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THE DEVELOPING WORLD

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Wireless Networking in the Developing World

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II

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IV

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VIII

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Contents
ABOUT THIS BOOK

Core Contributors..................................................................................... 2
Support.....................................................................................................7
Authors and editors of earlier versions of the book..................................8

INTRODUCTION

18

The country of Aipotu............................................................................. 18

Purpose of this book...............................................................................19
Fitting wireless into your existing network.............................................. 21
How this book is organized.................................................................... 22

PHYSICS
1. RADIO PHYSICS

What is a wave?........................................................................................1
Electromagnetic forces.............................................................................3
Symbols of the international system of units............................................ 4
Phase........................................................................................................6
Polarization............................................................................................... 7
The electromagnetic spectrum................................................................ 8
Bandwidth.............................................................................................. 10
Frequencies and channels.....................................................................10
Behaviour of radio waves....................................................................... 11
The Huygens Principle........................................................................... 12
Absorption.............................................................................................. 13
Re1ection................................................................................................14
Diffraction............................................................................................... 15
Interference............................................................................................ 17

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Line of sight............................................................................................ 19
Understanding the Fresnel zone............................................................ 20
Power......................................................................................................23
Physics in the real world.........................................................................25

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS

26

XI
Modulation..............................................................................................32
Multiplexing and duplexing.................................................................... 33
Conclusions............................................................................................35

3. LICENSING AND REGULATION

36

Examples of relevant types of regulation............................................... 36

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

40

What is the electromagnetic spectrum?................................................. 40

How is the spectrum adjudicated?.........................................................44
Political issues........................................................................................ 47
Explosion in spectrum demand..............................................................47
Spectrum scarcity or spectrum hoarding?............................................. 50
IEE 802.22.............................................................................................. 50
Developing countries advantage........................................................... 52

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

55

Cables.................................................................................................... 57
Waveguides............................................................................................59
Connectors and adapters...................................................................... 61
Antenna term glossary........................................................................... 64
Types of antennas.................................................................................. 73
Re1ector theory...................................................................................... 81
Ampli9ers................................................................................................82
Practical antenna designs......................................................................83
Antenna measurements......................................................................... 83

NETWORKING
6. NETWORKING

86

Introduction............................................................................................ 87
Cooperative communications.................................................................90
The OSI model........................................................................................90
The TCP/IP model...................................................................................92
The Internet Protocols............................................................................ 94
Internet Protocol Suite.......................................................................... 114
Physical hardware................................................................................ 115
Putting it all together.............................................................................121
Designing the physical network........................................................... 122

XII

7. WIFI FAMILY

127

IEEE 802: What is it, and why should I care?....................................... 127

The 802.11 standard............................................................................ 128
Deployment planning for 802.11 wireless networks.............................129
The 802.22 Standard............................................................................131
Summary.............................................................................................. 134

8. MESH NETWORKING

135

Introduction.......................................................................................... 135
Bandwidth impact of multi-hop relaying routes....................................138
Summary.............................................................................................. 138
Routing protocols for mesh networks...................................................139
Devices and 9rmware for embedded devices..................................... 141
Frequently observed problems............................................................ 144

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

147

Introduction.......................................................................................... 147
Protecting the wireless network............................................................149
Physical security for wireless networks................................................ 151
Authentication and access control.......................................................153
Summary.............................................................................................. 158
802.1X.................................................................................................. 162
Inter-organisational roaming.................................................................164
End to end encryption.......................................................................... 166
Tor & Anonymizers................................................................................174

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

178

Estimating capacity.............................................................................. 178

Calculating the link budget.................................................................. 180
Link planning software......................................................................... 190
Avoiding noise......................................................................................195
Repeaters............................................................................................. 198
Deployment planning for IPv6.............................................................. 200

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

202

Wired wireless...................................................................................... 202

Choosing wireless components........................................................... 204
Commercial vs. DIY solutions...............................................................206

XIII
Professional lightning protection.......................................................... 209
Access Point Con9guration.................................................................. 213
Con9gure the client.............................................................................. 222
Hints - working outdoors...................................................................... 223
Troubleshooting.................................................................................... 223

12. INDOOR INSTALLATION

224

Introduction.......................................................................................... 224
Preparations......................................................................................... 224
Bandwidth requirements...................................................................... 225
Frequencies and data rates................................................................. 225
Access Points choice and placement..................................................226
SSID and Network Architecture............................................................228
Post Installation.................................................................................... 228

13. OUTDOOR INSTALL

229

What is needed for a long distance link?............................................. 231

Antenna alignment............................................................................... 233

OFF-GRID POWER
14. OFF-GRID POWER

239

Solar Power.......................................................................................... 239

Photovoltaic system components.........................................................240
The solar panel.....................................................................................246
The battery........................................................................................... 251
Temperature effects..............................................................................258
The charge regulator............................................................................260
Converters............................................................................................ 261
Equipment or load................................................................................ 263
Orientation of the panels...................................................................... 267
How to size your photovoltaic system.................................................. 269
Data to collect...................................................................................... 271
Electrical characteristics of system components.................................271
Procedure of calculation.......................................................................273
Cables.................................................................................................. 277
Cost of a solar installation.................................................................... 278

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

XIV

15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

282

Introduction.......................................................................................... 282
Building your team............................................................................... 282
Proper troubleshooting techniques...................................................... 285
Common network problems................................................................. 288
Trouble tracking and reporting............................................................. 295

16. NETWORK MONITORING

297

Introduction.......................................................................................... 297
Network monitoring example................................................................298
Detecting network outages.................................................................. 300
Monitoring your network....................................................................... 302
Types of monitoring tools......................................................................310
Network detection................................................................................ 311
Spot check tools...................................................................................311
Protocol analysers................................................................................ 316
Trending tools....................................................................................... 318
Throughput testing............................................................................... 326
Realtime tools and intrusion detection................................................. 330
Other useful tools................................................................................. 333
What is normal?.................................................................................... 335
Establishing a baseline........................................................................ 335
Monitoring RAM and CPU usage......................................................... 341
Summary.............................................................................................. 344

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

345

Introduction.......................................................................................... 345
Create a mission statement..................................................................347
Evaluate the demand for potential offerings........................................348
Establish appropriate incentives.......................................................... 350
Research the regulatory environment for wireless...............................351
Analyse the competition....................................................................... 352
Determine initial and recurring costs and pricing................................ 353
Categories of Costs..............................................................................354
Secure the 9nancing............................................................................ 357
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the internal situation.........359
Putting it all together.............................................................................360
Conclusion............................................................................................364

GLOSSARY

XV

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

399

Guidelines for building some simple types of antennas......................399

Collinear omni.......................................................................................399
Cantenna.............................................................................................. 409
Cantenna as dish feed......................................................................... 417
NEC2.................................................................................................... 417

APPENDIX B: CHANNEL ALLOCATIONS

419

APPENDIX C: PATH LOSS

421

APPENDIX D: CABLE SIZES

423

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING

424

Finding the Worst Month...................................................................... 428

Final Calculations................................................................................. 430

APPENDIX F: RESOURCES

433
CASE STUDIES

Case Studies - Introduction

443

Equipment enclosures..........................................................................443
Antenna masts......................................................................................444
Involve the local community................................................................. 444
Now read on......................................................................................... 445

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

447

Introduction.......................................................................................... 447
Background..........................................................................................447
Action Plan........................................................................................... 448
Pico del Aguila Site Survey.................................................................. 449
Antennas.............................................................................................. 451
El Bal Site Survey............................................................................... 454
Mrida, Venezuela, 17 April 2006........................................................ 458
Can we do better?................................................................................ 458
Acknowledgments................................................................................460

XVI

Case Study: Pisces Project

462

Case Study - University Of Ghana campus wireless network

467
Introduction.......................................................................................... 467
Wi9 setup and installation.....................................................................468
Connecting to the UG campus wireless network................................. 469
Pictures of our project and installation................................................. 470
Challenges we faced............................................................................474
Next steps............................................................................................ 475

Case Study - Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India

476

Introduction.......................................................................................... 476
Airjaldis Garhwal Network:...................................................................476
The Airjaldi Garhwal Network Vital Statistics..................................... 477
Realities, needs.................................................................................... 478
Summary.............................................................................................. 489

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

490

Red Hook initiative Wi9 & Tidepools.....................................................490

History of the network...........................................................................490
Social software and growth of the network...........................................495
Expansion after superstorm Sandy...................................................... 499
Sustainability & future goals................................................................. 503
Cost of the network...............................................................................504
Lessons learned................................................................................... 504
Related articles & websites.................................................................. 504

XVII

XVIII

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Purpose of this book

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XX

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XXI

Ra
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Fitting wireless into your existing network

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XXII

How this book is organized

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k
i
/
820c
b/
do
wnl
o
a
d_pa
g
e
.
ht
ml
I
ti
st
hes
e
to
fpr
e
s
e
nt
a
t
i
o
nma
t
e
r
i
a
l
sus
e
db
yt
he
s
es
a
mek
e
ye
x
pe
r
t
st
o
de
l
i
v
e
rwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
i
ngt
r
a
i
ni
ngc
l
a
s
s
e
sa
r
o
undt
hewo
r
l
d.
I
na
ddi
t
i
o
na
l
lo
ft
hek
e
ye
x
pe
r
t
swhoha
v
ewr
i
t
t
e
nt
hi
sbo
o
kr
e
g
ul
a
r
l
y
c
he
c
ko
urF
a
c
e
bo
o
kpa
g
e
.S
oa
sy
o
upl
a
ny
o
urde
pl
o
y
me
ntpl
e
a
s
edoa
s
k
q
ue
s
t
i
o
nso
no
urpa
g
e-wedoa
ns
we
rq
ui
c
k
l
y
.
ht
t
ps
:
/
/
www.
f
a
c
e
bo
o
k
.
c
o
m/
g
r
o
ups
/
wi
r
e
l
e
s
s
u/

XXIII

PHYSICS

PHYSICS

1. RADIO PHYSICS
Wi
r
e
l
e
s
sc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nsma
k
eus
eo
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
st
os
e
nd
s
i
g
na
l
sa
c
r
o
s
sl
o
ng di
s
t
a
nc
e
s
. Fr
o
m a us
e
r

s pe
r
s
pe
c
t
i
v
e
, wi
r
e
l
e
s
s
c
o
nne
c
t
i
o
ns a
r
e no
t pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
l
y di
1e
r
e
nt f
r
o
m a
ny o
t
he
r ne
t
wo
r
k
c
o
nne
c
t
i
o
n:y
o
urwe
bbr
o
ws
e
r
,e
ma
i
l
,a
ndo
t
he
ra
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nsa
l
lwo
r
ka
s
y
o
u wo
ul
de
x
pe
c
t
.Butr
a
di
o wa
v
e
sha
v
es
o
meune
x
pe
c
t
e
d pr
o
pe
r
t
i
e
s
c
o
mpa
r
e
dt
oEt
he
r
ne
tc
a
b
l
e
.Fo
re
x
a
mpl
e
,i
t

sv
e
r
ye
a
s
yt
os
e
et
hepa
t
h
t
ha
ta
n Et
he
r
ne
tc
a
bl
et
a
k
e
s
:l
o
c
a
t
et
he pl
ug s
t
i
c
k
i
ng o
uto
fy
o
ur
c
o
mput
e
r
,f
o
l
l
o
wt
hec
a
bl
et
ot
heo
t
he
re
nd,a
ndy
o
u

v
ef
o
undi
t
!
Y
o
uc
a
n
a
l
s
obec
o
n0de
ntt
ha
tr
unni
ngma
nyEt
he
r
ne
tc
a
bl
e
sa
l
o
ng
s
i
dee
a
c
ho
t
he
r
wo
n

tc
a
us
e pr
o
bl
e
ms
,s
i
nc
et
he c
a
bl
e
se
1e
c
t
i
v
e
l
yk
e
e
pt
he
i
rs
i
g
na
l
s
c
o
nt
a
i
ne
dwi
t
hi
nt
hewi
r
ei
t
s
e
l
f
.
Butho
w doy
o
uk
no
w whe
r
et
hewa
v
e
se
ma
na
t
i
ngf
r
o
my
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
de
v
i
c
ea
r
eg
o
i
ng
?Wha
tha
ppe
nswhe
nt
he
s
ewa
v
e
sbo
unc
eo
1o
bj
e
c
t
si
n
t
her
o
o
mo
ro
t
he
rbui
l
di
ng
si
na
no
ut
do
o
rl
i
nk
?Ho
wc
a
ns
e
v
e
r
a
lwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
c
a
r
dsbeus
e
di
nt
hes
a
mea
r
e
awi
t
ho
uti
nt
e
r
f
e
r
i
ngwi
t
he
a
c
ho
t
he
r
?
I
no
r
de
rt
ob
ui
l
ds
t
a
b
l
ehi
g
hs
pe
e
d wi
r
e
l
e
s
sl
i
nk
s
,i
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
o
unde
r
s
t
a
ndho
wr
a
di
owa
v
e
sbe
ha
v
ei
nt
her
e
a
lwo
r
l
d.

What is a wave?
Wea
r
ea
l
lf
a
mi
l
i
a
rwi
t
hv
i
br
a
t
i
o
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ro
s
c
i
l
l
a
t
i
o
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nv
a
r
i
o
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o
r
ms
:a
pe
ndul
um,at
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e
es
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y
i
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nt
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hes
t
r
i
ngo
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ui
t
a
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he
s
ea
r
ea
l
l
e
x
a
mpl
e
so
fo
s
c
i
l
l
a
t
i
o
ns
.
Wha
tt
he
yha
v
ei
nc
o
mmo
ni
st
ha
ts
o
me
t
hi
ng
,s
o
meme
di
um o
ro
bj
e
c
t
,i
s
s
wi
ng
i
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nape
r
i
o
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r
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t
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e
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me
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o
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i
me
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l
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h
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ni
c
a
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e
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i
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ti
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de
0ne
db
yt
hemo
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i
o
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fa
no
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e
c
to
ri
t
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o
pa
g
a
t
i
ngme
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um.
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ns
uc
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s
c
i
l
l
a
t
i
o
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r
a
v
e
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t
ha
ti
s
,whe
nt
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ng
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a
y
bo
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oo
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pe
a
ko
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e
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e
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t
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r
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v
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r
smo
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v
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l
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o
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t
o
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i
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a
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us
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t
ur
ba
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e
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c
ht
he
nt
r
a
v
e
l
s
a
c
r
o
s
st
hel
a
k
ea
sawa
v
e
.

1. RADIO PHYSICS

Awa
v
eha
sac
e
r
t
a
i
ns
p
e
e
d,f
r
e
q
u
e
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ng
t
h
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s
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o
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e
db
yas
i
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er
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l
a
t
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n:
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d=Fr
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o
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r
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nt
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e
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o
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e
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mpl
ef
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ro
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o
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pr
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s
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re
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mpl
e
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fawa
v
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t
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rt
r
a
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c
h
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we
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me
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ng
:
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t
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/
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n
d=5c
y
c
l
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s
/
s
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c
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W =1/5me
t
r
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s
W =0.
2me
t
r
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m
Wa
v
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pe
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st
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t
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ef
r
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c
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v
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t
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t
spe
a
k
s
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a
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ht
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fa
st
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e
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t
h,a
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t
ude
a
r
es
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wni
nFi
g
ur
eRP1.

Fi
g
u
r
eRP1:Wa
v
e
l
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ng
t
h
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mp
l
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d
e
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rt
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c
o
nd
,o
r2Hz
,wh
i
l
et
h
es
p
e
e
di
s1m/
s
.

PHYSICS

Wa
v
e
si
nwa
t
e
ra
r
ee
a
s
yt
ov
i
s
ua
l
i
z
e
.
S
i
mpl
ydr
o
pas
t
o
nei
nt
ot
hel
a
k
ea
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o
uc
a
ns
e
et
hewa
v
e
sa
st
he
ymo
v
e
a
c
r
o
s
st
hewa
t
e
ro
v
e
rt
i
me
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nt
hec
a
s
eo
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
s
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hepa
r
t
t
ha
tmi
g
htbeha
r
de
s
tt
ounde
r
s
t
a
ndi
s
:
Wha
ti
si
tt
ha
ti
so
s
c
i
l
l
a
t
i
ng
?

I
no
r
de
rt
o unde
r
s
t
a
nd t
ha
t
,y
o
u ne
e
dt
o unde
r
s
t
a
nd e
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
c
f
o
r
c
e
s
.

Electromagnetic forces
El
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cf
o
r
c
e
sa
r
et
he f
o
r
c
e
sbe
t
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e
ne
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
lc
ha
r
g
e
sa
nd
c
ur
r
e
nt
s
.Ourmo
s
tdi
r
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c
ta
c
c
e
s
st
ot
ho
s
ei
swhe
no
urha
ndt
o
uc
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sado
o
r
ha
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t
e
rwa
l
k
i
ng o
ns
y
nt
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t
i
cc
a
r
pe
t
,o
rbr
us
hi
ngup a
g
a
i
ns
ta
n
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
lf
e
nc
e
.
Amo
r
epo
we
r
f
ule
x
a
mpl
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fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cf
o
r
c
e
si
st
hel
i
g
ht
ni
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e
e
dur
i
ngt
hunde
r
s
t
o
r
ms
.
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l
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t
r
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c
a
lf
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c
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st
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o
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c
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t
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c
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lc
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o
r
c
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o
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t
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c
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lc
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r
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s
.
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e
c
t
r
o
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r
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r
t
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c
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tc
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r
r
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a
t
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c
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ta
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er
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mo
s
to
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twene
e
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no
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bo
utho
wr
a
di
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ha
v
e
s
.
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tusl
o
o
ka
twha
ti
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t
r
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ra
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nt
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o
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t
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e
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hene
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t
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e
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o
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e
.
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nt
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e
c
t
r
o
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l
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e
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i
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t
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i
de
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nd
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l
e
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t
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c0e
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hi
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ppe
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g
a
i
na
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a
i
n,
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hee
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e
c
t
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o
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r
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e
s
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nt
e
db
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r
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r
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m pl
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e
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pe
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er
a
di
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t
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nt
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hes
pa
c
ea
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o
und
t
hewi
r
e
.
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us
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c
r
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sk
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be
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a
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eo
ft
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e
nt
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e
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e
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ta
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nt
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r
a
i
g
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e
r
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i
c
a
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e
)
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rmo
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ec
o
mmo
nl
yad
i
p
o
l
ea
nt
e
nna
.
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si
st
hes
i
mpl
e
s
tf
o
r
mo
fa
no
mni
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
la
nt
e
nna
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v
i
ng
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c0
e
l
di
sc
o
mmo
nl
yr
e
f
e
r
r
e
dt
oa
sa
ne
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
ebe
c
a
us
e
t
he
r
ei
sa
l
s
oa
na
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
e
dma
g
ne
t
i
c0e
l
d.Amo
v
i
nge
l
e
c
t
r
i
c0e
l
d,s
uc
ha
sa
wa
v
e
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l
wa
y
sc
o
me
st
o
g
e
t
he
rwi
t
hama
g
ne
t
i
c0e
l
d-y
o
uwi
l
lno
t0ndo
ne
wi
t
ho
utt
heo
t
he
r
.
Whyi
st
hi
st
hec
a
s
e
?
Ane
l
e
c
t
r
i
c0e
l
di
sc
a
us
e
db
ye
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
l
yc
ha
r
g
e
do
bj
e
c
t
s
.

1. RADIO PHYSICS

Amo
v
i
nge
l
e
c
t
r
i
c0e
l
di
spr
o
duc
e
db
ymo
v
i
nge
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
l
yc
ha
r
g
e
do
bj
e
c
t
s
,
s
uc
ha
sweha
v
ej
us
tde
s
c
r
i
be
da
bo
v
ei
nadi
po
l
ea
nt
e
nna
.
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r
e
v
e
re
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
lc
ha
r
g
e
sa
r
emo
v
i
ng
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he
yi
nduc
eama
g
ne
t
i
c0e
l
d.
Ma
t
he
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
y
,t
hi
si
sf
o
r
mul
a
t
e
di
nMa
x
we
l
l
'
se
q
ua
t
i
o
ns
:

ht
t
ps
:
/
/
e
n.
wi
k
i
pe
di
a
.
o
r
g
/
wi
k
i
/
El
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
c
_0e
l
d#Ma
t
he
ma
t
i
c
a
l
_de
s
c
r
i
pt
i
o
n

S
i
nc
et
he e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
la
ndma
g
ne
t
i
cc
o
mpo
ne
nt
sa
r
et
i
e
dt
o
g
e
t
he
ri
nt
hi
s
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y
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pe
a
ko
fa
ne
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
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a
c
t
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c
a
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e
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e
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t
wo
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i
ng
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o
c
usi
nt
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l
e
c
t
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i
c
a
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o
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ne
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t
he
r
ebea
l
wa
y
sama
g
ne
t
i
cc
o
mpo
ne
nta
swe
l
l
.
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tusc
o
meba
c
kt
ot
her
e
l
a
t
i
o
n:
S
p
e
e
d=Fr
e
q
u
e
nc
y*Wa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h
I
nt
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a
s
eo
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
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v
e
s
,t
hes
pe
e
di
sc
,t
hes
pe
e
do
fl
i
g
ht
.
c=300,
000k
m/
s=300,
000,
000m/
s=3*
108m/
s
c=f*
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e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
sdi
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rf
r
o
m me
c
ha
ni
c
a
lwa
v
e
si
nt
ha
tt
he
yr
e
q
ui
r
e
no me
di
um i
n whi
c
ht
o pr
o
pa
g
a
t
e
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e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
swi
l
le
v
e
n
pr
o
pa
g
a
t
et
hr
o
ug
hpe
r
f
e
c
tv
a
c
uum.
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g
htf
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o
mt
hes
t
a
r
si
sag
o
o
de
x
a
mpl
e
:i
tr
e
a
c
he
sust
hr
o
ug
ht
he
v
a
c
uum o
fs
pa
c
e
.

Symbols of the international system of units

I
nphy
s
i
c
s
,ma
t
hs
,a
nde
ng
i
ne
e
r
i
ng
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t
e
ne
x
pr
e
s
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r
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ypo
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r
s
o
ft
e
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l
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e
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et
e
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i
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l
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e
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e
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e
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e
nt
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.
g
.g
i
g
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he
r
t
z(
GHz
)
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e
nt
i
me
t
r
e
s(
c
m)
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c
r
o
s
e
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o
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s
)
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o
o
n.
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s
es
y
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l
sa
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r
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e
r
na
t
i
o
na
ls
y
s
t
e
mo
fme
a
s
ur
e
me
ntS
I
(
ht
t
p:
/
/
www.
bi
pm.
o
r
g
/
ut
i
l
s
/
c
o
mmo
n/
pdf
/
s
i
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o
c
hur
e
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n.
pd
f
)
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he
ya
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e
no
ta
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e
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i
a
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o
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a
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i
g
ni
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a
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ho
ul
dno
tbea
l
t
e
r
e
d.

PHYSICS

S
Is
y
mb
o
l
s
a
t
t
o

1018

1/
1000000000000000000

f
e
mt
o

1015

1/
1000000000000000

pi
c
o

1012

1/
1000000000000

na
no

109

1/
1000000000

mi
c
r
o

106

1/
1000000

mi
l
l
i

103

1/
1000

c
e
nt
i

102

1/
100

k
i
l
o

10 3

1000

me
g
a

10 6

1000000

g
i
g
a

10 9

1000000000

t
e
r
a

10 12

10000000000
00

pe
t
a

10 15

10000000000
00000

e
x
a

10 18

10000000000
00000000

Kno
wi
ngt
hes
pe
e
do
fl
i
g
ht
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a
nc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
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v
e
l
e
ng
t
hf
o
rag
i
v
e
n
f
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
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tust
a
k
et
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x
a
mpl
eo
ft
hef
r
e
q
ue
nc
yo
f802.
11bwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
k
i
ng
,whi
c
hi
s
:
f=2.
4GHz=2,
400,
000,
000c
y
c
l
e
s/s
e
c
o
nd
9
wa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h(
)
=c/f=3*
108 /2.
4*
10
=1.
25*
10-1 m=12.
5c
m

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e
q
ue
nc
ya
ndt
he
r
e
f
o
r
ewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
hde
t
e
r
mi
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s
to
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ne
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
c
wa
v
e

sbe
ha
v
i
o
ur
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tg
o
v
e
r
nst
hedi
me
ns
i
o
nso
ft
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nt
e
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st
ha
twebui
l
da
s
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l
la
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to
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a
c
t
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o
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t
ho
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e
c
t
st
ha
ta
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nt
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o
pa
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a
t
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o
n
pa
t
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l
udi
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o
l
o
g
i
c
a
le
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c
t
si
nl
i
v
i
ngbe
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ng
s
.
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r
e
l
e
s
ss
t
a
nda
r
ds o
fc
o
ur
s
ea
r
e di
s
t
i
ng
ui
s
he
db
y mo
r
et
ha
nj
us
tt
he
f
r
e
q
ue
nc
yt
he
ya
r
ewo
r
k
i
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t-f
o
re
x
a
mpl
e
,802.
11b
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11g
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2.
1
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nd
802.
16c
a
na
l
lwo
r
ka
t2.
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e
tt
he
ya
r
ev
e
r
ydi
1e
r
e
ntf
r
o
mo
ne
a
no
t
he
r
.

1. RADIO PHYSICS

$e c
ha
pt
e
rc
a
l
l
e
d Te
l
e
c
o
mmu
ni
c
a
t
i
o
ns Ba
s
i
c
s wi
l
l di
s
c
us
s mo
dul
a
t
i
o
n
t
e
c
hni
q
ue
s
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di
aa
c
c
e
s
st
e
c
hni
q
ue
s
,a
ndo
t
he
rr
e
l
e
v
a
ntf
e
a
t
ur
e
so
fwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nss
t
a
nda
r
ds
.Ho
we
v
e
r
,t
heba
s
i
cc
a
pa
bi
l
i
t
i
e
so
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
c
wa
v
e
st
ope
ne
t
r
a
t
eo
bj
e
c
t
s
,t
og
ol
o
ngdi
s
t
a
nc
e
s
,a
nd s
of
o
r
t
h -t
he
s
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r
e
de
t
e
r
mi
ne
db
yphy
s
i
c
sa
l
o
ne
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l
e
c
t
r
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ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
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e"
do
e
sno
tk
no
wo
r
c
a
r
e
"wha
tmo
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a
t
i
o
no
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t
a
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e
c
hni
q
uey
o
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o
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t
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o
,
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l
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t
a
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r
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e
me
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dv
a
nc
e
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e
c
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st
ode
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t
h
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No
nLi
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fS
i
g
ht
)
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t
i
pa
t
ha
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r
t
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ys
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a
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o
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t
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r
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e
s
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r
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.

Phase
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ri
nt
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sc
ha
pt
e
r
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l
lt
a
l
ka
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o
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k
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e
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t
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t
h
a
ndFr
e
s
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no
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r
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t
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e
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a
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t
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s
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gRP1-no
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ma
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i
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et
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uc
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v
e
smo
v
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ng
.
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s
ec
a
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ne
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a
c
t
l
yt
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a
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s
i
t
i
o
n:Whe
r
et
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t
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a
k
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o
t
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ro
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l
s
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n,wewo
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ds
a
y
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he
ya
r
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npha
s
e
,o
r
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he
i
r
pha
s
edi
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e
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e
r
o
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v
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o
ul
da
l
s
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s
pl
a
c
e
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r
o
mt
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t
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r
,
f
o
re
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a
mpl
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tc
o
ul
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v
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t
spe
a
kwhe
r
et
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t
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e
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o
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nt
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s
c
a
s
e
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s
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e
nc
e
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spha
s
edi
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r
e
nc
ec
a
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x
pr
e
s
s
e
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n
f
r
a
c
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i
o
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ng
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.
g
. /
4,o
ri
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g
r
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s
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.
g
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s-wi
t
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ul
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c
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v
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i
ng360de
g
r
e
e
s
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s
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e
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r
e
e
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s
t
hes
a
mea
st
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to
f0de
g
r
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e
s
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s
edi
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r
e
nc
e
.

Fi
g
u
r
eRP2:Ph
a
s
eDi
>e
r
e
nc
eb
e
t
we
e
nTwoWa
v
e
s

PHYSICS

Polarization
Ano
t
he
ri
mpo
r
t
a
nt q
ua
l
i
t
yo
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
c wa
v
e
si
sp
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n.
P
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
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h

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a
ni
ngi
tc
a
n
t
r
a
ns
mi
tda
t
aa
t1me
g
a
bi
tpe
rs
e
c
o
nd.Ho
wmuc
he
x
a
c
t
l
yy
o
uc
a
n0ti
nt
o
aphy
s
i
c
a
ls
i
g
na
lwi
l
lde
pe
nd o
nt
hemo
dul
a
t
i
o
n,e
nc
o
di
nga
nd o
t
he
r
t
e
c
hni
q
ue
s
.F
o
re
x
a
mpl
e
,802.
11gus
e
st
hes
a
meba
ndwi
dt
ha
s802.
11b
,
ho
we
v
e
ri
t0t
smo
r
eda
t
ai
nt
ot
ho
s
es
a
mef
r
e
q
ue
nc
yr
a
ng
e
st
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
i
ngup
t
o5t
i
me
smo
r
ebi
t
spe
rs
e
c
o
nd.
Ano
t
he
re
x
a
mpl
eweha
v
eme
nt
i
o
ne
d:y
o
uma
ydo
ubl
ey
o
urda
t
ar
a
t
eb
y
a
ddi
ngas
e
c
o
ndl
i
nka
tpe
r
pe
ndi
c
ul
a
rpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
nt
oa
ne
x
i
s
t
i
ngr
a
di
o
l
i
nk
.He
r
e
,f
r
e
q
ue
nc
ya
ndba
ndwi
dt
hha
v
eno
tc
ha
ng
e
d,ho
we
v
e
rt
heda
t
a
r
a
t
ei
sdo
ubl
e
d.

Frequencies and channels

Le
tusl
o
o
kabi
tc
l
o
s
e
ra
tho
wt
he2.
4GHzba
ndi
sus
e
di
n802.
11b
.$e
s
pe
c
t
r
um i
sdi
v
i
de
di
nt
oe
v
e
nl
ys
i
z
e
dpi
e
c
e
sdi
s
t
r
i
but
e
do
v
e
rt
heb
a
nda
s
i
ndi
v
i
dua
lc
ha
nne
l
s
.No
t
et
ha
tc
ha
nne
l
sa
r
e22MHzwi
de
,buta
r
eo
nl
y
s
e
pa
r
a
t
e
db
y5MHz
.
$i
sme
a
nst
ha
ta
dj
a
c
e
ntc
ha
nne
l
so
v
e
r
l
a
p
,a
ndc
a
ni
nt
e
r
f
e
r
ewi
t
he
a
c
h
o
t
he
r
.$i
si
sr
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
e
dv
i
s
ua
l
l
yi
nFi
g
ur
eRP5.

Fi
g
u
r
eRP5:Ch
a
nne
l
sa
ndc
e
nt
r
ef
r
e
q
u
e
nc
i
e
sf
o
r802.
11b
.
No
t
et
h
a
tc
h
a
nne
l
s1,6,a
nd11d
ono
to
v
e
r
l
a
p
.

PHYSICS

11

Behaviour of radio waves

$e
r
ea
r
eaf
e
ws
i
mpl
er
ul
e
so
ft
humbt
ha
tc
a
npr
o
v
ee
x
t
r
e
me
l
yus
e
f
ul
whe
nma
k
i
ng0r
s
tpl
a
nsf
o
rawi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
:
t
h
el
o
ng
e
rt
h
ewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h
,t
h
ef
u
r
t
h
e
ri
tg
o
e
s
;
t
h
el
o
ng
e
rt
h
ewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h
,t
h
eb
e
t
t
e
ri
tt
r
a
v
e
l
st
h
r
o
u
g
ha
nda
r
o
u
ndt
h
i
ng
s
;
t
h
es
h
o
r
t
e
rt
h
ewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h
,t
h
emo
r
ed
a
t
ai
tc
a
nt
r
a
ns
p
o
r
t
.
Al
lo
ft
he
s
er
ul
e
s
,s
i
mpl
i
0e
da
st
he
yma
ybe
,a
r
er
a
t
he
re
a
s
yt
ounde
r
s
t
a
nd
b
ye
x
a
mpl
e
.
Lo
ng
e
rwa
v
e
st
r
a
v
e
lf
ur
t
he
r
Wa
v
e
swi
t
hl
o
ng
e
rwa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
hst
e
ndt
ot
r
a
v
e
lf
ur
t
he
rt
ha
nwa
v
e
swi
t
h
s
ho
r
t
e
rwa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
hs
.Asa
ne
x
a
mpl
e
,AM r
a
di
os
t
a
t
i
o
nsha
v
eamuc
h
g
r
e
a
t
e
rr
a
ng
et
ha
nFM s
t
a
t
i
o
ns
,whi
c
hus
eaf
r
e
q
ue
nc
y100t
i
me
shi
g
he
r
.
Lo
we
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
yt
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
r
st
e
ndt
or
e
a
c
hmuc
hg
r
e
a
t
e
rdi
s
t
a
nc
e
st
ha
n
hi
g
hf
r
e
q
ue
nc
yt
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
r
sa
tt
hes
a
mepo
we
r
.
Lo
ng
e
rwa
v
e
spa
s
sa
r
o
undo
bs
t
a
c
l
e
s
Awa
v
eo
nwa
t
e
rwhi
c
hi
s5me
t
r
e
sl
o
ngwi
l
lno
tbea
1e
c
t
e
db
ya5mm
pi
e
c
eo
fwo
o
dWo
a
t
i
ngo
nt
hewa
t
e
r
.I
fi
ns
t
e
a
dt
hepi
e
c
eo
fwo
o
dwe
r
e50
me
t
r
e
sbi
g(
e
.
g
.as
hi
p)
,i
two
ul
dmo
di
f
yt
hebe
ha
v
i
o
ro
ft
hewa
v
e
.
$edi
s
t
a
nc
eawa
v
ec
a
nt
r
a
v
e
lde
pe
ndso
nt
her
e
l
a
t
i
o
ns
hi
pbe
t
we
e
nt
he
wa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
ho
ft
he wa
v
ea
nd t
he s
i
z
eo
fo
bs
t
a
c
l
e
si
ni
t
s pa
t
ho
f
pr
o
pa
g
a
t
i
o
n.I
ti
sha
r
de
rt
ov
i
s
ua
l
i
z
ewa
v
e
smo
v
i
ng
t
hr
o
ug
h
s
o
l
i
do
bj
e
c
t
s
,
butt
hi
si
st
hec
a
s
ewi
t
he
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
s
.Lo
ng
e
rwa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h(
a
nd
t
he
r
e
f
o
r
el
o
we
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
)wa
v
e
st
e
ndt
ope
ne
t
r
a
t
eo
bj
e
c
t
sbe
t
t
e
rt
ha
n
s
ho
r
t
e
rwa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h(
a
ndt
he
r
e
f
o
r
ehi
g
he
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
)wa
v
e
s
.
Fo
re
x
a
mpl
e
,FM r
a
di
o(
88108MHz
)c
a
nt
r
a
v
e
lt
hr
o
ug
hbui
l
di
ng
sa
nd
o
t
he
ro
b
s
t
a
c
l
e
se
a
s
i
l
y
,whi
l
es
ho
r
t
e
rwa
v
e
s(
s
uc
ha
sGS
M pho
ne
so
pe
r
a
t
i
ng
a
t900MHzo
r1800MHz
)ha
v
eaha
r
de
rt
i
mepe
ne
t
r
a
t
i
ngbui
l
di
ng
s
.
$i
se
1e
c
ti
spa
r
t
l
yduet
ot
hedi
1e
r
e
nc
ei
npo
we
rl
e
v
e
l
sus
e
df
o
rFM
r
a
di
oa
ndGS
M,buti
sa
l
s
opa
r
t
l
yduet
ot
hes
ho
r
t
e
rwa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
ho
fGS
M
s
i
g
na
l
s
.
Atmuc
hhi
g
he
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
,v
i
s
i
bl
el
i
g
htdo
e
sno
tg
ot
hr
o
ug
hawa
l
lo
r
e
v
e
n1mm o
fwo
o
d-a
swea
l
lk
no
w,f
r
o
m pr
a
c
t
i
c
a
le
x
pe
r
i
e
nc
e
.
Butme
t
a
lwi
l
ls
t
o
pa
nyk
i
ndo
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
.

12

1. RADIO PHYSICS

S
ho
r
t
e
rwa
v
e
sc
a
nc
a
r
r
ymo
r
eda
t
a
$ef
a
s
t
e
rt
hewa
v
es
wi
ng
so
rbe
a
t
s
,t
hemo
r
ei
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
ni
tc
a
nc
a
r
r
y
-e
v
e
r
ybe
a
to
rc
y
c
l
ec
o
ul
df
o
re
x
a
mpl
ebeus
e
dt
ot
r
a
ns
po
r
tadi
g
i
t
a
lbi
t
,a'
0'
o
ra'
1'
,a'
y
e
s
'o
ra'
no
'
.
S
ot
heda
t
ar
a
t
es
c
a
l
e
swi
t
hba
ndwi
dt
h,a
ndc
a
nbef
ur
t
he
re
nha
nc
e
db
y
a
dv
a
nc
e
dmo
dul
a
t
i
o
na
ndme
di
aa
c
c
e
s
st
e
c
hni
q
ue
ss
uc
ha
sOFDM,a
nd
MI
MO (
Mul
t
i
pl
eI
nput
,Mul
t
i
pl
eOut
put
)
.

The Huy ge ns Principl e

$e
r
ei
sa
no
t
he
rpr
i
nc
i
pl
et
ha
tc
a
nbea
ppl
i
e
dt
oa
l
lk
i
ndso
fwa
v
e
s
,a
nd
whi
c
hi
se
x
t
r
e
me
l
yus
e
f
ulf
o
runde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ngr
a
di
owa
v
epr
o
pa
g
a
t
i
o
n.
$i
spr
i
nc
i
pl
ei
sk
no
wna
st
heHu
y
g
e
nsPr
i
nc
i
p
l
e
,na
me
da
f
t
e
rChr
i
s
t
i
a
a
n
Huy
g
e
ns
,Dut
c
hma
t
he
ma
t
i
c
i
a
n,phy
s
i
c
i
s
ta
nda
s
t
r
o
no
me
r
,1629-1695.
I
ma
g
i
ney
o
ua
r
et
a
k
i
ngal
i
t
t
l
es
t
i
c
ka
nddi
ppi
ngi
tv
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
l
yi
nt
oas
t
i
l
l
l
a
k
e
'
ss
ur
f
a
c
e
,c
a
us
i
ngt
hewa
t
e
rt
os
wi
nga
ndda
nc
e
.Wa
v
e
swi
l
ll
e
a
v
et
he
c
e
nt
r
eo
ft
hes
t
i
c
k-t
hepl
a
c
ewhe
r
ey
o
udi
pi
n-i
nc
i
r
c
l
e
s
.No
w,whe
r
e
v
e
r
wa
t
e
rpa
r
t
i
c
l
e
sa
r
es
wi
ng
i
nga
ndda
nc
i
ng
,t
he
ywi
l
lc
a
us
et
he
i
rne
i
g
hbo
r
pa
r
t
i
c
l
e
st
odot
hes
a
me
:f
r
o
me
v
e
r
ypo
i
nto
fdi
s
t
ur
ba
nc
e
,ane
wc
i
r
c
ul
a
r
wa
v
ewi
l
ls
t
a
r
t
.$i
si
s
,i
ns
i
mpl
ef
o
r
m,t
heHuy
g
e
nspr
i
nc
i
pl
e
.I
nt
he
wo
r
dso
fwi
k
i
pe
di
a
.
o
r
g
:

eHu
y
g
e
ns
'p
r
i
nc
i
p
l
ei
same
t
h
o
do
fa
na
l
y
s
i
sa
p
p
l
i
e
dt
op
r
o
b
l
e
mso
fwa
v
e
p
r
o
p
a
g
a
t
i
o
ni
nt
h
ef
a
r@e
l
dl
i
mi
t
.I
tr
e
c
o
g
n
i
z
e
st
h
a
te
a
c
hp
o
i
nto
fa
n
a
d
v
a
nc
i
ngwa
v
ef
r
o
nti
si
nf
a
c
tt
h
ec
e
nt
r
eo
faf
r
e
s
hd
i
s
t
u
r
b
a
nc
ea
ndt
h
es
o
u
r
c
e
o
fane
wt
r
a
i
no
fwa
v
e
s
;a
ndt
h
a
tt
h
ea
d
v
a
nc
i
n
gwa
v
ea
sawh
o
l
ema
yb
e
r
e
g
a
r
d
e
da
st
h
es
u
mo
fa
l
lt
h
es
e
c
o
nd
a
r
ywa
v
e
sa
r
i
s
i
ngf
r
o
mp
o
i
nt
si
nt
h
e
me
d
i
u
ma
l
r
e
a
d
yt
r
a
v
e
r
s
e
d

.
$i
sv
i
e
wo
fwa
v
epr
o
pa
g
a
t
i
o
nhe
l
psbe
t
t
e
runde
r
s
t
a
ndav
a
r
i
e
t
yo
fwa
v
e
phe
no
me
na
,s
uc
ha
sdi
1r
a
c
t
i
o
n.
$i
spr
i
nc
i
pl
eho
l
dst
r
uef
o
rr
a
di
owa
v
e
sa
swe
l
la
swa
v
e
so
nwa
t
e
r
,f
o
r
s
o
unda
swe
l
la
sl
i
g
ht
,butf
o
rl
i
g
htt
hewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
hi
sf
a
rt
o
os
ho
r
tf
o
r
huma
nbe
i
ng
st
oa
c
t
ua
l
l
ys
e
et
hee
1e
c
t
sdi
r
e
c
t
l
y
.
$i
spr
i
nc
i
pl
ewi
l
lhe
l
pust
ounde
r
s
t
a
nddi
1r
a
c
t
i
o
na
swe
l
la
sFr
e
s
ne
l
z
o
ne
s
,a
ndt
hef
a
c
tt
ha
ts
o
me
t
i
me
swes
e
e
mt
obea
bl
et
ot
r
a
ns
mi
ta
r
o
und
c
o
r
ne
r
s
,wi
t
hnol
i
neo
fs
i
g
ht
.
Le
tusno
wl
o
o
ki
nt
owha
tha
ppe
nst
oe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
sa
st
he
y
t
r
a
v
e
l
.

