen out of the public view and has not had as great
as an importance (Quality Counts, 2001)
Improvement
Although educational reform seems to be declining, it is known to work from the
results of the school reform movement of the 1980s. Therefore, to pick up the
reform excitement again would mean improvement in our school systems.
President Bush proposed H.R. 1, the No Child Left Behind Act to congress which
was recently passed by the House of Representatives on May 23, 2001. This act
holds states that use federal education dollars accountable for improving
student achievement, grants unprecedented new flexibility to local school
districts, empowers parents, and provides an escape route for students trapped
in failing schools (Summary, 2001) Bushs act also consolidates teacher
professional development programs to give school districts the flexibility to use
funds to reduce class sizes by recruiting, hiring, and training new teachers, or on
non professional development for existing teachers (Summary, 2001). Since the
start of President Bushs term, there has been a new excitement for educational
reform. These new laws being passed will hopefully solve the problem of
educational reform maintenance (Bush Reform, 2001).
References
Assessment tests can marginalize science education. (2000, December). The
American Physical Society.
Boehner, J. (2001). Bush reform will improve teacher quality. Education Watch.
Retrieved November 26, 2001 from http://edworkforce.house.gov/edwatch.
Boehner, J. (2001). Summary: The no child left behind act (H.R.1) as passed by
the house. House Education & the Workforce Committee. Retrieved October 5,
2001 from http://edworkforce.house.gov/issues/107th/education/nclb/sumhr1.pdf.
reasoning, there is more to law then these solid and concrete aspects. Experience plays a key
role because before obtaining any form of judicial authority one must practice and "get a feel"
for what the position entails. Through these experiences one acquires a very personal and first
hand knowledge and experience that is necessary before venturing out into his or her field.
The judicial system poses a similar problem to that of traditional science. I believe the laws in
our justice system are far too clear cut. There are a lot of gray areas when it comes to crimes
committed, political decision making, and societal issues. I feel our constitution, which is
what our laws are based on, is too limited and poses a problem because a lot of the pressing
issues in our society such as abortion and gun control lay on right and wrong border lines. It's
hard to come to a resolution because of the strict and limited language of our laws and also
because of the fact that there's more to these problems than laws; they involve emotions,
perceptions, culture, and perspectives; none of which are taken into consideration in
legislation.
The controversy with Pro-Life or Pro-Choice is controversial and complex because there are
so many ways to examine the issue, all of which have valid points depending on which light
you're looking at it under. Abortion is both a societal issue as well as a political issue. It
involves high sensitivity because of the direct connection to our emotions and personal
values. Politics and laws also play a major role in this debate because so many of them have
been passed concerning this issue. The Government on many levels is dealing with the issue
of abortion. The courts, federalism, judicial review and the separation of powers are all
involved in and dealing with this issue. In 1973 the Supreme Court declares abortion as a
constitutional right. (2) Scientist have clearly declared the fetus as a living thing and it is
clearly illegal by law to kill another human being, yet it is perfectly legal to have an abortion.
When this issue is examined thoroughly one can see how controversies arise and stay in
debate. So this case really depends on how one looks at it. This poses a problem because an
agreement and a middle ground are almost impossible to reach because people specifically
those with opinions about it, can only see the credibility in their value and position. Thus, the
choice is highly dependent on personal perspective, moral, and experience. Although
constitutional law governs the issue of abortions, science clearly plays a role of equal
importance and authority.
Gun control is deeply rooted in controversy and is an epitome of a gray area when dealing
with right or wrong. There are two conflicting sides, those in favor of gun regulation and
those against it. It is an issue for our nation as a whole but it stems from the division of this
country's mixed cultures. Those who have grown up in a culture where hunting is a family
and cultural tradition are strongly against gun control, but for people who did not grown up
with hunting as a sport do not see the same value. This conflict is rooted not only in value but
also politics. The respective sums of experiences for both sides are the reasoning behind their
positions on the issue. Science and the judicial system produce gray areas when trying to
understand and rationalize. Both are inextricably connected to life. Holmes convinced people
through his work and writings that the law should develop along with the society it serves. If
this is true than law should always be changing because society is constantly changing with
time and experience. "Life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience." (Oliver
Wendell Holmes). We systematically try to put life in a box to create order, order insures a
comfort, but that comfort often gets in the way of open-mindedness. The human mind by
itself is a convoluted vast universe. We as scholars, scientists, and human kind need to
understand that by assigning concrete truths, right or wrongs we are limiting the extent of our
intellectual capacities.
