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Introduction to FEA...................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................ 5
What is FEA?......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
More about FEA .................................................................................................................................................................... 8
The basic steps involved in FEA ........................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4.1
What is an element?................................................................................................................................................ 10
1.4.2
What are nodes? ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.3
What are the basic element shapes? ...................................................................................................................... 11
1.5
How FEA ala CAE can be used for design validation/guidance/optimization .................................................................... 13
1.5.1
Design Validation..................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.2
Design Guidance ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.3
Design Optimization................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.6
FEA requirements ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1
Engineer .................................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.6.2
Software................................................................................................................................................................... 14
1.6.3
Hardware ................................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.7
Typical software capabilities................................................................................................................................................ 15
1.8
Popular CAE software ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
1.9
Brief Over view of Structural Static analysis ...................................................................................................................... 17
1.10 Brief Over view of Dynamic analysis ................................................................................................................................... 19
1.11 Brief Over view of Thermal analysis.................................................................................................................................... 20
1.12 Brief Over view of Coupled Field analysis........................................................................................................................... 21
1.13 Brief Over view of Fatigue simulations................................................................................................................................ 22
1.14 Advantages and limitations of FEA ..................................................................................................................................... 23
1.15 Geometric Vs FEA modeling ............................................................................................................................................... 24
1.16 Geometric VS FE Entities................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.17 Various types of elements ................................................................................................................................................... 25
1.17.1
Point/Mass: .............................................................................................................................................................. 25
1.17.2
Beam/Bar element :................................................................................................................................................. 25
1.17.3
Shell Elements......................................................................................................................................................... 25
1.17.4
Plane elements ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
1.17.5
Solid elements ......................................................................................................................................................... 25
1.17.6
Special Elements ..................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.17.6.1 Surface elements............................................................................................................................................... 26
1.17.6.2 Super element ................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.17.6.3 Composite Element ........................................................................................................................................... 26
1.17.6.4 Axi-symmetric .................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.17.6.5 Boundary/Infinite Elements................................................................................................................................ 27
1.17.6.6 Rigid Elements................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.17.6.7 Link Elements .................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.17.6.8 Spring element................................................................................................................................................... 27
1.17.6.9 Contact Elements .............................................................................................................................................. 28
1.18 Degrees of freedom............................................................................................................................................................. 29
1.18.1
Degree of Freedom for a Mass element.................................................................................................................. 29
1.18.2
Degrees of freedom for a Beam or Bar Element ..................................................................................................... 29
1.18.3
Degree of freedom for shell elements ..................................................................................................................... 29
1.18.4
Degree of freedom for Plane elements.................................................................................................................... 29
1.18.5
Degrees of freedom for Solid Element .................................................................................................................... 29
1.18.6
Degrees of freedom for surface elements ............................................................................................................... 29
1.18.7
Degrees of freedom for Super-Elements................................................................................................................. 30
1.18.8
Degrees of Freedom for Composite element .......................................................................................................... 30
1.18.9
Degrees of Freedom for Axi_Symmetric elements.................................................................................................. 30
1.18.10 Degrees of freedom for Boundary/Infinite Elements ............................................................................................... 30
1.18.11 Degrees of freedom for Spring Element.................................................................................................................. 30
1.18.12 Degrees of freedom for Contact elements............................................................................................................... 30
1.19 Geometry transfer from CAD to CAE tools ......................................................................................................................... 31
1.20 Associativity between Geometry and Finite Elements ........................................................................................................ 32
1.21 Units and consistency ......................................................................................................................................................... 32
1.22 Physical properties of Elements and their significance....................................................................................................... 33
1.22.1
Physical properties required for a Mass element .................................................................................................... 33
1.22.2
Physical properties required for a Beam element ................................................................................................... 33
1.22.3
Physical properties required for a Shell element................................................................................................... 33
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.22.4
Physical properties required for a Plane element.................................................................................................... 33
1.22.5
Physical properties required for an Axi-Symmetric element................................................................................... 34
1.22.6
Physical properties required for a surface Effect elements ..................................................................................... 34
1.22.7
Physical properties required for Super elements .................................................................................................... 34
1.22.8
Physical properties required for Boundary/Infinite elements .................................................................................. 34
1.22.9
Physical properties required for Spring elements.................................................................................................... 34
1.22.10 Physical properties required for Contact elements.................................................................................................. 34
1.23 Material Properties and their significance ........................................................................................................................... 35
1.23.1
Material properties required for a Linear Static stress analysis............................................................................... 35
1.23.2
Material properties required for a non Linear Static stress analysis ....................................................................... 35
1.23.3
Material properties required for Dynamic analysis .................................................................................................. 35
1.23.4
Material properties required for a Thermal analysis ................................................................................................ 35
2
Pre-Processing.......................................................................................................................................................................... 36
2.1
Introduction to Pre-Processing............................................................................................................................................ 36
2.1.1
Specifying the title.................................................................................................................................................... 36
2.1.2
Setting the type of analysis...................................................................................................................................... 36
2.1.3
Creating the model .................................................................................................................................................. 36
2.1.4
Defining the element type........................................................................................................................................ 36
2.1.5
Mesh Generation ..................................................................................................................................................... 36
2.2
Meshing Requirements ....................................................................................................................................................... 37
2.2.1
Meshing Requirements for 1D................................................................................................................................. 37
2.2.2
Meshing requirements for 2D .................................................................................................................................. 38
2.2.3
Meshing requirements for 3D .................................................................................................................................. 38
2.3
Meshing Algorithms ............................................................................................................................................................. 39
2.3.1
Structured Vs un-Structured mesh .......................................................................................................................... 39
2.3.2
Mesh density............................................................................................................................................................ 39
2.4
Improving the Accuracy....................................................................................................................................................... 40
2.4.1
Quadrilateral Vs Triangle elements ......................................................................................................................... 40
2.4.2
Hexahedron Vs Tetra/Wedge/Pyramid elements .................................................................................................... 40
2.4.3
H-Adaptivity ............................................................................................................................................................. 41
2.4.4
P-Adaptivity.............................................................................................................................................................. 41
2.4.5
R-Adoptivity ............................................................................................................................................................. 42
2.5
Few points to discuss about Mesh Generation ................................................................................................................... 43
2.5.1
Mesh Density ........................................................................................................................................................... 43
2.5.2
A Good Mesh........................................................................................................................................................... 44
2.5.3
Element Distortion ................................................................................................................................................... 44
2.5.4
Structured and Unstructured Meshes..................................................................................................................... 44
2.5.5
Mesh requirements.................................................................................................................................................. 45
2.5.6
Element Limitations ................................................................................................................................................. 45
2.6
Element mesh Parameters.................................................................................................................................................. 45
3
Linear Static Analysis................................................................................................................................................................ 48
3.1
Linear Steady State Solutions ............................................................................................................................................. 48
3.1.1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 48
3.1.2
The meaning of Linear Static................................................................................................................................... 48
3.1.3
Assumptions of Linear Static Analyses ................................................................................................................... 48
3.1.4
Limitations of Linear Static Analyses....................................................................................................................... 49
3.2
Linear Static Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 50
3.3
Loads................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
3.3.1
Force/Moment Load................................................................................................................................................. 53
3.3.2
Pressure Load ......................................................................................................................................................... 53
3.3.3
Thermal Loads......................................................................................................................................................... 53
3.3.4
Inertia Loads ............................................................................................................................................................ 53
3.4
Boundary conditions............................................................................................................................................................ 54
3.5
Solvers................................................................................................................................................................................. 55
3.5.1
Frontal Solver .......................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.5.2
Iterative solver ......................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.5.3
Sparse Direct Matrix Solver..................................................................................................................................... 56
3.6
Post Processing: ................................................................................................................................................................. 57
3.6.1
Nodal Vs Element results ........................................................................................................................................ 57
3.6.2
Plot paths................................................................................................................................................................. 58
3.6.3
Deformation Scaling factors .................................................................................................................................... 58
3.7