PHYSICS

13

Absorption
Whe
ne
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
sg
ot
hr
o
ug
h'
s
o
me
t
hi
ng
'(
s
o
mema
t
e
r
i
a
l
)
,
t
he
yg
e
ne
r
a
l
l
yg
e
twe
a
k
e
ne
do
rda
mpe
ne
d.
Ho
w muc
ht
he
yl
o
s
ei
npo
we
rwi
l
lde
pe
ndo
nt
he
i
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
ya
ndo
f
c
o
ur
s
et
hema
t
e
r
i
a
l
.
Cl
e
a
rwi
ndo
wg
l
a
s
si
so
b
v
i
o
us
l
yt
r
a
ns
pa
r
e
ntf
o
rl
i
g
ht
,whi
l
et
heg
l
a
s
sus
e
d
i
ns
ung
l
a
s
s
e
s0l
t
e
r
so
utq
ui
t
eas
ha
r
eo
ft
hel
i
g
hti
nt
e
ns
i
t
ya
ndmo
s
to
ft
he
ul
t
r
a
v
i
o
l
e
tr
a
di
a
t
i
o
n.
Of
t
e
n,a
na
bs
o
r
pt
i
o
nc
o
e
Nc
i
e
nti
sus
e
dt
ode
s
c
r
i
beama
t
e
r
i
a
l

si
mpa
c
to
n
r
a
di
a
t
i
o
n.
Fo
rmi
c
r
o
wa
v
e
s
,t
het
woma
i
na
bs
o
r
be
ntma
t
e
r
i
a
l
sa
r
e
:
Me
t
a
l
.El
e
c
t
r
o
nsc
a
nmo
v
ef
r
e
e
l
yi
nme
t
a
l
s
,a
nda
r
er
e
a
di
l
ya
bl
et
os
wi
ng
a
ndt
husa
bs
o
r
bt
hee
ne
r
g
yo
fapa
s
s
i
ngwa
v
e
.
Wa
t
e
r
.Mi
c
r
o
wa
v
e
sc
a
us
ewa
t
e
rmo
l
e
c
ul
e
st
oj
o
s
t
l
ea
r
o
und,t
hust
a
k
i
ng
a
wa
ys
o
meo
ft
hewa
v
e

se
ne
r
g
y
.
Fo
rt
hepur
po
s
eo
fpr
a
c
t
i
c
a
lwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
i
ng
,wema
ywe
l
lc
o
ns
i
de
r
me
t
a
la
ndwa
t
e
rpe
r
f
e
c
ta
bs
o
r
be
r
s
:wewi
l
lno
tbea
bl
et
og
ot
hr
o
ug
ht
he
m
(
a
l
t
ho
ug
ht
hi
nl
a
y
e
r
so
fwa
t
e
rwi
l
ll
e
ts
o
mepo
we
rpa
s
s
)
.$e
ya
r
et
o
mi
c
r
o
wa
v
ewha
tabr
i
c
kwa
l
li
st
ol
i
g
ht
.
Whe
nt
a
l
k
i
nga
bo
utwa
t
e
r
,weha
v
et
or
e
me
mbe
rt
ha
ti
tc
o
me
si
ndi
1e
r
e
nt
f
o
r
ms
:r
a
i
n,f
o
ga
ndmi
s
t
,l
o
wc
l
o
udsa
nds
of
o
r
t
h,a
l
lwi
l
lbei
nt
hewa
yo
f
r
a
di
ol
i
nk
s
.$e
yha
v
eas
t
r
o
ngi
nWue
nc
e
,a
ndi
nma
nyc
i
r
c
ums
t
a
nc
e
sa
c
ha
ng
ei
nwe
a
t
he
rc
a
nbr
i
ngar
a
di
ol
i
nkdo
wn.
Whe
nt
a
l
k
i
ng a
bo
utme
t
a
l
,k
e
e
pi
n mi
nd t
ha
ti
tma
ybef
o
und i
n
une
x
pe
c
t
e
dpl
a
c
e
s
:i
tma
ybehi
dde
ni
nwa
l
l
s(
f
o
re
x
a
mpl
e
,a
sme
t
a
lg
r
i
ds
i
nc
o
nc
r
e
t
e
)o
rbeat
hi
nc
o
a
to
nmo
de
r
nt
y
pe
so
fg
l
a
s
s(
t
i
nt
e
dg
l
a
s
s
,
c
o
l
o
r
e
dg
l
a
s
s
)
.
Ho
we
v
e
rt
hi
nt
hel
a
y
e
ro
fme
t
a
l
,i
tmi
g
htbee
no
ug
ht
os
i
g
ni
0c
a
nt
l
y
a
b
s
o
r
bar
a
di
owa
v
e
.
$e
r
ea
r
eo
t
he
rma
t
e
r
i
a
l
st
ha
tha
v
eamo
r
ec
o
mpl
e
xe
1e
c
to
nr
a
di
o
a
b
s
o
r
pt
i
o
n.F
o
rt
r
e
e
sa
ndwo
o
d,t
hea
mo
unto
fa
bs
o
r
pt
i
o
nde
pe
ndso
n
ho
wmuc
hwa
t
e
rt
he
yc
o
nt
a
i
n.

14

1. RADIO PHYSICS

Ol
dde
a
ddr
ywo
o
di
smo
r
eo
rl
e
s
st
r
a
ns
pa
r
e
nt
,we
tf
r
e
s
hwo
o
dwi
l
la
bs
o
r
b
al
o
t
.Pl
a
s
t
i
c
sa
nds
i
mi
l
a
rma
t
e
r
i
a
l
sg
e
ne
r
a
l
l
ydono
ta
bs
o
r
bal
o
to
fr
a
di
o
e
ne
r
g
y
,butt
hi
sv
a
r
i
e
sde
pe
ndi
ngo
nt
hef
r
e
q
ue
nc
ya
ndt
y
peo
fma
t
e
r
i
a
l
.
La
s
t
l
y
,l
e
tust
a
l
ka
bo
uto
ur
s
e
l
v
e
s
:huma
ns(
a
swe
l
la
so
t
he
ra
ni
ma
l
s
)a
r
e
l
a
r
g
e
l
yma
deo
uto
fwa
t
e
r
.
Asf
a
ra
sr
a
di
one
t
wo
r
k
i
ngi
sc
o
nc
e
r
ne
d,wema
ywe
l
lbede
s
c
r
i
be
da
sbi
g
ba
g
so
fwa
t
e
r
,wi
t
ht
hes
a
mes
t
r
o
nga
bs
o
r
pt
i
o
n.
Or
i
e
nt
i
nga
no
Nc
ea
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nti
ns
uc
hawa
yt
ha
ti
t
ss
i
g
na
lmus
tpa
s
s
t
hr
o
ug
hma
nype
o
pl
ei
sak
e
ymi
s
t
a
k
ewhe
nbui
l
di
ngo
Nc
ene
t
wo
r
k
s
.
$es
a
meg
o
e
sf
o
rho
t
s
po
t
s
,c
a
f
ei
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
ns
,l
i
br
a
r
i
e
s
,a
nd o
ut
do
o
r
i
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
ns
.

Re'ection
J
us
tl
i
k
ev
i
s
i
bl
el
i
g
ht
,r
a
di
owa
v
e
sa
r
er
e
We
c
t
e
dwhe
nt
he
yc
o
mei
nc
o
nt
a
c
t
wi
t
hma
t
e
r
i
a
l
st
ha
ta
r
es
ui
t
e
df
o
rt
ha
t
:f
o
rr
a
di
owa
v
e
s
,t
hema
i
ns
o
ur
c
e
so
f
r
e
We
c
t
i
o
na
r
eme
t
a
la
ndwa
t
e
rs
ur
f
a
c
e
s
.
$er
ul
e
sf
o
rr
e
We
c
t
i
o
na
r
eq
ui
t
es
i
mpl
e
:t
hea
ng
l
ea
twhi
c
hawa
v
ehi
t
sa
s
ur
f
a
c
ei
st
hes
a
mea
ng
l
ea
twhi
c
hi
tg
e
t
sde
We
c
t
e
d.
No
t
et
ha
ti
nt
hee
y
e
so
far
a
di
owa
v
e
,ade
ns
eg
r
i
do
fba
r
sa
c
t
sj
us
tt
he
s
a
mea
sas
o
l
i
ds
ur
f
a
c
e
,a
sl
o
nga
st
hedi
s
t
a
nc
ebe
t
we
e
n ba
r
si
ss
ma
l
l
c
o
mpa
r
e
dt
ot
hewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h.
At2.
4GHz
,ao
nec
m me
t
a
lg
r
i
dwi
l
la
c
tmuc
ht
hes
a
mea
same
t
a
lpl
a
t
e
.
Al
t
ho
ug
ht
her
ul
e
so
fr
e
We
c
t
i
o
na
r
eq
ui
t
es
i
mpl
e
,t
hi
ng
sc
a
nbe
c
o
mev
e
r
y
c
o
mpl
i
c
a
t
e
dwhe
ny
o
ui
ma
g
i
nea
no
Nc
ei
nt
e
r
i
o
rwi
t
hma
nyma
nys
ma
l
l
me
t
a
lo
b
j
e
c
t
so
fv
a
r
i
o
usc
o
mpl
i
c
a
t
e
ds
ha
pe
s
.
$es
a
meg
o
e
sf
o
rur
ba
ns
i
t
ua
t
i
o
ns
:l
o
o
ka
r
o
undy
o
ui
nc
i
t
ye
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
a
ndt
r
yt
os
po
ta
l
lo
ft
heme
t
a
lo
bj
e
c
t
s
.
$i
se
x
pl
a
i
nswhymu
l
t
i
p
a
t
he
>e
c
t
s(
i
.
e
.s
i
g
na
lr
e
a
c
hi
ngt
he
i
rt
a
r
g
e
ta
l
o
ng
di
1e
r
e
ntpa
t
hs
,a
ndt
he
r
e
f
o
r
ea
tdi
1e
r
e
ntt
i
me
s
)pl
a
ys
uc
ha
ni
mpo
r
t
a
nt
r
o
l
ei
nwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
i
ng
.
Wa
t
e
rs
ur
f
a
c
e
s
,wi
t
hwa
v
e
sa
ndr
i
ppl
e
sc
ha
ng
i
nga
l
lt
het
i
me
,e
1e
c
t
i
v
e
l
y
ma
k
ef
o
rav
e
r
yc
o
mpl
i
c
a
t
e
dr
e
We
c
t
i
o
no
bj
e
c
twhi
c
hi
smo
r
eo
rl
e
s
s
i
mpo
s
s
i
b
l
et
oc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
ea
ndpr
e
di
c
tpr
e
c
i
s
e
l
y
.

PHYSICS

15

Fi
g
u
r
eRP6:Re
E
e
c
t
i
o
no
fr
a
d
i
owa
v
e
s
.
ea
ng
l
eo
fi
nc
i
d
e
nc
ei
sa
l
wa
y
se
q
u
a
lt
o
t
h
ea
ng
l
eo
fr
e
E
e
c
t
i
o
n.
Ame
t
a
lp
a
r
a
b
o
l
i
cs
u
r
f
a
c
eu
s
e
st
h
i
se
>e
c
tt
oc
o
nc
e
nt
r
a
t
e
r
a
d
i
owa
v
e
ss
p
r
e
a
do
u
to
v
e
ri
ti
nac
o
mmo
nd
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n.

Wes
ho
ul
da
l
s
oa
ddt
ha
tpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
nha
sa
ni
mpa
c
t
:wa
v
e
so
fdi
1e
r
e
nt
po
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ni
ng
e
ne
r
a
lwi
l
lber
e
We
c
t
e
ddi
1e
r
e
nt
l
y
.
Weus
er
e
We
c
t
i
o
nt
oo
ura
dv
a
nt
a
g
ei
na
nt
e
nnabui
l
di
ng
:e
.
g
.weputhug
e
pa
r
a
bo
l
a
sbe
hi
ndo
urr
a
di
ot
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
r
/
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
rt
oc
o
l
l
e
c
ta
ndbundl
et
he
r
a
di
os
i
g
na
li
nt
oas
i
ng
l
epo
i
nt
,t
hef
o
c
a
lpo
i
nt
.

Diffraction
Di
1r
a
c
t
i
o
ni
st
hea
ppa
r
e
ntbe
ndi
ngo
fwa
v
e
swhe
nhi
t
t
i
nga
no
bj
e
c
t
.
I
ti
st
hee
1e
c
to
f
wa
v
e
sg
o
i
nga
r
o
undc
o
r
ne
r
s

.I
ma
g
i
neawa
v
eo
nwa
t
e
r
t
r
a
v
e
l
i
ngi
nas
t
r
a
i
g
htwa
v
ef
r
o
nt
,j
us
tl
i
k
eawa
v
et
ha
twes
e
er
o
l
l
i
ngo
nt
o
a
no
c
e
a
nbe
a
c
h.
No
w weputas
o
l
i
dba
r
r
i
e
r
,s
a
yawo
o
de
ns
o
l
i
df
e
nc
e
,i
ni
t
swa
yt
obl
o
c
k
i
t
.Wec
utana
r
r
o
ws
l
i
to
pe
ni
ngi
nt
ot
ha
twa
l
l
,l
i
k
eas
ma
l
ldo
o
r
.
Fr
o
mt
hi
so
pe
ni
ng
,ac
i
r
c
ul
a
rwa
v
ewi
l
ls
t
a
r
t
,a
ndi
twi
l
lo
fc
o
ur
s
er
e
a
c
h
po
i
nt
st
ha
ta
r
eno
ti
nadi
r
e
c
tl
i
nebe
hi
ndt
hi
so
pe
ni
ng
,buta
l
s
oo
ne
i
t
he
r
s
i
deo
fi
t
.I
fy
o
ul
o
o
ka
tt
hi
swa
v
e
f
r
o
nt-a
ndi
tmi
g
htj
us
ta
swe
l
lbea
n
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e-a
sabe
a
m(
as
t
r
a
i
g
htl
i
ne
)
,i
two
ul
dbeha
r
dt
o
e
x
pl
a
i
nho
wi
tc
a
nr
e
a
c
hpo
i
nt
st
ha
ts
ho
ul
dbehi
dde
nb
yaba
r
r
i
e
r
.
Whe
nmo
de
l
l
e
da
sawa
v
e
f
r
o
nt
,t
hephe
no
me
no
nma
k
e
ss
e
ns
e
.

16

1. RADIO PHYSICS

Fi
g
u
r
eRP7:Di
>r
a
c
t
i
o
nt
h
r
o
u
g
hana
r
r
o
ws
l
i
t
.
$eHuy
g
e
nsPr
i
nc
i
pl
epr
o
v
i
de
so
nemo
de
lf
o
runde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ngt
hi
sbe
ha
v
i
o
r
.
I
ma
g
i
ne t
ha
ta
ta
ny g
i
v
e
ni
ns
t
a
nt
,e
v
e
r
y po
i
nto
n a wa
v
e
f
r
o
ntc
a
n be
c
o
ns
i
de
r
e
dt
hes
t
a
r
t
i
ngpo
i
ntf
o
ras
phe
r
i
c
a
l
wa
v
e
l
e
t

.
$i
si
de
a wa
sl
a
t
e
re
x
t
e
nde
db
y Fr
e
s
ne
l
,a
nd whe
t
he
ri
ta
de
q
ua
t
e
l
y
de
s
c
r
i
be
st
hephe
no
me
no
ni
ss
t
i
l
lama
t
t
e
ro
fde
ba
t
e
.Butf
o
ro
urpur
po
s
e
s
,
t
heHuy
g
e
nsmo
de
lde
s
c
r
i
be
st
hee
1e
c
tq
ui
t
ewe
l
l
.

Fi
g
u
r
eRP8:eHu
y
g
e
nsPr
i
nc
i
p
l
e
.
$r
o
ug
h me
a
nso
ft
hee
1e
c
to
fdi
1r
a
c
t
i
o
n,wa
v
e
swi
l
l
be
nda
r
o
und
c
o
r
ne
r
so
rs
pr
e
a
dt
hr
o
ug
ha
no
pe
ni
ngi
naba
r
r
i
e
r
.

PHYSICS

17

$ewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
hso
fv
i
s
i
bl
el
i
g
hta
r
ef
a
rt
o
os
ma
l
lf
o
rhuma
nst
oo
bs
e
r
v
e
t
hi
se
1e
c
tdi
r
e
c
t
l
y
.
Mi
c
r
o
wa
v
e
s
,wi
t
h awa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
ho
fs
e
v
e
r
a
lc
e
nt
i
me
t
e
r
s
,wi
l
ls
ho
wt
he
e
1e
c
t
so
fdi
1r
a
c
t
i
o
nwhe
nwa
v
e
shi
twa
l
l
s
,mo
unt
a
i
n pe
a
k
s
,a
ndo
t
he
r
o
bs
t
a
c
l
e
s
.I
ts
e
e
msa
si
ft
heo
bs
t
r
uc
t
i
o
nc
a
us
e
st
hewa
v
et
oc
ha
ng
ei
t
s
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
ndg
oa
r
o
undc
o
r
ne
r
s
.

Fi
g
u
r
eRP9:Di
>r
a
c
t
i
o
no
v
e
ramo
u
nt
a
i
nt
o
p
.
No
t
et
ha
tdi
1r
a
c
t
i
o
nc
o
me
sa
tt
hec
o
s
to
fpo
we
r
:t
hee
ne
r
g
yo
ft
he
di
1r
a
c
t
e
dwa
v
ei
ss
i
g
ni
0c
a
nt
l
yl
e
s
st
ha
nt
ha
to
ft
hewa
v
e
f
r
o
ntt
ha
tc
a
us
e
d
i
t
.Buti
ns
o
mev
e
r
ys
pe
c
i
0ca
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ns
,y
o
uc
a
nt
a
k
ea
dv
a
nt
a
g
eo
ft
he
di
1r
a
c
t
i
o
ne
1e
c
tt
oc
i
r
c
umv
e
nto
bs
t
a
c
l
e
s
.

Interference
I
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
ei
so
neo
ft
hemo
s
tmi
s
unde
r
s
t
o
o
dt
e
r
msa
ndphe
no
ne
mai
n
wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
i
ng
.
I
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
eo
f
t
e
ng
e
t
st
hebl
a
mewhe
nwea
r
et
o
ol
a
z
yt
o0ndt
her
e
a
l
pr
o
bl
e
m,o
rwhe
nar
e
g
ul
a
t
o
rwa
nt
st
os
hutdo
wns
o
me
o
nee
l
s
e
'
sne
t
wo
r
k
f
o
rbus
i
ne
s
sr
e
a
s
o
ns
.S
o
,whya
l
lt
hemi
s
unde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ng
s
?
I
ti
smo
s
t
l
ybe
c
a
us
edi
1e
r
e
ntpe
o
pl
eme
a
ndi
1e
r
e
ntt
hi
ng
st
ho
ug
ht
he
ya
r
e
us
i
ngt
hes
a
mewo
r
d.
A phy
s
i
c
i
s
ta
nd a t
e
l
e
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns e
ng
i
ne
e
r wi
l
lus
et
he wo
r
d
"
I
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
"i
nv
e
r
y di
1e
r
e
nt wa
y
s
. $e phy
s
i
c
i
s
t
s
'v
i
e
w wi
l
lbe
c
o
nc
e
r
ne
d wi
t
ht
he "
be
ha
v
i
o
ur o
f wa
v
e
s
"
. $e t
e
l
e
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns
e
ng
i
ne
e
rwi
l
lt
a
l
ka
bo
ut
.
.
.a
nyno
i
s
et
ha
tg
e
t
si
nt
hewa
y

18

1. RADIO PHYSICS

Bo
t
hv
i
e
wsa
r
er
e
l
e
v
a
nti
nwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
,a
ndi
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
obea
bl
et
ok
no
w
t
he
m bo
t
ha
ndk
no
wt
hedi
1e
r
e
nc
e
.Le
tuss
t
a
r
twi
t
ht
hephy
s
i
c
i
s
t
s
'v
i
e
w:
Whe
nwo
r
k
i
ngwi
t
hwa
v
e
s
,o
nepl
uso
nedo
e
sno
tne
c
e
s
s
a
r
i
l
ye
q
ua
lt
wo
.I
t
c
a
na
l
s
or
e
s
ul
ti
nz
e
r
o
.

Fi
g
u
r
eRP10:Co
ns
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
ea
ndd
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.
$i
si
se
a
s
yt
ounde
r
s
t
a
ndwhe
ny
o
udr
a
wt
wos
i
newa
v
e
sa
nda
ddupt
he
a
mpl
i
t
ude
s
.Whe
nt
hepha
s
edi
1e
r
e
nc
ei
sz
e
r
o
,pe
a
khi
t
spe
a
k
,a
ndy
o
u
wi
l
lha
v
ema
x
i
mum r
e
s
ul
t
s(
1+1=2)
.
$i
si
sc
a
l
l
e
dc
o
ns
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.
Whe
nt
hepha
s
edi
1e
r
e
nc
ei
s180de
g
r
e
e
s
,o
r/
2,pe
a
khi
t
sv
a
l
l
e
y
,a
nd
y
o
u wi
l
lha
v
ec
o
mpl
e
t
ea
nni
hi
l
a
t
i
o
n(
(
1+(
)
1 = 0) -d
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
e
i
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.
Y
o
uc
a
na
c
t
ua
l
l
yt
r
yt
hi
swi
t
hwa
v
e
so
nwa
t
e
ra
ndt
wol
i
t
t
l
es
t
i
c
k
st
oc
r
e
a
t
e
c
i
r
c
ul
a
rwa
v
e
s-y
o
uwi
l
ls
e
et
ha
twhe
r
et
wowa
v
e
sc
r
o
s
s
,t
he
r
ewi
l
lbea
r
e
a
s
o
fhi
g
he
rwa
v
epe
a
k
sa
ndo
t
he
r
st
ha
tr
e
ma
i
na
l
mo
s
tWa
ta
ndc
a
l
m.I
n
o
r
de
rf
o
rwho
l
et
r
a
i
nso
fwa
v
e
st
oa
dd upo
rc
a
nc
e
le
a
c
ho
t
he
ro
ut
pe
r
f
e
c
t
l
y
,t
he
yha
v
et
oha
v
et
hee
x
a
c
ts
a
mewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
ha
nda0x
e
dpha
s
e
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n.
Y
o
uc
a
ns
e
eo
b
v
i
o
use
x
a
mpl
e
so
fi
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
ei
na
c
t
i
o
nwhe
ny
o
ul
o
o
ka
t
t
hewa
yt
ha
ta
nt
e
nna
sa
r
ea
r
r
a
ng
e
di
nwha
ta
r
ec
a
l
l
e
db
e
a
mf
o
r
mi
nga
r
r
a
y
s
,
i
no
r
de
rt
og
i
v
ema
x
i
mum c
o
ns
t
r
uc
t
i
v
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
ei
nt
hedi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ns
whe
r
ey
o
uwa
ntt
hes
i
g
na
l
,a
ndde
s
t
r
uc
t
i
v
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e(
nos
i
g
na
l
)whe
r
e
y
o
uwa
ntnos
i
g
na
l
.
Te
c
hni
c
a
l
l
y
,t
hi
si
sa
c
hi
e
v
e
db
yac
o
mbi
na
t
i
o
no
fphy
s
i
c
a
ldi
me
ns
i
o
ni
ng
a
ndc
o
nt
r
o
lo
fpha
s
es
hi
f
t
s
.

PHYSICS

19

S
i
mpl
i
0e
d,i
ma
g
i
net
ha
ty
o
uha
v
et
hr
e
ea
nt
e
nna
s-a
ndy
o
udo
n'
twa
nt
a
nt
e
nna3t
opi
c
kups
i
g
na
lf
r
o
ma
nt
e
nna1a
nd2.Y
o
uwo
ul
dt
he
npl
a
c
e
a
nt
e
nna3a
tapo
s
i
t
i
o
nwhe
r
et
hes
i
g
na
l
sf
r
o
ma
nt
e
nna
s1a
nd2c
a
nc
e
l
e
a
c
ho
t
he
ro
ut
.
No
wl
e
tusha
v
eal
o
o
ka
tt
hewa
yt
hewo
r
di
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
ei
st
y
pi
c
a
l
l
yus
e
d:
i
nawi
de
rs
e
ns
e
,f
o
ra
nydi
s
t
ur
ba
nc
et
hr
o
ug
ho
t
he
rRFs
o
ur
c
e
s
,a
nyno
i
s
e
t
ha
tmi
g
htg
e
ti
no
urwa
y
,e
.
g
.f
r
o
m ne
i
g
hbo
r
i
ngc
ha
nne
l
so
rc
o
mpe
t
i
ng
pr
o
v
i
de
r
s
.S
o
,whe
n wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
e
r
st
a
l
ka
bo
uti
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
et
he
y
t
y
pi
c
a
l
l
yt
a
l
ka
bo
uta
l
lt
he
s
ek
i
ndso
fdi
s
t
ur
b
a
nc
eb
yo
t
he
rne
t
wo
r
k
s
,a
nd
a
nyo
t
he
rs
o
ur
c
e
so
fmi
c
r
o
wa
v
e
,whe
t
he
ri
tha
se
x
a
c
t
l
yt
hes
a
mef
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
a
nda0x
e
dpha
s
er
e
l
a
t
i
o
no
rno
t
.I
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
eo
ft
hi
sk
i
ndi
so
neo
ft
he
ma
i
ns
o
ur
c
e
so
fdi
Nc
ul
t
yi
nbui
l
di
ngwi
r
e
l
e
s
sl
i
nk
s
,e
s
pe
c
i
a
l
l
yi
nur
ba
n
e
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
so
rc
l
o
s
e
ds
pa
c
e
s(
s
uc
ha
sac
o
nf
e
r
e
nc
es
pa
c
e
)whe
r
ema
ny
ne
t
wo
r
k
sma
yc
o
mpe
t
ef
o
rus
eo
ft
hes
pe
c
t
r
um.
But
,i
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
eo
ft
hi
sk
i
ndi
sa
l
s
oo
f
t
e
no
v
e
r
r
a
t
e
d:f
o
re
x
a
mpl
e
,i
ma
g
i
ne
y
o
uha
dt
obui
l
dapo
i
ntt
opo
i
ntl
i
nkt
ha
tha
st
oc
r
o
s
sac
r
o
wde
di
nne
rc
i
t
y
a
r
e
a
,be
f
o
r
er
e
a
c
hi
ngi
t
st
a
r
g
e
to
nt
heo
t
he
rs
i
deo
ft
hec
i
t
y
.S
uc
hahi
g
hl
y
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
lbe
a
m wi
l
lc
r
o
s
st
he"
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
cs
mo
g
"o
ft
heur
b
a
nc
e
nt
r
ewi
t
ho
ut
a
nypr
o
bl
e
m.
Y
o
uma
yi
ma
g
i
net
hi
sl
i
k
eag
r
e
e
na
ndar
e
dl
i
g
htbe
a
mc
r
o
s
s
i
ng
e
a
c
ho
t
he
ri
na90de
g
r
e
e
sa
ng
l
e
:whi
l
ebo
t
hbe
a
mswi
l
lo
v
e
r
l
a
pi
nac
e
r
t
a
i
n
a
r
e
a
,t
heo
newi
l
lno
tha
v
ea
nyi
mpa
c
to
nt
heo
t
he
ra
ta
l
l
.
Ge
ne
r
a
l
l
y
,ma
na
g
i
ng s
pe
c
t
r
um a
nd c
o
e
x
i
s
t
e
nc
eha
sbe
c
o
meama
i
ni
s
s
ue
e
s
pe
c
i
a
l
l
yi
nde
ns
ei
ndo
o
re
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
sa
ndur
ba
na
r
e
a
s
.

Line of sight
$e t
e
r
m l
i
neo
fs
i
g
h
t
,o
f
t
e
na
bbr
e
v
i
a
t
e
da
sLOS,i
sq
ui
t
ee
a
s
yt
o
unde
r
s
t
a
ndwhe
nt
a
l
k
i
nga
bo
utv
i
s
i
bl
el
i
g
ht
:i
fwec
a
ns
e
eapo
i
ntBf
r
o
m
po
i
ntAwhe
r
ewea
r
e
,weha
v
el
i
neo
fs
i
g
ht
.S
i
mpl
ydr
a
wal
i
nef
r
o
m At
o
B,a
ndi
fno
t
hi
ngi
si
nt
hewa
y
,weha
v
el
i
neo
fs
i
g
ht
.
$i
ng
sg
e
tabi
tmo
r
ec
o
mpl
i
c
a
t
e
dwhe
nwea
r
ede
a
l
i
ngwi
t
hmi
c
r
o
wa
v
e
s
.
Re
me
mbe
rt
ha
tmo
s
tpr
o
pa
g
a
t
i
o
nc
ha
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
so
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
s
s
c
a
l
ewi
t
ht
he
i
rwa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h.$i
si
sa
l
s
ot
hec
a
s
ef
o
rt
hewi
de
ni
ngo
fwa
v
e
s
a
st
he
yt
r
a
v
e
l
.Li
g
htha
s a wa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
ho
fa
bo
ut 0.
5 mi
c
r
o
me
t
r
e
s
,
mi
c
r
o
wa
v
e
sa
sus
e
di
nwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
i
ngha
v
eawa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
ho
faf
e
w
c
e
nt
i
me
t
r
e
s
.
Co
ns
e
q
ue
nt
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k
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20

1. RADIO PHYSICS

No
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hes
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g
na
l
sc
a
nc
e
l
.

PHYSICS

21

Ta
k
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nMHz
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22

1. RADIO PHYSICS

$e0r
s
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e
s
ne
lz
o
ner
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l
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re
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e
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t
t
i
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r=7.
84me
t
r
e
s
As
s
umi
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t
ho
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n me
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e
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ur
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ntbet
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et
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f
t
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tz
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ne
?

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s
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Fr
e
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ne
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.
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ma
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c
c
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pt
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bl
e
,butt
oi
mpr
o
v
et
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i
t
ua
t
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t
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dt
heo
b
s
t
a
c
l
e
.

PHYSICS

23

Power
Anye
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
ec
a
r
r
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e
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24

1. RADIO PHYSICS

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PHYSICS

25

Ano
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he
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a
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rmo
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/
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02
dB_Ma
t
hv
1.
12_wi
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hno
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s
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pdf

Physics in the real world

Do
n

t wo
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r
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nc
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pt
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n t
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y
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26

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS

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nt
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a
l
l
e
das
pe
c
t
r
um.

PHYSICS

27

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g
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s
f
r
o
ma
dj
a
c
e
ntc
ha
nne
l
s
.

28

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS

Co
ns
e
q
ue
nt
l
y
,t
her
e
c
e
i
v
e
ds
i
g
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lwi
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e
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g
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l
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ht
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r
ma
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ra
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.

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g
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r
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t
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ue ha
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fd
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t
a
lo
r
nu
me
r
i
cs
i
g
na
l
s
.

PHYSICS

29

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a
nc
ho
o
s
et
henumbe
ro
fbi
t
sus
e
dt
o
r
e
c
o
r
dt
hei
ma
g
e
.

30

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS

$eg
r
e
a
t
e
rt
henumbe
ro
fbi
t
s(
pr
o
po
r
t
i
o
na
lt
ot
hea
mo
unto
fme
g
a
p
i
x
e
l
s
)
,
t
hebe
t
t
e
rt
her
e
nde
r
i
ng
,butmo
r
eme
mo
r
ywi
l
lbeus
e
da
ndl
o
ng
e
rt
i
met
o
t
r
a
ns
mi
tt
hei
ma
g
ewi
l
lbene
e
de
d.
S
omo
s
tmo
de
r
nc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns
y
s
t
e
msde
a
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g
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t
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t
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o
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i
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e
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l
o
gs
i
g
na
lc
a
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o
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r
uc
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e
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r
o
m di
s
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r
e
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e
s
a
mpl
e
si
ft
hes
a
mpl
i
ngr
a
t
ei
sa
tl
e
a
s
tt
wi
c
ea
shi
g
ha
st
hehi
g
he
s
tf
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
c
o
nt
e
nto
ft
hes
i
g
na
l
.

Fi
g
u
r
eTB5:d
e
t
e
c
t
i
o
no
fano
i
s
ys
i
g
na
l

PHYSICS

31

$e
ne
a
c
hs
a
mpl
ei
sc
o
de
di
na
sma
nybi
t
sa
sne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yt
oa
c
hi
e
v
et
hede
s
i
r
e
d
a
mo
unto
fpr
e
c
i
s
i
o
n.
$e
s
ebi
t
sc
a
nno
wbee
Nc
i
e
nt
l
ys
t
o
r
e
do
rt
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
d,s
i
nc
ef
o
rt
her
e
c
o
v
e
r
y
o
ft
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nf
o
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ma
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o
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e
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i
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ha
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e
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l
o
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i
g
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l
.

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ss
ho
wni
nFi
g
ur
eTB5,whe
r
et
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i
g
i
na
lda
t
ac
o
ns
i
s
t
so
ft
he010
1110s
e
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nc
e
.$e0'
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r
er
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
e
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sz
e
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ov
o
l
t
sa
ndt
he1'
sa
s1V.
Ast
hes
i
g
na
lmo
v
e
st
o
wa
r
dst
her
e
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e
i
v
e
r
,i
t
sa
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i
t
udewi
l
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mi
ni
s
h.$i
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e
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ti
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l
l
e
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a
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e
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o
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nt
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ur
e
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e
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e
wi
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l
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st
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i
g
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v
e
sf
r
o
mt
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r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
rt
ot
he
r
e
c
e
i
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e
r
,t
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a
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a
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t
yi
nt
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l
a
yo
ft
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c
e
i
v
e
ds
i
g
na
li
sc
a
l
l
e
dj
i
t
t
e
r
.
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t
e
nua
t
i
o
n,no
i
s
eo
rj
i
t
t
e
r(
o
rt
he
i
rc
o
mbi
na
t
i
o
n)i
fs
e
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e
r
ee
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a
n
c
a
us
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t
e
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i
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ne
r
r
o
r
.An a
mpl
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rc
a
n be us
e
dt
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r
c
o
me t
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e
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i
g
na
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st
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r
e
f
o
r
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e
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a
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l
lr
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o
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e
rt
hei
nf
o
r
ma
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i
o
n
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nt
a
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ne
db
ys
a
mpl
i
ng t
he r
e
c
e
i
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i
g
na
la
tt
he c
o
r
r
e
c
tt
i
me a
nd
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o
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r
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ng t
hev
a
l
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tt
hes
a
mpl
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ng t
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i
g
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a
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o
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eet
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g
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ft
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nt
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a
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e
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o
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l
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e
r
o
.
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a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
ne
r
r
o
r
sc
a
na
l
s
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c
c
uri
ft
hes
a
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ngs
i
g
na
lpe
r
i
o
di
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1e
r
e
nt
f
r
o
mt
ha
to
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r
i
g
i
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a(
di
1e
r
e
nc
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nt
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l
o
c
kr
a
t
e
s
)
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ri
ft
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e
c
e
i
v
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rc
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o
c
ki
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t
a
b
l
ee
no
ug
h(
j
i
t
t
e
r
)
.
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s
i
c
a
ls
y
s
t
e
m wi
l
lha
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nuppe
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i
mi
ti
nt
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r
e
q
ue
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st
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l
l
t
r
a
ns
mi
tf
a
i
t
hf
ul
l
y(
t
heba
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ft
hes
y
s
t
e
m)
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g
he
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e
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o
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l
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l
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a
g
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l
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a
st
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i
g
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g
o
e
st
hr
o
ug
ht
hec
ha
nne
l
.
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r
e
f
o
r
e
,wemus
tma
k
es
ur
et
ha
te
a
c
ho
ft
hee
l
e
me
nt
so
ft
hes
y
s
t
e
m ha
s
e
no
ug
hba
ndwi
dt
ht
oha
ndl
et
hes
i
g
na
l
.Ont
heo
t
he
rha
nd,t
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r
e
a
t
e
r
t
heba
ndwi
dt
ho
ft
her
e
c
e
i
v
e
rs
y
s
t
e
m,t
heg
r
e
a
t
e
rt
hea
mo
unto
ft
heno
i
s
e
t
ha
twi
l
la
1e
c
tt
her
e
c
e
i
v
e
ds
i
g
na
l
.

32

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS

Modulation
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o
bus
t
ne
s
so
ft
hedi
g
i
t
a
ls
i
g
na
li
sa
l
s
oe
x
e
mpl
i
0e
db
yt
hef
a
c
tt
ha
ti
t
wa
sc
ho
s
e
nf
o
rt
he0r
s
tt
r
i
a
l
so
fr
a
di
ot
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
n.Ma
r
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o
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ho
we
dt
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e
a
s
i
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l
i
t
yo
fl
o
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s
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a
nc
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r
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ns
mi
s
s
i
o
n,butpr
e
t
t
ys
o
o
nr
e
a
l
i
s
e
dt
ha
tt
he
r
e
wa
sane
e
dt
os
ha
r
et
heme
di
um a
mo
ngdi
1e
r
e
ntus
e
r
s
.
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swa
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c
hi
e
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e
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ya
s
s
i
g
ni
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1e
r
e
ntc
a
r
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i
e
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r
e
q
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nc
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e
swhi
c
h we
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e
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l
a
t
e
db
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a
c
hus
e
r

sme
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s
a
g
e
.Mo
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u
l
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yt
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a
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e
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e
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e
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r
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ra
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o
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st
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r
a
ns
mi
t
.$eo
r
i
g
i
na
li
nf
o
r
ma
t
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o
ni
sr
e
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i
e
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e
da
tde
s
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i
na
t
i
o
n
b
yt
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o
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r
e
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mo
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a
t
i
o
no
ft
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e
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e
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e
ds
i
g
na
l
.

Fi
g
u
r
eTB6:S
i
nu
s
o
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d
a
lCa
r
r
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e
rS
i
g
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l
Fi
g
ur
eTB 6s
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r
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t
udeA,pha
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nd
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r
e
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yf
w
h
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c
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T
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fi
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
nt
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
d
pe
rs
e
c
o
nd (
c
a
p
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t
yo
ft
hel
i
nk i
n bi
t
s
/
s
e
c
o
nd)o
rs
p
e
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t
r
a
le
Nc
i
e
nc
y
(
numbe
ro
fbi
t
s
/
spe
rHe
r
t
z
)
.

PHYSICS

33

Fo
ri
ns
t
a
nc
e
,BPS
KBi
na
r
y Pha
s
eS
hi
f
t Ke
y
i
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-i
sa v
e
r
yr
o
bus
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mo
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a
t
i
o
nt
e
c
hni
q
uebutt
r
a
ns
mi
t
so
nl
yo
nebi
tpe
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mbo
l
,whi
l
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QAM Qua
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r
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r
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t
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dul
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r
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y8bi
t
spe
rs
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mbo
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,
t
hus mul
t
i
pl
y
i
ng b
yaf
a
c
t
o
ro
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i
g
htt
he a
mo
unto
fi
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n
t
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
d pe
rs
e
c
o
nd,butt
oc
o
r
r
e
c
t
l
ydi
s
t
i
ng
ui
s
ha
mo
ng
s
tt
he256
s
y
mbo
l
st
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
d,t
her
e
c
e
i
v
e
ds
i
g
na
lmus
tbev
e
r
ys
t
r
o
nga
sc
o
mpa
r
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d
wi
t
ht
heno
i
s
e(
av
e
r
yhi
g
hS
/
NS
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g
na
l
/
No
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t
i
o-i
sr
e
q
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r
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.
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t
i
ma
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eme
a
s
ur
eo
fq
ua
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t
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i
t
a
lt
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a
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mi
s
s
i
o
ni
st
heBER Bi
t
Er
r
o
rRa
t
e
-whi
c
hc
o
r
r
e
s
po
ndst
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a
c
t
i
o
no
fe
r
r
o
ne
o
us
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c
o
de
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t
s
.
Ty
pi
c
a
lv
a
l
ue
so
fBERr
a
ng
ebe
t
we
e
n10-3 a
nd10-9.
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a
t
i
o
na
l
s
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l
l
o
wsust
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s
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hr
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ng
eo
ff
r
e
q
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ywe
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ntt
ous
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o
rag
i
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e
nt
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
n.Al
lf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
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r
eno
tc
r
e
a
t
e
de
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ua
l
a
ndt
hec
ho
i
c
eo
ft
hec
a
r
r
i
e
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
yi
sde
t
e
r
mi
ne
db
yl
e
g
a
l
,c
o
mme
r
c
i
a
l
a
ndt
e
c
hni
c
a
lc
o
ns
t
r
a
i
nt
s
.