References
1)The Truth of Science, Physical Theories and Reality, An article from Harvard University
Press
http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/NEWTRU.html
2)An Overview of American Abortion Laws, A thorough explanation of the laws concerning
abortions
http://hometown.ao.com/abrtbng/overview.htm
and RNA; a Nobel Prize winning chemist had never heard of plate tectonics; and biologists
who thought string theory might have something to do with pasta. (Although it's true few
people beside Stephen Hawking can explain it, much less understand it -- but it's not pasta.)
The position held by Bishop on this point, is made by a quote from Lionel Trilling: "No
successful method of instruction has been found. . . which can give a comprehension of
science. . . to those students who are not professionally committed to its mastery and
especially endowed to achieve it." There was a time, 400 years ago, when it was possible for
one person, by diligent application to study, to know all that was known. But no more. And
this, of course, should be born in mind when considering Bishop himself.
Rifkin makes frighteningly valid points regarding scientific knowledgeability. No one,
(presumably Bishop included) can predict the pervasiveness of biotechnology. The "transfer
of genes between totally unrelated species and across all biological boundaries--plant, animal
and human--creat[es] thousands of novel life forms in a brief moment of evolutionary time."
Then, we clone them, mass-produce them, "releas[e] them into the biosphere to propagate,
mutate, proliferate and migrate" (Rifkin 245). He reminds us that currently cattle are
genetically altered, chicken genes have been inserted into potatoes, fire-fly genes into corn,
and hamster genes into tobacco, to which foraging animals, seed-eating birds and soil
organisms and insects are exposed, interact, and feed. He notes that "Genetically engineered
soybeans containing a gene from a Brazil nut could create an allergic reaction in people who
were allergic to the nuts" (Rifkin 251). He makes a good case for the argument that genetic
changes are so unpredictable in the long-term as to alter all life, as we know it.
Bishop's statements do reflect some scientific caution. Although he is referring to his own
amazement when he learns of a Russian satellite that gathers solar light for Siberia, he asks,
"Is nothing sacred?" (Bishop 242). Scientists, he admits, offer "hope for the future but also
moral conflict and ambiguous choice[s]" (Bishop).
An argument made by Richard Lamm, former Colorado governor, that biomedical research
does not contribute to the improvement of human health because it has done little or nothing
about "increasing primary care, expanding medical coverage to the uninsured, dealing with
various additions and dietary excesses, and controlling violence" (Bishop 239) is debunked
by Bishop: these issues lie within the purview of social problems, he believes, not biomedical
ones. However, Bishop's statement that "the genesis of human behavior entails complexities
that still lie beyond the grasp of human reason" (Bishop 239) and that "the social and
behavioral sciences have yet to produce an antidote for even one of the common social
pathologies" (Bishop 239) leads to another realization. If humans as a race are unable to
control ourselves, our behavior, or agree with one another; if a dictator who believes he is in
the right can wage biological or atomic warfare; then what is to prevent a short-sighted,
profit-seeking person, corporation, or country carelessly introducing something genetically
altered. If as Rifkin predicts, within 10 to 15 years all major crops will be genetically
engineered, some genetic introduction might, within another 15 years, cause some major
ecosystem to be interrupted; something might become extinct which we later find was
necessary to our survival? "Each new synthetic introduction is tantamount to playing
ecological roulette. That is, while there is only a small chance of it triggering an
environmental explosion, if it does, the consequences could be significant and irreversible"
(Rifkin 248).
Bishop does not address escaped DNA fragments or mutations or growth. He makes the
general statement, "Biomedical research is one of the great triumphs of human endeavor. It
in order to cure diseases, but we can not downgrade science if something goes wrong. We
would not have cures for tuberculoses, measles and many more diseases if it weren't for
science.
Works Cited
Bishop J. Michael. "Enemies of Promise." The Presence of Others. Ed. Andrea A. Lunsford,
John J. Ruszkiewicz. New York: Bedford / St. Martin's, 2000. 237-242.
Rifkin Jeremy. "Biotech Century: Playing Ecological Roulette with Mother Nature's
Designs." The Presence of Others. Ed. Andrea A. Lunsford, John J. Ruszkiweicz. New York:
Bedford / St. Martin's, 2000. 244-253.