Sources Of Error: ................................................................................................................................................................ 59
7
8
3.7.1
Problems With Units ................................................................................................................................................ 59
3.7.2
Incorrect Loading ..................................................................................................................................................... 59
3.7.3
Element Polynomial Order....................................................................................................................................... 59
3.7.4
Over Simplification................................................................................................................................................... 60
3.7.5
Discretisation Errors ................................................................................................................................................ 60
3.7.6
Formulation Error..................................................................................................................................................... 61
3.7.7
Numerical Errors...................................................................................................................................................... 62
Some Special Features ............................................................................................................................................................. 63
4.1
Multiple Load cases............................................................................................................................................................. 63
4.2
Loads/Boundary conditions in local co-Ordinates ............................................................................................................... 63
4.3
Temperature dependent material properties....................................................................................................................... 63
4.4
Specified Boundary conditions ............................................................................................................................................ 64
4.5
Coupling and Constraint equations ..................................................................................................................................... 64
4.6
Connecting dissimilar Element Types: ................................................................................................................................ 65
4.6.1
Transition Elements ................................................................................................................................................. 65
4.6.2
Rigid Links ............................................................................................................................................................... 66
4.6.3
Welding.................................................................................................................................................................... 67
4.7
Sub-Modeling ...................................................................................................................................................................... 68
4.8
Super Elements advantages/Dis-advantages: .................................................................................................................... 70
4.9
Hyperelestic materials ......................................................................................................................................................... 70
4.10 Anisotropic/Orthotropic Materials ........................................................................................................................................ 70
4.11 Symmetry in FEA Models:................................................................................................................................................... 71
4.11.1
Planar symmetry...................................................................................................................................................... 71
4.11.2
Axisymmetry or Rotational Symmetry ..................................................................................................................... 71
4.11.3
Cyclic Symmetry ...................................................................................................................................................... 72
4.11.4
Few Comments about exploiting Symmetry ............................................................................................................ 72
Non-Linear Solutions................................................................................................................................................................. 73
5.1
Non-Linear Analyses ........................................................................................................................................................... 73
5.1.1
Geometric Non-Linearity.......................................................................................................................................... 73
5.1.2
Material non-linearity ............................................................................................................................................... 74
5.1.3
Contact non-Linearity .............................................................................................................................................. 74
5.2
Newton Raphson Method.................................................................................................................................................... 74
5.3
Stepped Vs Ramped load ................................................................................................................................................... 74
5.4
Forced Vs auto time stepping.............................................................................................................................................. 75
5.5
Line Search / Arc Length method........................................................................................................................................ 75
Hear Transfer ............................................................................................................................................................................ 76
6.1
Thermal Analysis................................................................................................................................................................. 76
6.1.1
Conduction............................................................................................................................................................... 76
6.1.2
Radiation.................................................................................................................................................................. 76
6.1.3
Convection............................................................................................................................................................... 76
6.1.4
Steady state Thermal analysis ................................................................................................................................ 77
6.1.5
Transient thermal analysis....................................................................................................................................... 77
Coupled field Analysis............................................................................................................................................................... 78
7.1
Thermal stress analysis....................................................................................................................................................... 78
Dynamic Analysis ...................................................................................................................................................................... 79
8.1
Modal Analysis .................................................................................................................................................................... 79
8.1.1
Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors ............................................................................................................................. 80
8.1.2
Boundary Conditions for Modal Analysis................................................................................................................. 81
8.1.2.1
Mesh Requirements for Eigen value analysis ................................................................................................... 81
8.1.3
Consistent Vs lumped mass matrices ..................................................................................................................... 81
8.1.4
Different kinds of solvers for Modal analysis ........................................................................................................... 81
8.1.5
Modal Analysis with Pre-Stressing effects............................................................................................................... 82
8.1.6
Modal Analysis with Cyclic Symmetry ..................................................................................................................... 82
8.1.7
Modal Analysis with Damping.................................................................................................................................. 82
8.2
Reduced methods ............................................................................................................................................................... 83
8.3
Dynamic Response Analysis............................................................................................................................................... 84
8.3.1
Frequency response or Harmonic analysis ............................................................................................................. 85
8.3.2
Transient Dynamic analysis..................................................................................................................................... 85
8.3.3
Shock or Spectrum analysis .................................................................................................................................... 86
8.3.4
Random Vibration analysis...................................................................................................................................... 86
Buckling and Importance of Geometry:..................................................................................................................................... 87
9.1
Buckling analysis:................................................................................................................................................................ 87
9.1.1
Linear Buckling ........................................................................................................................................................ 87
9.1.2
Non-Linear Buckling ................................................................................................................................................ 88
10
Planning a Finite Element Analysis........................................................................................................................................... 89
10.1 Initial stage .......................................................................................................................................................................... 89
10.2 Model Preparation ............................................................................................................................................................... 91
11
Results Interpretation ................................................................................................................................................................ 93
11.1 The Analysis Report ............................................................................................................................................................ 93
11.2 The state of the System Matrix............................................................................................................................................ 93
11.3 Logical Checks .................................................................................................................................................................... 94
11.4 Equilibrium Checksum......................................................................................................................................................... 94
11.5 The Ballpark Check ............................................................................................................................................................. 94
11.6 Node Averaging................................................................................................................................................................... 94
11.7 Linear Vs Non-Linear .......................................................................................................................................................... 95
1 Introduction to FEA
1.1 Introduction
The finite element is a mathematical method for solving ordinary and partial differential
equations. Because it is a numerical method, it has the ability to solve complex problems
that can be represented in differential equation form. As these types of equations occur
naturally in virtually all fields of the physical sciences, the applications of the finite
element method are limitless as regards the solution of practical design problems.
Due to the high cost of computing power of years gone by, FEA has a history of being
used to solve complex and cost critical problems. Classical methods alone usually cannot
provide adequate information to determine the safe working limits of a major civil
engineering construction or an Automobile or an Aircraft. If a tall building, a large
suspension bridge or an Automobile or a Nuclear reactor failed catastrophically, the
economic and social costs would be unacceptably high.
In recent years, FEA has been used almost universally to solve structural engineering
problems. One discipline that has relied heavily on this technology is the Automotive and
Aerospace industry. Due to the need to meet the extreme demands for faster, stronger,
efficient and light weight Automobiles and Aircrafts, manufacturers have to rely on the
technique to stay competitive. But more importantly, due to safety, high manufacturing
costs of components and the high media coverage that the industry is exposed to,
Automotive and Aircraft companies need to ensure that none of their components fail,
that is to cease providing the service that the design intended.
FEA has been used routinely in high volume production and manufacturing industries for
many years, as to get a product design wrong would be detrimental. For example, if a
large manufacturer had to recall one model alone due to a piston design fault, they would
end up having to replace up to 10 million pistons. Similarly, if an oil platform had to shut
down due to one of the major components failing (platform frame, turrets, etc..), the cost
of lost revenue is far greater than the cost of fixing or replacing the components, not to
mention the huge environmental and safety costs that such an incident could incur.
The finite element method is a very important tool for those involved in engineering
design, it is now used routinely to solve problems in the following areas:
Nowadays, even the most simple of products rely on the finite element method for design
evaluation. This is because contemporary design problems usually cannot be solved as
accurately & cheaply using any other method that is currently available. Physical testing
was the norm in years gone by, but now it is simply too expensive and time consuming.
If one needs to evaluate the perimeter of the circle without using the conventional
formula, one of the approach could be to divide the above circle into a number of equal
segments. Join the beginning and end points of these segments by a straight line. Since it
is very easy to measure the length of a straight line, the length of each line multiplied by
the number of lines gives the perimeter of the circle.
For the above exercise let us ask the following questions?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is loaded and analyzed for
specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A
Design Engineer shall be able to verify a proposed design, which is intended to meet the
customer specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Things such as,
Modifying the design of an existing product or structure in order to qualify the product
or structure for a new service condition. Can also be accomplished In case of structural
failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new
condition.
3) Once the reference or known conditions are imposed, we shall define sets of
equations which are suitable to define the behavior of system. This involves
formulation of respective characteristic ( Stiffness in case of structural) equation
matrices.
4) Once the equations are set up we shall solve the same to know the unknowns and
get insight into system behavior. That is basically the system of matrices which
are nothing but a set of simultaneous equations are solved.
Within each of these modeling schemes, the Engineer can insert numerous algorithms
(functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear systems
are far less complex and generally ignore many subtleties of model loading and behavior.
Non-linear systems can account for more realistic behavior such as plastic deformation,
changing loads etc. and is capable of testing a component all the way to failure.
When we use a CAE software either developed in house of commercially available, the
first three steps are called as Pre-Processing phase, the fourth phase is called solution
phase and the fifth phase is called Post-Processing phase. Since FEA involves matrix
operations, it was referred to as Matrix methods for Structural analysis, in the initial days
where it was used only for structural behavior simulations.
The following are the five basic steps involved in an FEA analysis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Let us understand the above five steps one by one sequentially and see what it really
means to an Engineer.
Before proceeding further to learn more, we shall familiarize our selves with the
following:
1.4.1 What is an element?
Element is an entity , into which a system under study can be divided into. An element
definition can be specified by nodes. The shape (Area, length and Volume) element
depends upon the nodes with which it is made up of.