Multiplexing and duplexing

I
ng
e
ne
r
a
l
,t
hes
ha
r
i
ng o
fac
ha
nne
la
mo
ng di
1e
r
e
ntus
e
r
si
sc
a
l
l
e
d
mu
l
t
i
p
l
e
x
i
ng
.
$i
si
ss
ho
wni
nFi
g
ur
eTB7.

34

2. TELECOMMUNICATIONS BASICS

As
s
i
g
ni
ngdi
1e
r
e
ntc
a
r
r
i
e
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
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e
st
odi
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e
ntus
e
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.

PHYSICS

35

Conclusions
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36

3. LICENSING AND REGULATION

3. LICENSING AND REGULATION

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PHYSICS

37

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m no
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db
yt
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et
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i
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mo
t
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i
c
e
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y
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nt
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heFCC (
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de
r
a
lCo
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c
a
t
i
o
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mmi
s
s
i
o
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s
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de
unl
i
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ds
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e
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ds
pe
c
t
r
um a
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ei
nt
heI
S
M ba
ndsi
nr
ul
e
sa
do
pt
e
d
o
n Ma
y 9,1985.Ma
ny o
t
he
rc
o
unt
r
i
e
sl
a
t
e
ra
do
pt
e
dt
he
s
e FCC
r
e
g
ul
a
t
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o
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na
bl
i
ngus
eo
ft
hi
st
e
c
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l
o
g
yi
nma
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o
unt
r
i
e
s
.
(
Fr
o
m:Wi
k
i
p
e
d
i
a"
I
S
M Ba
nd
"
)

38

3. LICENSING AND REGULATION

I
S
P/
Te
l
e
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nsLi
c
e
ns
e
s
I
ns
o
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o
unt
r
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nI
S
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i
c
e
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q
ui
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o
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o
y
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nga
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r
ki
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r
a
s
t
r
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t
ur
ef
o
rs
ha
r
i
ngne
t
wo
r
k
so
v
e
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i
cs
pa
c
e
s
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no
t
he
r
c
o
unt
r
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e
st
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or
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o
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r
c
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a
lne
t
wo
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k
s
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rpe
r
mi
t
sf
o
ra
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e
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s
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n de
pl
o
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i
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t
wo
r
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ti
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t
e
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e
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o
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o
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o
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o
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et
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t
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e
s
a
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et
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o
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a
ns
mi
s
s
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o
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o
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mi
t
s
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ns
e
t
t
i
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r
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ns
mi
s
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o
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t
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e
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t
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.
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ng
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o
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c
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nt
he5Ghzba
nd.$eUnl
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c
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t
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o
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l
I
nf
o
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ma
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I
)r
a
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e
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pe
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t
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o
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rl
i
mi
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e
dt
o250mW.

PHYSICS

39

$i
ss
pe
c
t
r
um wa
sa
dde
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o
m:Wi
k
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rPt
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ndt
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r
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no
ft
heI
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
n.

40

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

4. RADIO SPECTRUM
What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
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r
ei
sno
tas
i
mpl
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t
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o
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um.

PHYSICS

41

No
wa
da
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TU,I
nt
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na
t
i
o
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lTe
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c
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j
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nt
a
g
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f

42

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

S
pa
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v
a
i
l
a
bl
ec
ha
nne
l
sunt
i
lwer
e
a
c
h al
i
mi
ti
mpo
s
e
db
yt
he
i
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.

Fi
g
u
r
eRS1:Ce
l
l
u
l
a
rs
h
a
r
i
ngo
fs
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
$i
se
x
a
mpl
es
ho
wst
ha
tac
l
e
v
e
rus
eo
fe
x
i
s
t
i
ngr
e
s
o
ur
c
e
sc
a
ndr
a
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
y
i
nc
r
e
a
s
ei
t
sus
e
f
ul
ne
s
s
.Al
t
ho
ug
ht
he ma
i
n us
eo
ft
he s
pe
c
t
r
um i
sf
o
r
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n pur
po
s
e
s
,t
he
r
ea
r
ea
l
s
oo
t
he
rus
e
s
,l
i
k
ec
o
o
k
i
ngf
o
o
di
n

PHYSICS

43

mi
c
r
o
wa
v
eo
v
e
ns
,
me
di
c
a
la
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ns
,g
a
r
a
g
edo
o
ro
pe
ne
r
sa
nds
oo
n.
S
os
o
mef
r
e
q
ue
nc
yba
ndsa
r
ea
l
l
o
c
a
t
e
df
o
rt
he
s
epur
po
s
e
si
n wha
ti
s
k
no
wna
st
heI
S
M(
I
ndus
t
r
i
a
l
,S
c
i
e
nt
i
0ca
ndMe
di
c
a
l
)ba
nds
.
$i
ss
pe
c
t
r
um us
a
g
ei
sno
r
ma
l
l
yf
o
rs
ho
r
tdi
s
t
a
nc
ea
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ns
.
Abr
e
a
k
t
hr
o
ug
ho
c
c
ur
r
e
di
n1985whe
nt
heFCC (
Fe
de
r
a
lCo
mmi
s
s
i
o
no
f
Co
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns
)
,t
hea
g
e
nc
yt
ha
to
v
e
r
s
e
e
st
hes
pe
c
t
r
um i
nt
heU.
S
.
,
a
l
l
o
we
dt
heus
eo
ft
hi
ss
pe
c
t
r
um f
o
rc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nsa
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nsa
swe
l
l
,
pr
o
v
i
de
dt
ha
tt
het
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
npo
we
rwa
sk
e
ptt
oav
e
r
yl
o
wl
e
v
e
lt
o
mi
ni
mi
z
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.

P
e
o
pl
ec
o
ul
df
r
e
e
l
y us
et
he
s
e
Unl
i
c
e
ns
e
d ba
ndswi
t
ho
utpr
e
v
i
o
us
l
y
a
ppl
y
i
ng f
o
ra pe
r
mi
t
,pr
o
v
i
de
dt
ha
tt
hee
q
ui
p
me
ntus
e
d ha
d be
e
n
c
e
r
t
i
0e
db
ya
na
ut
ho
r
i
z
e
dl
a
bo
r
a
t
o
r
yt
ha
te
ns
ur
e
dc
o
mpl
i
a
nc
e wi
t
h
i
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
emi
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
nme
a
s
ur
e
s
.
S
e
v
e
r
a
lma
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
sbe
g
a
nt
a
k
i
nga
dv
a
nt
a
g
eo
ft
hi
so
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yb
y
o
1e
r
i
ng e
q
ui
pme
nt t
ha
tc
o
ul
d be us
e
dt
oc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
e be
t
we
e
n
c
o
mput
e
r
swi
t
ho
utt
hene
e
df
o
rc
a
bl
e
s
,a
nds
o
mewi
r
e
l
e
s
sda
t
ane
t
wo
r
k
s
c
o
v
e
r
i
ngs
i
g
ni
0c
a
ntg
e
o
g
r
a
phi
ca
r
e
a
swe
r
ebui
l
twi
t
ht
he
m,butt
het
ur
ni
ng
po
i
ntha
ppe
ne
da
f
t
e
rt
he 1997 a
ppr
o
v
a
lo
ft
he I
EEE (
I
ns
t
i
t
ut
eo
f
El
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
la
ndEl
e
c
t
r
o
ni
c
sEng
i
ne
e
r
s
)802.
11S
t
a
nda
r
d,t
heba
s
i
so
fwha
ti
s
k
no
wna
sWi
Fi
.
$e e
x
i
s
t
e
nc
eo
fa s
t
a
nda
r
dt
ha
tg
ua
r
a
nt
e
e
dt
he i
nt
e
r
o
pe
r
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
f
e
q
ui
pme
ntpr
o
duc
e
db
ydi
1e
r
e
ntma
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
sf
ue
l
l
e
da
ni
mpr
e
s
s
i
v
e
g
r
o
wt
ho
ft
hema
r
k
e
t
,whi
c
hi
nt
ur
ndr
o
v
et
hec
o
mpe
t
i
t
i
o
nt
ha
tf
o
s
t
e
r
e
da
dr
a
ma
t
i
cde
c
r
e
a
s
ei
nt
hec
o
s
to
ft
hede
v
i
c
e
s
.
I
npa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
,t
hepo
r
t
i
o
no
ft
heI
S
M ba
ndbe
t
we
e
n2400a
nd2483MHz
i
sno
wa
da
y
sa
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ei
nmo
s
to
ft
hewo
r
l
dwi
t
ho
utt
hene
e
df
o
rpr
e
v
i
o
us
l
y
a
ppl
y
i
ngf
o
ral
i
c
e
ns
ea
ndi
swi
de
l
yus
e
db
yl
a
pt
o
ps
,t
a
bl
e
t
s
,s
ma
r
tpho
ne
s
a
nde
v
e
npho
t
o
g
r
a
phi
cc
a
me
r
a
s
.
I
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
os
t
r
e
s
st
her
o
l
eo
ft
heunl
i
c
e
ns
e
ds
pe
c
t
r
um i
nt
he
e
no
r
mo
uss
uc
c
e
s
so
fWi
Fihi
g
hs
pe
e
dI
nt
e
r
ne
ta
c
c
e
s
s
.
Ma
nya
i
r
po
r
t
s
,ho
t
e
l
sa
ndc
a
f
e
sa
l
lo
v
e
rt
hewo
r
l
do
1e
rf
r
e
eWi
FiI
nt
e
r
ne
t
a
c
c
e
s
so
nt
he
i
rpr
e
mi
s
e
s
,a
ndl
o
wc
o
s
twi
r
e
l
e
s
sc
o
mmuni
t
yne
t
wo
r
k
sha
v
e
be
e
nbui
l
tbo
t
hi
nr
ur
a
la
r
e
aa
ndi
nc
i
t
i
e
sc
o
v
e
r
i
ngc
o
ns
i
de
r
a
bl
eg
e
o
g
r
a
phi
c

44

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

a
r
e
a
s
,t
ha
nk
st
ot
hea
v
a
i
l
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
ff
r
e
es
pe
c
t
r
um.
Mo
bi
l
epho
neo
pe
r
a
t
o
r
s
,whoha
v
et
opa
yde
a
r
l
yf
o
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
yl
i
c
e
ns
e
st
o
us
et
hes
pe
c
t
r
um,we
r
eq
ui
t
eho
s
t
i
l
et
ot
hi
sa
ppa
r
e
nt
l
yunf
a
i
rc
o
mpe
t
i
t
i
o
n.
Butwhe
nt
he
ys
t
a
r
t
e
do
1e
r
i
ngs
ma
r
tpho
ne
s
,whi
c
hma
k
ev
e
r
yi
nt
e
ns
i
v
e
us
eo
ft
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t
,t
he
ypr
e
t
t
ys
o
o
nr
e
a
l
i
z
e
dt
ha
to
f
f
l
o
a
di
ngt
het
r
a
Nct
o
Wi
Fiwa
si
nt
he
i
rbe
s
ti
nt
e
r
e
s
t
,be
c
a
us
ei
tr
e
l
i
e
v
e
dt
het
r
a
Nci
nt
he
i
r
di
s
t
r
i
but
i
o
nne
t
wo
r
k(
k
no
wna
st
heb
a
c
k
h
a
ul
)
.
S
ono
wt
he
ye
nc
o
ur
a
g
et
he
i
rc
us
t
o
me
r
st
ous
eWi
Fiwhe
r
e
v
e
ri
ti
sa
v
a
i
l
a
bl
e
a
ndus
et
hemo
r
ee
x
pe
ns
i
v
ec
e
l
l
ul
a
rs
e
r
v
i
c
eo
nl
ywhe
no
uto
fr
a
ng
eo
fa
ny
Wi
FiAc
c
e
s
sP
o
i
nt
.
$i
si
sar
e
ma
r
k
a
bl
ee
x
a
mpl
eo
ft
heus
e
f
ul
ne
s
so
ft
heunl
i
c
e
ns
e
ds
pe
c
t
r
um
e
v
e
nt
ot
r
a
di
t
i
o
na
lt
e
l
e
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nso
pe
r
a
t
o
r
swhoo
f
t
e
nha
v
el
o
bbi
e
d
a
g
a
i
ns
ti
t
.

How is the spectrum adjudicated?

Cur
r
e
nt
l
yt
hema
i
nme
t
ho
dst
og
a
i
na
c
c
e
s
st
oag
i
v
e
ns
pe
c
t
r
um ba
nda
r
e
a
uc
t
i
o
nsa
ndt
hes
oc
a
l
l
e
d
be
a
ut
yc
o
nt
e
s
t

.
$ea
uc
t
i
o
nme
t
ho
di
ss
t
r
a
i
g
ht
f
o
r
wa
r
d;i
nt
e
r
e
s
t
e
dpa
r
t
i
e
sbi
df
o
rag
i
v
e
n
s
pe
c
t
r
um c
hunk
;who
e
v
e
rc
o
mmi
t
st
hehi
g
he
rs
um g
e
t
st
her
i
g
htt
ous
e
t
hef
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
.
I
nt
he
o
r
yt
hi
s me
t
ho
dg
ua
r
a
nt
e
e
st
ha
tt
he a
dj
udi
c
a
t
i
o
n wi
l
l be
t
r
a
ns
pa
r
e
nt
,i
npr
a
c
t
i
c
et
hi
sha
so
f
t
e
nbe
e
nc
i
r
c
umv
e
nt
e
da
ndt
he
r
eha
v
e
be
e
ni
ns
t
a
nc
e
so
fpo
we
r
f
ulc
o
mme
r
c
i
a
li
nt
e
r
e
s
t
st
ha
ta
c
q
ui
r
ef
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
o
nl
yt
oa
v
o
i
dt
he
i
rus
eb
yt
hec
o
mpe
t
i
t
i
o
n,wi
t
ht
her
e
s
ul
to
fhi
g
hl
y
v
a
l
ua
bl
es
pe
c
t
r
um no
tbe
i
ngus
e
d.
Al
s
ot
he
r
ei
st
het
e
mpt
a
t
i
o
no
nt
hepa
r
to
fg
o
v
e
r
nme
nt
st
o us
et
hi
s
me
t
ho
da
same
a
nst
og
e
ne
r
a
t
er
e
v
e
nue
sa
ndno
tne
c
e
s
s
a
r
i
l
yi
nt
hebe
s
t
publ
i
ci
nt
e
r
e
s
t
.
Asa
ne
x
a
mpl
e
,i
nt
hey
e
a
r2000t
he
r
ewe
r
ea
uc
t
i
o
nsi
ns
e
v
e
r
a
lc
o
unt
r
i
e
so
f
Eur
o
pet
oa
dj
udi
c
a
t
es
pe
c
t
r
um f
o
rmo
bi
l
epho
ne
s
,whi
c
hr
e
s
ul
t
e
di
na
t
o
t
a
li
nc
o
meo
f100bi
l
l
i
o
n(
100000000000)e
ur
o
st
ot
heg
o
v
e
r
nme
nt
c
o
1e
r
s
.
$e
be
a
ut
yc
o
nt
e
s
t
me
t
ho
di
sf
o
rt
hei
nt
e
r
e
s
t
e
d pa
r
t
i
e
st
os
ubmi
t

PHYSICS

45

pr
o
po
s
a
l
sa
bo
utho
wt
he
yi
nt
e
ndt
ous
et
hes
pe
c
t
r
um.
Ac
o
mmi
t
t
e
eo
ft
hes
pe
c
t
r
um r
e
g
ul
a
t
i
nga
g
e
nc
yt
he
nde
c
i
de
swhi
c
ho
ft
he
pr
o
po
s
a
l
sbe
t
t
e
rs
e
r
v
e
st
hepubl
i
cg
o
a
l
s
.
$i
sme
t
ho
dr
e
l
i
e
so
nt
heo
bj
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
,t
e
c
hni
c
a
lpr
o
0c
i
e
nc
ya
ndho
ne
s
t
yo
f
t
heme
mbe
r
so
ft
hede
c
i
di
ngc
o
mmi
t
t
e
e
,whi
c
hi
sno
ta
l
wa
y
sg
ua
r
a
nt
e
e
d.
I
nma
nyc
o
unt
r
i
e
st
he
r
ea
r
er
ul
e
sf
o
rs
pe
c
t
r
um a
dj
udi
c
a
t
i
o
nt
ha
tc
a
l
lf
o
r
t
her
e
l
i
nq
ui
s
hi
ngo
fs
pe
c
t
r
um ba
ndst
ha
tha
v
ebe
e
na
c
q
ui
r
e
dbuta
r
eno
t
be
i
ngus
e
d;ho
we
v
e
rt
he
i
re
nf
o
r
c
e
me
nti
so
f
t
e
nl
a
c
k
i
ngduet
ot
hes
t
r
o
ng
e
c
o
no
mi
ci
nt
e
r
e
s
t
sa
1e
c
t
e
d.

Fi
g
u
r
eRS2:As
p
e
c
i
a
lv
e
h
i
c
l
ef
o
rs
p
e
c
t
r
u
m mo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngi
nMo
nt
e
v
i
d
e
o
,Ur
u
g
u
a
y
.

Fi
g
ur
eRS2s
ho
wsapho
t
o
g
r
a
pho
fas
pe
c
t
r
um mo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngv
e
hi
c
l
ei
n
Mo
nt
e
v
i
de
o
,Ur
ug
ua
ya
nd Fi
g
ur
e RS 3 t
ha
to
ft
he s
a
me k
i
nd o
f
e
q
ui
pme
ntbe
i
ngus
e
di
nJ
a
k
a
r
t
a
,I
ndo
ne
s
i
a
.

46

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

Fi
g
u
r
eRS3:e
s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m Po
l
i
c
e
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r
ki
nJ
a
k
a
r
t
a
No
t
et
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heo
pe
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pe
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t
r
um us
e
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nt
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i
c
e
ns
e
dba
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a
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e
v
e
nt
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nt
e
r
f
e
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e
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ei
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ue
s
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pe
c
i
a
l
l
yi
nv
e
r
yc
r
o
wde
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e
a
s
,butne
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e
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t
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l
e
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o
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e
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a
nt
a
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t
i
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uc
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e
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tdi
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t
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o
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i
t
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e
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t
a
nc
ea
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i
c
a
t
i
o
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nr
ur
a
la
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e
a
s
.
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ti
st
he
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e
f
o
r
ea
dv
i
s
a
bl
et
oi
nv
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
ene
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o
r
mso
fs
pe
c
t
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um a
l
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
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t
a
k
i
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nt
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o
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r
a
t
i
o
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e
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t
a
k
e
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l
de
r
sa
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t
r
i
k
i
nga
ba
l
a
nc
ea
mo
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he
m.
A dy
na
mi
cs
pe
c
t
r
um a
l
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
nme
c
ha
ni
s
ms
e
e
mst
obet
hebe
s
tc
ho
i
c
e
g
i
v
e
nt
hea
dv
a
nc
e
si
nt
e
c
hno
l
o
g
yt
ha
tma
k
et
hi
sv
i
a
bl
eno
wa
da
y
s
.
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ne
x
a
mpl
e
,t
hec
ur
r
e
ntme
t
ho
do
fs
pe
c
t
r
um a
l
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
ni
ss
i
mi
l
a
rt
ot
he
r
a
i
l
wa
ys
y
s
t
e
m,t
her
a
i
l
r
o
a
dsc
a
nbei
dl
eac
o
ns
i
de
r
a
bl
ea
mo
unto
ft
i
me
,
whe
r
e
a
st
hedy
na
mi
cs
pe
c
t
r
um a
l
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
ni
sa
k
i
nt
ot
hef
r
e
e
wa
ys
y
s
t
e
m
t
ha
tc
a
nbeus
e
da
ta
l
lt
i
me
sb
ydi
1e
r
e
ntus
e
r
s
.

PHYSICS

47

Political issues
$ei
mpo
r
t
a
nc
eo
ft
hes
pe
c
t
r
um a
sac
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nse
na
bl
e
rc
a
nno
tbe
o
v
e
r
s
t
a
t
e
d.Te
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
na
ndr
a
di
obr
o
a
dc
a
s
t
i
ngha
v
eas
t
r
o
ngi
nWue
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ei
n
s
ha
pi
ngpubl
i
cpe
r
c
e
pt
i
o
no
fa
nyi
s
s
ue
,a
ndha
v
ebe
e
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e
do
v
e
r
t
l
yf
o
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po
l
i
t
i
c
a
lpr
o
pa
g
a
nda(
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tha
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e
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i
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e
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t
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o
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pr
e
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i
de
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S
.wa
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i
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yt
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e
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e
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a
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g
n)
.
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i
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d wa
r
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c
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a
,Mo
s
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o
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i
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nd Ra
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i
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Ha
v
a
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t
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o
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udi
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e
.
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er
e
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e
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mpl
e
si
nc
l
udet
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eo
fCNN a
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a
z
e
e
r
ai
nt
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publ
i
ci
nt
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e
t
a
t
i
o
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pr
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ng
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pe
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t
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um us
e
df
o
rt
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y
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o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
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l
s
o be
e
ns
ub
j
e
c
tt
og
o
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e
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e
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e
nt
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o
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e
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pe
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i
a
l
l
yi
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a
s
e
so
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l
i
t
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c
a
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e
s
t
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t
he
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o
no
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c
i
nt
e
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e
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t
sa
l
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opl
a
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o
l
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i
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o
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o
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o
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o
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ds a pa
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nd.We c
a
nc
o
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l
ude t
ha
tt
he
e
l
e
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r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
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um i
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ur
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ur
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o
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t
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ne
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yt
e
c
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o
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l
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c
o
no
mi
ca
ndpo
l
i
t
i
c
a
lf
a
c
t
o
r
s
.

Explosion in spectrum demand

Ast
henumbe
ro
ft
a
bl
e
t
sa
nds
ma
r
tpho
ne
sg
r
o
ws
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e
l
e
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o
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pe
r
a
t
o
r
sa
r
e
t
r
y
i
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e
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c
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e
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e
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ue
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yba
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a
di
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o
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a
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udi
c
a
t
i
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pe
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t
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um i
sf
a
c
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nd.
Ke
e
pi
n mi
nd t
ha
tt
he s
pe
c
t
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um i
sus
e
df
o
rr
a
di
oa
nd t
e
l
e
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o
n
br
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s
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o
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t
e
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o
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c
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t
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o
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o
ra
i
r
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a
net
r
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Ncc
o
nt
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l
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o
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e
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l
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t
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Gl
o
ba
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o
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t
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t
e
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GPS
)
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swe
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o
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l
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t
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y
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t
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e
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e
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a
di
t
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o
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l
y
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hede
ma
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o
r
a
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t
i
o
na
ls
pe
c
t
r
um ha
sbe
e
nme
tt
ha
nk
st
ot
hea
dv
a
nc
e
so
fe
l
e
c
t
r
o
ni
c
s
t
ha
tha
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r
mi
t
t
e
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heus
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fhi
g
he
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e
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ue
nc
i
e
sa
ta
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1o
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da
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ec
o
s
t
.
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g
he
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
sa
r
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l
ls
ui
t
e
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o
rhi
g
hs
pe
e
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a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
ns
,butt
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y
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i
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t
e
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ng
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g
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t
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e
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t
e
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ywa
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l
sa
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t
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ro
bs
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a
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e
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a
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l
la
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yr
a
i
n.
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si
se
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e
mpl
i
0e
db
yc
o
mpa
r
i
ng t
he c
o
v
e
r
a
g
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fa
n AM r
a
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o
br
o
a
dc
a
s
t
i
ngs
t
a
t
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o
nt
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to
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ne
:t
heg
r
e
a
t
e
s
tr
a
ng
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s
t
a
t
i
o
ni
sduet
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t
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o
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rf
r
e
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ue
nc
i
e
s
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heo
t
he
rha
nd,FM
s
t
a
t
i
o
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a
nma
k
eus
eo
fhi
g
he
rba
ndwi
dt
hsa
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sc
o
ns
e
q
ue
nc
ec
a
no
1e
r
g
r
e
a
t
e
ra
udi
oq
ua
l
i
t
ya
tt
hee
x
pe
ns
eo
famo
r
el
i
mi
t
e
dr
a
ng
e
.

48

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

Cur
r
e
ntc
e
l
l
ul
a
ro
pe
r
a
t
o
r
sus
ee
v
e
nhi
g
he
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
,us
ua
l
l
ya
bo
v
e800
MHz
.Ac
c
o
r
di
ng
l
y
,t
heTV br
o
a
dc
a
s
t
i
ngf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
sa
r
ec
o
v
e
t
e
db
yt
he
c
e
l
l
ul
a
rt
e
l
e
pho
nepr
o
v
i
de
r
s
,be
c
a
us
eb
yus
i
ngl
o
we
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
st
he
ywi
l
l
ne
e
dl
e
s
sba
s
es
t
a
t
i
o
ns
,wi
t
hhug
es
a
v
i
ng
si
nde
pl
o
y
me
nt
,o
pe
r
a
t
i
o
na
nd
ma
i
nt
e
na
nc
ec
o
s
t
s
.$i
si
swhyt
he
s
ef
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
sa
r
ec
o
mmo
nl
yr
e
f
e
r
r
e
dt
o
a
s
b
e
a
c
hf
r
o
ntpr
o
pe
r
t
y

.
Te
c
hni
q
ue
sf
o
rmo
r
ee
Nc
i
e
nts
pe
c
t
r
um us
a
g
eb
yme
a
nso
fa
dv
a
nc
e
d
mo
dul
a
t
i
o
na
ndc
o
di
ngme
t
ho
dsha
v
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dt
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r
e
a
t
e
s
ti
mpa
c
ti
na
l
l
o
wi
ng
mo
r
ebi
t
s
/
spe
rHzo
fba
ndwi
dt
ha
v
a
i
l
a
bi
l
i
t
y
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s
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nt
ur
n,wa
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po
s
s
i
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eb
yt
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r
e
a
ts
t
r
i
de
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ne
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e
c
t
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o
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f
a
br
i
c
a
t
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o
no
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v
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ra
dv
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e
d
i
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r
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r
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)t
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o
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c
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e
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i
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et
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mpl
e
me
nt
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her
e
q
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o
phi
s
t
i
c
a
t
e
dmo
dul
a
t
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o
na
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o
di
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e
c
hni
q
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s
.
Ac
c
o
r
di
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ot
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l
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ul
a
t
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o
nspe
r
f
o
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me
di
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udeS
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f
a
t
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ro
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r
nt
e
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o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns
,at
y
pi
c
a
lt
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e
pho
nel
i
nec
o
ul
dc
a
r
r
y
upt
o30k
b
i
t
/
s
.Butt
hi
swa
so
nl
ya
c
hi
e
v
e
di
nt
he90'
swhe
ni
nt
e
g
r
a
t
e
d
c
i
r
c
ui
t
si
mpl
e
me
nt
i
ng t
her
e
q
ui
r
e
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e
c
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swe
r
ea
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t
ua
l
l
y bui
l
t
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n
pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
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het
r
a
ns
i
t
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o
nt
odi
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i
t
a
lt
e
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r
e
s
t
r
i
a
lt
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e
v
i
s
i
o
nbr
o
a
dc
a
s
t
i
ng
,whi
c
h
i
smo
r
ee
Nc
i
e
nti
ns
pe
c
t
r
um us
a
g
ec
o
mpa
r
e
dwi
t
ha
na
l
o
g
uet
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
n,
ha
sf
r
e
e
ds
o
mes
pe
c
t
r
um i
nt
hes
oc
a
l
l
e
d
Whi
t
eS
pa
c
e
s

,t
hef
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
t
ha
tha
dt
obel
e
f
tf
a
l
l
o
wi
n be
t
we
e
na
na
l
o
g
uet
e
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
nc
ha
nne
l
st
o
pr
e
v
e
nti
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.

c
l
o
s
ee
no
u
g
ht
h
a
tt
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
nsf
r
o
mo
nec
a
nr
e
a
c
ht
h
eo
t
h
e
r
.
Wh
i
t
es
p
a
c
e
sa
r
e
k
e
p
tf
a
l
l
o
wt
omi
ni
mi
z
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.

PHYSICS

49

I
nt
r
a
di
t
i
o
na
la
na
l
o
g
ueTV br
o
a
dc
a
s
t
i
ng
,a
dj
a
c
e
ntc
ha
nne
l
sc
a
nno
tbe
us
e
da
tt
hes
a
met
i
me
,be
c
a
us
et
hes
i
g
na
lf
r
o
mo
nec
ha
nne
lwi
l
l
s
pi
l
l

o
v
e
rt
ot
het
woa
dj
a
c
e
ntc
ha
nne
l
sa
ndwo
ul
dc
a
us
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.
$i
si
ss
i
mi
l
a
rt
ot
hec
e
nt
r
a
lr
e
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
nus
e
di
nf
r
e
e
wa
y
st
os
e
pa
r
a
t
et
he
t
wodi
r
e
c
t
i
o
nso
ft
r
a
Nci
no
r
de
rt
opr
e
v
e
ntc
o
l
l
i
s
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.
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oa
Whi
t
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pa
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t
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na
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o
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ha
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g
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s
.

50

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

Spectrum scarcity or spectrum hoarding?

Al
t
ho
ug
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PHYSICS

51

I
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e
g
ul
a
t
o
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st
oe
nf
o
r
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et
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e
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nt
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t
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o
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ft
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e
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o
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t
ho
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c
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ec
o
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i
c
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t
e
da
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mpo
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e
sa
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t
i
o
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o
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e
x
i
t
ya
ndc
o
s
t
si
nt
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o
ns
ume
re
q
ui
pme
nt
.
$es
e
c
o
nd me
t
ho
dc
o
ns
i
s
t
si
nt
hebui
l
di
ngo
fada
t
a
ba
s
eo
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l
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e
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i
s
t
i
ng i
nc
umbe
nt t
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
ns
t
a
t
i
o
ns
, wi
t
ht
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r po
s
i
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i
o
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pe
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t
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ai
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o
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o
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me
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ADS
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ub
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e
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l
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r
)
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s
i
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he802.
22 r
a
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whi
c
hc
a
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e
d unt
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lt
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c
ha
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li
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o
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me
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e
)
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ot
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o
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a
bl
ea
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t
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o
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l
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nt
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a
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n ha
r
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ba
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e
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nt
heUSt
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Fe
de
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a
lCo
mmuni
c
a
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mmi
s
s
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o
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hes
pe
c
t
r
um
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o
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a
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f
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r
e
d us
e
r
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ea
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ho
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i
s
e
d 10di
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r
e
ntpr
i
v
a
t
ee
nt
e
r
pr
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s
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st
o
bui
l
d,o
pe
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a
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ea
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nt
a
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ns
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hr
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po
s
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t
o
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s
.
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t
he
r
mo
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e
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l
dt
r
i
a
l
so
ft
hes
t
a
nda
r
da
r
ebe
e
nc
o
nduc
t
e
d.I
nt
heUK,

52

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

OFCOM (
t
hes
pe
c
t
r
um r
e
g
ul
a
t
o
r
)i
sa
l
s
oc
o
nduc
t
i
ngI
EE802.
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r
i
a
l
s
a
ndc
o
nc
e
nt
r
a
t
i
ngo
nt
heda
t
a
ba
s
eme
t
ho
dha
v
i
ngr
ul
e
do
utt
hes
pe
c
t
r
um
s
e
ns
i
ngme
t
ho
df
o
ri
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
emi
t
i
g
a
t
i
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n.Al
t
ho
ug
hI
EEE802.
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st
he
f
o
r
ma
l
l
ya
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e
ds
t
a
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ha
tha
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e
c
e
i
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hemo
s
tpubl
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y
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ea
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e
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r
a
lc
o
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t
i
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a
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t
e
st
ha
ta
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ebe
i
nge
x
pl
o
r
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dt
ol
e
v
e
r
a
g
et
heTV
Whi
t
eS
pa
c
e
st
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v
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det
wo
wa
yc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns
e
r
v
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e
s
,a
mo
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m:
I
EEE802.
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f
$i
sa
me
ndme
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a
k
e
sa
dv
a
nt
a
g
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ft
hee
no
r
mo
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uc
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e
s
so
fI
EEE802.
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b
ya
da
pt
i
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hes
a
met
e
c
hno
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o
g
yt
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nt
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r
e
q
ue
nc
yba
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l
l
o
c
a
t
e
d
t
oTVt
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
n,t
husr
e
l
i
e
v
i
ngt
hes
pe
c
t
r
um c
r
o
wdi
ngo
ft
he2.
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ba
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nd o
1e
r
i
ngg
r
e
a
t
e
rr
a
ng
eduet
ot
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fl
o
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rt
r
a
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mi
s
s
i
o
n
f
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
.
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t
sde
t
a
i
l
sa
r
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t
i
l
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i
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s
c
us
s
e
db
yt
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o
r
r
e
s
po
ndi
ngI
EEE 802.
11
wo
r
k
i
ngg
r
o
up
.
I
EEE802.
16h
$i
sa
me
ndme
nto
ft
he 802.
16 s
t
a
nda
r
d wa
sr
a
t
i
0e
di
n 2010 a
nd
de
s
c
r
i
be
st
heme
c
ha
ni
s
mf
o
ri
mpl
e
me
nt
i
ngt
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o
t
o
c
o
li
nunc
o
o
r
di
na
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e
d
o
pe
r
a
t
i
o
n, l
i
c
e
ns
e
do
rl
i
c
e
ns
ee
x
e
mpt a
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ns
. Al
t
ho
ug
h mo
s
t
de
pl
o
y
me
nt
sha
v
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e
ni
nt
he5GHzba
nd,i
tc
a
na
l
s
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i
e
dt
ot
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r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
sa
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a
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o
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o
mt
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i
g
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a
ntde
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o
y
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nt
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f
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r
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s
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r
o
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e
s
s
)s
y
s
t
e
msi
nma
nyc
o
unt
r
i
e
s
.

Developing countries advantage

I
ti
sno
t
e
wo
r
t
hyt
ha
ti
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v
e
l
o
pi
ngc
o
unt
r
i
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st
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pe
c
t
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um a
l
l
o
c
a
t
e
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o
br
o
a
dc
a
s
tt
e
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
ni
so
nl
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t
i
a
l
l
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e
d.
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s pr
e
s
e
nt
s a ma
g
ni
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e
nto
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r
t
uni
t
yt
oi
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o
duc
e wi
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l
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s da
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ne
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wo
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e
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c
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st
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eno
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nt
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o
s
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a
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tr
e
a
pi
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ne
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namo
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g
ne
nv
i
r
o
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nt
,whe
r
e
t
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pe
c
t
r
um s
e
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i
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l
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nc
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ha
ng
i
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e
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ui
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e
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os
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et
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c
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o
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t
r
um i
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o
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n bedi
s
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e
d wi
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us
e
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ul
ne
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e
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e
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rt
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ac
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t
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o
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e
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e
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yt
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uc
c
e
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s
f
ulde
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nto
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n
Mo
dul
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t
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o
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e
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)c
e
l
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s
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nt
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nd,r
i
g
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nt
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l
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t
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sl
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n
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db
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Co
o
pe
r
a
t
i
v
a Te
l
e
f
o
ni
c
a de Ca
l
a
f
a
t
e
-

PHYSICS

53

COTECAL
.COTECALo
1e
rv
o
i
c
ea
nd da
t
as
e
r
v
i
c
e
st
oc
us
t
o
me
r
sa
t
di
s
t
a
nc
e
supt
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mf
r
o
mt
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s
eS
t
a
t
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o
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nt
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ut
i
f
ula
r
e
as
ho
wn
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nt
hef
o
l
l
o
wi
ng0g
ur
e
:

Fi
g
u
r
eRS5:Re
g
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o
ns
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v
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t
hv
o
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c
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n
Ca
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f
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l
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g
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nt
i
na
.
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ot
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ppo
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t
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k
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ue
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t
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t
a
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o
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de
r
e
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l
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pe
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t
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o
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a
li
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s
t
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e
v
a
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lo
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rt
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e
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e
s
t
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o
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ya
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l
a
r
g
e
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t
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v
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s
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s
/
l
o
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s
t
ss
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s
i
z
et
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e
df
o
rt
r
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n
t
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r
e
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l
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o
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t
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n pr
o
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ra
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a
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t
r
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t
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o
no
fs
pe
c
t
r
um i
nt
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i
rc
o
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yo
rr
e
g
i
o
n.
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s
oi
ti
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t
a
ntt
ha
tt
ho
s
ewhowi
s
ht
ode
pl
o
yne
t
wo
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k
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a
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unde
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s
t
a
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ft
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ls
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t
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um us
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ys
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o
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o
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y
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ni
t
o
r
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ft
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pe
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t
r
um r
e
q
ui
r
e
se
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pe
ns
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v
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i
ns
t
r
ume
nt
swi
t
h as
t
e
e
pl
e
a
r
ni
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ur
v
et
ous
et
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m,butr
e
c
e
nt
l
ya
n
a
1o
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da
bl
ea
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s
yt
ous
ede
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c
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o
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a
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mi
t
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s
o
ft
he f
r
e
q
ue
nc
y ba
nd be
t
we
e
n 240 MHz a
nd 960 MHz
,whi
c
h

54

4. RADIO SPECTRUM

e
nc
o
mpa
s
s
e
st
hehi
g
he
rpa
r
to
ft
heTVba
nd.
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t
a
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ft
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pe
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r
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um Ana
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t
heuppe
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nda
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:ht
t
p:
/
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www.
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.

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g
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PHYSICS

55

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

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56

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

Fi
g
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.

PHYSICS

57

Cables
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58

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

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PHYSICS

61

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62

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

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PHYSICS

63

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s
e
ni
ng
,da
ma
g
ec
a
ne
a
s
i
l
yo
c
c
ur
.
Ne
v
e
rs
t
e
po
v
e
rc
o
nne
c
t
o
r
s
,o
rdr
o
pc
o
nne
c
t
o
r
so
nt
heWo
o
rwhe
n
di
s
c
o
nne
c
t
i
ngc
a
bl
e
s(
t
hi
sha
ppe
nsmo
r
eo
f
t
e
nt
ha
ny
o
uma
yi
ma
g
i
ne
,
e
s
pe
c
i
a
l
l
ywhe
nwo
r
k
i
ngo
nama
s
to
v
e
rar
o
o
f
)
.
Ne
v
e
rus
et
o
o
l
sl
i
k
epl
i
e
r
st
ot
i
g
ht
e
nc
o
nne
c
t
o
r
s
.Al
wa
y
sus
ey
o
urha
nds
.
Whe
n wo
r
k
i
ng o
ut
s
i
de
,r
e
me
mbe
rt
ha
t me
t
a
l
se
x
pa
nd a
t hi
g
h
t
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
e
sa
ndc
o
nt
r
a
c
ta
tl
o
wt
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
e
s
:c
o
nne
c
t
o
rt
o
ot
i
g
hti
nt
he
s
umme
rc
a
nbi
ndo
re
v
e
nbr
e
a
ki
nwi
nt
e
r
.

64

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

Ant
e
nna
sr
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
ns
Ant
e
nna
sa
r
eav
e
r
yi
mpo
r
t
a
ntc
o
mpo
ne
nto
fc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns
y
s
t
e
ms
.By
de
0ni
t
i
o
n,a
na
nt
e
nnai
sade
v
i
c
eus
e
dt
ot
r
a
ns
f
o
r
ma
nRFs
i
g
na
lt
r
a
v
e
l
i
ng
o
n at
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
nl
i
ne i
nt
oa
ne
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
c wa
v
ei
nf
r
e
es
pa
c
e
.
Ant
e
nna
sha
v
eapr
o
pe
r
t
yk
no
wn a
sr
e
c
i
pr
o
c
i
t
y
,whi
c
h me
a
nst
ha
ta
n
a
nt
e
nnawi
l
lma
i
nt
a
i
nt
hes
a
mec
ha
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
sr
e
g
a
r
dl
e
s
si
fwhe
t
he
ri
ti
s
t
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
i
ngo
rr
e
c
e
i
v
i
ng
.Al
la
nt
e
nna
so
pe
r
a
t
ee
Nc
i
e
nt
l
yo
v
e
rar
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
l
y
na
r
r
o
wf
r
e
q
ue
nc
yba
nd.Ana
nt
e
nnamus
tbet
une
dt
ot
hes
a
mef
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
ba
ndo
ft
her
a
di
os
y
s
t
e
mt
owhi
c
hi
ti
sc
o
nne
c
t
e
d,o
t
he
r
wi
s
et
her
e
c
e
pt
i
o
n
a
ndt
het
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
nwi
l
lbei
mpa
i
r
e
d.I
nbr
o
a
dc
a
s
t
i
ng
,wec
a
nma
k
edo
wi
t
hi
ne
Nc
i
e
ntr
e
c
e
i
v
i
ng a
nt
e
nna
s
,be
c
a
us
et
he t
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
r
sa
r
ev
e
r
y
po
we
r
f
ul
,buti
nt
wo
wa
yc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nswemus
tha
v
epr
o
pe
r
l
ys
i
z
e
d
a
nt
e
nna
s
.Whe
nas
i
g
na
li
sf
e
di
nt
oa
na
nt
e
nna
,t
hea
nt
e
nnawi
l
le
mi
t
r
a
di
a
t
i
o
ndi
s
t
r
i
but
e
di
ns
pa
c
ei
nac
e
r
t
a
i
nwa
y
.Ag
r
a
phi
c
a
lr
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
a
t
i
o
n
o
ft
her
e
l
a
t
i
v
edi
s
t
r
i
but
i
o
no
ft
her
a
di
a
t
e
d po
we
ri
ns
pa
c
ei
sc
a
l
l
e
da
r
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
n.

Antenna term glossary

Be
f
o
r
ewet
a
l
ka
bo
uts
pe
c
i
0ca
nt
e
nna
s
,t
he
r
ea
r
eaf
e
wc
o
mmo
nt
e
r
mst
ha
t
mus
tbede
0ne
da
nde
x
pl
a
i
ne
d:
I
nputI
mpe
da
nc
e
Fo
ra
ne
Nc
i
e
ntt
r
a
ns
f
e
ro
fe
ne
r
g
y
,t
hei
mpe
da
nc
eo
ft
her
a
di
o
,a
nt
e
nna
,
a
ndt
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
nc
a
bl
ec
o
nne
c
t
i
ngt
he
m mus
tbet
hes
a
me
.Tr
a
ns
c
e
i
v
e
r
s
a
ndt
he
i
rt
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
nl
i
ne
sa
r
et
y
pi
c
a
l
l
yde
s
i
g
ne
df
o
r50b i
mpe
da
nc
e
.I
f
t
hea
nt
e
nnaha
sa
ni
mpe
da
nc
edi
1e
r
e
ntf
r
o
m 50 b t
he
r
ewi
l
lbea
mi
s
ma
t
c
ha
ndr
e
We
c
t
i
o
nswi
l
lo
c
c
urunl
e
s
sa
ni
mpe
da
nc
ema
t
c
hi
ngc
i
r
c
ui
t
i
si
ns
e
r
t
e
d.Whe
na
nyo
ft
he
s
ec
o
mpo
ne
nt
sa
r
emi
s
ma
t
c
he
d,t
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
n
e
Nc
i
e
nc
ys
u1e
r
s
.
Re
t
ur
nl
o
s
s
Re
t
ur
nl
o
s
si
sa
no
t
he
rwa
yo
fe
x
pr
e
s
s
i
ngmi
s
ma
t
c
h.I
ti
sal
o
g
a
r
i
t
hmi
cr
a
t
i
o
me
a
s
ur
e
di
ndBt
ha
tc
o
mpa
r
e
st
hepo
we
rr
e
We
c
t
e
db
yt
hea
nt
e
nnaPrt
ot
he
po
we
rt
ha
ti
sf
e
di
nt
ot
hea
nt
e
nnaf
r
o
mt
het
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
nl
i
nePi
:
Re
t
u
r
nLo
s
s(
i
nd
B)=20l
o
g
i
/
Pr
10P

PHYSICS

65

Whi
l
es
o
mee
ne
r
g
ywi
l
la
l
wa
y
sber
e
We
c
t
e
dba
c
ki
nt
ot
hes
y
s
t
e
m,ahi
g
h
r
e
t
ur
nl
o
s
swi
l
ly
i
e
l
duna
c
c
e
pt
a
bl
ea
nt
e
nnape
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
e
.
$ei
nt
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
nbe
t
we
e
nt
hewa
v
et
r
a
v
e
l
l
i
ngf
r
o
mt
het
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
rt
ot
he
a
nt
e
nnaa
ndt
hewa
v
er
e
We
c
t
e
db
yt
hea
nt
e
nnat
o
wa
r
dst
het
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
r
c
r
e
a
t
e
swha
ti
sk
no
wna
sas
t
a
t
i
o
na
r
ywa
v
e
,t
he
r
e
f
o
r
ea
na
l
t
e
r
na
t
i
v
ewa
yt
o
me
a
s
ur
et
hei
mpe
da
nc
emi
s
ma
t
c
hi
sb
yme
a
nso
ft
heVo
l
t
a
g
eS
t
a
ndi
ng
Wa
v
eRa
t
i
o(
VS
WR)
:
Re
t
u
r
nLo
s
s(
i
nd
B)=20l
o
g
VS
WR
+
1/
VS
WR1)
1
0(
I
nape
r
f
e
c
t
l
yma
t
c
he
dt
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
nl
i
ne
,VS
WR=1.
I
npr
a
c
t
i
c
e
,wes
t
r
i
v
et
oma
i
nt
a
i
naVS
WRbe
l
o
w2.
Ba
ndwi
dt
h
$eba
ndwi
dt
ho
fa
na
nt
e
nnar
e
f
e
r
st
ot
her
a
ng
eo
ff
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
sFH -FL
o
v
e
rwhi
c
ht
hea
nt
e
nnac
a
no
pe
r
a
t
ec
o
r
r
e
c
t
l
y
.$ea
nt
e
nna
'
sba
ndwi
dt
hi
s
t
henumbe
ro
fHzf
o
rwhi
c
ht
hea
nt
e
nname
e
t
sc
e
r
t
a
i
nr
e
q
ui
r
e
me
nt
s
,l
i
k
e
e
x
hi
bi
t
i
ngag
a
i
nwi
t
hi
n3dBo
ft
hema
x
i
mum g
a
i
no
raVS
WRl
e
s
st
ha
n1.
5.
$eba
ndwi
dt
hc
a
na
l
s
obede
s
c
r
i
be
di
nt
e
r
mso
fpe
r
c
e
nt
a
g
eo
ft
hec
e
nt
r
e
f
r
e
q
ue
nc
yo
ft
heba
nd.
Ba
nd
wi
d
t
h=100(
FH FL)
/
FC
.
.
.
whe
r
e FH i
st
hehi
g
he
s
tf
r
e
q
ue
nc
yi
nt
heba
nd,FL i
st
hel
o
we
s
t
f
r
e
q
ue
nc
yi
nt
heba
nd,a
ndFC i
st
hec
e
nt
r
ef
r
e
q
ue
nc
yi
nt
heba
nd.
I
nt
hi
swa
y
,ba
ndwi
dt
hi
sc
o
ns
t
a
ntr
e
l
a
t
i
v
et
of
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
.I
fba
ndwi
dt
hwa
s
e
x
pr
e
s
s
e
di
na
bs
o
l
ut
euni
t
so
ff
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
,i
two
ul
dbedi
1e
r
e
ntde
pe
ndi
ng
upo
nt
hec
e
nt
e
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
.
Di
1e
r
e
ntt
y
pe
so
fa
nt
e
nna
sha
v
edi
1e
r
e
ntba
ndwi
dt
hl
i
mi
t
a
t
i
o
ns
.
Di
r
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
ya
ndGa
i
n
Di
r
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
yi
st
hea
bi
l
i
t
yo
fa
na
nt
e
nnat
of
o
c
use
ne
r
g
yi
napa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
n whe
nt
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
i
ng
,o
rt
or
e
c
e
i
v
ee
ne
r
g
yf
r
o
m a pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
nwhe
nr
e
c
e
i
v
i
ng
.
I
fawi
r
e
l
e
s
sl
i
nkus
e
s0x
e
dl
o
c
a
t
i
o
nsf
o
rbo
t
he
nds
,i
ti
spo
s
s
i
bl
et
ous
e
a
nt
e
nnadi
r
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
yt
oc
o
nc
e
nt
r
a
t
et
her
a
di
a
t
i
o
n be
a
m i
nt
hewa
nt
e
d
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
n.

66

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

I
n amo
bi
l
ea
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
n whe
r
et
het
r
a
ns
c
e
i
v
e
ri
sno
t0x
e
d,i
tma
ybe
i
mpo
s
s
i
b
l
et
opr
e
di
c
twhe
r
et
het
r
a
ns
c
e
i
v
e
rwi
l
lbe
,a
nds
ot
hea
nt
e
nna
s
ho
ul
di
de
a
l
l
yr
a
di
a
t
ea
swe
l
la
spo
s
s
i
bl
ei
na
l
ldi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ns
.
Ano
mni
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
la
nt
e
nnai
sus
e
di
nt
he
s
ea
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ns
.
Ga
i
nc
a
nno
tbede
0ne
di
nt
e
r
mso
faphy
s
i
c
a
lq
ua
nt
i
t
ys
uc
ha
st
hewa
t
to
r
t
heo
hm,buti
ti
sadi
me
ns
i
o
nl
e
s
sr
a
t
i
o
.
Ga
i
ni
sg
i
v
e
ni
nr
e
f
e
r
e
nc
et
oas
t
a
nda
r
da
nt
e
nna
.
$et
womo
s
tc
o
mmo
nr
e
f
e
r
e
nc
ea
nt
e
nna
sa
r
et
hei
s
o
t
r
o
pi
ca
nt
e
nnaa
nd
t
heha
l
f
wa
v
edi
po
l
ea
nt
e
nna
.
$ei
s
o
t
r
o
pi
ca
nt
e
nnar
a
di
a
t
e
se
q
ua
l
l
ywe
l
li
na
l
ldi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ns
.Re
a
li
s
o
t
r
o
pi
c
a
nt
e
nna
sdono
te
x
i
s
t
,butt
he
ypr
o
v
i
deus
e
f
ula
nd s
i
mpl
et
he
o
r
e
t
i
c
a
l
a
nt
e
nnapa
t
t
e
r
nswi
t
hwhi
c
ht
oc
o
mpa
r
er
e
a
la
nt
e
nna
s
.
Anyr
e
a
la
nt
e
nnawi
l
lr
a
di
a
t
emo
r
ee
ne
r
g
yi
ns
o
medi
r
e
c
t
i
o
nst
ha
ni
n
o
t
he
r
s
.S
i
nc
ea
nt
e
nna
sc
a
nno
tc
r
e
a
t
ee
ne
r
g
y
,t
het
o
t
a
lpo
we
rr
a
di
a
t
e
di
st
he
s
a
mea
sa
ni
s
o
t
r
o
pi
ca
nt
e
nna
.
Anya
ddi
t
i
o
na
le
ne
r
g
yr
a
di
a
t
e
di
nt
hedi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ni
tf
a
v
o
ur
si
so
1s
e
tb
y
e
q
ua
l
l
yl
e
s
se
ne
r
g
yr
a
di
a
t
e
di
ns
o
meo
t
he
rdi
r
e
c
t
i
o
n.
$eg
a
i
no
fa
na
nt
e
nnai
n ag
i
v
e
ndi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ni
st
hea
mo
unto
fe
ne
r
g
y
r
a
di
a
t
e
di
nt
ha
tdi
r
e
c
t
i
o
nc
o
mpa
r
e
dt
ot
hee
ne
r
g
ya
ni
s
o
t
r
o
pi
ca
nt
e
nna
wo
ul
dr
a
di
a
t
ei
nt
hes
a
medi
r
e
c
t
i
o
nwhe
ndr
i
v
e
nwi
t
ht
hes
a
mei
nput
po
we
r
.
Us
ua
l
l
ywea
r
eo
nl
yi
nt
e
r
e
s
t
e
di
nt
hema
x
i
mum g
a
i
n,whi
c
hi
st
heg
a
i
ni
n
t
hedi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ni
nwhi
c
ht
hea
nt
e
nnai
sr
a
di
a
t
i
ngmo
s
to
ft
hepo
we
r
,t
hes
o
c
a
l
l
e
db
o
r
e
s
i
g
h
t
.An a
nt
e
nnag
a
i
no
f3 dB c
o
mpa
r
e
dt
oa
ni
s
o
t
r
o
pi
c
a
nt
e
nnawo
ul
dbewr
i
t
t
e
na
s3dBi
.$eha
l
f
wa
v
edi
po
l
ec
a
nbeaus
e
f
ul
s
t
a
nda
r
df
o
rc
o
mpa
r
i
ngt
oo
t
he
ra
nt
e
nna
sa
to
nef
r
e
q
ue
nc
yo
ro
v
e
rav
e
r
y
na
r
r
o
wba
ndo
ff
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
.Unl
i
k
et
hei
s
o
t
r
o
pi
c
,i
sv
e
r
ye
a
s
yt
obui
l
da
nd
s
o
me
t
i
me
sma
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
swi
l
le
x
pr
e
s
st
heg
a
i
nwi
t
hr
e
f
e
r
e
nc
et
ot
heha
l
f
wa
v
edi
po
l
ei
ns
t
e
a
do
ft
hei
s
o
t
r
o
pi
c
.
Ana
nt
e
nnag
a
i
no
f3dBc
o
mpa
r
e
dt
oadi
po
l
ea
nt
e
nnawo
ul
db
ewr
i
t
t
e
n
a
s3dBd.S
i
nc
eaha
l
f
wa
v
edi
po
l
eha
sag
a
i
no
f2.
15dBi
,wec
a
n0ndt
he
dBig
a
i
no
fa
nya
nt
e
nnab
ya
ddi
ng2.
15t
oi
t
sdBdg
a
i
n.
$eme
t
ho
do
fme
a
s
ur
i
ngg
a
i
nb
yc
o
mpa
r
i
ngt
hea
nt
e
nnaunde
rt
e
s
t
a
g
a
i
ns
ta k
no
wn s
t
a
nda
r
da
nt
e
nna
,whi
c
h ha
sa c
a
l
i
br
a
t
e
dg
a
i
n,i
s
t
e
c
hni
c
a
l
l
yk
no
wna
sag
a
i
nt
r
a
ns
f
e
rt
e
c
hni
q
ue
.

PHYSICS

67

Ra
di
a
t
i
o
nPa
t
t
e
r
n
$er
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
no
ra
nt
e
nnapa
t
t
e
r
nde
s
c
r
i
be
st
her
e
l
a
t
i
v
es
t
r
e
ng
t
ho
f
t
her
a
di
a
t
e
d0e
l
di
nv
a
r
i
o
usdi
r
e
c
t
i
o
nsf
r
o
mt
hea
nt
e
nna
,a
tac
o
ns
t
a
nt
di
s
t
a
nc
e
.
$er
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
ni
sar
e
c
e
pt
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
na
swe
l
l
,s
i
nc
ei
ta
l
s
ode
s
c
r
i
be
s
t
her
e
c
e
i
v
i
ngpr
o
pe
r
t
i
e
so
ft
hea
nt
e
nna
,a
sac
o
ns
e
q
ue
nc
eo
fr
e
c
i
pr
o
c
i
t
y
.
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a
di
a
t
i
o
n pa
t
t
e
r
ni
st
hr
e
e
di
me
ns
i
o
na
l
,butus
ua
l
l
yt
hepubl
i
s
he
d
r
a
di
a
t
i
o
n pa
t
t
e
r
nsa
r
eat
wo
di
me
ns
i
o
na
ls
l
i
c
eo
ft
het
hr
e
e
di
me
ns
i
o
na
l
pa
t
t
e
r
n,i
nt
heho
r
i
z
o
nt
a
la
ndv
e
r
t
i
c
a
lpl
a
ne
s
.
$e
s
epa
t
t
e
r
n me
a
s
ur
e
me
nt
sa
r
epr
e
s
e
nt
e
di
ne
i
t
he
rar
e
c
t
a
ng
ul
a
ro
ra
po
l
a
rf
o
r
ma
t
.
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o
l
l
o
wi
ng0g
ur
es
ho
wsar
e
c
t
a
ng
ul
a
rpl
o
tpr
e
s
e
nt
a
t
i
o
no
fat
y
pi
c
a
l
t
e
ne
l
e
me
ntYa
g
ia
nt
e
nnar
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
n.$ede
t
a
i
li
sg
o
o
dbuti
ti
s
di
Nc
ul
tt
ov
i
s
ua
l
i
z
et
hea
nt
e
nnabe
ha
v
i
o
uri
ndi
1e
r
e
ntdi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ns
.

Fi
g
u
r
eATL7:Ar
e
c
t
a
ng
u
l
a
rp
l
o
to
ft
h
er
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
np
a
t
t
e
r
no
faY
a
g
ia
nt
e
nna
.
P
o
l
a
rc
o
o
r
di
na
t
es
y
s
t
e
msa
r
eus
e
da
l
mo
s
tuni
v
e
r
s
a
l
l
y
.
I
nt
hepo
l
a
r
c
o
o
r
di
na
t
eg
r
a
ph,po
i
nt
sa
r
el
o
c
a
t
e
db
ypr
o
j
e
c
t
i
o
na
l
o
nga
r
o
t
a
t
i
nga
x
i
s(
r
a
di
us
)t
oa
ni
nt
e
r
s
e
c
t
i
o
n wi
t
ho
neo
fs
e
v
e
r
a
lc
o
nc
e
nt
r
i
c
c
i
r
c
l
e
st
ha
tr
e
pr
e
s
e
ntt
hec
o
r
r
e
s
po
ngg
a
i
ni
ndB,r
e
f
e
r
e
nc
e
dt
o0dBa
tt
he
o
ut
e
re
dg
eo
ft
hepl
o
t
.
$i
sr
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
a
t
i
o
nma
k
e
si
te
a
s
i
e
rt
og
r
a
s
pt
her
a
di
a
ldi
s
t
r
i
but
i
o
no
ft
he
a
nt
e
nnapo
we
r
.

68

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

Fi
g
ur
eATL8i
sapo
l
a
rpl
o
to
ft
hes
a
me10e
l
e
me
ntYa
g
ia
nt
e
nna
.

Fi
g
u
r
eATL8:ep
o
l
a
rr
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
np
a
t
t
e
r
np
l
o
to
ft
h
es
a
mea
nt
e
nna
$e0
e
l
dpa
t
t
e
r
nt
ha
te
x
i
s
t
sc
l
o
s
et
ot
hea
nt
e
nnai
sdi
1e
r
e
ntf
r
o
mt
heo
ne
a
tadi
s
t
a
nc
e
,whi
c
hi
st
heo
neo
fi
nt
e
r
e
s
t
.$ef
a
r
0e
l
di
sa
l
s
oc
a
l
l
e
dt
he
r
a
di
a
t
i
o
n 0e
l
d.Fo
rr
a
di
a
t
i
o
n pa
t
t
e
r
n me
a
s
ur
e
me
nti
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
o
c
ho
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s
eadi
s
t
a
nc
es
uNc
i
e
nt
l
yl
a
r
g
e
.$emi
ni
mum pe
r
mi
s
s
i
bl
edi
s
t
a
nc
e
de
pe
ndso
nt
hedi
me
ns
i
o
nso
ft
hea
nt
e
nnai
nr
e
l
a
t
i
o
nt
ot
hewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h.
$ea
c
c
e
pt
e
df
o
r
mul
af
o
rt
hi
sdi
s
t
a
nc
ei
s
:
2
r
d
/

mi
n =2

whe
r
er
st
hemi
ni
mum di
s
t
a
nc
ef
r
o
mt
hea
nt
e
nna
,di
st
hel
a
r
g
e
s
t
mi
n i
di
me
ns
i
o
no
ft
hea
nt
e
nna
,a
nd i
st
hewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
h.

PHYSICS

69

Be
a
mwi
dt
h
Ana
nt
e
nna
'
sbe
a
mwi
dt
hi
sus
ua
l
l
yunde
r
s
t
o
o
dt
ome
a
nt
heha
l
f
po
we
r
be
a
mwi
dt
h.$epe
a
kr
a
di
a
t
i
o
ni
nt
e
ns
i
t
yi
sf
o
und,a
ndt
he
nt
hepo
i
nt
so
n
e
i
t
he
rs
i
deo
ft
hepe
a
ka
twhi
c
ht
hepo
we
rha
sr
e
duc
e
db
yha
l
fa
r
el
o
c
a
t
e
d.
$ea
ng
ul
a
rdi
s
t
a
nc
ebe
t
we
e
nt
heha
l
fpo
we
rpo
i
nt
si
sde
0ne
da
st
he
be
a
mwi
dt
h.Ha
l
ft
hepo
we
re
x
pr
e
s
s
e
di
nde
c
i
be
l
si
s3dB,s
ot
heha
l
f
po
we
rbe
a
mwi
dt
hi
ss
o
me
t
i
me
sr
e
f
e
r
r
e
dt
oa
st
he3dBbe
a
mwi
dt
h.Bo
t
h
ho
r
i
z
o
nt
a
la
ndv
e
r
t
i
c
a
lbe
a
mwi
dt
ha
r
eus
ua
l
l
yc
o
ns
i
de
r
e
d.
As
s
umi
ngt
ha
tmo
s
to
ft
her
a
di
a
t
e
dpo
we
ri
sno
tdi
v
i
de
di
nt
os
i
de
l
o
be
s
,
t
he di
r
e
c
t
i
v
ea
nd he
nc
et
he g
a
i
ni
si
nv
e
r
s
e
l
y pr
o
po
r
t
i
o
na
lt
ot
he
be
a
mwi
dt
h:a
st
hebe
a
mwi
dt
hde
c
r
e
a
s
e
s
,t
heg
a
i
ni
nc
r
e
a
s
e
s
.
Av
e
r
yhi
g
hg
a
i
na
nt
e
nnac
a
nha
v
eabe
a
mwi
dt
ho
faf
e
wde
g
r
e
e
sa
ndwi
l
l
ha
v
et
obepo
i
nt
e
dv
e
r
yc
a
r
e
f
ul
l
yi
no
r
de
rno
tt
omi
s
st
het
a
r
g
e
t
.$e
be
a
mwi
dt
hi
sde
0ne
db
yt
heha
l
fpo
we
rpo
i
nt
sa
ndi
nt
ur
nde
t
e
r
mi
ne
st
he
c
o
v
e
r
a
g
ea
r
e
a
.
Co
v
e
r
a
g
ea
r
e
ar
e
f
e
r
st
og
e
o
g
r
a
phi
c
a
ls
pa
c
e
i
l
l
umi
na
t
e
db
yt
hea
nt
e
nna
a
ndi
ti
sr
o
ug
hl
yde
0ne
db
yt
hei
nt
e
r
s
e
c
t
i
o
no
ft
hebe
a
mwi
dt
hwi
t
ht
he
e
a
r
t
hs
ur
f
a
c
e
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s
es
t
a
t
i
o
n,i
ti
sno
r
ma
l
l
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s
i
r
e
dt
oma
x
i
mi
s
et
he
c
o
v
e
r
a
g
ea
r
e
a
,buts
o
me
t
i
me
so
ne mus
tr
e
s
o
r
tt
o
do
wnt
i
l
t
i
ng
t
he
a
nt
e
nna
,e
i
t
he
rme
c
ha
ni
c
a
l
l
yo
re
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
l
y
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no
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de
rt
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o
v
i
des
e
r
v
i
c
e
st
o
c
us
t
o
me
r
sv
e
r
yc
l
o
s
et
ot
he ba
s
es
t
a
t
i
o
na
nd t
he
r
e
f
o
r
e be
l
o
w t
he
be
a
mwi
dt
ho
fano
nt
i
l
t
e
da
nt
e
nna
.$i
sdo
wnt
i
l
t
i
ngc
o
ul
dbea
c
hi
e
v
e
d
b
yme
c
ha
ni
c
a
l
l
yi
nc
l
i
ni
ngt
hea
nt
e
nna
,buto
f
t
e
nt
hebe
a
mc
a
nbes
t
e
e
r
e
d
b
yc
ha
ng
i
ngt
hepha
s
eo
ft
hes
i
g
na
la
ppl
i
e
dt
ot
hedi
1e
r
e
nte
l
e
me
nt
so
f
t
hea
nt
e
nnai
nwha
ti
sk
no
wna
se
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
l
ydo
wnt
i
l
t
i
ng
.
S
i
de
l
o
be
s
Noa
nt
e
nnai
sa
bl
et
or
a
di
a
t
ea
l
lt
hee
ne
r
g
yi
no
nepr
e
f
e
r
r
e
ddi
r
e
c
t
i
o
n.
S
o
mei
si
ne
v
i
t
a
bl
yr
a
di
a
t
e
di
no
t
he
rdi
r
e
c
t
i
o
ns
.The
s
es
ma
l
l
e
rpe
a
k
sa
r
e
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
dt
oa
ss
i
de
l
o
be
s
,c
o
mmo
nl
ys
pe
c
i
0e
di
ndBdo
wnf
r
o
mt
hema
i
nl
o
be
.
I
na
nt
e
nnade
s
i
g
n,aba
l
a
nc
emus
tbes
t
r
uc
kbe
t
we
e
ng
a
i
na
nds
i
de
l
o
be
s
.
Nul
l
s
I
na
na
nt
e
nnar
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
n,anul
li
saz
o
nei
nwhi
c
ht
hee
1e
c
t
i
v
e
r
a
di
a
t
e
dpo
we
ri
sa
tami
ni
mum.Anul
lo
f
t
e
nha
sana
r
r
o
wdi
r
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
ya
ng
l
e
c
o
mpa
r
e
dt
ot
ha
to
ft
hema
i
n be
a
m.$us
,t
henul
li
sus
e
f
ulf
o
rs
e
v
e
r
a
l
pur
po
s
e
s
,s
uc
ha
ss
uppr
e
s
s
i
o
no
fi
nt
e
r
f
e
r
i
ngs
i
g
na
l
si
nag
i
v
e
ndi
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

70

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

P
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
P
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ni
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0ne
da
st
heo
r
i
e
nt
a
t
i
o
no
ft
hee
l
e
c
t
r
i
c0
e
l
do
fa
n
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
cwa
v
e
.
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ni
t
i
a
l
po
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
no
far
a
di
owa
v
ei
sde
t
e
r
mi
ne
db
yt
hea
nt
e
nna
.
Mo
s
ta
nt
e
nna
sa
r
ee
i
t
he
rv
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
l
yo
rho
r
i
z
o
nt
a
l
l
ypo
l
a
r
i
z
e
d.

Fi
g
ur
eATL9: ee
l
e
c
t
r
i
c@e
l
di
spe
r
pe
ndi
c
ul
art
omag
ne
t
i
c@e
l
d,
bo
t
ho
fwhi
c
har
epe
r
pe
ndi
c
ul
art
ot
hedi
r
e
c
t
i
o
no
fpr
o
pag
at
i
o
n.

$epo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
no
ft
het
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
i
ng a
nd t
her
e
c
e
i
v
i
ng a
nt
e
nnamus
t
ma
t
c
h,o
rav
e
r
ybi
gl
o
s
swi
l
lbei
nc
ur
r
e
d.
S
o
memo
de
r
ns
y
s
t
e
mst
a
k
ea
dv
a
nt
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g
eo
fpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
nb
ys
e
ndi
ngt
wo
i
nde
pe
nde
nts
i
g
na
l
sa
tt
hes
a
mef
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
,s
e
pa
r
a
t
e
db
yt
hepo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n.
P
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ni
si
ng
e
ne
r
a
lde
s
c
r
i
be
db
ya
ne
l
l
i
ps
e
.Twos
pe
c
i
a
lc
a
s
e
so
f
e
l
l
i
pt
i
c
a
lpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
na
r
el
i
ne
a
rpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
na
ndc
i
r
c
ul
a
rpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n.
Wi
t
hl
i
ne
a
rpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n,t
hee
l
e
c
t
r
i
c0e
l
dv
e
c
t
o
rs
t
a
y
si
nt
hes
a
mepl
a
nea
l
l
t
het
i
me
.

PHYSICS

71

$ee
l
e
c
t
r
i
c 0e
l
d ma
yl
e
a
v
et
hea
nt
e
nnai
n av
e
r
t
i
c
a
lo
r
i
e
nt
a
t
i
o
n,a
ho
r
i
z
o
nt
a
lo
r
i
e
nt
a
t
i
o
n,o
ra
ts
o
mea
ng
l
ebe
t
we
e
nt
het
wo
.
Ve
r
t
i
c
a
l
l
ypo
l
a
r
i
z
e
dr
a
di
a
t
i
o
ni
ss
o
me
wha
tl
e
s
sa
1e
c
t
e
db
yr
e
We
c
t
i
o
nso
v
e
r
t
het
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
npa
t
h.
Omni
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
la
nt
e
nna
sno
r
ma
l
l
yha
v
ev
e
r
t
i
c
a
lpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n.
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r
i
z
o
nt
a
la
nt
e
nna
sa
r
el
e
s
sl
i
k
e
l
yt
opi
c
kupma
n-ma
dei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
,
whi
c
ho
r
di
na
r
i
l
yi
sv
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
l
ypo
l
a
r
i
z
e
d.
I
nc
i
r
c
ul
a
rpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
nt
hee
l
e
c
t
r
i
c0e
l
dv
e
c
t
o
ra
ppe
a
r
st
ober
o
t
a
t
i
ngwi
t
h
c
i
r
c
ul
a
rmo
t
i
o
na
bo
utt
hedi
r
e
c
t
i
o
no
fpr
o
pa
g
a
t
i
o
n,ma
k
i
ngo
nef
ul
lt
ur
n
f
o
re
a
c
hRFc
y
c
l
e
.$i
sr
o
t
a
t
i
o
nma
yber
i
g
ht
ha
ndo
rl
e
f
t
ha
nd.Cho
i
c
e
o
fpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ni
so
neo
ft
hede
s
i
g
nc
ho
i
c
e
sa
v
a
i
l
a
bl
et
ot
heRFs
y
s
t
e
m
de
s
i
g
ne
r
.
P
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
nMi
s
ma
t
c
h
I
no
r
de
rt
ot
r
a
ns
f
e
rma
x
i
mum po
we
rbe
t
we
e
nat
r
a
ns
mi
ta
ndar
e
c
e
i
v
e
a
nt
e
nna
,bo
t
ha
nt
e
nna
smus
tha
v
et
hes
a
mes
pa
t
i
a
lo
r
i
e
nt
a
t
i
o
n,a
ndt
he
s
a
mepo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ns
e
ns
e
.
Whe
nt
hea
nt
e
nna
sa
r
eno
ta
l
i
g
ne
do
rdono
tha
v
et
hes
a
mepo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n,
t
he
r
ewi
l
lbear
e
duc
t
i
o
ni
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we
rt
r
a
ns
f
e
rbe
t
we
e
nt
het
woa
nt
e
nna
s
.$i
s
r
e
duc
t
i
o
ni
npo
we
rt
r
a
ns
f
e
rwi
l
lr
e
duc
et
heo
v
e
r
a
l
ls
y
s
t
e
me
Nc
i
e
nc
ya
nd
pe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
e
.
Whe
nt
het
r
a
ns
mi
ta
nd r
e
c
e
i
v
ea
nt
e
nna
sa
r
ebo
t
hl
i
ne
a
r
l
y po
l
a
r
i
z
e
d,
phy
s
i
c
a
la
nt
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s
a
l
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ti
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l
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i
z
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t
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o
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ma
t
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hl
o
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s
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a
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e
r
mi
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ngt
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l
l
o
wi
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o
r
mul
a
:
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s
s(
d
B)=20l
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g
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1
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.
.
.
whe
r
e i
st
hedi
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nc
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a
r
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z
a
t
i
o
na
ng
l
ebe
t
we
e
nt
het
wo
a
nt
e
nna
s
.
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r15t
hel
o
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si
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3dB,f
o
r30wel
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o
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o
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ea
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t
el
o
s
s
.
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ns
ho
r
t
,t
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e
a
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s
ma
t
c
hi
npo
l
a
r
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z
a
t
i
o
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t
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e
nat
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
i
ng
a
ndr
e
c
e
i
v
i
nga
nt
e
nna
,t
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r
e
a
t
e
rt
hel
o
s
s
.
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nt
her
e
a
lwo
r
l
d,a90mi
s
ma
t
c
hi
npo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ni
sq
ui
t
el
a
r
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o
mea
nt
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s
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uc
ha
sYa
g
i
so
rc
a
na
nt
e
nna
s
,c
a
n bes
i
mpl
y
r
o
t
a
t
e
d90t
oma
t
c
ht
hepo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
no
ft
heo
t
he
re
ndo
ft
hel
i
nk
.
Y
o
uc
a
nus
et
hepo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ne
1e
c
tt
oy
o
ura
dv
a
nt
a
g
eo
napo
i
nt
t
opo
i
nt

72

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

l
i
nk
.
Us
eamo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngt
o
o
lt
oo
bs
e
r
v
ei
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
ef
r
o
ma
dj
a
c
e
ntne
t
wo
r
k
s
,a
nd
r
o
t
a
t
eo
nea
nt
e
nnaunt
i
ly
o
us
e
et
hel
o
we
s
tr
e
c
e
i
v
e
ds
i
g
na
l
.$e
nbr
i
ng
y
o
url
i
nko
nl
i
nea
ndo
r
i
e
nt
a
t
et
heo
t
he
re
ndt
oma
t
c
hpo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n.$i
s
t
e
c
hni
q
uec
a
ns
o
me
t
i
me
sbeus
e
dt
obui
l
ds
t
a
b
l
el
i
nk
s
,e
v
e
ni
nno
i
s
yr
a
di
o
e
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
s
.
P
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
nmi
s
ma
t
c
hc
a
nbee
x
pl
o
i
t
e
dt
os
e
ndt
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1e
r
e
nts
i
g
na
l
so
n
t
hes
a
mef
r
e
q
ue
nc
ya
tt
hes
a
met
i
me
,t
husdo
ubl
i
ngt
het
hr
o
ug
hputo
ft
he
l
i
nk
.
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pe
c
i
a
la
nt
e
nna
st
ha
tha
v
edua
lf
e
e
dsc
a
nbeus
e
df
o
rt
hi
spur
po
s
e
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y
ha
v
et
woRFc
o
nne
c
t
o
r
st
ha
ta
t
t
a
c
ht
ot
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pe
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ntr
a
di
o
s
.$er
e
a
l
l
i
f
et
hr
o
ug
hput i
ss
o
me
wha
tl
o
we
rt
ha
nt
wi
c
et
he s
i
ng
l
ea
nt
e
nna
t
hr
o
ug
hputbe
c
a
us
eo
ft
hei
ne
v
i
t
a
bl
ec
r
o
s
spo
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
ni
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
.
Fr
o
nt
t
oba
c
kr
a
t
i
o
I
ti
so
f
t
e
n us
e
f
ult
oc
o
mpa
r
et
he f
r
o
nt
t
oba
c
kr
a
t
i
oo
fdi
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
l
a
nt
e
nna
s
.
$i
si
st
her
a
t
i
oo
ft
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x
i
mum di
r
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
yo
fa
na
nt
e
nnat
oi
t
sdi
r
e
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
i
nt
heo
ppo
s
i
t
edi
r
e
c
t
i
o
n.
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re
x
a
mpl
e
,whe
nt
her
a
di
a
t
i
o
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t
t
e
r
ni
spl
o
t
t
e
do
nar
e
l
a
t
i
v
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c
a
l
e
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t
hef
r
o
nt
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oba
c
kr
a
t
i
oi
st
hedi
1e
r
e
nc
ei
ndB be
t
we
e
nt
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e
v
e
lo
ft
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ma
x
i
mum r
a
di
a
t
i
o
ni
nt
hef
o
r
wa
r
ddi
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
ndt
hel
e
v
e
lo
fr
a
di
a
t
i
o
na
t
18
0de
g
r
e
e
sf
r
o
mi
t
.
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snumbe
ri
sme
a
ni
ng
l
e
s
sf
o
ra
no
mni
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
la
nt
e
nna
,buti
ti
sq
ui
t
e
r
e
l
e
v
a
ntwhe
nbui
l
di
ngas
y
s
t
e
m wi
t
hr
e
pe
a
t
e
r
s
,i
nwhi
c
ht
hes
i
g
na
ls
e
nt
ba
c
k
wa
r
dwi
l
li
nt
e
r
f
e
r
ewi
t
ht
heus
e
f
uls
i
g
na
la
ndmus
tbemi
ni
mi
s
e
d.
Ant
e
nnaApe
r
t
ur
e
$ee
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
a
pe
r
t
ur
e
o
far
e
c
e
i
v
i
nga
nt
e
nnai
sde
0ne
da
st
hec
r
o
s
s
s
e
c
t
i
o
no
fapa
r
a
bo
l
i
ca
nt
e
nnat
ha
two
ul
dde
l
i
v
e
rt
hes
a
mepo
we
rt
oa
ma
t
c
he
dl
o
a
d.I
ti
se
a
s
yt
os
e
et
ha
tapa
r
a
bo
l
i
cg
r
i
dha
sa
na
pe
r
t
ur
ev
e
r
y
s
i
mi
l
a
rt
oas
o
l
i
dpa
r
a
bo
l
o
i
d.$ea
pe
r
t
ur
eo
fa
na
nt
e
nnai
spr
o
po
r
t
i
o
na
l
t
ot
heg
a
i
n.
Byr
e
c
i
pr
o
c
i
t
y
,t
hea
pe
r
t
ur
ei
st
hes
a
mef
o
rat
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
i
nga
nt
e
nna
.
No
t
i
c
et
ha
tt
hec
o
nc
e
pto
fa
pe
r
t
ur
ei
sno
te
a
s
i
l
yv
i
s
ua
l
i
s
e
di
nt
hec
a
s
eo
fa
wi
r
ea
nt
e
nnai
n whi
c
ht
hephy
s
i
c
a
la
r
e
ai
sne
g
l
i
g
i
bl
e
.I
nt
hi
sc
a
s
et
he

PHYSICS

73

a
nt
e
nnaa
pe
r
t
ur
emus
tbede
r
i
v
e
df
r
o
mt
hef
o
r
mul
ao
ft
heg
a
i
n.

Types of antennas
Ac
l
a
s
s
i
0c
a
t
i
o
no
fa
nt
e
nna
sc
a
nbeba
s
e
do
n:
Fr
e
q
ue
nc
ya
nds
i
z
e
.
Ant
e
nna
sus
e
df
o
rHFa
r
edi
1e
r
e
ntf
r
o
ma
nt
e
nna
sus
e
df
o
rVHF
,whi
c
hi
n
t
ur
na
r
edi
1e
r
e
ntf
r
o
ma
nt
e
nna
sf
o
rmi
c
r
o
wa
v
e
.$ewa
v
e
l
e
ng
t
hi
sdi
1e
r
e
nta
t
di
1e
r
e
ntf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
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74

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

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PHYSICS

75

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76

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

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PHYSICS

77

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78

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we
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PHYSICS

79

bui
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80

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

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PHYSICS

81

Pa
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82

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

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uro
ut
putpo
we
r
,y
o
ua
r
ec
r
e
a
t
i
ngal
o
ude
r
s
o
ur
c
eo
fno
i
s
ef
o
ro
t
he
rus
e
r
so
ft
heunl
i
c
e
ns
e
dba
nd.
Co
nv
e
r
s
e
l
y
,a
ddi
nga
nt
e
nnag
a
i
nwi
l
li
mpr
o
v
ey
o
url
i
nk
a
nd c
a
na
c
t
ua
l
l
y de
c
r
e
a
s
et
he no
i
s
el
e
v
e
lf
o
ry
o
ur
ne
i
g
hbo
ur
s
.
Us
i
nga
mpl
i
0e
r
si
so
f
t
e
ni
l
l
e
g
a
l
.Ev
e
r
yc
o
unt
r
yi
mpo
s
e
s
po
we
rl
i
mi
t
so
nus
eo
funl
i
c
e
ns
e
ds
pe
c
t
r
um.Addi
nga
n
a
nt
e
nnat
oahi
g
hl
ya
mpl
i
0e
ds
i
g
na
lwi
l
ll
i
k
e
l
yc
a
us
et
he
l
i
nkt
oe
x
c
e
e
dl
e
g
a
ll
i
mi
t
s
.

PHYSICS

83

Ant
e
nna
sc
o
s
tf
a
rl
e
s
st
ha
na
mps
,a
nd c
a
ni
mpr
o
v
eal
i
nks
i
mpl
yb
y
c
ha
ng
i
ngt
hea
nt
e
nnao
no
nee
nd.
Us
i
ngmo
r
es
e
ns
i
t
i
v
er
a
di
o
sa
ndg
o
o
dq
ua
l
i
t
yc
a
bl
ea
l
s
ohe
l
pss
i
g
ni
0c
a
nt
l
y
o
nl
o
ngdi
s
t
a
nc
ewi
r
e
l
e
s
sl
i
nk
s
.
$e
s
et
e
c
hni
q
ue
sa
r
eunl
i
k
e
l
yt
oc
a
us
epr
o
bl
e
msf
o
ro
t
he
rus
e
r
so
ft
he
ba
nd,a
nds
ower
e
c
o
mme
ndpur
s
ui
ngt
he
m be
f
o
r
ea
ddi
nga
mpl
i
0e
r
s
.
Ma
nyma
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
so
1e
rhi
g
hpo
we
rv
e
r
s
i
o
nso
ft
he
i
rWi
Fir
a
di
o
sa
t
bo
t
h2a
nd5GHz
,whi
c
hha
v
eabui
l
ti
na
mpl
i
0e
r
s
.
$e
s
ea
r
ebe
t
t
e
rt
ha
ne
x
t
e
r
na
la
mpl
i
0e
r
s
,butdono
ta
s
s
umet
ha
ti
ti
s
a
l
wa
y
ss
ma
r
tt
ous
et
hehi
g
hpo
we
rv
e
r
s
i
o
n,f
o
rma
nya
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nt
he
s
t
a
nda
r
dpo
we
rc
o
upl
e
dwi
t
hahi
g
hg
a
i
na
nt
e
nnai
sa
c
t
ua
l
l
ybe
t
t
e
r
.