1.4.2 What are nodes?
Nodes are the corner point of an element. Nodes are independent entities in space. These
are similar to points in geometry. By moving a node in space an element shape can be
changed.
A line element has the shape of a line/curve and hence requires minimum of two nodes
to define it.
Why are we saying minimum number of nodes? Can an element have more number of
nodes than the minimum? If so under what circumstances? The answer is an obvious yes!
An area element has the shape of quadrilateral/triangle and hence requires minimum of
four/three nodes to define it.
As shown in the above pictures, there can be higher order elements which have additional
nodes ( At the mid of the element edge). That is when the element does not have a mid
side node on the edge, it is called a Linear element. If it has an additional node at the mid
side it is called a Quadratic or Second order element.
For Linear elements the edge is defined by a Linear function called shape function whose
degree is one. Hence the name linear elements. For elements having mid side nodes on
the edge Quadratic function called shape function whose degree is two is used. Hence the
name Second order or Quadratic element. Similarly elements can have more nodes on the
edges and hence the edge can be defined using higher degree equations. Such elements
are called higher degree elements.
The higher order elements when over lapped on geometry can represent, complex
shapes very well within few elements. Also the solution accuracy shall be more with the
higher order elements. But with higher order elements the computational effort required
is more.
1.5
How
FEA
ala
CAE
validation/guidance/optimization
can
be
used
for
design
1.6.1 Engineer
The Engineer who wishes to use this tool to advance his design cycles need not be
familiar with the theoretical basis of FEA. It is sufficient if he has good back ground in
strength of materials ( For Structural Analysis), Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics (For
Thermal analysis) coupled with good analytical/reasoning/design skills.
Besides to get best results through FEA simulations the Engineer should have:
Knowledge of facilities available in the FE Software being used
Knowledge of limitations in the FE Software being used
Knowledge of the effects of suppressing some geometric details
Knowledge on Usage of special elements to reduce analysis time
1.6.2 Software
The FEA software has to be chosen based upon a number of considerations like the
following:
Kind of designs that needs to be simulated
Flexibility and accuracy of the tool
Ability of the vendor to provide the technical support
Hardware configuration required
Last but not least, the ability of the vendor to continuously supply /enhance the future
versions.
1.6.3 Hardware
The computer system that is chosen to run CAE should be good configuration to run the
tool. Most often based upon the design requirements one would choose the software tool
and the user should ensure that the minimum configuration as specified by the software
vendor is available.
Based upon specific requirements, one can opt for a higher computer configuration than
the minimum specified the software vendor. Most PC versions of FE packages for
professional use (as opposed to academic) run efficiently on MS-Windows with the latest
service packs and also with an Intel type of chips. The platform used is usually a function
of the cost the user is willing to pay for the hardware it will run on.
The present day CAE /FEA software can simulate the performance of any of the most of
the systems, such as a Juice mixer to the Turbine that generates power to run it, Or a
Circuit Breaker that controls the power out put from the Turbine, Or an Electro magnetic
field that surrounds the Circuit Breaker.
There are a variety of commercial CAE software available in the world. No one software
is supposed to have all the capabilities that can meet the complete simulations
requirements of a design. Hence based upon the requirements, some of the firms use one
or more of CAE software. Some firms develop their own customized versions of software
to supplement the those provided by commercial software. Some of the popular
commercially available FEA software are as follows:
It can also simulate things such as a speeding vehicle slamming against a barrier or a bird
hitting an aircraft engine.
In total any thing that can be converted into a mathematical equation can be simulated
using FEA techniques.
Adina
Abaqus
Ansys
MSC/Nastran
Cosmos
NISA
Marc
Ls-Dyna
MSC/Dytran
Star-CD
Finally six stress distributions are determined via the stress/strain relationships of the
material.
Commercial packages usually go one further and calculate a range of more usuable stress
fields from the six stress components such as the principal stresses and a host of failure
prediction stresses as described by the most common yield criteria (Von Mises/ /Tresca,
etc.). The displacements can be used in conjunction with the element stiffness to
determine the reaction forces and the forces internal to each element (Element Internal
forces).
A point to note is that at least one of the displacements must be known before the rest can
be determined (before the system of equations can be solved). These known
displacements are referred to as boundary conditions and are oftentimes a zero value.
Without these boundary conditions, we would get the familiar singularity or zero-pivot
error message from the solver, indicating that no unique solution was obtainable.
At various zones in the system under study under Steady or Transient conditions the
system response can be studied for thermal effects.
Incase of thermal analysis, the respective heat balance equations are solved.
At times it might be required to study the dual effects a system under goes. That is when
a component is exposed to certain heating environment, it might be required first study
the thermal characteristics of the system and then study the effect thermal heating on the
structural stability.
Cyclic or repeated loading can cause failure at lower stresses than static loading. This
aspect is central to fatigue performance. Fatigue can be described as a progressive failure
phenomenon that proceeds by the initiation and propagation of cracks to an unstable size.
High frequencies with low amplitudes are characteristic of noise and vibration studies
while the low frequencies with moderate amplitudes represent classical fatigue. Finally,
low frequency with high amplitude is typical of impact fatigue.
S-N data can be used reliably for design only if the test conditions for generating S-N
data match the service conditions for the component. Unless the material fatigue
properties and the effects of machining are well known, the stresses predicted by FEA
probably cannot be used to predict fatigue life. However, the FEA stress data can be used
to redesign fatigues that have known failure problems. The fatigue life cannot be
predicted from stress unless the material's fatigue characteristics are known.
All the modeling work one does as part of CAD modeling can be called as geometric
modeling. Geometric model often works as complete representation of actual component
to be made. Especially Cast/Molded parts have features like drafts and some fillets for the
ease of manufacturing. Based upon the type and nature of simulations, FEA model need
not be similar to Geometric model.
Features like drafts and fillets can be conveniently ignored while performing a structural
analysis, if they are not expected to play role in effecting the stress levels. Also most of
the times based upon the requirements it is not un-usual in FEA simulations to model
some portion of a component or system as an equivalent, point or line or an area in 3D
space to bring down the efforts required for simulations without sacrificing the accuracy
of the results.
When we are building a geometry we have various entities like points, lines, curves,
areas, surfaces, volumes and solids. Incase of FEA we have only two entities called nodes
and elements. We use geometric entities as aids to build the FEA entities. But what we
really need for the simulations is only the FEA entities.
behavior across the thickness exactly. Figures below show the configuration and the
number of nodes required for each element.
1.17.1 Point/Mass:
This is the basic element: This is represented by a point in space. This element can be
used to represent the mass as well as inertia of a component(s) or a portion of a system .
Hence this element is also called as a mass element. Mass elements are used to define
concentrated mass in a model.
1.17.2 Beam/Bar element :
These elements are represented by lines. This element is formed by connecting two or
more nodes as shown in picture below. These elements can be used to simulate the
beam/bar behavior in a 2D or 3D space.
1.17.6.4
Axi-symmetric
For components whose geometry can be generated using surface of revolution and which
are uniformly loaded around the circumference, it is enough if we just analyze one slice
of the component at any angle. Elements used to simulate such behavior are called Axisymmetric elements. These elements are similar in shape to Plane elements.
Depending upon the software, there are certain rules as to how these elements need to be
crated. It is important to note that most of the FEA software vendors have specific
limitations on the use of axi-symmetric elements, some define the axis of symmetry to be
the global x-axis, where others define it as the global y-axis, such a limitation usually has
a further limitation that no nodes can have a negative coordinate value.
Some FE packates have a special class of axi-symmetric element that allows non axisymmetric loads and boundary conditions. For these elements, each load is defined as a
series of harmonic functions written in the form of a Fourier series. These special type of
axi-symmetric element are usually referred to as harmonic elements.
1.17.6.5 Boundary/Infinite Elements
When analyzing things like electro magnetic radiation, one can not model until into deep
space and hence have to limit our selves into a finite domain without compromising on
the likely results. Under such situations, the boundary of the component under study is
surrounded by elements called infinite elements. Usually the solution to these infinite
elements is based upon a new technique called boundary element technique.
In a Boundary element analysis, it is sufficient if one just models the boundary of the
domain instead of modeling the whole domain. But the major disadvantage of this
method is one needs to know the behavior of the system under the influence of unit
load/condition. Hence boundary element method has always to be preceded by a Finite
Element analysis.