Practical antenna designs

$ec
o
s
to
f2.
4GHza
nt
e
nna
sha
sf
a
l
l
e
ndr
a
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
ywi
t
ht
hei
nc
r
e
a
s
e
d
po
pul
a
r
i
t
yo
fWi
Fi
.I
nno
v
a
t
i
v
e de
s
i
g
nsus
es
i
mpl
e
rpa
r
t
sa
nd f
e
we
r
ma
t
e
r
i
a
l
st
oa
c
hi
e
v
ei
mpr
e
s
s
i
v
eg
a
i
n wi
t
hr
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
l
yl
i
t
t
l
e ma
c
hi
ni
ng
.
Unf
o
r
t
una
t
e
l
y
,a
v
a
i
l
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
fg
o
o
da
nt
e
nna
si
ss
t
i
l
ll
i
mi
t
e
di
ns
o
mea
r
e
a
so
f
t
hewo
r
l
d,a
ndi
mpo
r
t
i
ngt
he
mc
a
nbee
x
pe
ns
i
v
e
.
Whi
l
ea
c
t
ua
l
l
yde
s
i
g
ni
nga
na
nt
e
nnac
a
nbeac
o
mpl
e
xa
nde
r
r
o
r
pr
o
ne
pr
o
c
e
s
s
,c
o
ns
t
r
uc
t
i
nga
nt
e
nna
sf
r
o
ml
o
c
a
l
l
ya
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ec
o
mpo
ne
nt
si
sv
e
r
y
s
t
r
a
i
g
ht
f
o
r
wa
r
d,a
ndc
a
nbeal
o
to
ff
un.
I
nAppe
ndi
xA c
a
l
l
e
dAnt
e
nnaCo
ns
t
r
uc
t
i
o
nwepr
e
s
e
nts
o
mepr
a
c
t
i
c
a
l
a
nt
e
nnade
s
i
g
nst
ha
tc
a
nbebui
l
tf
o
rv
e
r
yl
i
t
t
l
emo
ne
y
.

Antenna measurements
Pr
e
c
i
s
e a
nt
e
nna i
ns
t
r
ume
nt
s r
e
q
ui
r
e e
x
pe
ns
i
v
e i
ns
t
r
ume
nt
s a
nd
i
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
ns
.I
ti
st
he
r
e
f
o
r
ea
dv
i
s
a
bl
et
oo
bt
a
i
nt
hea
nt
e
nnapa
r
a
me
t
e
r
s
v
a
l
ue
sdi
r
e
c
t
l
yf
r
o
m ar
e
put
a
bl
ema
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
.
An a
ne
c
ho
i
cc
ha
mbe
ri
s ne
e
de
d t
o pe
r
f
o
r
m a
c
c
ur
a
t
e a
nt
e
nna
me
a
s
ur
e
me
nt
s
,o
t
he
r
wi
s
et
her
e
We
c
t
i
o
nswi
l
lc
a
us
ef
a
l
s
er
e
a
di
ng
s
.
I
c
ea
1e
c
t
st
hepe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
eo
fa
l
la
nt
e
nna
st
os
o
mede
g
r
e
ea
nd t
he
pr
o
bl
e
mg
e
t
smo
r
es
e
r
i
o
usa
thi
g
he
rf
r
e
q
ue
nc
i
e
s
.$ei
mpe
da
nc
eo
ff
r
e
e
s
pa
c
ei
s377o
hms
.I
ft
hea
i
ri
mme
di
a
t
e
l
ys
ur
r
o
undi
ngt
hedi
po
l
ee
l
e
me
nt
s
i
sr
e
pl
a
c
e
db
yi
c
ewhi
c
h ha
sa l
o
we
ri
mpe
da
nc
et
ha
na
i
r
,t
he
nt
he
i
mpe
da
nc
ema
t
c
ha
ndr
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
nso
ft
hea
nt
e
nnawi
l
lc
ha
ng
e
.

84

5. ANTENNAS / TRANSMISSION LINES

$e
s
ec
ha
ng
e
sbe
c
o
mepr
o
g
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
l
ywo
r
s
ea
st
hei
c
el
o
a
di
ngi
nc
r
e
a
s
e
s
.
Ant
e
nnae
l
e
me
nt
sa
r
eus
ua
l
l
ye
nc
a
s
e
di
n apl
a
s
t
i
cpr
o
t
e
c
t
i
v
eho
us
i
ng
(
r
a
do
me
)
.$i
spr
o
v
i
de
sa
na
i
rs
pa
c
ebe
t
we
e
nt
hee
l
e
me
nt
sa
ndi
c
ec
a
s
i
ng
s
ot
ha
tt
hel
o
we
ri
mpe
da
nc
eo
ft
hei
c
el
a
y
e
rha
so
nl
yas
ma
l
le
1e
c
to
nt
he
r
a
di
a
t
o
r
s
.
De
t
uni
ngi
sg
r
e
a
t
l
yr
e
duc
e
dbutr
a
di
a
t
i
o
npa
t
t
e
r
ndi
s
t
o
r
t
i
o
nma
ys
t
i
l
lbe
e
nc
o
unt
e
r
e
d(
de
t
uni
ngr
e
duc
e
sus
a
bl
ea
nt
e
nnaba
ndwi
dt
h)
.Fo
rag
i
v
e
ni
c
e
t
hi
c
k
ne
s
s
,de
v
i
a
t
i
o
nf
r
o
m no
mi
na
lpe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
ev
a
l
ue
sbe
c
o
mewo
r
s
ea
s
f
r
e
q
ue
nc
yi
nc
r
e
a
s
e
s
.
I
na
r
e
a
swhe
r
es
e
v
e
r
ei
c
i
nga
ndwe
ts
no
wa
r
ec
o
mmo
n,i
ti
spr
ude
ntt
o
i
ns
t
a
l
laf
ul
lr
a
do
meo
v
e
rs
o
l
i
dpa
r
a
bo
l
i
ca
nt
e
nna
s
,t
ous
epa
ne
la
nt
e
nna
s
i
ns
t
e
a
do
fc
o
r
ne
rr
e
We
c
t
o
r
s
,a
ndt
os
t
a
ya
wa
yf
r
o
mg
r
i
dpa
r
a
bo
l
i
c
s
.

Fi
g
u
r
eATL17:E>e
c
to
fi
c
eo
nap
a
r
a
b
o
l
i
cg
r
i
da
nt
e
nna

NETWORKING

86

6. NETWORKING

6. NETWORKING
Be
f
o
r
epur
c
ha
s
i
nge
q
ui
pme
nto
rde
c
i
di
ngo
naha
r
dwa
r
epl
a
t
f
o
r
m,y
o
u
s
ho
ul
dha
v
eac
l
e
a
ri
de
ao
ft
hena
t
ur
eo
fy
o
urc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nspr
o
bl
e
m.
Mo
s
tl
i
k
e
l
y
,y
o
ua
r
er
e
a
di
ngt
hi
sbo
o
k be
c
a
us
ey
o
u ne
e
dt
oc
o
nne
c
t
c
o
mput
e
rne
t
wo
r
k
st
o
g
e
t
he
ri
no
r
de
rt
os
ha
r
er
e
s
o
ur
c
e
sa
ndul
t
i
ma
t
e
l
y
r
e
a
c
ht
hel
a
r
g
e
rg
l
o
ba
lI
nt
e
r
ne
t
.
$e ne
t
wo
r
k de
s
i
g
n y
o
u c
ho
o
s
et
o i
mpl
e
me
nt s
ho
ul
d 0t t
he
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nspr
o
bl
e
my
o
ua
r
et
r
y
i
ngt
os
o
l
v
e
.
Doy
o
une
e
dt
oc
o
nne
c
tar
e
mo
t
es
i
t
et
oa
nI
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
ni
nt
he
c
e
nt
r
eo
fy
o
urc
a
mpus
?Wi
l
ly
o
urne
t
wo
r
kl
i
k
e
l
yg
r
o
wt
oi
nc
l
udes
e
v
e
r
a
l
r
e
mo
t
es
i
t
e
s
?Wi
l
lmo
s
to
fy
o
urne
t
wo
r
kc
o
mpo
ne
nt
sbei
ns
t
a
l
l
e
di
n0x
e
d
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
ns
,o
rwi
l
ly
o
urne
t
wo
r
ke
x
pa
ndt
oi
nc
l
udehundr
e
dso
fr
o
a
mi
ng
l
a
pt
o
psa
ndo
t
he
rde
v
i
c
e
s
?
I
nt
hi
sc
ha
pt
e
r
,wewi
l
lr
e
v
i
e
wt
hene
t
wo
r
k
i
ng c
o
nc
e
pt
st
ha
tde
0ne
TCP/
I
P
,t
hepr
i
ma
r
yf
a
mi
l
yo
fne
t
wo
r
k
i
ngpr
o
t
o
c
o
l
sc
ur
r
e
nt
l
yus
e
do
nt
he
I
nt
e
r
ne
t
.
Wewi
l
la
l
s
ol
o
o
ka
tt
heha
r
dwa
r
eo
pt
i
o
nst
ha
ta
r
el
i
k
e
l
yt
of
o
r
mt
he
unde
r
l
y
i
ngphy
s
i
c
a
ll
a
y
e
ro
fy
o
urTCP/
I
P ne
t
wo
r
ka
nde
ndwi
t
hs
o
me
e
x
a
mpl
e
so
fwi
r
e
l
e
s
sc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
ns
.$i
swi
l
lpr
e
pa
r
ey
o
uv
e
r
ywe
l
lf
o
rt
he
c
ha
pt
e
rc
a
l
l
e
dDe
pl
o
y
me
ntPl
a
nni
ngl
a
t
e
ri
nt
hi
sbo
o
k
.
TCP/
I
Pr
e
f
e
r
st
ot
hes
ui
t
eo
fpr
o
t
o
c
o
l
st
ha
ta
l
l
o
wc
o
nv
e
r
s
a
t
i
o
nst
oha
ppe
n
o
nt
heg
l
o
ba
lI
nt
e
r
ne
t
.
Byunde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ngTCP/
I
P
,y
o
uc
a
n bui
l
d ne
t
wo
r
k
st
ha
twi
l
ls
c
a
l
et
o
v
i
r
t
ua
l
l
ya
nys
i
z
e
,a
ndwi
l
lul
t
i
ma
t
e
l
ybe
c
o
mepa
r
to
ft
heg
l
o
ba
lI
nt
e
r
ne
t
.
$i
se
di
t
i
o
no
ft
hebo
o
kno
wi
nc
l
ude
sa
ni
nt
r
o
duc
t
i
o
nt
oI
Pv
6whi
c
hi
s
t
hene
wnumbe
r
i
ngs
y
s
t
e
mo
ft
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t
.
Asi
ti
sv
e
r
yl
i
k
e
l
yy
o
uwi
l
lbede
pl
o
y
i
ngne
t
wo
r
k
sus
i
ngI
Pv
6,i
ti
shi
g
hl
y
r
e
c
o
mme
nde
dy
o
ube
c
o
mef
a
mi
l
i
a
rwi
t
hho
wt
hi
swo
r
k
sa
nda
l
s
oho
wi
t
c
a
nwo
r
ka
l
o
ng
s
i
det
heo
l
de
rI
Pv
4ne
t
wo
r
k
st
ha
twi
l
lc
o
nt
i
nuet
oo
pe
r
a
t
e
o
nt
heI
nt
e
r
ne
tf
o
rs
o
mewhi
l
ey
e
t
.

NETWORKING

87

Introduction
Ve
ni
c
e
,I
t
a
l
yi
saf
a
nt
a
s
t
i
cc
i
t
yt
og
e
tl
o
s
ti
n.$er
o
a
dsa
r
eme
r
ef
o
o
tpa
t
hs
t
ha
tc
r
o
s
swa
t
e
ri
nhundr
e
dso
fpl
a
c
e
s
,a
ndne
v
e
rg
oi
nas
i
mpl
es
t
r
a
i
g
ht
l
i
ne
.P
o
s
t
a
lc
a
r
r
i
e
r
si
nVe
ni
c
ea
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o
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ft
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s
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g
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yt
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a
i
ne
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nt
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l
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pe
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i
a
l
i
s
i
ngi
n de
l
i
v
e
r
yt
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yo
neo
rt
woo
ft
hes
i
xs
e
s
t
i
e
r
i
(
di
s
t
r
i
c
t
s
)o
fVe
ni
c
e
.$i
si
sne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yduet
ot
hei
nt
r
i
c
a
t
el
a
y
o
uto
ft
ha
t
a
nc
i
e
ntc
i
t
y
.Ma
nype
o
pl
e0ndt
ha
tk
no
wi
ngt
hel
o
c
a
t
i
o
no
ft
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t
e
ra
nd
t
hes
uni
sf
a
rmo
r
eus
e
f
ult
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nt
r
y
i
ngt
o0ndas
t
r
e
e
tna
meo
nama
p
.
I
ma
g
i
neat
o
ur
i
s
twhoha
ppe
nst
o0ndpa
pi
e
r
m
c
hma
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ka
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o
uv
e
ni
r
,
a
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nt
st
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ei
ts
hi
ppe
df
r
o
mt
hes
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udi
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nS
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o
l
o
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ne
z
i
at
ot
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i
r
ho
mei
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n,Uni
t
e
dKi
ng
do
m.$i
sma
ys
o
undl
i
k
ea
no
r
di
na
r
y(
o
r
e
v
e
nt
r
i
v
i
a
l
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a
s
k
,butl
e
t
'
sl
o
o
ka
twha
ta
c
t
ua
l
l
yha
ppe
ns
.

Fi
g
u
r
eNG1:Ano
t
h
e
rk
i
ndo
fne
t
wo
r
kma
s
k
.

88

6. NETWORKING

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tpa
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i
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udi
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a
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sj
o
bi
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i
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yt
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e
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e
sa
st
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o
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tpe
r
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ni
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i
mi
l
a
r
l
y
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hepo
s
t
a
le
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o
y
e
ei
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ni
c
eha
snone
e
dt
owo
r
r
ya
bo
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w
t
og
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o
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e
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ta
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st
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hi
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hene
x
tc
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thubi
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r
yc
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si
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r
ys
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mi
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a
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nt
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o
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el
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na
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i
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n.
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c
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e
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st
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o
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e
r
,whi
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swhe
r
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t
os
e
ndt
he
m ne
x
t
.
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o
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rne
e
dso
nl
yt
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pt
r
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c
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ulo
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o
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f
o
re
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a
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e
,
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ot
hel
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a
lne
t
wo
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nt
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ne
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)
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sl
i
s
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o
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s
s
i
bl
er
o
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e
si
sc
a
l
l
e
dt
her
o
ut
i
ngt
a
bl
e
.
Aspa
c
k
e
t
sa
r
r
i
v
ea
tt
her
o
ut
e
r
,t
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s
t
i
na
t
i
o
na
ddr
e
s
si
se
x
a
mi
ne
da
nd
c
o
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r
e
da
g
a
i
ns
ti
t
si
nt
e
r
na
lr
o
ut
i
ngt
a
bl
e
.

NETWORKING

89

I
ft
her
o
ut
e
rha
snoe
x
pl
i
c
i
tr
o
ut
et
ot
hede
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
ni
nq
ue
s
t
i
o
n,i
ts
e
nds
t
hepa
c
k
e
tt
ot
hec
l
o
s
e
s
tma
t
c
hi
tc
a
n0nd,whi
c
hi
so
f
t
e
ni
t
so
wnI
nt
e
r
ne
t
g
a
t
e
wa
y(
v
i
at
hede
f
a
ul
tr
o
ut
e
)
.
And t
hene
x
tr
o
ut
e
rdo
e
st
hes
a
me
,a
nd s
of
o
r
t
h,unt
i
lt
hepa
c
k
e
t
e
v
e
nt
ua
l
l
ya
r
r
i
v
e
sa
ti
t
sde
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
n.
Pa
c
k
a
g
e
sc
a
no
nl
yma
k
et
he
i
rwa
yt
hr
o
ug
ht
hei
nt
e
r
na
t
i
o
na
lpo
s
t
a
ls
y
s
t
e
m
be
c
a
us
e we ha
v
ee
s
t
a
bl
i
s
he
d as
t
a
nda
r
di
s
e
da
ddr
e
s
s
i
ng s
c
he
me f
o
r
pa
c
k
a
g
e
s
.
Fo
re
x
a
mpl
e
,t
hede
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
na
ddr
e
s
smus
tbewr
i
t
t
e
nl
e
g
i
bl
yo
nt
hef
r
o
nt
o
ft
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c
k
a
g
e
,a
ndi
nc
l
udea
l
lc
r
i
t
i
c
a
li
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n(
s
uc
ha
st
her
e
c
i
pi
e
nt
'
s
na
me
,s
t
r
e
e
ta
ddr
e
s
s
,c
i
t
y
,c
o
unt
r
y
,a
nd po
s
t
a
lc
o
de
)
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t
ho
utt
hi
s
i
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n,pa
c
k
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g
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sa
r
ee
i
t
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rr
e
t
ur
ne
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ot
hes
e
nde
ro
ra
r
el
o
s
ti
nt
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s
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e
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c
k
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sc
a
no
nl
yWo
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hr
o
ug
ht
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l
o
ba
lI
nt
e
r
ne
tbe
c
a
us
eweha
v
e
a
g
r
e
e
do
n ac
o
mmo
na
ddr
e
s
s
i
ngs
c
he
mea
nd pr
o
t
o
c
o
lf
o
rf
o
r
wa
r
di
ng
pa
c
k
e
t
s
.
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s
es
t
a
nda
r
dc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n pr
o
t
o
c
o
l
sma
k
ei
tpo
s
s
i
bl
et
oe
x
c
ha
ng
e
i
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
no
nag
l
o
ba
ls
c
a
l
e
.

u
nt
i
lt
h
e
yr
e
a
c
ht
h
e
i
ru
l
t
i
ma
t
ed
e
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
n.

90

6. NETWORKING

Cooperative communications
Co
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ni
so
nl
ypo
s
s
i
bl
ewhe
nt
hepa
r
t
i
c
i
pa
nt
ss
pe
a
kac
o
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n
l
a
ng
ua
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e
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nc
et
hec
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n be
c
o
me
smo
r
ec
o
mpl
e
xt
ha
na
s
i
mpl
ec
o
nv
e
r
s
a
t
i
o
n be
t
we
e
nt
wo pe
o
pl
e
,pr
o
t
o
c
o
lbe
c
o
me
sj
us
ta
s
i
mpo
r
t
a
nta
sl
a
ng
ua
g
e
.
Al
lo
ft
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o
pl
ei
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o
r
i
um ma
ys
pe
a
kEng
l
i
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e
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o
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ul
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t
a
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s
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g
htt
ous
et
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c
r
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pho
ne
,t
he
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
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o
no
fa
ni
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v
i
dua
l

si
de
a
st
ot
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nt
i
r
er
o
o
mi
sne
a
r
l
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i
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i
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l
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ma
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o
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ul
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l
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t
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mput
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st
ha
te
x
i
s
t
.
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t
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o
mmo
ns
e
to
fc
o
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t
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o
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o
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a
t
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a
c
hc
o
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pe
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ne
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ul
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e
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hi
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r
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ka
to
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e
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o
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v
e
l
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pe
da
numbe
ro
fc
o
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c
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t
i
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nsf
r
a
me
wo
r
k
st
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e
s
st
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spr
o
bl
e
m.$e
mo
s
twe
l
l
k
no
wno
ft
he
s
ei
st
heOS
Imo
de
l
.

The OSI model

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df
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rOpe
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1:
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a
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kt
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nt
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NETWORKING

91

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y
)
.

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v
e
nl
a
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rOS
Ine
t
wo
r
k
i
ngmo
de
l
:
Layer

Name

Description

Application

The Application Layer is the layer that most network users are
exposed to; it is the level at which human communication happens.
HTTP, FTP, and SMTP are all application layer protocols.
The human sits above this layer, interacting with the application.

Presentation The Presentation Layer deals with data representation, before it

reaches the application. T h i s would include HTML, MIME encoding, data
compression, formatting checks, byte ordering, etc.

Session

The Session Layer manages the logical communications session

between applications. RPC is an example of a layer five protocol.

Transport

The Transport Layer provides a method of reaching a particular

service on a given network node. Examples of protocols that operate
at this layer are TCP, UDP and SCTP. Some protocols at the transport
layer (such as TCP) ensure that all of the data has arrived at the destination,
and is reassembled and delivered to the next layer in the proper order. UDP is
a "connectionless" protocol commonly used for video and audio streaming and
doesnt check arrival of data packets.

Network

IP (the Internet Protocol) is the most common Network Layer protocol.

This is the layer where routing occurs. Packets can leave the link local
network and be retransmitted on other networks. Routers perform this
function on a network by having at least two network interfaces, one
on each of the networks to be interconnected. Nodes on the Internet
are reached by their globally unique IP address. Another critical Network
Layer protocol is ICMP, which is a special protocol which provides various
management messages needed for correct operation of IP. This layer is also
sometimes referred to as the Internet Layer.

Data Link

Whenever two or more nodes share the same physical medium (for
example, several computers plugged into a hub, or a room full of
wireless devices all using the same radio channel) they use the Data
Link Layer to communicate. Common examples of data link protocols
are Ethernet, Token Ring, ATM, and the wireless networking protocols
(IEEE 802.11A/B/G). Communication on this layer is said to be link-local,
since all nodes connected at this layer communicate with each other directly.
This layer is sometimes known as the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. On
Ethernet networks, nodes are referred to by their MAC address. This is a
unique 48-bit number assigned to every networking device when it is
manufactured.

Physical

The Physical Layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model, and refers to
the actual physical medium over which communicationstake place.
This can be a copper CAT5 cable, a fibre optic bundle, radio waves, or
just about any other medium capable of transmitting signals. Cut wires,
broken fibre, and RF interference are all physical layer problems.

92

6. NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

93

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Layer

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Application

Transport

Internet

Data Link

Physical

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102

6. NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

103

Fi
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104

6. NETWORKING

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e
r
mi
ne
e
a
c
ho
t
he
r
s
'
MACa
ddr
e
s
s
e
s
.
I
ti
spo
s
s
i
bl
et
oma
nua
l
l
yc
o
n0g
ur
ee
a
c
hho
s
twi
t
hama
ppi
ngt
a
bl
ef
r
o
m
I
Pa
ddr
e
s
st
oMAC a
ddr
e
s
s
,buti
ti
se
a
s
i
e
rt
ody
na
mi
c
a
l
l
ydi
s
c
o
v
e
rt
he
ne
i
g
hbo
ur
'
sMACa
ddr
e
s
st
hr
o
ug
hNe
i
g
hbo
rDi
s
c
o
v
e
r
yPr
o
t
o
c
o
l(
NDP)i
n
I
Pv
6a
ndAddr
e
s
sRe
s
o
l
ut
i
o
n Pr
o
t
o
c
o
l(
ARP)i
nI
Pv
4.NDP a
ndARP
wo
r
ki
nav
e
r
ys
i
mi
l
a
rwa
y
.

NETWORKING

105

Fi
g
u
r
eNG6:I
Pv
6no
d
eA,2001:
d
b
8:
:
1ne
e
d
st
os
e
ndd
a
t
at
o2001:
d
b
8:
:
3
i
nt
h
es
a
mene
t
wo
r
k(
2001:
d
b
8:
:
/
64p
r
e
@x
)
.Bu
ti
tmu
s
t@r
s
ta
s
kf
o
rt
h
e
MACa
d
d
r
e
s
st
h
a
tc
o
r
r
e
s
p
o
nd
st
o2001:
d
b
8:
:
3.
Whe
nus
i
ngNDP
,no
deAmul
t
i
c
a
s
t
st
os
o
meho
s
t
st
heq
ue
s
t
i
o
n,
"
Whoha
st
heMACa
ddr
e
s
sf
o
rt
heI
Pv
62001:
db8:
:
3?
"
Whe
nno
deCs
e
e
saNe
i
g
hbo
rS
o
l
i
c
i
t
a
t
i
o
n(
NS
)f
o
ra
nI
Pv
6a
ddr
e
s
so
fi
t
s
o
wn,i
tr
e
pl
i
e
swi
t
hi
t
sMAC a
ddr
e
s
swi
t
h aNe
i
g
hbo
rAdv
e
r
t
i
s
e
me
nt
(
NA)me
s
s
a
g
e
.

106

6. NETWORKING

Fi
g
u
r
eNG7:I
Pv
4no
d
eA,192.
168.
1.
1,ne
e
d
st
os
e
ndd
a
t
at
o192.
168.
1.
3
i
nt
h
es
a
mes
u
b
ne
t(
192.
168.
1.
0/
24)
.Bu
ti
tmu
s
t@r
s
ta
s
kt
h
ewh
o
l
ene
t
wo
r
k
f
o
rt
h
eMACa
d
d
r
e
s
st
h
a
tc
o
r
r
e
s
p
o
nd
st
o192.
168.
1.
3.
Whe
nus
i
ngARP
,no
deAbr
o
a
dc
a
s
t
st
oa
l
lho
s
t
st
heq
ue
s
t
i
o
n,
"
Whoha
st
heMACa
ddr
e
s
sf
o
rt
heI
Pv
4192.
1
68.
1.
3
?
"
Whe
nno
deC s
e
e
sa
nARP r
e
q
ue
s
tf
o
ri
t
so
wnI
Pv
4a
ddr
e
s
s
,i
tr
e
pl
i
e
s
wi
t
hi
t
sMAC a
ddr
e
s
s
.No
deBwi
l
la
l
s
os
e
et
heARPr
e
q
ue
s
tbutwi
l
lno
t
r
e
pl
ya
s1
92.
168.
1.
3i
sno
ta
na
ddr
e
s
so
fi
t
.$i
si
sv
e
r
ys
i
mi
l
a
rt
oNDP
f
o
rI
Pv
6e
x
c
e
ptt
ha
ta
nI
Pv
4no
deha
so
nl
yas
i
ng
l
eI
Pv
4a
ddr
e
s
s
.
Al
s
oARPbr
o
a
dc
a
s
t
st
her
e
q
ue
s
t
,t
hi
sme
a
nst
ha
ti
ti
sr
e
c
e
i
v
e
db
ya
l
lI
Pv
4
no
de
si
nt
hene
t
wo
r
kc
a
us
i
ngmo
r
eho
s
tCPU ut
i
l
i
s
a
t
i
o
nt
ha
nI
Pv
6NDP
whi
c
ho
nl
ymul
t
i
c
a
s
t
st
os
o
meho
s
t
s
.

NETWORKING

107

I
PRo
ut
i
ngt
ono
nNe
i
g
hbo
ur
s

Fi
g
u
r
eNG8:Twos
e
p
a
r
a
t
eI
Pv
6ne
t
wo
r
k
s
.
Co
ns
i
de
rno
wa
no
t
he
rne
t
wo
r
kwi
t
h 3no
de
s
,D,E,a
nd F
,wi
t
ht
he
c
o
r
r
e
s
po
ndi
ng I
Pv
6 a
ddr
e
s
s
e
s 2001:
db8:
2:
:
1, 2001:
db8:
2:
:
2, a
nd
2001:
db8:
2:
:
3.
$i
si
sa
no
t
he
r/
64ne
t
wo
r
k
,buti
ti
sno
ti
nt
hes
a
mer
a
ng
ea
st
hene
t
wo
r
k
o
nt
hel
e
f
tha
nds
i
de
.
Al
lt
hr
e
eho
s
t
sc
a
nr
e
a
c
he
a
c
ho
t
he
rdi
r
e
c
t
l
y(
0r
s
tus
i
ngNDPt
or
e
s
o
l
v
e
t
heI
Pv
6a
ddr
e
s
si
nt
oaMAC a
ddr
e
s
s
,a
ndt
he
ns
e
ndi
ngpa
c
k
e
t
st
ot
ha
t
MACa
ddr
e
s
s
)
.
No
wwewi
l
la
ddno
deG.
$i
sno
deha
st
wone
t
wo
r
kc
a
r
ds(
a
l
s
oc
a
l
l
e
di
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
s
)
,wi
t
ho
nepl
ug
g
e
d
i
nt
oe
a
c
h ne
t
wo
r
k
.$e 0r
s
t ne
t
wo
r
kc
a
r
d us
e
st
he I
Pv
6a
ddr
e
s
s
2001:
db8:
1:
:
4,o
ni
nt
e
r
f
a
c
ee
t
h0a
ndt
heo
t
he
r
,e
t
h1,us
e
s2001:
db8:
2:
:
4.
No
deG i
sno
wl
i
nk
l
o
c
a
lt
obo
t
hne
t
wo
r
k
s
,a
nd c
a
nf
o
r
wa
r
dpa
c
k
e
t
s
be
t
we
e
nt
he
m:no
deG c
a
nr
o
ut
epa
c
k
e
t
sbe
t
we
e
nt
het
wone
t
wo
r
k
s
,i
ti
s
t
he
r
e
f
o
r
ec
a
l
l
e
dar
o
ut
e
ro
rs
o
me
t
i
me
sag
a
t
e
wa
y
.
Butwha
ti
fho
s
t
sA,B,a
ndCwa
ntt
or
e
a
c
hho
s
t
sD,E,a
ndF?
$e
yne
e
dt
ok
no
wt
ha
tt
he
ys
ho
ul
dus
eno
deG a
nds
ot
he
ywi
l
lne
e
dt
o
a
ddar
o
ut
et
ot
heo
t
he
rne
t
wo
r
kv
i
aho
s
tG.Fo
re
x
a
mpl
e
,ho
s
t
sAC
wo
ul
da
ddas
t
a
t
i
cr
o
ut
ev
i
a2001:
db8:
1:
:
4.

108

6. NETWORKING

I
nLi
nux
,t
hi
sc
a
nbea
c
c
o
mpl
i
s
he
dwi
t
ht
hef
o
l
l
o
wi
ngc
o
mma
nd:
#i
p6r
o
u
t
ea
d
d2001:
d
b
8:
2:
:
/
64v
i
a2001:
d
b
8:
1:
:
4
.
.
.
a
ndho
s
t
sDFwo
ul
da
ddt
hef
o
l
l
o
wi
ng
:
#i
p6r
o
u
t
ea
d
d2001:
d
b
8:
1:
:
/
64v
i
a2001:
d
b
8:
2:
:
4

Fi
g
u
r
eNG9:No
d
eGa
c
t
sa
sar
o
u
t
e
rb
e
t
we
e
nt
h
et
wone
t
wo
r
k
s
,o
t
h
e
rh
o
s
t
s
u
s
es
t
a
t
i
cr
o
u
t
e
s
.
$er
e
s
ul
tf
o
rno
deAi
ss
ho
wni
nFi
g
ur
eNG 9.
No
t
i
c
et
ha
tt
her
o
ut
ei
sa
dde
dv
i
at
heI
Pv
6a
ddr
e
s
so
nho
s
tG t
ha
ti
sl
i
nk
l
o
c
a
lt
ot
her
e
s
pe
c
t
i
v
ene
t
wo
r
k
.
Ho
s
tA c
o
ul
dno
ta
ddar
o
ut
ev
i
a2001:
db8:
2:
:
4,e
v
e
nt
ho
ug
hi
ti
st
he
s
a
mephy
s
i
c
a
lma
c
hi
nea
s2001:
db8:
1:
:
4(
no
deG)
,s
i
nc
et
ha
tI
Pv
6i
sno
t
l
i
nk
l
o
c
a
l
.
$ea
ddr
e
s
so
ft
hene
x
tho
pc
a
n bee
nt
e
r
e
de
i
t
he
ra
sag
l
o
ba
la
ddr
e
s
s
(
2001:
db8:
2:
:
4)o
ra
sal
i
nk
l
o
c
a
la
ddr
e
s
s(
f
e
80:
:
.
.
.
)
;i
ti
sus
ua
l
l
ye
a
s
i
e
rt
o
c
o
n0g
ur
eas
t
a
t
i
cr
o
ut
ewi
t
hag
l
o
ba
la
ddr
e
s
s
.

NETWORKING

109

I
nI
Pv
6,t
her
o
ut
e
rG a
l
s
os
e
ndsas
o
l
i
c
i
t
a
t
i
o
na
ndpe
r
i
o
di
c
a
l
l
yr
o
ut
e
r
a
dv
e
r
t
i
s
e
me
nt
st
ha
tc
o
nt
a
i
ni
t
so
wnl
i
nk
l
o
c
a
la
ddr
e
s
s
,he
nc
e
,a
l
lno
de
s
us
i
ngs
t
a
t
e
l
e
s
sa
ut
oc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
no
rDHCPa
ut
o
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
ya
ddade
f
a
ul
t
r
o
ut
ev
i
at
her
o
ut
e
rl
i
nk
l
o
c
a
la
ddr
e
s
sa
ss
ho
wni
nFi
g
ur
eNG 10.

Fi
g
u
r
eNG10:No
d
eGa
c
t
sa
sar
o
u
t
e
rb
e
t
we
e
nt
h
et
wone
t
wo
r
k
s
,h
o
s
t
su
s
e
s
t
a
t
e
l
e
s
sa
d
d
r
e
s
sa
u
t
o
c
o
n@g
u
r
a
t
i
o
n.
$i
si
sav
e
r
ys
i
mpl
er
o
ut
i
nge
x
a
mpl
e
,whe
r
et
hede
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
ni
so
nl
ya
s
i
ng
l
eho
pa
wa
yf
r
o
mt
hes
o
ur
c
e
.Asne
t
wo
r
k
sg
e
tmo
r
ec
o
mpl
e
x
,ma
ny
ho
psma
yne
e
dt
obet
r
a
v
e
r
s
e
dt
or
e
a
c
ht
heul
t
i
ma
t
ede
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
n.
S
i
nc
ei
ti
s
n'
tpr
a
c
t
i
c
a
lf
o
re
v
e
r
yma
c
hi
neo
nt
heI
nt
e
r
ne
tt
ok
no
wt
her
o
ut
e
t
oe
v
e
r
yo
t
he
r
,wema
k
eus
eo
far
o
ut
i
nge
nt
r
yk
no
wna
st
hede
f
a
ul
tr
o
ut
e
(
a
l
s
ok
no
wna
st
hede
f
a
ul
tg
a
t
e
wa
y
)
.
Whe
nar
o
ut
e
rr
e
c
e
i
v
e
sapa
c
k
e
tde
s
t
i
ne
df
o
rane
t
wo
r
kf
o
rwhi
c
hi
tha
s
noe
x
pl
i
c
i
tr
o
ut
e
,t
hepa
c
k
e
ti
sf
o
r
wa
r
de
dt
oi
t
sde
f
a
ul
tg
a
t
e
wa
y
.
$ede
f
a
ul
tg
a
t
e
wa
yi
st
y
pi
c
a
l
l
yt
hebe
s
tr
o
ut
eo
uto
fy
o
urne
t
wo
r
k
,us
ua
l
l
y
i
nt
hedi
r
e
c
t
i
o
no
fy
o
urI
S
P
.

110

6. NETWORKING

Ane
x
a
mpl
eo
far
o
ut
e
rt
ha
tus
e
sade
f
a
ul
tg
a
t
e
wa
yi
ss
ho
wni
nFi
g
ur
eNG
11
.Fi
g
ur
eNG 11s
ho
wst
her
o
ut
i
ngt
a
bl
e(
whi
c
hi
st
hes
e
to
fa
l
lr
o
ut
e
s
)
o
nt
hei
nt
e
r
na
lr
o
ut
e
rG whi
c
hi
nc
l
ude
st
het
wo di
r
e
c
t
l
yc
o
nne
c
t
e
d
ne
t
wo
r
k
s2001:
db8:
1:
:
/
64a
nd2001:
db8:
2:
:
/
64a
swe
l
la
sar
o
ut
et
oa
l
l
o
t
he
rho
s
t
so
nt
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t:
:
/
0.
A no
dea
l
wa
y
sus
e
st
hemo
s
ts
pe
c
i
0cr
o
ut
e
;t
ha
ti
st
her
o
ut
ewi
t
ht
he
l
o
ng
e
s
tma
t
c
ht
ot
hede
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
n,i
nFi
g
ur
eNG 11e
t
h0wi
l
lbeus
e
df
o
r
de
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
n2001:
db8:
1:
:
1(
ma
t
c
hl
e
ng
t
h/
64)r
a
t
he
rt
ha
nt
hel
e
s
ss
pe
c
i
0c
:
:
/
0(
ma
t
c
hl
e
ng
t
ho
f0)
.

Fi
g
u
r
eNG11:No
d
eGi
st
h
ei
nt
e
r
na
lr
o
u
t
e
ra
ndu
s
e
st
h
eI
nt
e
r
ne
tr
o
u
t
e
r
.
Ar
o
ut
et
e
l
l
st
heOSt
ha
tt
hede
s
i
r
e
dne
t
wo
r
kdo
e
s
n'
tl
i
eo
nt
hei
mme
di
a
t
e
l
i
nk
l
o
c
a
lne
t
wo
r
k
,a
ndi
tmus
tf
o
r
wa
r
dt
het
r
a
Nct
hr
o
ug
ht
hes
pe
c
i
0e
d
r
o
ut
e
r
.
I
fho
s
tAwa
nt
st
os
e
ndapa
c
k
e
tt
oho
s
tF
,i
two
ul
d0r
s
ts
e
ndi
tt
ono
de
G.No
deG wo
ul
dt
he
nl
o
o
kupho
s
tFi
ni
t
sr
o
ut
i
ngt
a
bl
e
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NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

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6. NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

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116

6. NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

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i
ne
sus
emo
de
mst
o
c
o
nne
c
tac
o
mput
e
rt
ot
het
e
l
e
pho
ne
,us
ua
l
l
yv
i
aapl
ug
i
nc
a
r
do
rs
e
r
i
a
l
po
r
t
. And t
he
r
ea
r
e ma
ny di
1e
r
e
nt k
i
nds o
f wi
r
e
l
e
s
s ne
t
wo
r
k
i
ng
e
q
ui
pme
ntt
ha
tc
o
nne
c
tt
oav
a
r
i
e
t
yo
fr
a
di
o
sa
nda
nt
e
nna
s
,butne
a
r
l
y
a
l
wa
y
se
nda
ta
nEt
he
r
ne
tj
a
c
k
.
$e f
unc
t
i
o
na
l
i
t
yo
ft
he
s
e de
v
i
c
e
sc
a
nv
a
r
ys
i
g
ni
0c
a
nt
l
y be
t
we
e
n
ma
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
s
.S
o
mepr
o
v
i
deme
c
ha
ni
s
msf
o
rmo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngpe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
e
,
whi
l
eo
t
he
r
sma
yno
t
.

NETWORKING

121

S
i
nc
ey
o
urI
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
n ul
t
i
ma
t
e
l
yc
o
me
sf
r
o
my
o
urI
S
P
,y
o
u
s
ho
ul
df
o
l
l
o
wt
he
i
rr
e
c
o
mme
nda
t
i
o
nswhe
nc
ho
o
s
i
ng e
q
ui
pme
ntt
ha
t
br
i
dg
e
st
he
i
rne
t
wo
r
kt
oy
o
urEt
he
r
ne
tne
t
wo
r
k
.

Putting it all together

Fi
g
u
r
eNG16:I
nt
e
r
ne
tne
t
wo
r
k
i
ng
.Ea
c
hne
t
wo
r
ks
e
g
me
nth
a
sar
o
u
t
e
rwi
t
h
t
woI
Pa
d
d
r
e
s
s
e
s
,ma
k
i
ngi
t
l
i
nkl
o
c
a
l
t
ot
wod
i
>e
r
e
ntne
t
wo
r
k
s
.Pa
c
k
e
t
sa
r
e
f
o
r
wa
r
d
e
db
e
t
we
e
nr
o
u
t
e
r
su
nt
i
lt
h
e
yr
e
a
c
ht
h
e
i
ru
l
t
i
ma
t
ed
e
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
n.
Onc
ea
l
lne
t
wo
r
kno
de
sha
v
ea
nI
Pa
ddr
e
s
s
,t
he
yc
a
ns
e
ndda
t
apa
c
k
e
t
st
o
t
heI
Pa
ddr
e
s
so
fa
ny o
t
he
rno
de
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o
ug
ht
heus
eo
fr
o
ut
i
ng a
nd
f
o
r
wa
r
di
ng
,t
he
s
epa
c
k
e
t
sc
a
nr
e
a
c
h no
de
so
n ne
t
wo
r
k
st
ha
ta
r
eno
t
phy
s
i
c
a
l
l
yc
o
nne
c
t
e
dt
ot
heo
r
i
g
i
na
t
i
ngno
de
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spr
o
c
e
s
sde
s
c
r
i
be
smuc
h
o
fwha
t
ha
ppe
ns
o
nt
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t
.
I
nt
hi
se
x
a
mpl
e
,y
o
uc
a
ns
e
et
hepa
t
ht
ha
tt
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c
k
e
t
st
a
k
ea
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i
c
ec
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t
s
wi
t
hBo
bus
i
nga
ni
ns
t
a
ntme
s
s
a
g
i
ngs
e
r
v
i
c
e
.
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c
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t
t
e
dl
i
ner
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
sa
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he
r
ne
tc
a
bl
e
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r
e
l
e
s
sl
i
nk
,o
ra
nyo
t
he
r
k
i
ndo
fphy
s
i
c
a
lne
t
wo
r
k
.
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l
o
uds
y
mbo
li
sc
o
mmo
nl
yus
e
dt
os
t
a
ndi
nf
o
r
$eI
nt
e
r
ne
t

,a
nd
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
sa
nynumbe
ro
fi
nt
e
r
v
e
ni
ngI
Pne
t
wo
r
k
s
.

122

6. NETWORKING

Ne
i
t
he
rAl
i
c
eno
rBo
bne
e
dt
obec
o
nc
e
r
ne
dwi
t
hho
wt
ho
s
ene
t
wo
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k
s
o
pe
r
a
t
e
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sl
o
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st
her
o
ut
e
r
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o
r
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r
dI
Pt
r
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Nct
o
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r
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heul
t
i
ma
t
e
de
s
t
i
na
t
i
o
n.
I
fi
twe
r
e
n

tf
o
rI
nt
e
r
ne
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o
t
o
c
o
l
sa
ndt
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o
o
pe
r
a
t
i
o
no
fe
v
e
r
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o
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nt
he
ne
t
,t
hi
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i
ndo
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o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
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ul
dbei
mpo
s
s
i
bl
e
.
I
nFi
g
ur
eNG 1
6,Al
i
c
ei
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l
s
t
a
c
ka
ndha
sI
Pv
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e
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e
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o
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c
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t
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st
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o
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nI
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e
r
s
i
o
nbe
t
we
e
nt
he
m.

Designing the physical network

I
tma
ys
e
e
mo
ddt
ot
a
l
ka
bo
utt
he
phy
s
i
c
a
l
ne
t
wo
r
kwhe
n bui
l
di
ng
wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
s
.
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t
e
ra
l
l
,whe
r
ei
st
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i
c
a
lpa
r
to
ft
hene
t
wo
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k?I
nwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
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k
s
,
t
he phy
s
i
c
a
l me
di
um we us
e f
o
rc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n i
so
b
v
i
o
us
l
y
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
ma
g
ne
t
i
ce
ne
r
g
y
.
Buti
nt
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o
nt
e
x
to
ft
hi
sc
ha
pt
e
r
,t
hephy
s
i
c
a
lne
t
wo
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kr
e
f
e
r
st
ot
he
munda
ne t
o
pi
co
fwhe
r
et
o putt
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ng
s
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w do y
o
ua
r
r
a
ng
et
he
e
q
ui
pme
nts
ot
ha
ty
o
uc
a
nr
e
a
c
hy
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
sc
l
i
e
nt
s
?
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t
he
rt
he
y0l
la
no
Nc
ebui
l
di
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rs
t
r
e
t
c
ha
c
r
o
s
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l
e
s
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r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
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k
sa
r
e na
t
ur
a
l
l
ya
r
r
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ng
e
di
nt
he
s
et
hr
e
el
o
g
i
c
a
lc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
ns
:
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i
nt
t
opo
i
nt l
i
nk
s
, po
i
nt
t
omul
t
i
po
i
nt l
i
nk
s
,a
nd mul
t
i
po
i
nt
t
omul
t
i
po
i
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l
o
uds
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l
e di
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e
ntpa
r
t
so
fy
o
urne
t
wo
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kc
a
nt
a
k
e
a
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a
nt
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g
eo
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l
lt
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e
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ft
he
s
ec
o
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ur
a
t
i
o
ns
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nyi
ndi
v
i
dua
ll
i
nkwi
l
lf
a
l
l
i
nt
oo
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ft
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s
et
o
po
l
o
g
i
e
s
.
P
o
i
nt
t
o
po
i
nt
P
o
i
nt
t
opo
i
ntl
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nk
st
y
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c
a
l
l
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o
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nt
e
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ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nwhe
r
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uc
h
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c
c
e
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si
s
n

to
t
he
r
wi
s
ea
v
a
i
l
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e
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i
nt
t
opo
i
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l
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e
a
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nt
e
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o
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t
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o
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l
et
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t
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e
st
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i
nkt
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e
a
c
ht
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nt
e
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ne
t
.
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re
x
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e
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e
r
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i
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a
s
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o
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c
t
i
o
n
i
nt
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ddl
eo
fc
a
mpus
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a
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r
ds
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o
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t
i
o
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o
ra
n
i
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r
t
a
nt bui
l
di
ng j
us
to
1c
a
mpus
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ft
he ma
i
n bui
l
di
ng ha
sa
n
uno
bs
t
r
uc
t
e
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i
e
wo
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her
e
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es
i
t
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nt
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opo
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o
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t
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o
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e
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i
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o
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e
t
he
r
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sc
a
na
ug
me
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re
v
e
nr
e
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a
c
ee
x
i
s
t
i
ng
di
a
l
upl
i
nk
s
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t
hpr
o
pe
ra
nt
e
nna
sa
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l
e
a
rl
i
neo
fs
i
g
ht
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e
l
i
a
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i
nt
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opo
i
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nk
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ne
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e
s
so
ft
hi
r
t
yk
i
l
o
me
t
r
e
sa
r
epo
s
s
i
bl
e
.

NETWORKING

123

Fi
g
u
r
eNG17:Ap
o
i
n
t
t
o
p
o
i
ntl
i
nka
l
l
o
wsar
e
mo
t
es
i
t
et
os
h
a
r
eac
e
nt
r
a
l
I
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
n.
Ofc
o
ur
s
e
,o
nc
eas
i
ng
l
epo
i
nt
t
opo
i
ntc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nha
sbe
e
nma
de
,mo
r
e
c
a
nbeus
e
dt
oe
x
t
e
ndt
hene
t
wo
r
ke
v
e
nf
ur
t
he
r
.I
ft
her
e
mo
t
ebui
l
di
ngi
n
o
ure
x
a
mpl
ei
sa
tt
het
o
po
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a
l
lhi
l
l
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tma
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bl
et
os
e
eo
t
he
r
i
mpo
r
t
a
ntl
o
c
a
t
i
o
nst
ha
tc
a
n

tbes
e
e
ndi
r
e
c
t
l
yf
r
o
mt
hec
e
nt
r
a
l
c
a
mpus
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i
ns
t
a
l
l
i
nga
no
t
he
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i
nt
t
opo
i
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i
nka
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her
e
mo
t
es
i
t
e
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he
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a
n
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o
i
nt
hene
t
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r
ka
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k
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ft
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e
nt
r
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nt
e
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ne
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o
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c
t
i
o
n.
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o
i
nt
t
opo
i
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i
nk
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n

tne
c
e
s
s
a
r
i
l
y ha
v
et
oi
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o
l
v
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nt
e
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ne
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e
s
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.
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ophy
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o
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ng
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o
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e
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o
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o
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hes
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t
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nt
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opo
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o
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a
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e
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o
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me
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a
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r
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nt
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o ac
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nt
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omul
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omul
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o
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c
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e
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he
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t
l
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tbei
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ng
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c
c
e
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spo
i
nti
no
r
de
r
t
ous
et
hene
t
wo
r
k
.

124

6. NETWORKING

Fi
g
u
r
eNG18:ec
e
nt
r
a
lVS
ATi
sno
ws
h
a
r
e
db
ymu
l
t
i
p
l
er
e
mo
t
es
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t
e
s
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NETWORKING

125

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126

6. NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

127

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NETWORKING

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The 802.11 standard

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NETWORKING

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ho
t
he
rdi
r
e
c
t
l
y
.
I
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
ok
e
e
pt
he
s
emo
de
si
n mi
nd whe
n de
s
i
g
ni
ng y
o
ur
ne
t
wo
r
kl
a
y
o
ut
.
Re
me
mbe
rt
ha
tma
na
g
e
dmo
dec
l
i
e
nt
sc
a
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o
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c
a
t
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t
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a
c
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o
t
he
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e
c
t
l
y
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oi
ti
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i
k
e
l
yt
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ty
o
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l
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ntt
or
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g
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e
pe
a
t
e
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i
t
e
i
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t
e
ro
ra
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ci
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eW
e
x
i
bl
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ro
f
pe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
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s
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ue
sa
sc
o
mpa
r
e
dt
ous
i
ngt
hema
s
t
e
r/ma
na
g
e
dmo
de
s
.

The 802.22 Standard

Di
dy
o
ue
v
e
rwo
nde
rwhyo
neo
ft
hebi
g
g
e
s
tus
e
r
so
fwi
r
e
l
e
s
ss
pe
c
t
r
um i
n
a
l
mo
s
ta
nyc
o
unt
r
yo
ne
a
r
t
h,ne
v
e
rg
o
ti
nt
ot
he2wa
yc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ns
bus
i
ne
s
s
?

132

7. WIFI FAMILY

No?We
l
l
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o
ua
s
k
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e
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i
s
i
o
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a
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r
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e
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t
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o
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c
a
t
i
o
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i
mpl
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ri
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tt
hi
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sno
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i
ne
s
st
he
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ei
n.
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e
a
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t
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e
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o
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e
et
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t
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e
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e
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a
c
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i
t
a
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o
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c
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pe
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t
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a
i
l
a
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ef
o
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e
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e
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k
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ng
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r
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f
t
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e
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e
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o
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w wi
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e
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e
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s
s
.
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aI
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o
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t
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a
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a
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i
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n Br
o
a
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a
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e
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ni
nt
e
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f
e
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i
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o br
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ur
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o
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e
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o
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i
me
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ya
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e
nt
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a
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l
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de
.
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r
ede
s
i
g
ne
dt
oo
pe
r
a
t
ei
nt
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o
a
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a
s
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l
ea
s
s
ur
i
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mf
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e
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a
us
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ot
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pe
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e
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i
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o
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s
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i
ng
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c
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ne
s
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a
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r
dwa
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l
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i
s
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di
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ul
y2011.
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c
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l
o
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a
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t
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ks
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o
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me
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o
me
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s
eEq
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nt(
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.
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l
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a
c
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i
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r
e
l
e
s
sl
i
nk
.

NETWORKING

133

Onek
e
yf
e
a
t
ur
eo
ft
he802.
22WRAN Ba
s
eS
t
a
t
i
o
nsi
st
ha
tt
he
ywi
l
lbe
c
a
pa
bl
eo
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f
o
r
mi
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e
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i
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v
a
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l
a
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es
pe
c
t
r
um.
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c
a
la
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c
t
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ni
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s(
I
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o
g
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h
t
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nt
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a
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ef
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ha
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r
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nt
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r
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ft
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s
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t
a
t
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c
t
r
um s
e
ns
i
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nl
y
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et
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wo
ul
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i
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s
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l
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c
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c
a
t
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si
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a
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dd
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s
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b
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i
ng
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hes
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um a
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o
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r
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o
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mi
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ta
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tt
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ys
e
ns
e
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t
ht
hei
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n
g
a
t
he
r
e
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v
a
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t
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ng
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e
s
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a
r
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e
d,
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ro
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o
nt
r
a
r
y
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fi
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a
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a
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t
t
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nt
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n
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a
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t
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e
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t
.
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e
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umpi
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r
o
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ha
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lt
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t
ho
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r
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si
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)
.
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sa
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s
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df
o
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t
i
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o
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t
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a
t
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i
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a
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t
a
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.
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a
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hi
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v
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di
sno
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t
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et
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c
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c
t
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di
na
be
t
t
e
rs
y
s
t
e
m pe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
e
.

134

7. WIFI FAMILY

Summary
Aswe c
a
ns
e
et
he s
t
a
nda
r
ds f
o
rwi
r
e
l
i
ne a
nd wi
r
e
l
e
s
sa
r
e mo
s
t
l
y
i
nc
o
r
po
r
a
t
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di
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r
k
i
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o
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ntt
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a
mi
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t
a
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r
dsa
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q
ui
pme
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r
e
b
yf
a
ra
nda
wa
yt
hemo
s
twi
de
l
yma
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
da
ndde
pl
o
y
e
di
ni
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o
r
a
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do
o
rwi
r
e
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e
s
sl
i
nk
s
.
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ha
pt
e
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a
l
l
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d Ha
r
dwa
r
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e
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c
t
i
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na
nd Co
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ur
a
t
i
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nl
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ede
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a
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w 802.
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t
a
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r
di
se
x
pe
c
t
e
dt
opl
a
ya
ni
nc
r
e
a
s
i
ngr
o
l
ei
nma
ny
r
ur
a
l(
a
ndur
ba
n)wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
s
.
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r
e
e
i
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i
c
e
ns
e
ds
pe
c
t
r
um c
ur
r
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nt
l
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db
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o
a
dc
a
s
tTV
wi
l
le
na
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et
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st
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s
px

NETWORKING

135

8. MESH NETWORKING
Introduction
Me
s
h ne
t
wo
r
k
s a
r
e ba
s
e
d o
n mul
t
i
po
i
nt
t
omul
t
i
po
i
nt (
m2m)
ne
t
wo
r
k
i
ng
.I
nt
heno
me
nc
l
a
t
ur
eo
fI
EEE 802.
11,m2m ne
t
wo
r
k
i
ngi
s
r
e
f
e
r
r
e
dt
oa
s'
a
dho
c
'o
r'
I
BS
S
'mo
de
.
Mo
s
twi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
st
o
da
ya
r
eba
s
e
do
npo
i
nt
t
opo
i
nt(
p2p)o
rpo
i
nt
t
omul
t
i
po
i
nt(
p2m)c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n.

Fi
g
u
r
eMN1:Ame
t
r
o
p
o
l
i
t
a
na
r
e
ame
s
hne
t
wo
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k
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r
o
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i
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i
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a
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t
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a
s
t
r
uc
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e mo
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t
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)
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neo
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r
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l
i
e
nt
s
.

136

8. MESH NETWORKING

$i
shuba
nds
po
k
et
o
po
l
o
g
yi
sa
l
s
ot
y
pi
c
a
l
l
yus
e
df
o
rt
hemo
bi
l
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ne
(
2G o
r3G)s
e
r
v
i
c
e
.
Mo
bi
l
epho
ne
sc
o
nne
c
tt
oaba
s
es
t
a
t
i
o
np2m -wi
t
ho
utt
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s
e
nc
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fa
ba
s
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t
a
t
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bi
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t
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fy
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uma
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e
ndt
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t
t
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he
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e
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pho
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e
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at
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e
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s
sa
sa
c
o
mmuni
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t
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,s
i
mpl
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a
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a
di
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a
n no
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t
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t
l
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ho
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s
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k
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l
o
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a
di
os
e
t
st
ha
tc
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nc
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mmuni
c
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t
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t
he
a
c
ho
t
he
ra
s
l
o
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st
he
ya
r
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t
hi
nr
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r
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s
sr
a
di
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a
ul
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a
dc
a
s
t
me
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nd a
ny s
t
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t
i
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n whi
c
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nt
r
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mi
ta
nd r
e
c
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ul
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c
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mmuni
c
a
t
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t
hr
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g
a
r
ds t
ot
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c
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lc
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mpl
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nt
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ng m2m
ne
t
wo
r
k
i
ngi
smuc
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r
ede
ma
ndi
ngt
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np2m a
ndp2p
.
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t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
st
oi
mpl
e
me
ntc
ha
nne
la
c
c
e
s
sc
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r
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r
emo
r
ec
o
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e
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o
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a
mpl
e
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ei
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nt
r
a
la
ut
ho
r
i
t
yt
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s
s
i
g
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r
a
ns
mi
tt
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mes
l
o
t
s
.
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c
a
us
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r
ei
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e
nt
r
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na
g
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me
nt
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ms
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a
t
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nsne
e
dt
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a
l
l
y
a
g
r
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e
l
lc
o
o
r
di
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t
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r
a
me
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e
r
ss
uc
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st
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l
l
i
do
ft
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l
e
s
sc
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l
l
.
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a
c
tt
ha
t802.
11na
me
st
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a
dho
c
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g
e
s
t
s
t
ha
tt
heI
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a
r
dt
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ug
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t
wo
r
ka
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po
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a
ne
o
us
,
pr
o
v
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s
i
o
na
l
,s
ubo
pt
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ma
ls
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
Mul
t
i
po
i
nt
t
omul
t
i
po
i
ntc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ni
sa
c
t
ua
l
l
ymo
r
ev
e
r
s
a
t
i
l
ea
nd
c
a
nbemuc
hmo
r
ee
Nc
i
e
ntt
ha
npo
i
nt
t
opo
i
nto
rpo
i
nt
t
omul
t
i
po
i
nt
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n: m2m c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n i
nc
l
ude
s t
he a
bi
l
i
t
y t
o
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ep2pa
ndp2m,be
c
a
us
ep2pa
ndp2m a
r
ej
us
ts
ubs
e
t
so
f
m2m.
Ane
t
wo
r
kc
o
ns
i
s
t
i
ngo
fj
us
tt
womul
t
i
po
i
nt
t
omul
t
i
po
i
ntc
a
pa
bl
ede
v
i
c
e
s
s
i
mpl
yc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
e
sp2p:
AB

NETWORKING

137

Ane
t
wo
r
ko
ft
hr
e
eme
s
hc
a
pa
bl
ede
v
i
c
e
sA,B,Cc
a
nf
o
r
m at
o
po
l
o
g
yl
i
k
e
t
hi
s
,f
o
re
x
a
mpl
e
:
ABC
He
r
eAc
a
nc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
eo
nl
ywi
t
hB.C c
a
no
nl
yc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ewi
t
hB,
whi
l
eBc
a
nc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ewi
t
hA a
ndC.Ba
c
t
ua
l
l
ydo
e
sc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
e
p2m.Wi
t
ho
utr
o
ut
i
ng
,Aa
ndCc
a
nno
tc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ewi
t
he
a
c
ho
t
he
ri
n
802.
11a
dho
cmo
de
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ddi
ngar
o
ut
i
ngpr
o
t
o
c
o
lAc
a
na
ut
o
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
y
l
e
a
r
nt
ha
tbe
hi
ndBt
he
r
ei
sCa
ndv
i
c
ev
e
r
s
a
,a
ndt
ha
tBc
a
nbeut
i
l
i
s
e
da
s
ac
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nr
e
l
a
ys
oa
l
lno
de
sc
a
nc
o
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c
a
t
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t
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a
c
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t
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r
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n
t
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a
s
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la
c
ts
i
mi
l
a
r
l
yt
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c
c
e
s
spo
i
nti
n802.
11i
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
mo
de
.
Wi
Fic
a
r
dsc
o
n0g
ur
e
da
si
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ec
l
i
e
nt
sc
a
n'
tc
o
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c
a
t
edi
r
e
c
t
l
y
,
s
ot
he
ywo
ul
da
l
wa
y
sne
e
dt
hea
c
c
e
s
spo
i
ntBa
sar
e
l
a
y
.
I
ft
het
hr
e
ede
v
i
c
e
smo
v
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r
o
und,t
het
o
po
l
o
g
ymi
g
htbe
c
o
meaf
ul
lme
s
h,
whe
r
ee
v
e
r
yno
dec
a
nc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ewi
t
he
v
e
r
yo
t
he
rno
dedi
r
e
c
t
l
y
:
A
/ \
B___C
I
nt
hi
sc
a
s
er
e
l
a
y
i
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r
a
Nci
sno
tne
c
e
s
s
a
r
y
,g
i
v
e
nt
ha
tt
hel
i
nk
sa
r
ea
l
l
g
o
o
de
no
ug
h.
I
ni
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
emo
de
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o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
ngdi
r
e
c
t
l
yi
sno
tpo
s
s
i
bl
e
.
Al
lt
het
r
a
Ncbe
t
we
e
nc
l
i
e
nt
sha
st
ober
e
l
a
y
e
db
yt
hea
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nt
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fwe
no
wa
dd D t
ot
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i
t
t
l
ec
ha
i
nt
o
po
l
o
g
ye
x
a
mpl
e
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l
lde
v
i
c
e
sc
a
n
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ewi
t
he
a
c
ho
t
he
ri
ft
hi
si
same
s
h.
ABCD
On t
heo
t
he
rha
nd,t
hi
swo
ul
dno
tbepo
s
s
i
bl
ei
ft
hene
t
wo
r
ki
sa
n
i
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
emo
dene
t
wo
r
ka
ndB i
sa
na
c
c
e
s
spo
i
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d
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t
h be i
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ec
l
i
e
nt
s
,a
nd a
sa
l
r
e
a
dy me
nt
i
o
ne
d be
f
o
r
e
,
i
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ec
l
i
e
nt
sc
a
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tc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
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r
e
c
t
l
ywi
t
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a
c
ho
t
he
r
.
S
oc
l
i
e
ntD c
o
ul
dno
tj
o
i
nt
hei
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ene
t
wo
r
kbe
c
a
us
ei
ti
so
uto
f
r
a
ng
eo
ft
hea
c
c
e
s
spo
i
ntB,whi
l
ei
two
ul
dbes
t
i
l
li
nt
her
a
di
or
a
ng
eo
f
c
l
i
e
ntC.

138

8. MESH NETWORKING

Bandwidth impact of multi-hop relaying routes

Me
s
hne
t
wo
r
k
sc
o
ns
i
s
t
i
ngo
fde
v
i
c
e
st
ha
tf
e
a
t
ur
eo
nl
yo
ner
a
di
oa
r
eal
o
w
c
o
s
twa
yt
oe
s
t
a
bl
i
s
haubi
q
ui
t
o
uswi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
,butt
hi
sc
o
me
sa
ta
t
r
a
de
o
1.Wi
t
ho
nl
yo
newi
r
e
l
e
s
si
nt
e
r
f
a
c
ei
ne
a
c
hde
v
i
c
e
,t
her
a
di
o
sha
v
e
t
oo
pe
r
a
t
eo
nt
hes
a
mec
ha
nne
l
.
S
i
mpl
ys
e
ndi
ngda
t
at
hr
o
ug
har
o
ut
i
ngpa
t
hg
o
i
ngf
r
o
m no
deAt
hr
o
ug
hB
t
oCha
l
v
e
st
hea
v
a
i
l
a
bl
eba
ndwi
dt
h.Whi
l
eAi
ss
e
ndi
ngda
t
at
oB,Ba
nd
Cha
v
et
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NETWORKING

139

S
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140

8. MESH NETWORKING

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Devices and 2rmware for embedded devices

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142

8. MESH NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

143

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144

8. MESH NETWORKING

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NETWORKING

145

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o
c
a
t
i
o
no
fB.802.
11ha
s
ame
c
ha
ni
s
mt
omi
t
i
g
a
t
et
hi
s
:RTS
/
CTS(
r
e
q
ue
s
tt
os
e
nd,c
l
e
a
rt
os
e
nd)
Be
f
o
r
eam2m no
des
e
ndsda
t
ai
tr
e
q
ue
s
t
sa
i
r
t
i
meb
ys
e
ndi
ngas
ho
r
tRTS
pa
c
k
e
t
,i
no
r
de
rt
or
e
s
e
r
v
et
hec
ha
nne
l
.I
twa
i
t
sunt
i
li
tr
e
c
e
i
v
e
saCTS
s
i
g
na
l
.S
oA wi
l
ls
e
ndas
ho
r
tRTSpa
c
k
e
t
,a
ndB s
e
ndsas
ho
r
tCTS
pa
c
k
e
t
.$i
swa
yCwi
l
lde
t
e
c
tt
ha
tt
he
r
ewi
l
lbeat
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
no
fahi
dde
n
no
det
ha
ti
ts
ho
ul
dn'
ti
nt
e
r
f
e
r
ewi
t
h.
Ho
we
v
e
rt
hec
ur
r
e
ntRTS
/
CTSme
c
ha
ni
s
mo
f802.
11wo
r
k
swe
l
lo
nl
yf
o
r
2ho
pr
o
ut
e
s
.Onl
o
ng
e
rr
o
ut
e
si
tc
a
nha
ppe
nt
ha
tmul
t
i
pl
es
t
a
t
i
o
nss
e
nd
RTSs
i
g
na
l
s
,whi
c
hr
e
s
ul
t
si
na
l
lt
heno
de
ss
t
o
ppi
ngt
he
i
rt
r
a
ns
mi
s
s
i
o
ns
a
ndwa
i
t
i
ngf
o
raCTSs
i
g
na
l
.$i
si
sc
a
l
l
e
daRTSbr
o
a
dc
a
s
ts
t
o
r
m.Fo
r
me
s
hne
t
wo
r
k
so
fc
o
ns
i
de
r
a
bl
es
i
z
ei
ti
sno
tr
e
c
o
mme
nde
dt
ous
et
he
RTS
/
CTSme
c
ha
ni
s
m.
Ti
me
rs
y
nc
hr
o
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n
$epe
o
pl
ede
s
i
g
ni
ngt
he802.
11a
dho
cpr
o
t
o
c
o
lt
ho
ug
hti
two
ul
dbe
s
ma
r
ti
ft
heWi
Fide
v
i
c
e
swo
ul
ds
y
nc
hr
o
ni
s
et
he
i
rMAC t
i
me
rc
l
o
c
k
sb
y
s
e
ndi
ngt
i
mes
t
a
mpsi
nbe
a
c
o
ns
.
Ho
we
v
e
rbo
g
ust
i
mes
t
a
mpsc
a
no
c
c
urduet
obug
s
,a
ndt
he
yo
f
t
e
nt
r
i
g
g
e
r
r
a
c
ec
o
ndi
t
i
o
nsi
nt
heha
r
dwa
r
e
,dr
i
v
e
r
sa
ndt
he802.
11a
dho
cpr
o
t
o
c
o
l
,
whi
c
hha
sno
tbe
e
nde
s
i
g
ne
dt
oc
o
pewi
t
hs
uc
hi
s
s
ue
s
.
F
a
i
l
e
da
t
t
e
mpt
st
os
y
nc
hr
o
ni
s
et
i
mes
t
a
mpso
f
t
e
nr
e
s
ul
t
si
nc
e
l
ls
pl
i
t
t
i
ng
(
s
e
e be
l
o
w)
.$e
r
ea
r
es
o
me ha
c
k
swhi
c
h ha
v
e be
e
ni
nt
r
o
duc
e
dt
o
o
v
e
r
c
o
met
hepr
o
bl
e
m.
$eb
e
s
ts
o
l
ut
i
o
ni
st
odi
s
a
bl
et
i
me
rs
y
nc
hr
o
ni
s
a
t
i
o
ne
nt
i
r
e
l
y
.Ho
we
v
e
r
t
i
me
rs
y
nc
hr
o
ni
s
a
t
i
o
ni
so
f
t
e
ndo
nei
nt
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
si
nt
e
r
f
a
c
eha
r
dwa
r
eo
r
0r
mwa
r
eo
fai
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
.

146

8. MESH NETWORKING

Ope
nWRT ha
sa ha
c
kt
o di
s
a
bl
et
i
me
rs
y
nc
hr
o
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n whe
n us
i
ng
At
he
r
o
s802.
11a
bgc
a
r
dst
ha
two
r
kwi
t
ht
heMa
dwi
0dr
i
v
e
r
.I
fy
o
ua
r
e
us
i
ngar
e
c
e
ntLi
nuxk
e
r
ne
l
,c
e
r
t
a
i
nwi
r
e
l
e
s
sdr
i
v
e
r
s(
na
me
l
ya
t
h9k
)whi
c
h
a
r
eo
f
t
e
nus
e
df
o
rme
s
hde
v
i
c
e
sa
r
eq
ui
t
er
o
bus
ta
g
a
i
ns
tt
i
me
ri
s
s
ue
si
na
dho
cmo
de
.
Ho
we
v
e
rt
hi
sdo
e
s
n'
the
l
pi
ft
heWi
Fide
v
i
c
ec
o
me
swi
t
hac
l
o
s
e
ds
o
ur
c
e
bi
na
r
y0r
mwa
r
ewhi
c
hi
sno
tpr
e
pa
r
e
dt
ode
a
lg
r
a
c
e
f
ul
l
ywi
t
ht
i
me
ri
s
s
ue
s
.
$e
r
e i
s no
t muc
h we c
a
n do a
bo
ut i
t
,o
t
he
rt
ha
n us
i
ng
dr
i
v
e
r
s
/
0r
mwa
r
e
s
/
c
hi
ps
e
t
swhi
c
ha
r
ek
no
wnt
owo
r
kr
e
l
i
a
bl
y
.
I
BS
Sc
e
l
ls
pl
i
t
t
i
ng
$i
si
sat
y
pi
c
a
lpr
o
bl
e
mo
ft
hewa
y802.
11s
ug
g
e
s
t
si
mpl
e
me
nt
a
t
i
o
no
f
t
hem2m mo
de
.Adho
cde
v
i
c
e
sma
yf
a
i
lt
oa
g
r
e
eo
nac
e
r
t
a
i
nc
e
l
l
i
d
(
I
BS
SI
D)
.I
ft
he
ydo
n'
tma
na
g
et
oa
g
r
e
eo
nus
i
ngo
nec
e
r
t
a
i
nc
e
l
l
i
d,
t
he
ya
r
el
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
ys
e
pa
r
a
t
e
dwi
r
e
l
e
s
sc
e
l
l
s
.
$i
si
sar
e
a
ls
ho
ws
t
o
ppe
r
,be
c
a
u
s
ewi
r
e
l
e
s
sde
v
i
c
e
swi
l
lno
tbea
bl
et
o
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ewi
t
he
a
c
ho
t
he
r
.$epr
o
bl
e
mi
sr
e
l
a
t
e
dt
oi
s
s
ue
swi
t
ht
i
me
r
s
y
nc
hr
o
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n.S
i
nc
eLi
nux2.
6.
31i
ti
spo
s
s
i
bl
et
o ma
nua
l
l
y0xt
he
I
BS
S
I
D.$i
sf
e
a
t
ur
ei
sa
l
s
oa
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ei
nOpe
nWRT.

NETWORKING

147

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

Introduction
Whi
l
eunl
i
c
e
ns
e
ds
pe
c
t
r
um pr
o
v
i
de
sahug
ec
o
s
ts
a
v
i
ng
st
ot
heus
e
r
,i
tha
s
t
heunf
o
r
t
una
t
es
i
dee
1e
c
tt
ha
tDe
ni
a
lo
fS
e
r
v
i
c
e(
Do
S
)a
t
t
a
c
k
sa
r
et
r
i
v
i
a
l
l
y
s
i
mpl
e
.Bys
i
mpl
yt
ur
ni
ngo
nahi
g
hpo
we
r
e
da
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nt
,c
o
r
dl
e
s
spho
ne
,
v
i
de
ot
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
e
r
,o
ro
t
he
r2.
4GHzde
v
i
c
e
,ama
l
i
c
i
o
uspe
r
s
o
nc
o
ul
dc
a
us
e
s
i
g
ni
0c
a
ntpr
o
bl
e
mso
nt
hene
t
wo
r
k
.Ma
nyne
t
wo
r
kde
v
i
c
e
sa
r
ev
ul
ne
r
a
bl
e
t
oo
t
he
rf
o
r
mso
fde
ni
a
lo
fs
e
r
v
i
c
ea
t
t
a
c
k
sa
swe
l
l
,s
uc
ha
sdi
s
a
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
i
o
nW
o
o
di
nga
ndARPt
a
bl
eo
v
e
r
Wo
ws
.
$e
r
ea
r
es
e
v
e
r
a
lc
a
t
e
g
o
r
i
e
so
fi
ndi
v
i
dua
l
swhoma
yc
a
us
epr
o
bl
e
mso
na
wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
:
Uni
nt
e
nt
i
o
na
lus
e
r
s
.
De
ns
e
l
ypo
pul
a
t
e
da
r
e
a
ss
uc
ha
sc
i
t
yc
e
nt
r
e
sa
nduni
v
e
r
s
i
t
yc
a
mpus
e
sc
a
n
l
e
a
dt
oade
ns
i
t
yo
fwi
r
e
l
e
s
sa
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nt
s
.I
nt
he
s
epo
pul
a
t
e
da
r
e
a
s
,i
ti
s
c
o
mmo
nf
o
rl
a
pt
o
pus
e
r
st
oa
c
c
i
de
nt
a
l
l
ya
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
et
ot
hewr
o
ngne
t
wo
r
k
.
Mo
s
twi
r
e
l
e
s
sc
l
i
e
nt
swi
l
ls
i
mpl
yc
ho
o
s
ea
nya
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ewi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
,
o
f
t
e
nt
heo
newi
t
ht
hes
t
r
o
ng
e
s
ts
i
g
na
l
,whe
nt
he
i
rpr
e
f
e
r
r
e
dne
t
wo
r
ki
s
una
v
a
i
l
a
bl
e
.
$eus
e
rma
yt
he
nma
k
eus
eo
ft
hi
sne
t
wo
r
ka
sus
ua
l
,c
o
mpl
e
t
e
l
yuna
wa
r
e
t
ha
tt
he
yma
ybet
r
a
ns
mi
t
t
i
ngs
e
ns
i
t
i
v
eda
t
ao
ns
o
me
o
nee
l
s
e
sne
t
wo
r
k
.
Ma
l
i
c
i
o
uspe
o
pl
ema
ye
v
e
nt
a
k
ea
dv
a
nt
a
g
eo
ft
hi
sb
ys
e
t
t
i
ngupa
c
c
e
s
s
po
i
nt
si
ns
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
cl
o
c
a
t
i
o
ns
,t
ot
r
yt
oa
t
t
r
a
c
tunwi
t
t
i
ngus
e
r
sa
ndc
a
pt
ur
e
t
he
i
rda
t
a
.
$e0r
s
ts
t
e
pi
na
v
o
i
di
ngt
hi
spr
o
bl
e
mi
se
duc
a
t
i
ng y
o
urus
e
r
s
,a
nd
s
t
r
e
s
s
i
ng t
he i
mpo
r
t
a
nc
eo
fc
o
nne
c
t
i
ng o
nl
yt
ok
no
wn a
nd t
r
us
t
e
d
ne
t
wo
r
k
s
.
Ma
ny wi
r
e
l
e
s
sc
l
i
e
nt
sc
a
n be c
o
n0g
ur
e
dt
oo
nl
yc
o
nne
c
tt
ot
r
us
t
e
d
ne
t
wo
r
k
s
,o
rt
oa
s
kpe
r
mi
s
s
i
o
nbe
f
o
r
ej
o
i
ni
ngane
wne
t
wo
r
k
.
Aswewi
l
ls
e
el
a
t
e
ri
nt
hi
sc
ha
pt
e
r
,us
e
r
sc
a
ns
a
f
e
l
yc
o
nne
c
tt
oo
pe
npubl
i
c
ne
t
wo
r
k
sb
yus
i
ngs
t
r
o
nge
nc
r
y
pt
i
o
n.

148

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

Wa
rdr
i
v
e
r
s
.
$e
wa
rdr
i
v
i
ng
phe
no
me
no
ndr
a
wsi
t
sna
mef
r
o
mt
hepo
pul
a
r1983
ha
c
k
e
r0l
m,
Wa
rGa
me
s

.Wa
rdr
i
v
e
r
sa
r
ei
nt
e
r
e
s
t
e
di
n 0ndi
ng t
he
phy
s
i
c
a
ll
o
c
a
t
i
o
no
fwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
s
.
$e
yt
y
pi
c
a
l
l
ydr
i
v
ea
r
o
und wi
t
h al
a
pt
o
p
,GPS
,a
nd o
mni
di
r
e
c
t
i
o
na
l
a
nt
e
nna
,l
o
g
g
i
ngt
hena
mea
ndl
o
c
a
t
i
o
no
fa
nyne
t
wo
r
k
st
he
y0nd.$e
s
e
l
o
g
sa
r
et
he
nc
o
mbi
ne
dwi
t
hl
o
g
sf
r
o
mo
t
he
rwa
rdr
i
v
e
r
s
,a
nda
r
et
ur
ne
d
i
nt
og
r
a
phi
c
a
lma
psde
pi
c
t
i
ngt
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
s
f
o
o
t
pr
i
nt
o
fapa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
rc
i
t
y
.
$ev
a
s
tma
j
o
r
i
t
yo
fwa
rdr
i
v
e
r
sl
i
k
e
l
ypo
s
enodi
r
e
c
tt
hr
e
a
tt
one
t
wo
r
k
s
,
butt
heda
t
at
he
yc
o
l
l
e
c
tmi
g
htbeo
fi
nt
e
r
e
s
tt
oane
t
wo
r
kc
r
a
c
k
e
r
.Fo
r
e
x
a
mpl
e
,i
tmi
g
htbeo
b
v
i
o
ust
ha
ta
nunpr
o
t
e
c
t
e
da
c
c
e
s
spo
i
ntde
t
e
c
t
e
db
y
awa
rdr
i
v
e
ri
sl
o
c
a
t
e
di
ns
i
deas
e
ns
i
t
i
v
ebui
l
di
ng
,s
uc
ha
sag
o
v
e
r
nme
nto
r
c
o
r
po
r
a
t
eo
Nc
e
.
A ma
l
i
c
i
o
uspe
r
s
o
nc
o
ul
d us
et
hi
si
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
nt
oi
l
l
e
g
a
l
l
ya
c
c
e
s
st
he
ne
t
wo
r
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150

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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s
e
o
fus
e
.

NETWORKING

151

Physical security for wireless networks

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pi
nc
he
do
rc
ut
.

152

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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unt
s
.

NETWORKING

153

Pa
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nt
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nge
q
ui
pme
ntadul
lwhi
t
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rg
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e
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154

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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NETWORKING

159

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160

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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NETWORKING

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9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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NETWORKING

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9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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NETWORKING

165

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166

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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NETWORKING

167

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168

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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NETWORKING

169

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170

9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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NETWORKING

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9. SECURITY FOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

178

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

Application

Requirement/
User

179

Notes

Text messaging / < 1 kbps

IM

As traffic is infrequent and asynchronous, IM will

tolerate high latency.

Email

1 to 100 kbps

As with IM, email is asynchronous and

intermittent, so it will tolerate latency. Large
attachments, viruses, and spam significantly add
to bandwidth usage.
Note that web email services (such as Yahoo or
Hotmail) should be considered as web browsing,
not as email.

Web browsing

50 - 100+ kbps Web browsers only use the network when data is
requested. Communication Is asynchronous, so a
fair amount of lag can be tolerated.
As web browsers request more data (large
images, long downloads, etc.) bandwidth usage
will go up significantly.

Streaming audio 96 - 160 kbps

Each user of a streaming audio service will use a

constant amount of relatively large bandwidth for
as long as it plays.
It can tolerate some transient latency by using
large buffers on the client. But extended periods
of lag will cause audio skips or outright session
failures.

Voice over IP 24 - 100+ kbps As with streaming audio, VoIP commits a

(VoIP)
constant amount of bandwidth to each user for
the duration of the call. But with VoIP, the
bandwidth is used roughly equally in both
directions. Latency on a VoIP connection is
immediate and annoying to users.
Lag greater than a few milliseconds is
unacceptable for VoIP.
Streaming video

64 - 200+ kbps As with streaming audio, some intermittent

latency is avoided by using buffers on the client.
Streaming video requires high throughput and
low latency to work properly.

Peer-to-peer file 0 sharing

Mbps
applications

infinite While peer to peer applications will tolerate any

amount of latency, they tend to use up all
available throughput by transmitting data to as
many clients as possible, as quickly as possible.
Use of these applications will cause latency and
throughput problems for all other network users
unless you use careful bandwidth shaping.

180

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

181

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182

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

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184

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

185

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186

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

187

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188

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

189

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190

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

Link planning software

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

195

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196

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

197

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he17GHza
nd 24GHzba
ndsha
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o
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a
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a
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l
a
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e
.
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t
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ti
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de
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a
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pe
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e
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e
a
t
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ba
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o
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st
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e
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nc
i
e
sa
r
eunl
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c
e
ns
e
d.

198

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

Toi
de
nt
i
f
ys
o
ur
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e
so
fno
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s
e
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e
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l
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o
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s
ha
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ni
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nt
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ra
t2.
4GHz
.
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l
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o
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mpl
e
so
ft
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et
o
o
l
s
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nt
he c
ha
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r
sc
a
l
l
e
d Ne
t
wo
r
k Mo
ni
t
o
r
i
ng a
nd Ma
i
nt
e
na
nc
ea
nd
Tr
o
ubl
e
s
ho
o
t
i
ng
.

Repeaters
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t
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c
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l
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co
re
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nc
l
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e
ntmo
de
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

199

Fi
g
u
r
eDP10:er
e
p
e
a
t
e
rf
o
r
wa
r
d
sp
a
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t
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g
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t
.
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pe
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re
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ema
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tg
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.

Fi
g
u
r
eDP11:
Nop
o
we
rwa
sa
v
a
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l
a
b
l
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tt
h
et
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ft
h
eh
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rs
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t
e
sa
r
o
u
ndt
h
eb
a
s
e
.

200

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

Fi
na
l
l
y
,y
o
u ma
y ne
e
dt
oc
o
ns
i
de
rg
o
i
ng ba
c
k
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a
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r
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t
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.