The Apex of the surface to contact element shown below becomes the ground, if
these elements are used as surface to ground elements
Usually CAD tools are very robustly built to capture the geometry of a component
without any deviation from geometry. CAE tools are built to give most possible accurate
solutions within very less solution time. Efforts are being put in by CAD vendors to
integrate some of the CAE capabilities into the CAD software. Similarly efforts are being
put in place by CAE vendors to integrate some of the CAD capabilities into the CAE
software. However, keeping aside the tall claims of these vendors any CAD or CAE
software is far from reaching the ease with which the other can enable solution. The
modeling features available in CAD software can represent a complex curve with a
higher degree polynomial since it capabilities are optimized for this purpose. Where as
the modeling capabilities in a CAE tool are primitive and CAE tools can not be used to
create a highly complex geometry.
When Finite Elements are created using the capabilities in CAE tool, most of the times,
the Finite elements have reference to the geometry. That is the elements or nodes can be
considered to be attached to the geometry without being independent. Hence to apply
boundary conditions or loads, the nodes or elements can be selected by selecting the
geometry. Otherwise, the loads or boundary conditions can be applied to the geometry
which in turn can be transferred to the nodes/elements.
Hence the usual practice is Engineers often model the geometry in any of the CAD tools
and export them to CAE software through IGES/ACIS/STEP/DXF format. Most of the
times the transfer may not be 100% and some of he geometry could be lost in the process
of transfer. Engineers would then repair the geometry to make up for the loss and then
generate the FE Mesh(Finite elements) using the capabilities provided by pre-processing
modules of CAE software.
The present trend is to use the dedicated translators developed fro seam less geometric
data transfer between CAD and CAE tools. However in this process also some loss of
data can be observed at times. Here the mode of operation could be using some of the
tessellation techniques convert a higher degree curve or surface into a number of lower
degree curves/surfaces that can be understood by CAE tool.
If a model is drawn in mm for example and the material properties are defined in SI units,
then the results will be out of scale by factors of 106. The same units should be applied in
all directions, otherwise results will be difficult to interpret, or in extreme cases the
results will not show up mistakes made during the loading and restraining of the model.
This method of applying boundary conditions shall be an effective and user friendly way
of applying the same. Hence usually associativity is highly desirable in most of the cases.
Almost all the CAE software are independent of the system of units to be used unless
other wise specified. Hence it is the responsibility of the user to ensure that he uses
consistent and appropriate units as applicable. CAE software can not take care of the
units.
Before solution to a problem can be obtained using CAE tools, it is a must for the user to
define the physical properties required for each element. The physical properties can be
defined independently for each individual element or they can be defined for a set/group
of elements, provided the set/group of elements have same properties.
Usually the physical properties required for an structural element should be such that,
coupled with the nodal/elemental information one should be able to calculate the volume,
mass, moment of inertia and polar/mass moment of inertia for each element.
However based upon the CAE software, certain additional physical properties also can
be input to get certain type of results as out puts apart from the regular out puts.
In general, If 2D elements are being used, the thickness property is required. 1D beam
elements require area, Ixx, Iyy, Ixy, J, and a direction cosine property which defines the
direction of the beam axis in 3D space. Shell elements, which are 2D in nature (2D
elements in 3D space), require orientation and neutral surface offset parameters to be
defined. Special elements (mass, contact, spring, gap, coupling, damper etc.) require
properties (specific to the element type) to be defined for their use.
1.22.1 Physical properties required for a Mass element
Since the mass element is represented by a point, one needs to input the mass as well as
the moment of inertia in all applicable directions (As per degrees of freedom).
1.22.2 Physical properties required for a Beam element
The beam element is represented only by a line. Hence from the element data only its
length can be calculated. Hence to calculate the volume, mass, moment of inertia and
polar/mass moment of inertia for each element we need to specify the area, moment of
inertia along the local axes of the elements as physical properties.
1.22.3 Physical properties required for a Shell element
The shell element is represented by a Quadrilateral/Triangle. Hence from the element
data only area can be calculated. Hence it is enough if the thickness of the element is
input as physical properties.
1.22.4 Physical properties required for a Plane element
Unless other wise stated, plane stress or plane strain problems are solved for unit
thickness. Since Plane elements are Quadrilateral/Triangle in shape no physical
properties are not required for these elements. However thickness can be assigned as a
physical property for the Plane stress element.
2 Pre-Processing
2.1 Introduction to Pre-Processing
Material properties play a vital role in deriving the characteristic/stiffness matrix of the
element. Material properties coupled with the physical properties and geometry
information of the element one can completely derive the stiffness/characteristic matrix
for the system/component under study.
Some of the material properties can differ significantly with respect to temperature.
Hence all the CAE software tools/Solvers have provision to read/accept and process
material properties based upon the temperature.
1.23.1 Material properties required for a Linear Static stress analysis
The material properties required for a Linear Static analysis are the Youngs Modulus
and Poissons ratio. Density is required if the inertia effects are to be simulated. If
thermal strains/stresses are to be simulated, Co-efficient of thermal expansion needs to be
specified as the material property.
1.23.2 Material properties required for a non Linear Static stress analysis
Apart from the material properties required for a Linear Static analysis, details of material
stress strain curve are required. Incase of contact elements, the friction between the
contacting surfaces should be defined as one of the material property.
1.23.3 Material properties required for Dynamic analysis
The material properties required for a Linear Static analysis are the Youngs Modulus
and Poissons ratio and density. Damping co-efficient or mode based values of damping
are required if the system need to be analyzed for response under time varying or shock
or frequency based or random loads.
If non-linearities are present in the material, then material stress strain curve also needs
to be input. Incase of problems involving simulation of contact behavior with friction,
then co-efficient of friction between the two surfaces needs to be input as a material
property.
1.23.4 Material properties required for a Thermal analysis
If only a steady state thermal analysis needs to be performed, only thermal conductivity
needs to be input. If a transient thermal analysis needs to be performed, to account for the
heat/thermal capacity, density as well as specific heat needs to be input as material
property.
Manual meshing is a long and tedious process for models with any degree of geometric
complication, but with useful tools emerging in pre-processors, the task is becoming
easier. Automatic mesh generators are very useful and popular. The mesh is created
automatically by a mesh engine, the only requirement is to define the mesh density along
the edges of the model. Automatic meshing has limitations as regards mesh quality and
solution accuracy. The currently available Automatic brick element (Hexa) meshers are
limited in function as they can mesh only few regular shapes like cubes etc., but are
steadily improving. The present popular method of mesh generation is by simply
selecting the mesh command on the preprocessor list through Graphical User Interface
(GUI).
Often the creation of mesh (Finite Element generation) can consume significant amount
of time in the total cycle time required for a CAE simulation. It is very difficult to create
all the elements by manually picking the nodes. Even to do this, the nodes should be
present. To aid the process of meshing certain kinds of algorithms are built into each
software. Each software has certain capabilities and hence certain kinds of meshing
operations can be done with ease based upon the software.
Usually meshing capabilities of most of the CAE tools are poor. Hence Engineers
generally employ various kinds of third party tools for pre-processing ( Mesh and
Boundary/Field condition simulations) which are capable of writing the FE data
(Elements and Nodes) into the format readable by respective CAE solvers.
Apart from the above the pre-processing stage also includes specification of material
properties, Physical properties and applications of loads and Boundary conditions.
Higher the number of elements, higher shall be solution accuracy. The solution accuracy
also can be improved by adding mid side nodes to the edges of the elements ( This
amounts to increase in the number of nodes without increasing the number of elements).
The effect of increase in number of elements/nodes in the FE model over solution
accuracy is as shown below:
Also meshing approach used also can cater to improve the solution accuracy, which are
as follows. Usually the first of these approaches is usually followed to get good results.
2.4.3 H-Adaptivity
This approach involves in manually determining the number of elements required to get
good results at each location. The Engineer performing the analysis needs to have
sufficient experience in determining the correct mesh density required for such an
approach.
This is called Hierarchical adaptivity. This is due to fact the engineer judicially (Assigns
Hierarchy) decides the regions that need fine mesh (more elements) and coarse mesh
(less elements).
2.4.5 R-Adoptivity
This is called relocation adoptivity. Under this approach the Engineer generates he mesh
that he thinks is he best for analysis requirements. Later based upon set of algorithms,
from the results of analysis the software relocates the nodes to adjust the mesh density.
This way the mesh shall be coarsened/refined at locations wherever it is required.
2.4.4 P-Adaptivity
This approach involves in adding mid side nodes to the edges of elements to increase the
solution accuracy. This is equivalent to increasing the Polynomial order of the equation
representing the edge of the element. Hence the name P-Adaptivity. Computationally this
kind of approach consumes lot of solver time. Usually when one wants to follow this
approach there are capabilities available in certain CAE software which determine the
degree of polynomial required to get good results.