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g
u
r
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Deployment planning for IPv6

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202

10. DEPLOYMENT PLANNING

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND

CONFIGURATION
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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

203

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g
u
r
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mmo
nI
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mp
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204

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

Choosing wireless components

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n
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c
et
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sy
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e
ds
.
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nc
o
mpa
r
i
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r
e
l
e
s
se
q
ui
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ntf
o
rus
ei
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o
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a
r
i
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r
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a
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ng wo
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k wi
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a
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o
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o
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me
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ft
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t
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ur
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nt
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v
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c
e

sr
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ng
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pe
ndso
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hea
nt
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nnac
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nne
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t
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nk
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o
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t
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o
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nt
e
nnag
a
i
n(
i
fa
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nt
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si
nc
l
ude
d)
.
Wi
t
ht
hi
si
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
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a
nc
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l
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et
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e
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e
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ul
a
t
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o
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swedi
di
nt
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ha
pt
e
rc
a
l
l
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d
De
pl
o
y
me
ntPl
a
nni
ng
.
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di
os
e
ns
i
t
i
v
i
t
y
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ws
e
ns
i
t
i
v
ei
st
her
a
di
ode
v
i
c
ea
tag
i
v
e
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tr
a
t
e
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ma
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e
rs
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ul
ds
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yt
hi
si
nf
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r
ma
t
i
o
n,a
tl
e
a
s
ta
tt
hef
a
s
t
e
s
ta
nd
s
l
o
we
s
ts
pe
e
ds
.
$i
sc
a
nbeus
e
da
same
a
s
ur
eo
ft
heq
ua
l
i
t
yo
ft
heha
r
dwa
r
e
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swe
l
la
s
a
l
l
o
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ut
oc
o
mpl
e
t
eal
i
nkbudg
e
tc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
i
o
n.
Whe
nc
o
ns
i
de
r
i
ngr
a
di
os
e
ns
i
t
i
v
i
t
y
,al
o
we
rnumbe
ri
sbe
t
t
e
r
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

205

$r
o
ug
hput
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nuf
a
c
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r
sc
o
ns
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nt
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pe
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do
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re
q
ui
pme
nt
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e
pi
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tt
her
a
di
os
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g
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rt
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o
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ft
hr
o
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hputr
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t
ei
nf
o
r
ma
t
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ni
sno
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ef
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rt
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o
dr
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ft
humbi
st
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det
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yt
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o
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mt
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s
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f
e
q
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pme
ntt
ha
tha
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a
lt
hr
o
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hputr
a
t
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ng
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Re
q
ui
r
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da
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c
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s
s
o
r
i
e
s
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e
pt
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ni
t
i
a
lpr
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c
et
a
gl
o
w,v
e
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r
so
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t
e
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e
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c
e
s
s
o
r
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st
ha
ta
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er
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q
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e
df
o
rno
r
ma
lus
e
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e
st
hepr
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c
et
a
gi
nc
l
ude
a
l
lpo
we
ra
da
pt
e
r
s
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re
x
a
mpl
eDCs
uppl
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e
sa
r
et
y
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l
yi
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l
ude
d;P
o
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r
o
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r
ne
ti
nj
e
c
t
o
r
st
y
pi
c
a
l
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ya
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eno
t
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e
c
he
c
ki
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l
t
a
g
e
sa
s
we
l
l
,a
se
q
ui
pme
nti
ss
o
me
t
i
me
spr
o
v
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de
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t
haUSpo
we
rs
uppl
y
.
Wha
ta
bo
utpi
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t
a
i
l
s
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da
pt
e
r
s
,c
a
bl
e
s
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nt
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nna
s
,a
ndr
a
di
oc
a
r
ds
?
I
fy
o
ui
nt
e
ndt
ous
ei
to
ut
do
o
r
s
,do
e
st
hede
v
i
c
ei
nc
l
udeawe
a
t
he
r
pr
o
o
f
c
a
s
e
?
Av
a
i
l
a
bi
l
i
t
y
.
Wi
l
ly
o
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bl
et
oe
a
s
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l
yr
e
pl
a
c
ef
a
i
l
e
dc
o
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ne
nt
s
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ny
o
u
o
r
de
rt
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r
ti
nl
a
r
g
eq
ua
nt
i
t
y
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ho
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o
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e
c
tr
e
q
ui
r
ei
t
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ti
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pr
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c
t
e
dl
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f
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pa
no
ft
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t
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nt
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r
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e
f
ul
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mei
nt
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l
da
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k
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l
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a
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l
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t
yf
r
o
mt
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e
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r
?
P
o
we
rc
o
ns
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i
o
n.Fo
rr
e
mo
t
ei
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
ns
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we
rc
o
ns
umpt
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o
ni
st
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mo
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tc
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li
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ue
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ft
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v
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c
e
sa
r
et
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o
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a
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s
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ti
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v
e
r
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r
t
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e
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st
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tr
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et
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o
we
s
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s
i
bl
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r
.
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o
l
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t
t
e
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e
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nt
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o
s
to
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ol
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we
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ns
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nc
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nr
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s
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ti
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hl
o
we
r
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e
r
a
l
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e
t
.
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rf
a
c
t
o
r
s
.Bes
ur
et
ha
to
t
he
rf
e
a
t
ur
e
sa
r
epr
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v
i
de
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o me
e
ty
o
ur
pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
rne
e
ds
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re
x
a
mpl
e
,do
e
st
hede
v
i
c
ei
nc
l
udea
ne
x
t
e
r
na
la
nt
e
nna
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o
nne
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t
o
r
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fs
o
,wha
tt
y
pei
si
t
?Ar
et
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r
eus
e
ro
rt
hr
o
ug
hputl
i
mi
t
s
i
mpo
s
e
db
ys
o
f
t
wa
r
e
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ndi
fs
o
,wha
ti
st
hec
o
s
tt
oi
nc
r
e
a
s
et
he
s
el
i
mi
t
s
?
Wha
ti
st
hephy
s
i
c
a
lf
o
r
mf
a
c
t
o
ro
ft
hede
v
i
c
e
?
Do
e
si
ts
uppo
r
tPOE a
sa po
we
rs
o
ur
c
e
?Do
e
st
he de
v
i
c
epr
o
v
i
de
e
nc
r
y
pt
i
o
n,NAT,ba
ndwi
dt
hmo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngt
o
o
l
s
,o
ro
t
he
rf
e
a
t
ur
e
sc
r
i
t
i
c
a
lt
o
t
hei
nt
e
nde
dne
t
wo
r
kde
s
i
g
n?

206

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

Bya
ns
we
r
i
ngt
he
s
eq
ue
s
t
i
o
ns0r
s
t
,y
o
uwi
l
lbea
bl
et
oma
k
ei
nt
e
l
l
i
g
e
nt
buy
i
ngde
c
i
s
i
o
nswhe
nt
het
i
mec
o
me
st
oc
ho
o
s
i
ngne
t
wo
r
k
i
ngha
r
dwa
r
e
.
I
ti
sunl
i
k
e
l
yt
ha
ty
o
uwi
l
lbea
bl
et
oa
ns
we
re
v
e
r
ypo
s
s
i
bl
eq
ue
s
t
i
o
nbe
f
o
r
e
buy
i
ngg
e
a
r
,buti
fy
o
upr
i
o
r
i
t
i
s
et
heq
ue
s
t
i
o
nsa
ndpr
e
s
st
hev
e
ndo
rt
o
a
ns
we
rt
he
m be
f
o
r
ec
o
mmi
t
t
i
ngt
oapur
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ha
s
e
,y
o
uwi
l
lma
k
et
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s
tus
e
o
fy
o
urbudg
e
ta
ndbui
l
dane
t
wo
r
ko
fc
o
mpo
ne
nt
st
ha
ta
r
ewe
l
ls
ui
t
e
dt
o
y
o
urne
e
ds
.

Commercial vs. DIY solutions

Y
o
ur ne
t
wo
r
k pr
o
j
e
c
t wi
l
la
l
mo
s
tc
e
r
t
a
i
nl
yc
o
ns
i
s
to
fc
o
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ne
nt
s
pur
c
ha
s
e
df
r
o
mv
e
ndo
r
sa
swe
l
la
spa
r
t
st
ha
ta
r
es
o
ur
c
e
do
re
v
e
nf
a
br
i
c
a
t
e
d
l
o
c
a
l
l
y
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si
saba
s
i
ce
c
o
no
mi
ct
r
ut
hi
nmo
s
ta
r
e
a
so
ft
hewo
r
l
d.
Att
hi
ss
t
a
g
eo
fhuma
nt
e
c
hno
l
o
g
y
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l
o
ba
ldi
s
t
r
i
but
i
o
no
fi
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
ni
s
q
ui
t
et
r
i
v
i
a
lc
o
mpa
r
e
dt
og
l
o
ba
ldi
s
t
r
i
but
i
o
no
fg
o
o
ds
.I
nma
nyr
e
g
i
o
ns
,
i
mpo
r
t
i
nge
v
e
r
yc
o
mpo
ne
ntne
e
de
dt
obui
l
dane
t
wo
r
ki
spr
o
hi
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t
i
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y
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x
pe
ns
i
v
ef
o
ra
l
lbutt
hel
a
r
g
e
s
tbudg
e
t
s
.
Y
o
uc
a
ns
a
v
ec
o
ns
i
de
r
a
bl
emo
ne
yi
nt
hes
ho
r
tt
e
r
mb
y0ndi
ng l
o
c
a
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o
ur
c
e
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o
rpa
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t
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a
bo
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nl
yi
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r
t
i
ngc
o
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ne
nt
st
ha
tmus
t
bepur
c
ha
s
e
d.
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o
ur
s
e
,t
he
r
ei
sal
i
mi
tt
o ho
w muc
h wo
r
kc
a
n bedo
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ny
i
ndi
v
i
dua
lo
rg
r
o
upi
nag
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v
e
na
mo
unto
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me
.
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ta
no
t
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rwa
y
,b
yi
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r
t
i
ngt
e
c
hno
l
o
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y
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o
uc
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ne
x
c
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emo
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y
f
o
re
q
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pme
ntt
ha
tc
a
ns
o
l
v
eapa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
rpr
o
bl
e
mi
n ac
o
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r
a
t
i
v
e
l
y
s
ho
r
ta
mo
unto
ft
i
me
.
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r
to
fbui
l
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o
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lt
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e
c
o
mmuni
c
a
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o
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r
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s
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r
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ur
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yt
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tne
e
de
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x
pe
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o
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v
et
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pr
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bl
e
ma
tha
nd.
S
o
mec
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nt
s
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uc
ha
sr
a
di
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sa
nda
nt
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nnaf
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el
i
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ng
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nt
s
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e
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r
)
t
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mme
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c
i
a
li
mpl
e
me
nt
a
t
i
o
ns
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

207

Co
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ni
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pe
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r
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a
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yl
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t
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o
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mpl
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n

two
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wo
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k
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r
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e
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e
a
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ur
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nd t
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ue ma
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a
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hee
s
s
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nc
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fv
e
ndo
rl
o
c
ki
n.

208

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

I
fal
a
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g
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i
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nd ne
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r
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o
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e
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e
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o
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o
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e
ns
i
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e
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i
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ts
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ss
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a
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pe
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ur
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re
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o
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r802
.
11a
/
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g
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m adi
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80
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/
b/
g
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sno
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.
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e
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mi
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tt
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l
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o
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kb
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ng
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e
ne
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nt
s
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re
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e
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t
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bo
a
r
dma
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o
me
una
v
a
i
l
a
bl
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nt
he ma
r
k
e
t
,but y
o
u ma
y ha
v
e a numbe
ro
f PC
mo
t
he
r
bo
a
r
dso
n ha
nd t
ha
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l
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o
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m e
1e
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t
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a
me t
a
s
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.
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v
i
o
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l
y
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es
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ul
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ur
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wa
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e(
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e
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i
o
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fa v
e
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o
v
i
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e
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s
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r
to
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o
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t
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rs
e
r
v
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e
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t
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i
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o
rt
heus
eo
ft
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o
f
t
wa
r
e
i
t
s
e
l
f
)
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

209

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210

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

211

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212

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

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r
i
c
a
l
l
ys
a
f
e
,l
i
k
ea
g
r
o
und pl
a
t
eo
rac
o
ppe
rpi
pet
ha
ti
sc
o
ns
i
s
t
e
nt
l
yf
ul
lo
fwa
t
e
r
.I
ti
s
i
mpo
r
t
a
nt t
o ma
k
es
ur
et
ha
tt
he o
ut
do
o
rl
i
g
ht
ni
ng a
r
r
e
s
t
o
ri
s
we
a
t
he
r
pr
o
o
f
e
d.
Ma
nya
r
r
e
s
t
e
r
sf
o
rc
o
a
xc
a
bl
e
sa
r
ewe
a
t
he
r
pr
o
o
f
e
d,whi
l
ema
nya
r
r
e
s
t
e
r
s
f
o
rCAT5c
a
bl
ea
r
eno
t
.I
nt
hee
v
e
ntt
ha
tg
a
sa
r
r
e
s
t
o
r
sa
r
eno
tbe
i
ngus
e
d,
a
ndt
hec
a
bl
i
ngi
sc
o
a
xba
s
e
d,t
he
na
t
t
a
c
hi
ngo
nee
ndo
fawi
r
et
ot
he
s
hi
e
l
do
ft
hec
a
b
l
ea
nd t
heo
t
he
rt
ot
heg
r
o
undwi
r
ei
ns
t
a
l
l
e
do
nt
he
t
o
we
r
swi
l
lpr
o
v
i
des
o
mepr
o
t
e
c
t
i
o
n.
$i
sc
a
npr
o
v
i
deapa
t
hf
o
ri
nduc
t
i
o
nc
ur
r
e
nt
s
,a
ndi
ft
hec
ha
r
g
ei
swe
a
k
e
no
ug
h,i
twi
l
lno
ta
1e
c
tt
hec
o
nduc
t
o
rwi
r
eo
ft
hec
a
bl
e
.Whi
l
et
hi
s
me
t
ho
di
sb
ynome
a
nsa
sg
o
o
dapr
o
t
e
c
t
i
o
na
sus
i
ngt
heg
a
sa
r
r
e
s
t
o
r
s
,i
ti
s
be
t
t
e
rt
ha
ndo
i
ngno
t
hi
nga
ta
l
l
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

213

Access Point Con2guration

$i
ss
e
c
t
i
o
nwi
l
lpr
o
v
i
deas
i
mpl
epr
o
c
e
dur
ef
o
rt
heba
s
i
cc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
no
f
Wi
FiAc
c
e
s
sP
o
i
nt
sa
nd Cl
i
e
nt
sb
yr
e
v
i
e
wi
ng t
hema
i
ns
e
t
t
i
ng
sa
nd
a
na
l
y
s
i
ngt
he
i
re
1e
c
t
so
nt
hebe
ha
v
i
o
uro
ft
hene
t
wo
r
k
.
I
twi
l
la
l
s
os
ug
g
e
s
ts
o
mepr
a
c
t
i
c
a
lt
i
psa
nd t
r
i
c
k
sa
nd t
r
o
ubl
e
s
ho
o
t
i
ng
a
dv
i
c
e
.
Be
f
o
r
ey
o
us
t
a
r
t
Whe
ny
o
ur
e
c
e
i
v
es
o
mene
w wi
r
e
l
e
s
se
q
ui
pme
ntt
a
k
es
o
met
i
met
og
e
t
a
c
q
ua
i
nt
e
dwi
t
hi
t
sma
i
nf
e
a
t
ur
e
sa
ndma
k
es
ur
ey
o
u:
Do
wnl
o
a
do
ro
t
he
r
wi
s
eo
bt
a
i
na
l
lus
e
r

sma
nua
l
sa
nds
pe
c
i
0c
a
t
i
o
n
s
he
e
t
sa
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ef
o
rt
hede
v
i
c
e
sy
o
ua
r
eg
o
i
ngt
ode
pl
o
y
.
I
fy
o
u ha
v
es
e
c
o
ndha
nd de
v
i
c
e
s
,be s
ur
et
or
e
c
e
i
v
ef
ul
l
i
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
no
nt
he
i
rc
ur
r
e
nto
rl
a
s
t
k
no
wnc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
n(
e
.
g
.
pa
s
s
wo
r
d,I
Pa
ddr
e
s
s
e
s
,e
t
c
.
)
Y
o
us
ho
ul
da
l
r
e
a
dyha
v
eapl
a
no
nha
ndf
o
rt
hene
t
wo
r
ky
o
ua
r
e
g
o
i
ng t
o de
pl
o
y(
i
nc
l
udi
ng l
i
nk budg
e
t
,ne
t
wo
r
kt
o
po
l
o
g
y
,
c
ha
nne
l
sa
ndI
Ps
e
t
t
i
ng
s
)
.
Ber
e
a
dyt
ot
a
k
ewr
i
t
t
e
nno
t
e
so
fa
l
ls
e
t
t
i
ng
st
ha
ty
o
ua
r
eg
o
i
ngt
o
a
ppl
y(
e
s
pe
c
i
a
l
l
ypa
s
s
wo
r
ds
!
)
Ma
k
eba
c
k
upso
fl
a
s
tk
no
wng
o
o
dc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
n0l
e
s
.
Ge
t
t
i
ngi
nt
o
uc
hwi
t
ht
hede
v
i
c
e
Asa0r
s
ts
t
e
p
,i
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
ha
ty
o
ul
e
a
r
nt
heme
a
ni
ngo
fa
l
lLEDso
n
t
hede
v
i
c
e
.
$e0g
ur
ebe
l
o
ws
ho
wst
het
y
pi
c
a
lf
r
o
nto
fa
nAc
c
e
s
sP
o
i
nt
,wi
t
hs
e
v
e
r
a
l
LEDsl
i
t
.

Fi
g
u
r
eHW 4:ef
r
o
nto
fat
y
p
i
c
a
lAc
c
e
s
sPo
i
nt
.

214

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

LEDst
y
pi
c
a
l
l
yi
ndi
c
a
t
e
:

Pr
e
s
e
nc
eo
fpo
we
r
Ac
t
i
v
epo
r
t
s/t
r
a
Nc(
y
e
l
l
o
w/
g
r
e
e
nc
o
l
o
ur
)
Er
r
o
rs
t
a
t
us(
r
e
dc
o
l
o
ur
)
Re
c
e
i
v
e
ds
i
g
na
ls
t
r
e
ng
t
h(
LED ba
r
s
,s
o
me
t
i
me
smul
t
i
c
o
l
o
ur
;s
o
me
de
v
i
c
e
sc
a
ne
v
e
nbes
e
tt
ol
i
g
hte
a
c
hLED a
ts
pe
c
i
0ct
hr
e
s
ho
l
ds
,
e
.
g
.
Ub
i
q
u
i
t
i
)

S
o
me
t
i
me
s
,di
1e
r
e
ntme
a
ni
ng
sa
r
ea
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
e
dwi
t
ht
hes
a
meLED,us
i
ng
di
1e
r
e
ntc
o
l
o
ur
sa
nddy
na
mi
c
s(
e
.
g
.LED i
so
n/
o
1/
bl
i
nk
i
nga
tdi
1e
r
e
nt
s
pe
e
ds
)
.
Y
o
us
ho
ul
di
de
nt
i
f
yt
hedi
1e
r
e
ntpo
r
t
sa
ndi
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
so
nt
hede
v
i
c
e
:
Ra
di
oi
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
s
,s
o
me
t
i
me
sc
a
l
l
e
d WLANs
.$e
ys
ho
ul
d ha
v
e
o
neo
rmo
r
ea
nt
e
nnac
o
nne
c
t
o
r
s(
o
rno
nde
t
a
c
ha
bl
ea
nt
e
nna
s
)
.
Oneo
rmo
r
eEt
he
r
ne
ti
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
s
:
Oneo
rmo
r
epo
r
t
sf
o
rl
o
c
a
lne
t
wo
r
k(
LAN)
Onepo
r
tf
o
rupl
i
nk(
a
l
s
oc
a
l
l
e
dWAN)
P
o
we
ri
nput(
5,6,7.
5,12V o
ro
t
he
r
,us
ua
l
l
yDC)
.I
ti
sr
e
a
l
l
y
(
r
e
a
l
l
y
)i
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
ha
tt
hepo
we
rs
uppl
yma
t
c
he
st
hev
o
l
t
a
g
e
!
S
o
me
t
i
me
st
hepo
we
ri
spr
o
v
i
de
dt
ot
hede
v
i
c
et
hr
o
ug
ht
hes
a
me
UTP c
a
bl
et
ha
tc
a
r
r
i
e
st
heEt
he
r
ne
tda
t
a
:t
hi
si
sc
a
l
l
e
dP
o
we
r
o
v
e
r
Et
he
r
ne
t(
P
o
E)
.
P
o
we
rbut
t
o
n(
no
ta
l
wa
y
spr
e
s
e
nt
)
.
Re
s
e
tbut
t
o
n(
o
f
t
e
n
hi
dde
n
i
nas
ma
l
lho
l
e
,c
a
nbepr
e
s
s
e
dus
i
ng
as
t
r
a
i
g
ht
e
ne
dpa
pe
r
c
l
i
p)
.
$er
e
s
e
tbut
t
o
nma
yha
v
edi
1e
r
e
nte
1e
c
t
s(
f
r
o
m as
i
mpl
er
e
s
t
a
r
tt
oa
f
a
c
t
o
r
yf
ul
lr
e
s
e
t
)i
fpr
e
s
s
e
dbr
i
e
Wyv
s
.f
o
ral
o
ng
e
rt
i
me
.I
tc
a
nt
a
k
e30
s
e
c
o
ndso
rmo
r
et
ot
r
i
g
g
e
raf
ul
lr
e
s
e
t
.
NOTE:t
of
ul
l
yr
e
s
e
t(
i
.
e
.r
e
s
e
tt
of
a
c
t
o
r
ys
e
t
t
i
ng
s
)ade
v
i
c
et
ha
ti
si
na
n
u
nk
no
wns
t
a
t
ema
ybeapa
i
nf
ult
a
s
k
!
Bes
ur
et
ok
e
e
pwr
i
t
t
e
nno
t
e
so
fc
r
i
t
i
c
a
lpa
r
a
me
t
e
r
sl
i
k
et
hede
v
i
c
eI
P
a
ddr
e
s
sa
ndne
t
wo
r
kma
s
k
,a
ndt
hea
dmi
ni
s
t
r
a
t
o
rus
e
r
na
mea
ndpa
s
s
wo
r
d.
$ef
ol
l
o
wi
ng0g
ur
es
ho
wsac
o
mmo
nLi
nk
s
y
sAc
c
e
s
sP
o
i
nt
,wi
t
ht
he
po
we
ri
nput
,t
hene
t
wo
r
kpo
r
t
s
,t
her
e
s
e
tbut
t
o
na
ndt
woa
nt
e
nna
s
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

215

Fi
g
u
r
eHW 5:Li
nk
s
y
sAc
c
e
s
sPo
i
nt
Us
e
ri
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
s
Y
o
uc
a
ni
nt
e
r
a
c
t(
i
.
e
.i
s
s
uec
o
mma
ndsa
nd c
ha
ng
es
e
t
t
i
ng
s
)wi
t
ht
he
Ac
c
e
s
sP
o
i
nti
ns
e
v
e
r
a
lwa
y
s
,de
pe
ndi
ngo
nt
heha
r
dwa
r
ey
o
ua
r
eus
i
ng
.
$epo
s
s
i
bl
ewa
y
sa
r
et
hef
o
l
l
o
wi
ng
:

Gr
a
phi
c
a
lUs
e
rI
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e(
we
bpa
g
e
)
Gr
a
phi
c
a
lUs
e
rI
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e(
pr
o
pr
i
e
t
a
r
ys
o
f
t
wa
r
ea
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
n)
Co
mma
ndLi
neI
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e(
t
e
l
ne
t
,s
s
h)
S
o
f
t
wa
r
ei
nt
e
r
f
a
c
ee
mbe
dde
di
nt
hes
y
s
t
e
m(
whe
nt
heAP/
c
l
i
e
nti
s
ac
o
mput
e
ro
rs
ma
r
t
pho
newi
t
hadi
s
pl
a
ya
ndi
t
so
wnOS
)

Us
e
ri
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
s
:GUI(
we
bpa
g
e
)
$i
ss
y
s
t
e
mi
sus
e
di
nLi
nk
s
y
s
,Ubi
q
ui
t
ia
ndmo
s
tmo
de
r
nAps
.
Onc
ey
o
ua
r
ec
o
nne
c
t
e
dt
ot
heAP
,y
o
ui
nt
e
r
a
c
twi
t
ht
hede
v
i
c
eus
i
nga
no
r
ma
lbr
o
ws
e
r
.
Adv
a
nt
a
g
e
s
:i
two
r
k
swi
t
hmo
s
tbr
o
ws
e
r
sa
ndo
pe
r
a
t
i
ngs
y
s
t
e
ms
Di
s
a
dv
a
nt
a
g
e
s
:t
hes
t
a
t
i
ci
nt
e
r
f
a
c
edo
e
sno
tr
e
We
c
tc
ha
ng
e
si
mme
di
a
t
e
l
y
;
po
o
rf
e
e
dba
c
k
;c
a
nbei
nc
o
mpa
t
i
bl
ewi
t
hs
o
mewe
bbr
o
ws
e
r
s
;r
e
q
ui
r
e
sa
wo
r
k
i
ngTCP/
I
Pc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
n.

216

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

S
o
mer
e
c
e
nti
mpl
e
me
nt
a
t
i
o
ns(
e
.
g
.Ubi
q
ui
t
i
,s
ho
wnbe
l
o
w)a
r
ev
e
r
yg
o
o
d
a
ndus
emo
de
r
ndy
na
mi
cwe
bf
e
a
t
ur
e
st
opr
o
v
i
def
e
e
dba
c
ka
nda
dv
a
nc
e
d
t
o
o
l
s
.

Fi
g
u
r
eHW 6:Ub
i
q
u
i
t
iu
s
e
ri
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
.
Us
e
ri
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e
s
:GUI(
s
o
f
t
wa
r
ea
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
n)
I
nt
hi
sc
a
s
ey
o
une
e
d as
pe
c
i
a
lpi
e
c
eo
fs
o
f
t
wa
r
et
oi
nt
e
r
a
c
twi
t
ht
he
de
v
i
c
e
.
$i
ss
y
s
t
e
mi
sus
e
di
nMi
k
r
o
t
i
k(
c
a
l
l
e
dWi
nbo
x
)
,Appl
e(
c
a
l
l
e
dAi
r
po
r
t
Ut
i
l
i
t
y
)
,Mo
t
o
r
o
l
a(
c
a
l
l
e
dCa
no
py
)
,ma
nyo
l
dAPs
.
Adv
a
nt
a
g
e
s
: us
ua
l
l
y po
we
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e
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s
a
dv
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nt
a
g
e
s
: pr
o
pr
i
e
t
a
r
ys
o
l
ut
i
o
ns
; us
ua
l
l
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a
i
l
a
bl
ef
o
ro
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yo
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o
pe
r
a
t
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es
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a
r
t
i
ngc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
n.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

217

Mi
k
r
o
t
i
kWi
nbo
x
,s
ho
wn be
l
o
w,i
sav
e
r
ypo
we
r
f
uls
o
l
ut
i
o
na
nd c
a
n
ma
na
g
el
a
r
g
ene
t
wo
r
k
s
.

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g
u
r
eHW 7:Mi
k
r
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t
i
kWi
nBo
x
.
Us
e
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nt
e
r
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a
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mma
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nt
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r
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c
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s
o
me
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l
l
)
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nt
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a
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:di
Nc
ul
tt
ol
e
a
r
n.

218

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

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g
u
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e
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f
a
c
e
.
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n0g
ur
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Be
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o
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ur
i
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e
me
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rt
o
:
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t
a
r
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r
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tt
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v
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c
et
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a
c
t
o
r
ys
e
t
t
i
ng
s
(
a
l
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y
sag
o
o
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de
a
!
)
.
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nne
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t
i
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i
c
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i
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ua
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a
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f
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ul
tI
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wo
r
k192.
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ul
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e
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r
d0r
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t
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et
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c
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.
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. s
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ho
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ur
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ny
o
uc
o
nne
c
tt
oi
to
v
e
rt
hene
t
wo
r
k
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

219

Fi
r
mwa
r
eupg
r
a
dei
so
f
t
e
nar
i
s
k
ypr
o
c
e
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c
t
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c
e
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o
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f
o
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t
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l
edo
i
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t
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rt
a
s
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nt
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t
y
o
u ha
v
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a
l
i
d 0
r
mwa
r
e bi
na
r
yi
ma
g
e
, READ THE
I
NS
TRUCTI
ONSCAREFULL
Y!I
ft
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o
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e
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a
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l
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l
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c
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)
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me
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rt
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pe
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i
a
l
l
yt
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dmi
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na
me
/
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s
s
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et
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a
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t
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l
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Ps
e
t
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i
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ne
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e
r
f
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c
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c
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r
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t
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ks
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ne
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smo
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a
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l
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o
meo
t
he
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v
a
r
i
a
nt
s
.

220

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

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ntmus
ts
e
ndt
hepr
e
a
mbl
e
a
tas
l
o
we
rr
a
t
ef
o
r802.
11bc
l
i
e
nt
s
,a
nda
c
t
ua
lc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nsbe
t
we
e
n
t
hec
l
i
e
nta
ndt
heAPha
ppe
na
t802.
11bs
pe
e
ds
.$i
st
a
k
e
smo
r
et
i
me
,
a
nds
l
o
wsdo
wnt
heo
t
he
r
wi
s
ef
a
s
t
e
r802.
11gc
l
i
e
nt
s
.
Co
n0g
ur
et
heAPs
e
c
ur
i
t
y
S
e
c
ur
i
t
ys
e
t
t
i
ng
sa
r
eo
f
t
e
naha
r
dc
ho
i
c
e
,a
ndi
tma
ybedi
Nc
ul
tt
oba
l
a
nc
e
g
o
o
dpr
o
t
e
c
t
i
o
nf
r
o
m uni
nt
e
nt
i
o
na
lus
e
r
swi
t
he
a
s
ya
c
c
e
s
sf
o
ra
ut
ho
r
i
s
e
d

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

221

us
e
r
s
.
Mo
r
ec
o
mpl
e
xs
e
c
ur
i
t
yne
e
dswi
l
lr
e
q
ui
r
eamo
r
ec
o
mpl
e
xc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
n
a
nda
ddi
t
i
o
na
ls
o
f
t
wa
r
e
.
Co
n0g
ur
et
hes
e
c
ur
i
t
yf
e
a
t
ur
e
so
ft
hene
t
wo
r
k
:
Noe
nc
r
y
pt
i
o
n(
a
l
lt
r
a
Nci
si
nc
l
e
a
r
)
WEP(
Wi
r
e
dEq
u
i
v
a
l
e
ntPr
i
v
a
c
y
)
,40o
r104bi
t
sk
e
y
s
,i
ti
sWa
we
d
a
ndt
he
r
e
f
o
r
ede
pr
e
c
a
t
e
d
WPA/WPA2(
Wi
FiPr
o
t
e
c
t
e
dAc
c
e
s
s
)
:PS
K,TKI
Pa
ndEAP
Ena
bl
eo
rdi
s
a
bl
e(
hi
de
)t
heS
S
I
D br
o
a
dc
a
s
t(

be
a
c
o
n

)
.Hi
dde
n
S
S
I
Da
ndMAC 0l
t
e
r
i
ngdono
ta
ddmuc
hs
e
c
ur
i
t
y
,a
nda
r
eha
r
d
t
oma
i
nt
a
i
na
ndas
o
ur
c
eo
ft
r
o
ubl
e
sf
o
ri
ne
x
pe
r
i
e
nc
e
dus
e
r
so
ft
he
ne
t
wo
r
k
.
Ena
bl
eo
r di
s
a
bl
ea
n Ac
c
e
s
s Co
nt
r
o
lLi
s
t(
ba
s
e
do
n MAC
a
ddr
e
s
s
e
so
fc
l
i
e
nt
s
)
.MAC0l
t
e
r
i
ngi
sawe
a
ks
e
c
ur
i
t
yme
a
s
ur
e
:
A
ma
l
i
c
i
o
usc
l
i
e
ntc
a
nc
a
pt
ur
epa
c
k
e
t
sa
nd0ndo
utwhi
c
hMAC
a
ddr
e
s
s
e
sha
v
et
her
i
g
htt
oa
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
e
I
tc
a
nt
he
nc
ha
ng
ei
t
so
wn
MAC a
ddr
e
s
st
oo
neo
ft
hea
c
c
e
pt
e
do
ne
sa
nd
f
o
o
l
t
hea
c
c
e
s
s
po
i
nt
.
Fo
rmo
r
ei
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
na
bo
utho
wt
ode
s
i
g
nt
hes
e
c
ur
i
t
yo
fy
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
kpl
e
a
s
er
e
a
dt
hec
ha
pt
e
rc
a
l
l
e
dS
e
c
ur
i
t
yi
nWi
r
e
l
e
s
sNe
t
wo
r
k
s
.
Co
n0g
ur
et
heAP-r
o
ut
i
ng
/
NAT
Adv
a
nc
e
dI
Pl
a
y
e
ra
ndr
o
ut
i
ngc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
nf
e
a
t
ur
e
sa
r
eo
f
t
e
ni
nc
l
ude
di
n
mo
de
r
na
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nt
s
.$i
sc
a
ni
nc
l
udef
unc
t
i
o
na
l
i
t
yf
o
rr
o
ut
i
nga
nd
Ne
t
wo
r
kAddr
e
s
sTr
a
ns
l
a
t
i
o
n(
NAT)
,i
na
ddi
t
i
o
nt
oba
s
i
cbr
i
dg
i
ng
.
Adv
a
nc
e
dI
Pc
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
ni
nc
l
ude
s
:
S
t
a
t
i
cr
o
ut
i
ng
Dy
na
mi
cr
o
ut
i
ng
NAT(
ma
s
q
ue
r
a
di
ng
,po
r
tf
o
r
wa
r
di
ng
)
Fi
r
e
wa
l
l
i
ng
S
o
meAPsc
a
na
l
s
oa
c
ta
s0l
es
e
r
v
e
r
sa
ndpr
i
nts
e
r
v
e
r
s(
e
x
t
e
r
na
l
HD a
ndpr
i
nt
e
r
sc
a
nbec
o
nne
c
t
e
dv
i
aUS
B)

222

11. HARDWARE SELECTION AND CONFIGURATION

Co
n0g
ur
et
heAPa
dv
a
nc
e
d
Af
e
wmo
r
ea
dv
a
nc
e
ds
e
t
t
i
ng
sma
ybea
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ef
o
ry
o
urAP
,de
pe
ndi
ngo
n
t
hemo
de
l
/
v
e
ndo
r
/
0r
mwa
r
e
/
e
t
c
.
:
Be
a
c
o
ni
nt
e
r
v
a
l
RTS
/
CTS
.RTS
/
CTS(
r
e
a
dyt
os
e
nd,c
l
e
a
rt
os
e
nd)me
c
ha
ni
s
m
c
a
nhe
l
pa
l
l
e
v
i
a
t
et
hepr
o
bl
e
mo
fhi
dde
nno
de
s(
c
l
i
e
nt
st
ha
tc
a
n

he
a
r
t
he AP butno
tt
he o
t
he
rc
l
i
e
nt
s
,t
he
r
e
f
o
r
ec
r
e
a
t
i
ng
i
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
s
)
.
Fr
a
g
me
nt
a
t
i
o
n.Co
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
no
ft
hef
r
a
g
me
nt
a
t
i
o
nc
a
nbeus
e
d
t
oi
nc
r
e
a
s
epe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
ei
nt
hec
a
s
eo
fl
o
ws
i
g
na
la
r
e
a
s
,t
ho
s
ewi
t
h
ma
r
g
i
na
lc
o
v
e
r
a
g
e
,o
rl
o
ngl
i
nk
s
.
I
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
er
o
bus
t
ne
s
s
Ve
ndo
re
x
t
e
ns
i
o
nst
ot
heWi
Fis
t
a
nda
r
ds
Ot
he
rs
e
t
t
i
ng
sf
o
rl
o
ngdi
s
t
a
nc
el
i
nk
s(
10t
o100k
i
l
o
me
t
r
e
s
)a
nd
be
t
t
e
rs
e
c
ur
i
t
y
.

Con2gure the client

$ec
l
i
e
nts
i
dec
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
ni
smuc
hs
i
mpl
e
r
:
Co
n0g
ur
et
hemo
de
:c
l
i
e
nt(
o
rma
na
g
e
d,s
t
a
t
i
o
n,c
l
i
e
nts
t
a
t
i
o
n,
CPE)
Co
n0g
ur
et
heS
S
I
Do
ft
hene
t
wo
r
kt
obej
o
i
ne
d
$e c
ha
nne
l
,s
pe
e
d, a
nd o
t
he
r pa
r
a
me
t
e
r
s wi
l
l be s
e
t
a
ut
o
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
yt
oma
t
c
ht
heAP
I
fWEPo
rWPAi
se
na
bl
e
do
nt
heAP
,y
o
uwi
l
lha
v
et
oe
nt
e
rt
he
ma
t
c
hi
ngpa
s
s
wo
r
d(
k
e
y
)
Cl
i
e
nt
sma
ya
l
s
oha
v
ea
ddi
t
i
o
na
l(
o
f
t
e
nv
e
ndo
r
s
pe
c
i
0c
)s
e
t
t
i
ng
s
.
Fo
re
x
a
mp
l
e
,s
o
mec
l
i
e
nt
sc
a
nb
ec
o
n@g
u
r
e
dt
oa
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
eo
nl
ywi
t
ha
n
APwi
t
has
p
e
c
i
@e
dMACa
d
d
r
e
s
s
.

Hints - working outdoors

Y
o
us
ho
ul
dt
r
yt
oc
o
n0g
ur
et
hede
v
i
c
e
s(
bo
t
hAPsa
ndc
l
i
e
nt
s
)
we
l
li
na
dv
a
nc
ea
ndi
nac
o
mf
o
r
t
a
bl
epl
a
c
es
uc
ha
sal
a
bo
r
a
t
o
r
y
.
Wo
r
k
i
ngo
ut
do
o
r
si
smo
r
edi
Nc
ul
ta
nd ma
yl
e
a
dt
o mi
s
t
a
k
e
s
(

o
ns
i
t
e
c
o
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
n=t
r
o
ubl
e
)
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

223

I
fy
o
umus
tc
o
n0g
ur
ede
v
i
c
e
so
ut
do
o
r
s
,bes
ur
et
oha
v
ee
no
ug
h
ba
t
t
e
r
yc
ha
r
g
eo
ny
o
ur l
a
pt
o
p
,t
oc
a
r
r
ya
l
lt
he r
e
q
ui
r
e
d
i
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
nwi
t
hy
o
u(
o
npa
pe
r
,no
to
nl
yi
ne
l
e
c
t
r
o
ni
cf
o
r
ma
t
!
)
a
ndt
oc
a
r
r
yano
t
e
pa
dt
ot
a
k
eno
t
e
s
.Go
o
ddo
c
ume
nt
a
t
i
o
ni
s
pa
r
a
mo
untf
o
rf
ut
ur
ema
i
nt
e
na
nc
ei
nt
he0e
l
d!

Troubleshooting
Or
g
a
ni
s
ey
o
urwo
r
ki
nl
o
g
i
c
a
ls
t
e
psa
ndf
o
l
l
o
wt
he
m.
Re
a
dt
hema
nua
l
,s
t
udyt
heme
a
ni
ngo
fpa
r
a
me
t
e
r
sa
nds
e
t
t
i
ng
s
,
r
unt
e
s
t
sa
nde
x
pe
r
i
me
nt
s(
do
n

tbes
c
a
r
e
d!
)
.
I
nt
hec
a
s
eo
fpr
o
bl
e
ms
,doaf
a
c
t
o
r
yr
e
s
e
ta
ndt
r
ya
g
a
i
n.
I
ft
hepr
o
bl
e
m pe
r
s
i
s
t
s
,t
r
ya
g
a
i
nc
ha
ng
i
ngo
nepa
r
a
me
t
e
r
/
s
e
t
t
i
ng
a
tat
i
me
.
I
ts
t
i
l
ldo
e
s
n

two
r
k
?Tr
yt
os
e
a
r
c
ho
nt
hewe
bf
o
rr
e
l
e
v
a
nt
k
e
y
wo
r
ds(
na
meo
ft
hede
v
i
c
e
,e
t
c
.
)
,s
e
a
r
c
hi
nf
o
r
umsa
nd o
n
ma
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r/v
e
ndo
r
swe
bs
i
t
e
s
.
Upg
r
a
det
he0r
mwa
r
et
ot
hel
a
t
e
s
tv
e
r
s
i
o
n.
I
fy
o
us
t
i
l
lha
v
epr
o
bl
e
mst
r
ywi
t
hadi
1e
r
e
ntc
l
i
e
nt
/
AP
,t
oc
he
c
k
i
fy
o
uha
v
eaha
r
dwa
r
ei
s
s
uewi
t
ht
heo
r
i
g
i
na
lo
ne
.

224

12. INDOOR INSTALLATION

12. INDOOR INSTALLATION

Introduction
Pr
e
v
i
o
use
di
t
i
o
nso
ft
hi
sbo
o
kha
v
ef
o
c
us
e
do
nwi
de
a
r
e
ao
ut
do
o
rwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
a
same
a
nso
fc
o
nne
c
t
i
ng c
o
mmuni
t
i
e
swi
t
he
a
c
ho
t
he
ra
nd t
ot
he
I
nt
e
r
ne
t
.Ho
we
v
e
r
,wi
t
ht
hea
v
a
i
l
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
fWi
Fia
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nt
sf
o
ral
o
w
pr
i
c
ea
ndt
hepr
o
l
i
f
e
r
a
t
i
o
no
fpo
r
t
a
bl
ede
v
i
c
e
st
ha
ta
r
eWi
Fic
a
pa
bl
e
,Wi
Fi
ha
sbe
c
o
met
hedef
a
c
t
os
t
a
nda
r
df
o
ri
ndo
o
rne
t
wo
r
ka
c
c
e
s
si
nEnt
e
r
pr
i
s
e
s
a
nds
c
ho
o
l
s
.$i
sc
ha
pt
e
ri
nt
r
o
duc
e
st
hema
i
nf
o
c
uspo
i
nt
si
nc
ho
o
s
i
ng
a
ndi
ns
t
a
l
l
i
ngWi
Fine
t
wo
r
k
si
ndo
o
r
s
.