Usually Polynomial order is limited to 9. These kinds of solvers are usually used by inexperienced Engineers.
Few points to be noted from the above quarter model of a plate with hole are:
For the coarse mesh the number of elements are very less
The mesh does not capture the round hole accurately
It would have been sufficient if we would have just increased the number of
elements around the hole than increasing the number of elements all around like
the fourth node on the same face is away from the plane beyond a certain
angle, the results of analysis obtained by using these kind of elements
shall be erroneous. Similarly for a shell element also if the third node is
out of plane by a certain angle error due to warpage can occur.
2) Maximum Angle: If the obtuse angle between two edges in a
Quadrilateral is more than a prescribed limit, then erroneous results can be
the outcome of an analysis.
3) Minimum Angle: If the acute angle between two edges in a
Quadrilateral/Triangle is less than a prescribed limit, then erroneous
results can be the outcome of an analysis.
In general the FE-Method is a calculated approach, the solution cant be as exact as the
analytic result. Be aware of the fact that convergence can be obtained for the
deformations of a structure, but the stresses can still be inaccurate up to 30%. The
precision of an analysis depends mainly on the size and position of elements, the type of
element (triangular or quadrilateral based) and also the element formulation (linear,
quadratic, plane stress, axi-symmetric etc.).
The direction of surface normals drawn fro the face of the shell element
determine the top or bottom surface of the element. That if we take two
adjacent element s each with four nodes and of them if one is generated by
picking the nodes in clock-wise-direction and for the other if we generate
it by picking the nodes in the counter clock-wise-direction, then the
surface normals for both the elements point in opposite direction.
Although both the elements represent the a portion of the same solid, this
kind of definition for elements assumes that the top or bottom surface for
these two elements are in opposite direction for these two elements.
Usually there are certain parameters that determine the quality of the results. The
Engineer has to ensure that these parameters are maintained to the minimum required
levels in the FE model for obtaining good results. These are called mesh quality
parameters which are as discussed below:
1) Warpage: This is applicable to only Hexahedron and shell elements only.
Any three nodes on any face of the Hexahedron element define a plane. If
Also while reviewing the results of analysis ( Post processing) most of the
CAE tools provide for an option to view the results at the top, mid or
bottom surface. Hence if the shell normals are different for different
elements, when we want to review the results at the top surface for all
elements, In reality we shall be reviewing the same at bottom surface for
some of he elements.
Structural deformations are proportional to the loads applied. This infers that the
loading pattern does not changed due to the deformed shape and no geometric
stiffening occurs due to the application of the load.
All materials behave in a linear elastic fashion. Hence, the material deforms along the
straight line portion of the stress-strain curve (no plasticity or failures occur). Highly
localized stress concentrations are usually permitted as long as gross yielding does
not take place.
Loads are all static. This means that the loads are applied to the structure in a slow or
steady fashion and in a way that makes them time independent (are assumed to be
constant for an infinite period of time).
Let us assume that one end is fixed ( At node 1 as shown in figure above). Then the
matrix of unknowns shall be as follows:
For system involving large number of elements with more degrees of freedom, this can
result in substantially huge matrices. Hence it becomes almost impossible to calculate the
solution manually for any system.
Since the solution methodology involves large number of matrix operation FEA was
called as Matrix methods for structural analysis by Structural Engineers. As time
progressed the methodology was well developed to take care of non-structural systems as
well.
3.3 Loads
Some type of load is usually applied to the analysis model. The loading may be in the
form of a point load, a pressure or a displacement in a stress (displacement) analysis, a
temperature or a heat flux in a thermal analysis and a fluid pressure or velocity in a fluid
analysis. The loads may be applied to a point, an edge, a surface or a even a complete
body. The loads should be in the same units as the model geometry and material
properties specified. In the cases of modal (vibration) and buckling analyses, a load does
not have to be specified for the analysis to run (Only for Linear analysis).
The following is the description about some of the loads that can be applied:
3.3.1 Force/Moment Load
A force of specified value is applied at a node to simulate the load that is experienced by
a point in the structure/component. Force or Moment of required value can be applied
along any of the three global directions.
3.3.2 Pressure Load
Pressure load is used to simulate the distributed loads that act on a structure/component.
Pressure loads always act normal to surface. As discussed previously, shell normals play
a very important role in deciphering the direction of load application. Also each
Hexahedron element has 6 faces. Hence care should be taken while specifying the correct
face of Hexahedron element to simulate the correct load.
3.3.3 Thermal Loads
If a component is heated it expands freely, if there is no obstruction to it. That is it
results in thermal strain. When the component is obstructed from expanding it results in
compression loads and hence development of compressive stress values in the
component.
If temperatures are known at each point ( node) in the component or system, the value
can be specified directly. But most of the times we know only temperature at few points
in the system besides having information about the other thermal conditions of the
system.
Under such conditions, we can perform a thermal analysis, predict the temperatures at
each node and then apply these temperatures as thermal loads.
3.3.4 Inertia Loads
Inertia loads such as equilibrium forces in a shaft rotating at a constant angular velocity
or the self weight of the component or system due to gravity can be simulated in FEA
by invoking the respective options.
3.5 Solvers
The FE solver can be logically divided into three main parts, the pre-solver, the
mathematical-engine and the post-solver. The pre-solver reads in the model created by
the pre-processor and formulates the mathematical representation of the model. All
parameters defined in the pre-processing stage are used to do this, so if you left
something out, chances are the pre-solver will complain and aborts the solution process.
If the model is correct the solver proceeds to form the element-stiffness matrix for the
problem and calls the mathematical-engine which calculates the primary unknown result
(displacement, temperatures, etc.). The results are returned to the solver and the postsolver is used to calculate derived results (strains, stresses, heat fluxes, velocities, etc.) for
each node within the component or continuum. All these results are written to a file
which may be read by the post-processor.
The disadvantage of this solver is it requires very high RAM. This solver keeps all the
equation s in the RAM at any point of time. This does not involve any row operations for
the stiffness matrix. Hence all the rows have independent existence. Hence incase if
multiple processors are available the rows can be passed onto them for solution. This
makes this solver IDEAL for super computing.
For multiple load cases, he solution needs to be run multiple times for the same set of
boundary conditions. . If the total number of degrees of freedom in a problem is n the
number of multiplications involved are the order of k*n2. Here usually k is less than
n/4. That is why iterative solvers are minimum 4 times faster than the Frontal solvers
for the same problem.
But convergence problems might arise if the elements are of bad quality or the problem
has too much variations in the stiffness values across various zones.
3.5.3 Sparse Direct Matrix Solver
Disk space wise and run time wise this solver lies in between the Frontal and Iterative
solvers. Node numbering scheme is important for optimum run time using this solver.
The RAM requirements are also moderate for this solver since only either upper half or
lower half of the matrix needs to be stored in the RAM. Multiple load cases can be solved
with ease like incase of frontal solver.
all the elements. That is why these nodal results are some times referred to as Average
Nodal Results.
As discussed previously the process of reviewing the results with the help of CAE tool is
called post processing. In this stage, the results of the analysis are read and interpreted.
They can be presented in the form of a table, a contour plot, deformed shape of the
component or the mode shapes and natural frequencies if frequency analysis is involved.
Other results are available for fluids, thermal and electrical analysis types. Most postprocessors provide an animation service, which produces an animation and brings your
model to life.
If mesh density is not managed properly, the element stresses and the average nodal value
can be quiet different. User should ensure good mesh density to ensure minimal variance
between the elemental and nodal results.
If the results are available only in the form of numbers at each nodal location in the
component or system, it becomes very difficult for the engineer to interpret the same and
take some decisions. Contour plots are usually the most effective way of viewing results
for structural type problems. Hence the usual trend is to show the results also in the form
of colored contours. Each color represents a range of values for the region enclosed by it.
This approach gives a good insight into the state of the system on a Macro level. If one
wants the exact value at a particular location, he can refer to the actual numbers. This
makes the process of judgment very easy and user friendly. Slices can be made through
3D models to facilitate the viewing of internal stress patterns.
All post-processors now include the calculation of stress and strains in any of the x, y or z
directions, or indeed in a direction at an angle to the coordinate axes. The principal
stresses and strains may also be plotted, or if required the yield stresses and strains
according to the main theories of failure (von mises, St. Venant, Tresca etc.). Other
information such as the strain energy, plastic strain and creep strain may be obtained for
certain types of analyses.
This provides for a better way of visualizing the deformation pattern of the
component/system. However, the color bands or the printed values of the displacement
shall be the actual values.
in unexpected zones, thus considerably affecting the accuracy of the results. Parabolic
pyramid elements provide results at least as accurate as linear brick elements and are less
sensitive to distortion to poor orientation in the model.
Both 20 noded brick and 10 noded pyramid elements provide good stress results for
reasonable meshes with a comparable number of nodes, while 8 noded bricks and 4
noded pyramids require many more elements for solids with curved boundaries to
achieve the same geometrical and stress accuracy.
3.7.4 Over Simplification
Oftentimes suppression of small details is a good way of reducing the time to solution.
However, there are times when small details should not be removed.
If a small detail is located directly on the load path within a structure, then it may have a
considerable effect on the stress results. Details should be included in cases where their
removal would cause a considerable reduction in the neutral axis of bending. The shorter
the neutral axis, the stiffer the structure.
Sharp discontinuities can greatly increase stress, if there are particular areas of interest in
a model, then the finer details should be included.
Another common oversight is to apply a static steady state load value where there will be
much higher loads experienced due to impluse. For example, if large boulders are loaded
onto a truck trailer, they probably will not be lowered in gently. Therefore, the impulse
loads experienced by the trailer chassis will far exceed the static load of the boulders,
especially when the trailer is almost full.
The usual rule of thumb is to start with a simple representation of the component, analyze
it and see if it is behaving as expected. If it is, then more detail can be added in stages,
repeating the analysis each time to gain an appreciation of the amount of detail that is
required. However, attention should be given to the effect of detail exclusion before any
analysis is carried out.
Also in initial stages of design validation use automatic mesh generation and then for
freezing the final design use a refined and manually prepared mesh.
Also, Solution accuracy depends primarily on how well the assumed variation of stress
within an element fits the actual variation of stress within an element fits the actual
variation in a structure. Linear pyramid (tetrahedral) elements often provide inaccurate
results, especially for bending type problems. However, accuracy can be improved
dramatically by choosing parabolic elements instead.
Well shaped linear brick (hexahedral) elements can provide accurate results. The
elements perform at their best as regular prisms (cubes). Automatic hexa (brick) meshers
meshing complicated geometry, however will introduce distorted or transitional elements
An alternative is to refine the mesh at the local details. This requires specialist knowledge
on how the results will vary over the model domain.
Computed values such as stress and strain, are evaluated at locations on the element
known as Gauss points. These points are always well inside element boundaries. Values
at other positions are interpolated or extrapolated. If this is done across a boundary
between two elements, then it should be reasonably accurate, but extrapolating to the
edge of an element on the edge of a structure, where the stresses will probably be at the
highest and of most interest, can lead to significant errors in rapidly changing stress fields
if the mesh density or the element order is too low.
The best way of ensuring that your mesh is sufficiently refined is to plot the results with
node and element averaging switched off. A problem will materialize in the form of a
discontinuity (or step) of the solution parameter between elements (the contours will be
stepped across the element boundary rather than smooth as they should be).
The analyst should be aware of derivative type solutions. In a displacement analysis, the
stress is obtained by differentiating the displacement results. Therefore, if the element is
parabolic, then a linear variation of stress will be obtained. It is important that this is kept
in mind when defining the mesh density and grade. Remember that derivatives always
require more elements to converge. Heat flux in thermal analyses are also derivative
based results.
3.7.6 Formulation Error
Formulation error results from the use of elements that do not precisely describe the
behavior of the physical problem. Elements which are used to model physical problems
that they are not suited, are sometimes referred to as ill-conditioned or mathematically
unsuitable elements for the problem in hand.
For example a particular finite element might be formulated on the assumption that
displacements vary in a linear manner over the domain. Such an element will produce no
formulation error when it is used to model linearly varying physical problem (linear
varying displacement field in this example), but would create a significant formulation
error if it used to represent a parabolicly or cubicly or logarithmically varying
displacement field. Formulation error can be reduced by selecting the proper element
type and mesh.
At times we shall not have any idea of a load that a system is subjected to. But we might
know how much a point in the system has deformed under given conditions, like a
cantilever beam end getting deflected by certain amount.
This situation arises if the same component or system is to be analyzed for results under
different types of load and boundary conditions. For the same model if boundary
conditions are different then the matrix of unknowns shall be different for each case.
Similarly if the loads are different for each case the Load matrix shall be different. But
the stiffness matrix remains the same.
Under such a situation instead of specifying the load, we can specify the known value of
displacement and the solver can still solve the problem and get the results.
Unless otherwise specified the applied forced loads or the displacement boundary
conditions act along the direction parallel to the global axes.
3 times displacement in X-direction at nodes a plus 2.5 times displacement in Xdirection at node b is equal to 0.8 times the displacement in X-direction at node c.
Such a condition is called a constraint equation and can be represented as follows.
At times we might have to apply a net force acting in a direction which is at an angle to
any of the global axes. Or at times we need to apply a force acting radially out/in wards.
Under such circumstances, we either need to resolve the loads into components along the
global axes and apply them.
Alternately most of the CAE software provide an option of creating a local co-Ordinate
system, into which the nodes at which the loads are to be applied can be moved. Then the
loads can be applied in the local direction (Parallel to the local axes).
Many structural applications of the finite element method contain long slender regions,
thin zones and complex chunky portions. Long slender regions are best represented with
beam elements, thin zones can usually be modeled using shell elements, and chunky
portions are best represented as three-dimensional elements. In order that each region is
represented by an appropriate element type, some sort of scheme is required to form a
link between the meshes of dissimilar dimension.
Interface elements for similar dimension transitions can come in two main types, those
that have a one to one relationship and those that have a one to many relationship. The
most common one is the one to one, it is used for coupling elements that have edges with
different numbers of nodes. This type has been used mainly to couple elements with
different orders of interpolation. An example of a one-to-one transition element is shown
below:
It should be noted that the element on the right has only two nodes on one side, this is to
facility the proper coupling of eight noded quadrilaterals to four noded quadrilaterals on
the left. The formulation of the transition element will ensure that kinematically
equivalent nodal forces are applied to the elements on either side of it. These types of
transition elements can be cumbersome to use as they need to be oriented in a specific
manner and so usually require that the mesh is created manually.
Mixed dimensioned transition elements are used in regions where there is a mismatch
between element dimensions. The image shown here indicates a transition from where
the shell and solid are stitched together. The advantage of this type of transition is that
small 3D local details can be evaluated in structures that are otherwise thin-walled in
nature. Notice how there is a mismatch between the element densities, there are four
elements across the width in the shell side while there are seven elements on the solid
side of the transition.
Transitioning schemes fall into two main categories. The first category are transitions
from one element type to another that are of the same dimension (e.g both are shell or
solid elements). The second type of transition is where element of different dimension are
joined (e.g. a shell to solid transition).
4.6.1 Transition Elements
Transition elements, which are also known as interface elements, have been developed
for both similar dimension and mixed dimension transitions.
the very high stiffness would be able to transfer all the energy to the adjacent nodes.
CAE tools provide for definition of such rigid elements.
Rigid links elements ususally come in two forms, 2D and 3D. Planar rigid links are
intended to connect plane stress, plane strain, beam, and axisymmetric solid elements.
The rigid linking formulation connects two nodes and produces constrained
displacements that satisfy kinematic relationships. 2D rigid link elements usually have
the requirement that the model must lie in the global XY plane.
4.7 Sub-Modeling
At times we are interested in a studying the behavior of a large model without losing
accuracy of the models at some critical locations. But if the local regions need good
results the mesh there needs to be very fine. Achieving the required kind of mesh
transition might result in large number of elements where in the computer resources
might not be sufficient to solve the problem at one go.
Hence under such situations a multi pronged approach called sub-modeling is employed.
Sub-modeling is based on St. Venant's principle, which states that if an actual distribution
of forces is replaced by a statically equivalent system, the distribution of stress and strain
is altered only near the regions of load application. Therefore, if the boundaries of the sub
model are far enough from the stress concentration, reasonably accurate results can be
calculated in the sub model.
The 3D variant of the rigid link element can be arbitrarily oriented in 3D space. It is
designed to connect three dimensional elements such as beams, shells, and solids. Again
the rigid linking connects two nodes and produces constrained displacements that satisfy
kinematic relationships, but it is more general than the planar type.
There is usually one master node and there can be one or more slave nodes in each
kinematic element. When the master node moves in space, the rigid linking mechanism
enforces the slave nodes to move with it, that is they maintain a constant relative distance
and orientation to the master node. As the slave nodes maintain constant proximity, the
nodes associated with the rigid element cannot deform relative to each other. This
restricts them from undergoing load based deformations and so a stress disturbance is
observed in the region where the link was applied. Therefore, kinematic elements should
really only be used in areas of a model where the stress quantities are not required.
Commercial CAE software have implemented an improved version of rigid links that
allows warping of the cross-section. They also allow linear contractions between nodes
that comprise the coupling element, this means that the stress disturbances are reduced
considerably.
4.6.3 Welding
Whenever two different pieces are to be welded together, mathematically it amounts to
transfer of the force experienced by one piece to the other. Hence to simulate welding,
one can use wither coupling of the nodes or generate elements called rigid elements
between two nodes where force transfer should take place due to welding.
The rigid elements are similar to beam elements but have very high stiffness ( That is
comparable to the that of adjacent regular elements) with zero mass. This element with
Sub modeling allows the user to study a localized part of a model with a refined mesh
based on the solution from an initial, global model with a coarse mesh. The sub model is
analyzed as an independent simulation. The only link between it and the global analysis
is the transfer of the values of variables to the relevant boundary nodes of the sub model.
Sub model boundaries do not have match element boundaries in the global model, the
evaluation of the nodal values in the sub model can be determined by interpolating
between results in the coarse model. Most of the CAE software are capable of doing this
automatically.
Under this approach, first a coarse model is made and analyzed for behavior. Then a
piece of the model containing the region of interest is chosen. The boundary of the model
are chosen such that the results remain more or less same irrespective of the mesh
density.
The FE mesh for such a model is then refined to the level of accuracy required and then
the boundary conditions are applied at the cut boundaries. Since the number of nodes at
the cut boundary are more compared to those in the initial model, the results in the
original model are transferred to the boundaries of the cut model by interpolation. Loads
any present in the region are gain applied and then the solution is re-run to get accurate
results at regions of interest. The approach can be repeated for multiple regions of
interest.
Sub models can usually be used with all types of analysis procedures, including nonlinear
and dynamic analysis models.
This fast analysis technique is also known as the cut-boundary displacement method or
the specified boundary displacement method. The cut boundary is the boundary of the
sub model which represents a cut through the coarse model. Analysis results calculated
on the cut boundary of the coarse model are specified as boundary conditions for the sub
model.
It is important to apply a symmetric constraint to all new edges and surfaces that are
created due to taking advantage of the symmetry property. In this case, the vertical
constraint is to prevent any horizontal movement, while the horizantal constraint would
be to prevent any vertical movement. Had this been a 2D mesh in 3D space, further
conditions would have to have been applied, i.e. constrain the model from rotation about
the planar axes.
In cases were only minor details disrupt a structure's symmetry, you can oftentimes
ignore them or treat them as being symmetric, in order to gain the benefits of using a
smaller analysis model. The gain in model simplification usually outweighs the cost in
reduced accuracy when un-symmetric features are deliberately ignored. Such modeling
practices should be carried out carefully.
5 Non-Linear Solutions
5.1 Non-Linear Analyses
In order to explain non-linearity in stress analyses, lets examine the nature of linear
solutions. Many assumptions are made in linear analyses, the two primary ones being the
stress/strain relationship and the deformation behavior. The stress is assumed to be
directly proportional to strain and the structure deformations are proportional to the loads.
A fishing rod is an example of a non-linear structure made of linear material. A stress
analysis problem is linear only if all conditions of proportionality hold. If any one of
them is violated, then we have a Non-Linear problem.
Most real life structures, especially plastics, are non-linear, perhaps both in structure and
in material. Most plastic materials have a non-linear stress strain relationship. The nonlinearity arising from the nature of material is called 'Material Non-linearity'.
Furthermore, thin walled plastic structures exhibit a non-linear load-deflection
relationship, which could arise even if the material were linear (fishing rod). This kind is
called geometric non-linearity.
All non-linearities are solved by applying the load slowly (dividing it into a number of
small loads increments). The model is assumed to behave linearly for each load
increment, and the change in model shape is calculated at each increment. Stresses are
updated from increment to increment, until the full applied load is reached.
In a nonlinear analysis, initial conditions at the start of each increment is the state of the
model at the end of the previous one. This dependency provides a convenient method for
following complex loading histories, such as a manufacturing process. At each increment,
the solver iterates for equilibrium using a numerical technique such as the NewtonRaphson method. Due to the iterative nature of the calculations, non-linear FEA is
computationally expensive, but reflects the real life conditions more accurately than
linear analyses. The big challenge is to provide a convergent solution at minimum cost
(the minimum number of increments).
While simulating the structural behavior there could be various kinds of non-linearities
which are as follows:
5.1.1 Geometric Non-Linearity
At times the deformation of a component in a direction can be more than three times its
dimensions in a particular direction. Such problems fall under the category of geometric
non-linearity.
Such problems instead of solving in a single go, have to solved in multiple phases each
time updating the shape of the component from the results of the previous step. Here
instead of applying the load in one single step, shall be applied in multiple steps
incrementally so that deformed shape at the end of each step shall be input geometry for
the next step.
the load can be increased slowly with the time in a linear manner. Such a loading is called
Ramped load.
In the other approach, at the beginning of each step the load can be increased and kept
constant till the end of that time step. Such a loading pattern is called stepped load.
6 Hear Transfer
6.1 Thermal Analysis
Thermal analysis is used to determine the temperature distribution, heat accumulation or
dissipation, and other related thermal quantities in an object. The nodal degrees of
freedom (primary unknown data) are the temperatures. The primary heat transfer
mechanisms are conduction, convection and radiation. In addition, less dominant
phenomena such as change of phase (melting or freezing) and internal heat generation
can occur.
6.1.1 Conduction
Conduction describes the temperature within the solid body, but does not account for how
heat will flow to and from the component. In order to carry out analyses using a
conduction model alone, temperatures must be described as part of the boundary
condition description. Heat flows (otherwise known as heat flux) are at times specified
along boundaries in addition to temperature as boundary conditions.
6.1.2 Radiation
Radiation type boundary conditions are applied if there is a significant temperature
difference between bodies in an enclosed space, or if there is a far field heat source/sink.
This heat transfer mechanism occurs exclusively at the surface and is a function of the
fourth power of the absolute temperatures (Kelvin), the emissivity of the bodies and a
value known as the Stefan-Boltzman constant. The emissivity is dependent on surface
properties such as the colour and finish. Radiation type boundary conditions are highly
non-linear due to the difference between fourth order absolute temperatures. A further
complication is due to incidents where the surfaces of two adjacent radiating bodies are
not flat and parallel to each other. This case is overcome by introducing a shape factor
(otherwise known as a view, angle or interception factor) to the solution.
6.1.3 Convection
The convection heat transfer mechanism is due to the temperature gradient between a
fluid and a solid. This mechanism is complex as a boundary layer usually exists within
the fluid adjacent to the solid boundary. The heat flux is a function of the temperature
difference, T, and a heat transfer coefficient, h.
The heat transfer coefficient is dependent on many factors such as fluid pressure,
velocity, density, specific heat (ratio of specific heats if the fluid is compressible),
viscosity and conductivity. It is also dependent on surface properties such as roughness
and geometry.
Here it is assumed that the conditions of the system do not vary with time. In this kind of
analysis one can specify the temperature at know points as boundary conditions. Also the
heat transfer rate at known surfaces in the form of convection heat transfer co-efficients
along with the ambient temperatures can be specified.
Analysis where in the results of one analysis form as input for the other analysis are
referred to as coupled field analysis. Due to the complex nature of the physical processes
being modeled, it is not unusual to conduct coupled analyses as part of a design program.
Fluid-structural, fluid-thermal and fluid-acoustic analyses are most common types.
Thermal-Structural is the most commonly performed analysis.
The outputs that can be obtained through this analysis are temperatures values at various
nodes and the thermal flux values at each node. By careful formulation of the problem,
the heat transfer rate through various zones or the same through different modes of heat
transfer (Conduction/Convection/Radiation) can be estimates.
6.1.5 Transient thermal analysis
In a transient thermal analysis, the behavior of the system with respect to time ( Under
the influence of time varying conditions can be studied).
The results that can be obtained in a Transient thermal analysis are similar to those
obtained in a Steady state thermal analysis. But the results can be obtained over a range
of time.
Some of the CAE software has the ability to perform the coupled field analysis
automatically where as some do not have that capability. However in both cases the
Engineer can run one simulation, obtain out put results and apply them as inputs for the
other analysis.
8 Dynamic Analysis
8.1 Modal Analysis
Vibration usually becomes a concern when the amplitudes grow large enough to cause
either excessive stress, or if it disturbs the people in, on or near the surroundings. As far
as most structures are concerned, vibration will disturb the people around the structure
long before stress becomes an issue. There are many items of equipment (balances,
microscopes, cameras, transmission equipment etc.) that are very sensitive to vibration.
The above equation is similar to a matrix for which a characteristic equation with
(Where = 2). When such a equation is solved we get the values of . Such a
problem in matrix terminology is called as Eigen value problem. Hence modal analysis is
also to referred to as Eigen value analysis.
The square root of Eigen values is nothing but the natural frequency of the system. A
coarse mesh is sufficient for a modal/dynamic analysis compared to a stress analysis.
Modal analyses are important in machines where there is likely to be cyclic out of
balance forces, such as in rotating machinery (engines, electric and pneumatic motors,
generators, industrial equipment, etc.) and fluid flow applications (due to alternating
vortex shedding). The chief aim of any vibration analysis is to ensure that the system is
not subject to a dangerous resonant condition during the range of operation.
The equation for equilibrium for a dynamic system without any external forces is given
by:
[M]*Double differential [X] + [K]*[X] = 0 where,
[X] is the displacement matrix
[K] is the stiffness matrix
and [M] is the mass matirx
Figure showing the Mode Shapes for a Spring Mass System
But in a simple harmonic motion with a frequency the acceleration is given by :
Double differential [X] = -2[X]
Hence the equation of equilibrium can be re-written as :
When the stress/strain/displacement response is less than the allowable limit the
component need not be strengthened or re-designed to avoid resonance.
Dynamic response analysis can be performed in two ways. One is a direct method where
in the time varying loads are applied directly and the solution is achieved using time
integration solvers. The other method is an indirect method where in, to perform the
response analysis is always followed by a modal analysis. The two approaches give the
same results.
In a direct method, non-linearities in the structure can be accounted for where as in a in
an in-direct method the same can not be accounted for.
The second, third and so on Buckling factors represent the higher buckling modes and
their behavior while failing under buckling mode.
An important note is that the eigenvalue method does not take into account of any initial
imperfections in the structure and so the results rarely correspond with practical tests.
Eigenvalue solutions usually over estimate the buckling load and give no information
about the post-buckling state of the structure. Sudden buckling simply does not occur in
the real world.
9.1.2 Non-Linear Buckling
In this method of calculating the Buckling load, a geometric non linear analysis is run
with a sufficiently high load, where buckling can be detected by the change of
displacement in the model. Once the run completes or terminates, a force Vs Stiffness
curve is drawn from the results. Geometric non-linearity arises when deformations are
large enough to significantly alter the way load is applied, or load is resisted by the
structure. The load at which the stiffness of the component or structure changes suddenly
shall be Buckling load required to fail the same by Buckling mode.
The approach to a non-linear buckling solution is achieved by applying the load slowly
through a number of small loads increments. The model is assumed to behave linearly for
each load increment, and the change in model shape is calculated at each increment.
Stresses are updated from increment to increment, until the full applied load is reached.
The solution becomes an iterative procedure rather than one of matrix factorization alone,
and consequently is computationally expensive.
An interesting variation arises in the case of automotive applications. In the case of front
end collision, the hood is expected to crumple (buckle) in order to absorb the energy of
collision, as well as to save the passenger compartment. In such cases, we are not
designing against, but for buckling.
If the stress varies in two directions only, then a plane stress analysis is suitable. If
strain is constant through the thickness, then plane strain analysis is appropriate.
If there are any rotating parts, then a frequency analysis may be required to ensure
that they do not fail prematurely due to whirl fatigue.
If there are cyclic forces, then a full dynamic analysis may be required. If the
number of loading cycles is greater than 20,000 you may need to consider fatigue.
If individual loads vary, then some sort of time integration scheme will need to be
adopted.
If there are long and slender members or thin sheets that are subject to
compressive loads, then a buckling analysis is required. If the fundamental
buckling load factor is less than unity while the yield stress of the material has
been exceeded, then a geometrically and material non-linear analysis will be
required. It is very important to know in advance the type of expected buckling
(global or local, bifurcation or snap-through).
If there are complex components that are not of immediate interest, then they may
be condensed out as a super element. Their effect will be included in the overall
structural response, but will reduce analysis times considerably. Sub-structuring is
also useful where there are repetitions of geometry in the model. The repeated
geometry can be meshed and sub-structured out. This super element can then be
copied as required, hence forming the bulk of the structure using super elements.
Long slender regions can be represented by beam elements. If they are connected
to regions of complex geometry, loading or boundary conditions, then a join can
be made between beams and 3D elements using either full coupling algorithms or
kinematic
coupling
(rigid
links)
techniques.
If the geometry, loading and boundary conditions are axi-symmetric, then axisymmetric elements can be used effectively (except in a frequency or buckling
analysis).
It will be worth spending some time over relevant documentation on the physical
phenomena being studied.
If the stress varies linearly through the thickness of thin-walled regions, shell
elements can be used. If it varies parabolically, then at least three solid, second order
elements are required through the thickness in order to resolve a representative state
of stress (stress varies linearly in parabolic displacement elements).
If the overall displacement is greater than the characteristic dimension (shell
thickness, beam depth, etc., then a large displacement analysis is required (a
geometrically non-linear analysis).
Large gradients in stress levels will require a high mesh density to capture the
behavior appropriately.
them via the pre-processor GUI, check to ensure that constant loading is not being
applied to all nodes. The unequal loads applied at the nodes is known as
kinematically equivalent loading.
In cases where elements were created manually, it is possible that some elements
were not defined, thus creating voids that are not intentional or appropriate. A
shrunken element plot is useful to identify regions where there are elements missing.
A free edge plot can be used to identify what element edges form an external
boundary. It can help identify locations where internal parts of the structure are not
joined. Holes or discontinuities in the mesh can arise where different parts of the
model were mesh separately. Node merging or equivalencing can be used to correct
such problems, all coincident nodes are effectively replaced by one single node.
A plot of loads and constraints on the model will provide a check against errors that
were made at the time of user input. This check will save you running the analysis for
the wrong loading scenario.
Convert everything into primary units of force, length, mass, temperature, time and
angle and make sure that all values of density, pressure, velocity, acceleration,
conductivity, coefficient of expansion, heat flux, Young's and Shear modulii, etc., are
consistent
with
this
system.
Imported geometry from CAD systems or neutral geometry format, tend to contain
multiple copies of points and lines. On importing any models from a CAD system or
neutral geometry format, be sure to merge all coincident points and collinear lines.
This will ensure that the mesh generated in the model is fully connected and thus
avoids the issue of dealing with zero pivots in the solution stage.
Refine the mesh towards any sharp discontinuities in geometry such as at corners and
around holes. This will reduce the discretisation errors experienced due to high
gradients
in
stress
or
heat
flux.
If one is unfamiliar with the way in which load is distributed , then it is advisable to
avoid mixing of different element types. Incorrect element transitioning can lead to
serious errors that will result in the need to rework the model.
If using shell quadrilateral elements, try to ensure that the elements are all oriented in
the same global direction. As stresses can only be shown on one side of the shell at a
time, if some shells have surface normals that are pointing inwards and the rest point
outwards, the stress patterns what we see through post-processor may not be correct.
Remember that distributed loads are not evenly divided among the nodes of higher
order (quadratic or higher) element edges or faces. Midside nodes carry most of the
load while the chord (corner) nodes carry much less or even negative loads. Therefore
do not apply distributed loads to higher order element nodes manually. If applying
11 Results Interpretation
The Shear Modulus has not been specified, a value of (0.39 * Young's Modulus) is
assumed.
Two
An element has a very high aspect ratio, dihedral angle or level of distortion.
or
more
elements
share
node,
but
have
incompatible
DOFs.
Does
Do bending loads result in compression and tension on the right sides of a body ?
the
structure
deform
in
the
mode
you
would
expect
Most post-processors generate contour plots with node averaging switched on as default.
It is worthwhile switching off node averaging, as the un-averaged plot can give good
indication of the discretisation error in the model. When averaging is switched off, the
contour plot may look jagged in places, highlighting that the stresses change considerably
across inter-element boundaries. This indicates that the true stresses were not captured at
that location due to the low level of discretisation (coarse mesh). In this case, it is
worthwhile refining the mesh in the affected regions and re-running the analysis.
Some post-processors have facilities to estimate the discretisation error in a solution. The
estimation is usually made on some sort of algorithm centered around the relative energy
error within each element. Some software goes further and carries out adaptive solutions,
by refining the mesh in one of two ways, increasing the number of elements (hrefinement) or increasing the polynomial order of the elements in question (prefinement).
The magnitude of the displacements are greater than the characteristic dimension of
the structure (plate thickness, beam depth, etc.).
If any gaps over close, causing inter penetration, then a contact analysis is required.