Preparations
Be
f
o
r
ei
ns
t
a
l
l
i
ngawi
r
e
l
e
s
sLAN i
ti
sag
o
o
di
de
at
o0r
s
tt
hi
nkt
hi
ng
s
t
hr
o
ug
habi
t
:
Wha
ti
si
tt
ha
ty
o
ua
r
epl
a
nni
ngt
odowi
t
ht
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k?
I
si
ta
na
ddi
t
i
o
nt
ot
hewi
r
e
dne
t
wo
r
ko
rar
e
pl
a
c
e
me
ntf
o
ri
t
?Ar
e
y
o
ug
o
i
ngt
or
una
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nso
v
e
rt
hene
t
wo
r
kt
ha
ta
r
eno
tde
l
a
y
t
o
l
e
r
a
nto
rs
e
ns
i
t
i
v
et
oba
ndwi
dt
hv
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
ns(
l
i
k
ev
o
i
c
ea
ndv
i
de
o
c
o
nf
e
r
e
nc
i
ng
)
.
$ema
i
ndi
1e
r
e
nc
ebe
t
we
e
ni
ndo
o
ra
ndo
ut
do
o
rwi
r
e
l
e
s
si
st
he
a
bs
o
r
pt
i
o
na
nd r
e
We
c
t
i
o
no
fr
a
di
owa
v
e
sb
yt
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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

225

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500 - 1000 kb/s

audio:

100 - 1000 kb/s

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1 - 4 Mb/s

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1 - 8 Mb/s

device backup:

10 - 50 Mb/s

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226

12. INDOOR INSTALLATION

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

227

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228

12. INDOOR INSTALLATION

buto
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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

229

13. OUTDOOR INSTALL

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

233

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234

13. OUTDOOR INSTALL

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

235

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ro
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o ha
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n pr
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nd5GHzba
nds
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236

13. OUTDOOR INSTALL

Unf
o
r
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ro
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o
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a
nc
e
:
ht
t
p:
/
/
www.
l
i
g
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i
nt
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x
.
c
o
m/
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mi
t
t
e
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ml
.
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ne
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o
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ab
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n
Pi
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ode
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ui
l
a(
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83074570
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l
e
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nd
ElBa
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l
e
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t
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o
n)
.

correct: 8.957667N, 68.297528W, 155 m elevation

Us
i
ngt
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o
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tt
he 2.
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f
r
e
q
ue
nc
y
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

237

Fi
g
.OI3s
ho
wst
heo
ut
puto
ft
hepr
o
g
r
a
m:

Fi
g
u
r
eOI3:Pr
o
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mp
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r
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r
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o
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a
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l
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e
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e
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rt
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e
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nt
e
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r
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r
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nt
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e
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k
a
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/
swi
t
hs
t
a
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r
d802.
11bha
r
dwa
r
e
.

238

13. OUTDOOR INSTALL

Mo
v
i
ng t
he r
e
mo
t
es
i
t
et
o a 1400 m hi
g
h hi
l
lc
a
l
l
e
d Pl
a
t
i
l
l
o
n
(
9.
88905350
N,67.
50552400
W)
,pr
o
v
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de
da380k
mt
e
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t
be
do
v
e
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pe
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me
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ul
l
yr
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i
be
di
nt
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t
i
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nt
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.
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n bei
l
l
us
t
r
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t
e
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i
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no
nl
i
nev
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s
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no
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o Mo
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e
,
a
v
a
i
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bl
ea
tht
t
p:
/
/
www.
c
pl
us
.
o
r
g
/
r
mw/
r
mo
nl
i
ne
.
ht
ml
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i
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r
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hes
i
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a
t
i
o
no
ft
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nk
.
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e
pi
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ndt
ha
to
nl
yr
a
di
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t
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ur
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r
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q
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uppo
r
t
e
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nt
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we
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e
r
s
i
o
n,s
o2.
3GHzs
ho
ul
dbeus
e
di
ns
t
e
a
do
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4GHZ,butt
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e
s
ul
t
sa
r
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l
o
s
ee
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ug
ha
ndwhe
r
ev
a
l
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da
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e
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yt
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pe
r
i
me
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nt
he
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l
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g
ur
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ho
wt
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ut
puto
ft
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oMo
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l
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n-l
i
nef
o
rt
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s
e
x
pe
r
i
me
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tc
a
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e
pl
i
c
a
t
e
db
yt
her
e
a
de
ra
sa
ne
x
e
r
c
i
s
e
.

Fi
g
u
r
eOI4:Pr
o
@l
eo
fa380k
mt
e
s
ta
t2.
4GHzp
e
r
f
o
r
me
di
nAp
r
i
la
nd
Au
g
u
s
t2007,Ve
ne
z
u
e
l
a
.
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t
i
c
et
ha
tt
hee
a
r
t
hc
ur
v
a
t
ur
ei
se
v
e
nmo
r
eno
t
i
c
e
a
bl
eo
v
e
rt
he380k
m
pa
t
h,butt
hehe
i
g
hto
ft
hee
ndpo
i
nt
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o
mbi
ne
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t
hWa
tl
a
ndi
nbe
t
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e
n
a
l
l
o
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o
ra
mpl
ec
l
e
a
r
a
nc
eo
ft
he0r
s
tFr
e
s
ne
lz
o
ne
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

239

Fi
g
ur
eOI5s
ho
wst
henume
r
i
c
a
lv
a
l
ue
so
ft
heRa
di
o Mo
bi
l
eo
nl
i
ne
s
i
mul
a
t
i
o
n:

Fi
g
u
r
eOI5:Re
s
u
l
t
so
ft
h
eRa
d
i
oMo
b
i
l
eo
nl
i
nes
i
mu
l
a
t
i
o
nf
o
rt
h
e380k
m
l
i
nkb
e
t
we
e
nAg
u
i
l
aa
ndPl
a
t
i
l
l
o
n.

240

14. OFF-GRID POWER

14. OFF-GRID POWER

Solar Po w e r
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sc
ha
pt
e
rpr
o
v
i
de
sa
ni
nt
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.
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a
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t
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o
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t
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t
a
bl
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s
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dpo
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rg
r
i
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e
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nt
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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

243

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t
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umul
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g
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o
r
t
a
t
i
o
n.

244

14. OFF-GRID POWER

As
i
def
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o
ms
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o
r
i
nge
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e
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e
r

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

245

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246

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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t
a
i
l
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

247

The solar panel

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s
tc
o
mmo
nmo
dul
e
s
a
r
ec
o
mpo
s
e
do
f32o
r36s
o
l
a
rc
e
l
l
so
fc
r
y
s
t
a
l
l
i
nes
i
l
i
c
o
n.
$e
s
ec
e
l
l
sa
r
ea
l
lo
fe
q
ua
ls
i
z
e
,wi
r
e
di
ns
e
r
i
e
s
,a
nde
nc
a
ps
ul
a
t
e
dbe
t
we
e
n
g
l
a
s
sa
nd pl
a
s
t
i
cma
t
e
r
i
a
l
,us
i
ngapo
l
y
me
rr
e
s
i
n(
EVA)a
sat
he
r
ma
l
i
ns
ul
a
t
o
r
.
$es
ur
f
a
c
ea
r
e
ao
ft
hemo
dul
ei
st
y
pi
c
a
l
l
yb
e
t
we
e
n0.
1a
nd0.
5m2.S
o
l
a
r
pa
ne
l
sus
ua
l
l
yha
v
et
woe
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
lc
o
nt
a
c
t
s
,o
nepo
s
i
t
i
v
ea
ndo
nene
g
a
t
i
v
e
.
S
o
mepa
ne
l
sa
l
s
oi
nc
l
udee
x
t
r
ac
o
nt
a
c
t
st
oa
l
l
o
wt
hei
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
no
fb
y
pa
s
s
di
o
de
sa
c
r
o
s
si
ndi
v
i
dua
lc
e
l
l
s
.

248

14. OFF-GRID POWER

By
pa
s
sdi
o
de
spr
o
t
e
c
tt
hepa
ne
la
g
a
i
ns
taphe
no
me
no
nk
no
wna
s
ho
t
s
po
t
s

.Aho
t
s
po
to
c
c
ur
swhe
ns
o
meo
ft
hec
e
l
l
sa
r
ei
ns
ha
do
wwhi
l
et
he
r
e
s
to
ft
hepa
ne
li
si
nf
ul
ls
un.Ra
t
he
rt
ha
npr
o
duc
i
nge
ne
r
g
y
,s
ha
de
dc
e
l
l
s
be
ha
v
ea
sal
o
a
dt
ha
tdi
s
s
i
pa
t
e
se
ne
r
g
y
.I
nt
hi
ss
i
t
ua
t
i
o
n,s
ha
de
dc
e
l
l
sc
a
n
s
e
eas
i
g
ni
0c
a
nti
nc
r
e
a
s
ei
nt
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
e(
a
bo
ut85t
o100
C.
)
By
pa
s
sdi
o
de
swi
l
lpr
e
v
e
ntho
t
s
po
t
so
ns
ha
de
dc
e
l
l
s
,butr
e
duc
et
he
ma
x
i
mum v
o
l
t
a
g
eo
ft
hepa
ne
l
.$e
ys
ho
ul
do
nl
ybeus
e
dwhe
ns
ha
di
ngi
s
una
v
o
i
da
bl
e
.I
ti
samuc
hbe
t
t
e
rs
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
oe
x
po
s
et
hee
nt
i
r
epa
ne
lt
of
ul
l
s
unwhe
ne
v
e
rpo
s
s
i
bl
e
.

Fi
g
u
r
eOGP7:Di
>e
r
e
ntI
VCu
r
v
e
s
.ec
u
r
r
e
nt(
A)c
h
a
ng
e
swi
t
ht
h
e
i
r
r
a
d
i
a
nc
e
,a
ndt
h
ev
o
l
t
a
g
e(
V)c
h
a
ng
e
swi
t
ht
h
et
e
mp
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
.
$ee
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
lpe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
eo
fas
o
l
a
rmo
dul
ei
sr
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
e
db
yt
heI
V
c
ha
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
cc
ur
v
e
,whi
c
hr
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
st
hec
ur
r
e
ntt
ha
ti
spr
o
v
i
de
dba
s
e
do
n
t
hev
o
l
t
a
g
eg
e
ne
r
a
t
e
df
o
rac
e
r
t
a
i
ns
o
l
a
rr
a
di
a
t
i
o
n.
$ec
ur
v
er
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
sa
l
lt
hepo
s
s
i
bl
ev
a
l
ue
so
fv
o
l
t
a
g
e
c
ur
r
e
nt
.
$ec
ur
v
e
sde
pe
ndo
nt
woma
i
nf
a
c
t
o
r
s
:t
het
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
ea
ndt
hes
o
l
a
r
r
a
di
a
t
i
o
nr
e
c
e
i
v
e
db
yt
hec
e
l
l
s
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

249

Fo
rag
i
v
e
ns
o
l
a
rc
e
l
la
r
e
a
,t
hec
ur
r
e
ntg
e
ne
r
a
t
e
di
sdi
r
e
c
t
l
ypr
o
po
r
t
i
o
na
lt
o
s
o
l
a
ri
r
r
a
di
a
nc
e(
G)
,whi
l
et
hev
o
l
t
a
g
er
e
duc
e
ss
l
i
g
ht
l
ywi
t
ha
ni
nc
r
e
a
s
eo
f
t
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
e
.
Ag
o
o
dr
e
g
ul
a
t
o
rwi
l
lt
r
yt
oma
x
i
mi
s
et
hea
mo
unto
fe
ne
r
g
yt
ha
tapa
ne
l
pr
o
v
i
de
sb
yt
r
a
c
k
i
ngt
hepo
i
ntt
ha
tpr
o
v
i
de
sma
x
i
mum po
we
r(
VxI
)
.$e
ma
x
i
mum po
we
rc
o
r
r
e
s
po
ndst
ot
hek
ne
eo
ft
heI
Vc
ur
v
e
.
S
o
l
a
rPa
ne
lPa
r
a
me
t
e
r
s
$ema
i
npa
r
a
me
t
e
r
st
ha
tc
ha
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
eapho
t
o
v
o
l
t
a
i
cpa
ne
la
r
e
:
1. S
HORT CI
RCUI
T CURRENT (
I
:t
hema
x
i
mum c
ur
r
e
nt
S
C)
pr
o
v
i
de
db
yt
hepa
ne
lwhe
nt
hec
o
nne
c
t
o
r
sa
r
es
ho
r
tc
i
r
c
ui
t
e
d.
2. OPEN CI
RCUI
T VOL
TAGE(
VOC)
:t
hema
x
i
mum v
o
l
t
a
g
et
ha
t
t
hepa
ne
lpr
o
v
i
de
swhe
nt
het
e
r
mi
na
l
sa
r
eno
tc
o
nne
c
t
e
dt
oa
ny
l
o
a
d(
a
no
pe
nc
i
r
c
ui
t
)
.$i
sv
a
l
uei
sno
r
ma
l
l
y22Vf
o
rpa
ne
l
st
ha
t
a
r
eg
o
i
ngt
owo
r
ki
n12Vs
y
s
t
e
ms
,a
ndi
sdi
r
e
c
t
l
ypr
o
po
r
t
i
o
na
lt
o
t
henumbe
ro
fc
e
l
l
sc
o
nne
c
t
e
di
ns
e
r
i
e
s
.
3. MAXI
MUM POWERPOI
NT(
Pmax)
:t
hepo
i
ntwhe
r
et
hepo
we
r
s
uppl
i
e
db
yt
hepa
ne
li
sa
tma
x
i
mum,whe
r
ePmax=I
x
V
.
ma
x
ma
x
$ema
x
i
mum po
we
rpo
i
nto
fapa
ne
li
sme
a
s
ur
e
di
nWa
t
t
s(
W)o
rpe
a
k
Wa
t
t
s(
Wp)
.I
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntno
tt
of
o
r
g
e
tt
ha
ti
nno
r
ma
lc
o
ndi
t
i
o
nst
he
pa
ne
lwi
l
lno
two
r
ka
tpe
a
kc
o
ndi
t
i
o
ns
,a
st
hev
o
l
t
a
g
eo
fo
pe
r
a
t
i
o
ni
s0x
e
d
b
yt
hel
o
a
do
rt
her
e
g
ul
a
t
o
r
.Ty
pi
c
a
lv
a
l
ue
so
fVmaxa
ndI
ho
ul
dbeabi
t
ma
xs
s
ma
l
l
e
rt
ha
nt
heI
ndVOC.
S
Ca
1. FI
LLFACTOR (
FF)
:t
her
e
l
a
t
i
o
nbe
t
we
e
nt
hema
x
i
mum po
we
r
t
ha
tt
hepa
ne
lc
a
na
c
t
ua
l
l
ypr
o
v
i
dea
ndt
hepr
o
duc
tI
VOC.
S
C .
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sg
i
v
e
sy
o
ua
ni
de
ao
ft
heq
ua
l
i
t
yo
ft
hepa
ne
lbe
c
a
us
ei
ti
sa
n
i
ndi
c
a
t
i
o
no
ft
het
y
peo
fI
Vc
ha
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
cc
ur
v
e
.$ec
l
o
s
e
rFFi
s
t
o 1,t
hemo
r
epo
we
rapa
ne
lc
a
n pr
o
v
i
de
.Co
mmo
nv
a
l
ue
s
us
ua
l
l
ya
r
ebe
t
we
e
n0.
7a
nd0.
8.
greek
letter
eta,
not
h hema
2. EFFI
CI
ENCY (
h)
:t
her
a
t
i
o be
t
we
e
nt
x
i
mum e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
po
we
rt
ha
tt
hepa
ne
lc
a
ng
i
v
et
ot
hel
o
a
da
ndt
hepo
we
ro
ft
he
s
o
l
a
rr
a
di
a
t
i
o
n(
PL)i
nc
i
de
nto
nt
hepa
ne
l
.$i
si
sno
r
ma
l
l
ya
r
o
und
1012%, de
pe
ndi
ng o
nt
he t
y
pe o
fc
e
l
l
s(
mo
no
c
r
y
s
t
a
l
l
i
ne
,
po
l
y
c
r
y
s
t
a
l
l
i
ne
,a
mo
r
pho
uso
rt
hi
n0l
m)
.

250

14. OFF-GRID POWER

Co
ns
i
de
r
i
ngt
hede
0ni
t
i
o
nso
fpo
i
nto
fma
x
i
mum po
we
ra
ndt
he0l
lf
a
c
t
o
r
wes
e
et
ha
t
:
eta
h=Pmax/PL =FF.I
VOC /PL
S
C.
$ev
a
l
ue
so
fI
VOC,I
ndVPmax a
r
epr
o
v
i
de
db
yt
hema
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
S
C,
Pma
xa
a
nd r
e
f
e
rt
os
t
a
nda
r
dc
o
ndi
t
i
o
nso
fme
a
s
ur
e
me
ntwi
t
hi
r
r
a
di
a
nc
eG =
10
00W/
m2,a
ts
e
a
l
e
v
e
l
,f
o
rat
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
eo
fc
e
l
l
so
fTc=25
C.
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ne
lpa
r
a
me
t
e
rv
a
l
ue
sc
ha
ng
ef
o
ro
t
he
rc
o
ndi
t
i
o
nso
fi
r
r
a
di
a
nc
ea
nd
t
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
e
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nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
swi
l
ls
o
me
t
i
me
si
nc
l
udeg
r
a
phso
rt
a
bl
e
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t
h
v
a
l
ue
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o
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o
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t
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o
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r
e
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r
o
mt
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t
a
nda
r
d.Y
o
us
ho
ul
dc
he
c
kt
he
pe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
ev
a
l
ue
sa
tt
hepa
ne
lt
e
mpe
r
a
t
ur
e
st
ha
ta
r
el
i
k
e
l
yt
oma
t
c
hy
o
ur
pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
ri
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
n.
Bea
wa
r
et
ha
tt
wo pa
ne
l
sc
a
n ha
v
et
hes
a
meWp butv
e
r
y di
1e
r
e
nt
be
ha
v
i
o
uri
ndi
1e
r
e
nto
pe
r
a
t
i
ngc
o
ndi
t
i
o
ns
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na
c
q
ui
r
i
ngapa
ne
l
,i
ti
s
i
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
ov
e
r
i
f
y
,i
fpo
s
s
i
bl
e
,t
ha
tt
he
i
rpa
r
a
me
t
e
r
s(
a
tl
e
a
s
t
,I
nd
S
C a
VOC)ma
t
c
ht
hev
a
l
ue
spr
o
mi
s
e
db
yt
hema
nuf
a
c
t
ur
e
r
.
Pa
ne
lpa
r
a
me
t
e
r
sf
o
rs
y
s
t
e
ms
i
z
i
ng
Toc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
henumbe
ro
fpa
ne
l
sr
e
q
ui
r
e
dt
oc
o
v
e
rag
i
v
e
nl
o
a
d,y
o
uj
us
t
ne
e
dt
ok
no
wt
hec
ur
r
e
nta
ndv
o
l
t
a
g
ea
tt
hepo
i
nto
fma
x
i
mum po
we
r
:
I
ndVPmax.
Pma
xa
Y
o
us
ho
ul
da
l
wa
y
sbea
wa
r
et
ha
tt
hepa
ne
li
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tg
o
i
ngt
ope
r
f
o
r
m unde
r
pe
r
f
e
c
tc
o
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t
i
o
nsa
st
hel
o
a
do
rr
e
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ul
a
t
i
o
ns
y
s
t
e
mi
sno
ta
l
wa
y
sg
o
i
ngt
o
wo
r
ka
tt
hepo
i
nto
fma
x
i
mum po
we
ro
ft
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ne
l
.Y
o
us
ho
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da
s
s
umea
l
o
s
so
fe
Nc
i
e
nc
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f5% i
ny
o
urc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
i
o
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o
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ns
a
t
ef
o
rt
hi
s
.
I
nt
e
r
c
o
nne
c
t
i
o
no
fpa
ne
l
s
As
o
l
a
rpa
ne
la
r
r
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sac
o
l
l
e
c
t
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o
l
a
rpa
ne
l
st
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r
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e
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r
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c
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l
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nt
e
r
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c
t
e
da
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e
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o
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r
ts
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t
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e
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s
o
l
a
rpa
ne
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r
r
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l
l
o
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e
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r
a
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r
e
a
t
e
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o
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t
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ur
r
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s
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t
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ng
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o
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ne
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ne
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r
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nt
e
r
c
o
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c
t
e
di
ns
uc
ha
wa
yt
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tt
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o
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t
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e
ne
r
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t
e
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l
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i
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t
hee
q
ui
pme
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g
et
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t
t
e
r
i
e
s
.
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nne
c
t
i
ng s
o
l
a
r pa
ne
l
si
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e
r
i
e
si
nc
r
e
a
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st
he g
e
ne
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a
t
e
dv
o
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t
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g
e
.
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nne
c
t
i
ngpa
ne
l
si
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r
a
l
l
e
li
nc
r
e
a
s
e
st
hec
ur
r
e
nt
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

251

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ro
fpa
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sus
e
ds
ho
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dbei
nc
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e
a
s
e
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lt
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o
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t
a
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ta
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ny
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ura
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a
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ha
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yb
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e
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,i
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o
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e
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r
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nt
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a
)

252

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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s
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ns6
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e
l
l
si
ns
e
r
i
e
s
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

253

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i
a
bi
l
i
t
y
.

254

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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28.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

255

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14. OFF-GRID POWER

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

257

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258

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

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260

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

261

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262

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

263

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264

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

265

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266

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

267

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de
ri
nc
l
ude
:

268

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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a=20
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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

269

I
nc
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ne
l
s
.

270

14. OFF-GRID POWER

How to size your photovoltaic system

Whe
nc
ho
o
s
i
nge
q
ui
pme
ntt
ome
e
ty
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urpo
we
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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

271

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272

14. OFF-GRID POWER

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PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

273

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274

14. OFF-GRID POWER

N,numbe
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Domestic Installation

Critical Installation

Very Cloudy

10

Variable

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e
.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

275

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o
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i
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,
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c
hwi
l
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t
e
r
mi
net
hemi
ni
mum numbe
ro
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l
s
.
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e
s
s
a
r
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o
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o
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he
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ro
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y
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o
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,whi
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h wi
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e
r
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e
q
ui
r
e
dnumbe
ro
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t
t
e
r
i
e
s
.
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e
q
ui
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l
e
c
t
r
i
c
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r
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e
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c
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g
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a
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o
r
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ndt
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e
s
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e
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o
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t
i
o
ns
.
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re
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e
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r
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i
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o
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t
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e
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o
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t
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e
s
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l
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a
l
ueo
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a
ndt
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z
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s
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nt
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a
l
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ul
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t
i
o
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)
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o
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e
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t
a
i
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t
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YS
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t
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/
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o
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/
)
.
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o
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a
t
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ra
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t
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i
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s
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ndduet
ot
hef
a
c
tt
ha
tt
he
pa
ne
l
sdono
ta
l
wa
y
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ka
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x
i
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we
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e
q
ui
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d
c
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ntI
sc
a
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c
ul
a
t
e
da
s
:
mMAX i
I
.
21I
WORS
TMONTH)
mMAX =1
m(

276

14. OFF-GRID POWER

Onc
ey
o
uha
v
ede
t
e
r
mi
ne
dt
hewo
r
s
tmo
nt
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hev
a
l
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a
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mMAX,
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o
t
a
le
ne
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g
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ty
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e
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ui
r
eETOTAL(
WORS
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o
uc
a
npr
o
c
e
e
d
t
ot
he0na
lc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
i
o
ns
.ETOTAL i
st
hes
um o
fa
l
lDC a
ndAC l
o
a
ds
,i
n
Wa
t
t
s
.Toc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
eETOTAL s
e
eAppe
ndi
xE:S
o
l
a
rDi
me
ns
i
o
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ng
.
Numb
e
ro
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ne
l
s
Byc
o
mb
i
ni
ngs
o
l
a
rpa
ne
l
si
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sa
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r
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,wec
a
no
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a
i
nt
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s
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r
e
d
v
o
l
t
a
g
ea
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ur
r
e
nt
.Whe
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l
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o
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e
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e
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o
t
a
lv
o
l
t
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g
e
i
se
q
ua
lt
ot
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um o
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v
i
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o
l
t
a
g
e
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a
c
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e
,whi
l
et
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ur
r
e
ntr
e
ma
i
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ha
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e
d.Whe
nc
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t
i
ng pa
ne
l
si
n pa
r
a
l
l
e
l
,t
he
c
ur
r
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nt
sa
r
es
umme
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e
t
he
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l
et
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o
l
t
a
g
er
e
ma
i
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e
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ti
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e
r
yi
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r
t
a
nt
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ous
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ne
l
so
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a
r
l
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nt
i
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r
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c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
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n
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l
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nga
na
r
r
a
y
.
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o
us
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ul
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r
yt
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c
q
ui
r
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ne
l
swi
t
hVPmax abi
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g
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e
rt
ha
nt
heno
mi
na
l
v
o
l
t
a
g
eo
ft
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y
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e
m(
12,24o
r48V)
.
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me
mbe
rt
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ty
o
une
e
dt
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o
v
i
deaf
e
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o
l
t
smo
r
et
ha
nt
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mi
na
l
v
o
l
t
a
g
eo
ft
heba
t
t
e
r
yi
no
r
de
rt
oc
ha
r
g
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t
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fi
ti
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tpo
s
s
i
bl
et
o0nda
s
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ng
l
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ne
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ts
a
t
i
s
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sy
o
urr
e
q
ui
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e
me
nt
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o
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e
dt
oc
o
nne
c
ts
e
v
e
r
a
l
pa
ne
l
si
ns
e
r
i
e
st
or
e
a
c
hy
o
urde
s
i
r
e
dv
o
l
t
a
g
e
.
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ro
fpa
ne
l
si
ns
e
r
i
e
sNpsi
se
q
ua
lt
ot
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mi
na
lv
o
l
t
a
g
eo
ft
he
s
y
s
t
e
m di
v
i
de
db
yt
hev
o
l
t
a
g
eo
fas
i
ng
l
epa
ne
l
,r
o
unde
dupt
ot
hene
a
r
e
s
t
i
nt
e
g
e
r
.
Nps=VN /VPmax
I
no
r
de
rt
oc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
henumbe
ro
fpa
ne
l
si
npa
r
a
l
l
e
l(
Npp)
,y
o
une
e
dt
o
di
v
i
det
heI
yt
hec
ur
r
e
nto
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i
ng
l
epa
ne
la
tt
hepo
i
nto
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x
i
mum
mMAX b
po
we
rI
,
r
o
u
n
d
e
d
u
p
t
o
t
h
e
n
e
a
r
e
s
t
i
n
t
e
g
e
r
.
p
ma
x
Npp=I
I
mMAX /
Pma
x
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o
t
a
lnumbe
ro
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ne
l
si
st
her
e
s
ul
to
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t
i
pl
y
i
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henumbe
ro
f
pa
ne
l
si
ns
e
r
i
e
s(
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os
e
tt
hev
o
l
t
a
g
e
)b
yt
henumb
e
ro
fpa
ne
l
si
npa
r
a
l
l
e
l(
t
o
s
e
tt
hec
ur
r
e
nt
)
.
NTOTAL =Nps*Npp

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

277

Ca
pa
c
i
t
yo
ft
heba
t
t
e
r
yo
ra
c
c
umul
a
t
o
r
$eba
t
t
e
r
yde
t
e
r
mi
ne
st
heo
v
e
r
a
l
lv
o
l
t
a
g
eo
ft
hes
y
s
t
e
ma
ndne
e
dst
oha
v
e
e
no
ug
hc
a
pa
c
i
t
yt
opr
o
v
i
dee
ne
r
g
yt
ot
hel
o
a
dwhe
nt
he
r
ei
sno
te
no
ug
h
s
o
l
a
rr
a
di
a
t
i
o
n.
Toe
s
t
i
ma
t
et
hec
a
pa
c
i
t
yo
fo
urba
t
t
e
r
y
,we0r
s
tc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
her
e
q
ui
r
e
d
e
ne
r
g
yc
a
pa
c
i
t
yo
fo
urs
y
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t
e
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ne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yc
a
pa
c
i
t
y
,CNEC)
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c
e
s
s
a
r
y
c
a
pa
c
i
t
yde
pe
ndso
nt
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ne
r
g
ya
v
a
i
l
a
bl
edur
i
ngt
he"
wo
r
s
tmo
nt
h"a
nd
t
hede
s
i
r
e
dnumbe
ro
fda
y
so
fa
ut
o
no
my(
N)
.
CNEC (
Ah
)
=ETOTAL(
WORS
TMONTH)
(
Wh
)/VN(
V)*N
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mi
na
lc
a
pa
c
i
t
yo
ft
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t
t
e
r
yCNOM ne
e
dst
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g
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e
rt
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nt
he
CNEC a
swec
a
nno
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ul
l
ydi
s
c
ha
r
g
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t
t
e
r
y
.
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a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
hes
i
z
eo
ft
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t
t
e
r
ywene
e
dt
oc
o
ns
i
de
rt
hema
x
i
mum
de
pt
ho
fdi
s
c
ha
r
g
e(
Do
D)t
ha
tt
heba
t
t
e
r
ya
l
l
o
ws
:
CNOM(
Ah
)=CNEC(
Ah
)/Do
DMAX
I
no
r
de
rt
oc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
henumbe
ro
fba
t
t
e
r
i
e
si
ns
e
r
i
e
s(
Nbs)
,wedi
v
i
det
he
no
mi
na
lv
o
l
t
a
g
eo
fo
uri
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
n(
VN)b
yt
heno
mi
na
lv
o
l
t
a
g
eo
fas
i
ng
l
e
ba
t
t
e
r
y(
VNBat)
:
Nbs=VN /VNBat
Re
g
ul
a
t
o
r
Onei
mpo
r
t
a
ntwa
r
ni
ng
:a
l
wa
y
sus
er
e
g
ul
a
t
o
r
si
ns
e
r
i
e
s
,ne
v
e
ri
npa
r
a
l
l
e
l
.
I
fy
o
urr
e
g
ul
a
t
o
rdo
e
sno
ts
uppo
r
tt
hec
ur
r
e
ntr
e
q
ui
r
e
db
yy
o
urs
y
s
t
e
m,
y
o
uwi
l
lne
e
dt
obuyane
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e
g
ul
a
t
o
rwi
t
hal
a
r
g
e
rwo
r
k
i
ngc
ur
r
e
nt
.
Fo
rs
e
c
ur
i
t
yr
e
a
s
o
ns
,ar
e
g
ul
a
t
o
rne
e
dst
obea
bl
et
oo
pe
r
a
t
ewi
t
hac
ur
r
e
nt
I
a
t
l
e
a
s
t
2
0
%
g
r
e
a
t
e
r
t
h
a
n
t
h
e
m
a
x
i
m
u
m
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
t
h
a
t
i
s
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
d
ma
x
Re
g
b
yt
hea
r
r
a
yo
fpa
ne
l
s
:
I
.
2NppI
ma
x
Re
g=1
PMa
x
DC/
ACI
nv
e
r
t
e
r
$et
o
t
a
le
ne
r
g
yne
e
de
df
o
rt
heAC e
q
ui
pme
nti
sc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
e
di
nc
l
udi
nga
l
l
t
hel
o
s
s
e
st
ha
ta
r
ei
nt
r
o
duc
e
db
yt
heDC/
ACc
o
nv
e
r
t
e
ro
ri
nv
e
r
t
e
r
.

278

14. OFF-GRID POWER

Whe
nc
ho
o
s
i
nga
ni
nv
e
r
t
e
r
,k
e
e
pi
nmi
ndt
ha
tt
hepe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
eo
ft
he
i
nv
e
r
t
e
rv
a
r
i
e
sa
c
c
o
r
di
ngt
ot
hea
mo
unto
fr
e
q
ue
s
t
e
dpo
we
r
.
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nv
e
r
t
e
rha
sbe
t
t
e
rpe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
ec
ha
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
swhe
no
pe
r
a
t
i
ngc
l
o
s
et
o
i
t
sr
a
t
e
dpo
we
r
.
Us
i
ng a 1500 Wa
t
ti
nv
e
r
t
e
rt
o po
we
ra 25 Wa
t
tl
o
a
di
se
x
t
r
e
me
l
y
i
ne
Nc
i
e
nt
.
I
no
r
de
rt
oa
v
o
i
dt
hi
swa
s
t
e
de
ne
r
g
y
,i
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
oc
o
ns
i
de
rno
tt
he
pe
a
kpo
we
ro
fa
l
ly
o
ure
q
ui
pme
nt
,butt
hepe
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kpo
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ro
ft
hee
q
ui
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nt
t
ha
ti
se
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pe
c
t
e
dt
oo
pe
r
a
t
es
i
mul
t
a
ne
o
us
l
y
.

Cables
Onc
ey
o
uk
no
wt
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r
so
fpa
ne
l
sa
nd ba
t
t
e
r
i
e
s
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nd t
y
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f
r
e
g
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a
t
o
r
sa
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e
r
t
e
r
st
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ty
o
uwa
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ous
e
,i
ti
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e
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a
r
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l
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a
t
e
t
hel
e
ng
t
ha
nd t
he t
hi
c
k
ne
s
so
ft
he c
a
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e
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e
de
dt
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o
nne
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tt
he
c
o
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ne
nt
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o
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e
t
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r
.
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ng
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hde
pe
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nt
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o
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fy
o
urt
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a
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t
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o
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t
r
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mi
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et
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e
ng
t
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a
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e
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t
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e
nt
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e
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ul
a
t
o
r
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ne
l
s
,a
nd
ba
t
t
e
r
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e
s
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i
ngs
ho
r
tc
a
bl
e
swi
l
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ni
mi
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el
o
s
tpo
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ra
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bl
ec
o
s
t
s
.
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e
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ng
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a
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he
ma
x
i
mum c
ur
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e
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tc
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r
r
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.
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o
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li
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s
ev
o
l
t
a
g
edr
o
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.
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rt
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a
l
c
ul
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et
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hi
c
k
ne
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sSo
ft
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a
bl
ei
ti
sne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yt
ok
no
w:

t
hema
x
i
mum c
ur
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e
ntI
ha
ti
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o
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r
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ul
a
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MC t
c
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ubs
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t
e
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pe
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nt
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yt
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hel
o
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dsa
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e
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o
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e
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o
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ra
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n
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o
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e
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o
ma
ddi
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i
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psi
se
x
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e
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r
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e
nto
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mi
na
lv
o
l
t
a
g
eo
ft
hei
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
n.

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

279

Ty
pi
c
a
lma
x
i
mum v
a
l
ue
sa
r
e
:
Component

Voltage Drop (%of VN)

Panel Array -> Battery

1,00%

Battery -> Converter

1,00%

Main Line

3,00%

Main Line (Illumination)

3,00%

Main Line (Equipment)

5,00%

Ty
pi
c
a
la
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c
e
pt
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o
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t
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ne
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sLa
w:
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(
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[mm2/
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whe
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ur
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o
memi
ni
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v
a
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ue
s
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rt
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t
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y
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rt
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t
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rs
e
c
t
i
o
ns
,t
hemi
ni
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s4mm2.

Cost of a solar installation

Whi
l
es
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a
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ne
r
g
yi
t
s
e
l
fi
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r
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e
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ule
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ns
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o
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t
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o
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s
or
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pl
a
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a
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a
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s
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nt
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t
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o
pe
rma
i
nt
e
na
nc
epl
a
n.

280

14. OFF-GRID POWER

I
no
r
de
rt
oc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
her
e
a
lc
o
s
to
fy
o
uri
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t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
n,wei
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n
i
l
l
us
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r
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i
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mpl
e
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s
tt
hi
ngt
odoi
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st
oc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
hei
ni
t
i
a
l
i
nv
e
s
t
me
ntc
o
s
t
s
.
Description

Unit Cost

Subtotal

Panel 4

$300

$1,200

30A Regulator

$100

$100

Wiring (metres)

25

$1/metre

$25

$150

$900

Total

$2,225

60W Solar
(about $4/W)

Number

50 Ah Deep Cycle
Batteries
6

$ec
a
l
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ul
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t
i
o
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i
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e
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o
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l
lr
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o
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tt
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l
ll
a
s
ta
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f
t
e
ny
o
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tr
e
pl
a
c
ei
t
.
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na
c
c
o
unt
i
ngt
e
r
mi
no
l
o
g
yt
hi
si
sk
no
wna
sa
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r
t
i
s
a
t
i
o
n.Ourne
wt
a
bl
e
wi
l
ll
o
o
kl
i
k
et
hi
s
:
Description
60W
Panel

Number

Solar 4

Unit
Cost

Subtotal

Lifetime(yrs)

Yearly
Cost

$300

$1,200

20

$60

30A Regulator

$100

$100

$20

Wiring (metres)

25

$1/
metre

$25

10

$2.50

$150

$900

$180

Total

$2,225

Annual Cost

$262.50

50Ah
Deep 6
cycle batteries

PLANNING AND DEPLOYMENT

281

Asy
o
us
e
e
,o
nc
et
he0r
s
ti
nv
e
s
t
me
ntha
sbe
e
ndo
ne
,a
na
nnua
lc
o
s
to
f
$262.
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se
x
pe
c
t
e
d.
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nnua
lc
o
s
ti
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ne
s
t
i
ma
t
i
o
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ft
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e
q
ui
r
e
dc
a
pi
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a
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ry
e
a
rt
or
e
pl
a
c
e
t
hes
y
s
t
e
mc
o
mpo
ne
nt
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nc
et
he
yr
e
a
c
ht
hee
ndo
ft
he
i
rus
e
f
ull
i
f
e
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING
AND SUSTAINABILITY

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

283

15. MAINTENANCE AND

TROUBLESHOOTING
Introduction
Ho
wy
o
ue
s
t
a
bl
i
s
ht
hes
uppo
r
ti
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ef
o
ry
o
urne
t
wo
r
ki
sa
s
i
mpo
r
t
a
nta
swha
tt
y
peo
fe
q
ui
pme
nty
o
uus
e
.Unl
i
k
ewi
r
e
dc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
ns
,
pr
o
bl
e
mswi
t
hawi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
ka
r
eo
f
t
e
ni
nv
i
s
i
bl
e
,a
ndc
a
nr
e
q
ui
r
emo
r
e
s
k
i
l
la
ndmo
r
et
i
met
odi
a
g
no
s
ea
ndr
e
me
dy
.I
nt
e
r
f
e
r
e
nc
e
,wi
nd,a
ndne
w
phy
s
i
c
a
lo
b
s
t
r
uc
t
i
o
nsc
a
nc
a
us
ea l
o
ng
r
unni
ng ne
t
wo
r
kt
of
a
i
l
.$i
s
c
ha
pt
e
rde
t
a
i
l
sas
e
r
i
e
so
fs
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
e
st
ohe
l
py
o
ubui
l
dat
e
a
mt
ha
tc
a
n
s
uppo
r
ty
o
urne
t
wo
r
ke
1e
c
t
i
v
e
l
y
.
Wea
l
s
o de
s
c
r
i
bes
o
mes
t
a
nda
r
dt
r
o
ubl
e
s
ho
o
t
i
ng t
e
c
hni
q
ue
st
ha
tha
v
e
pr
o
v
e
ns
uc
c
e
s
s
f
uli
ns
o
l
v
i
ngpr
o
bl
e
msi
nne
t
wo
r
k
si
ng
e
ne
r
a
l
.

Building your team

Ev
e
r
yv
i
l
l
a
g
e
,c
o
mpa
nyo
rf
a
mi
l
yha
si
ndi
v
i
dua
l
swhoa
r
ei
nt
r
i
g
ue
db
y
t
e
c
hno
l
o
g
y
.
$e
ya
r
et
heo
ne
sf
o
unds
pl
i
c
i
ngt
het
e
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
nc
a
bl
e
,r
e
-wi
r
i
ngabr
o
k
e
n
t
e
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
no
rwe
l
di
ngane
w pi
e
c
et
oabi
c
y
c
l
e
.$e
s
epe
o
pl
ewi
l
lt
a
k
e
i
nt
e
r
e
s
ti
ny
o
urne
t
wo
r
ka
ndwa
ntt
ol
e
a
r
na
smuc
ha
bo
uti
ta
spo
s
s
i
bl
e
.
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epe
o
pl
ea
r
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er
e
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o
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c
e
s
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o
umus
ta
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o
i
di
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r
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a
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pe
c
i
a
l
i
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e
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eo
fwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
i
ngt
oo
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yo
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r
s
o
n.
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fy
o
uro
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pe
c
i
a
l
i
s
tl
o
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e
si
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e
r
e
s
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e
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r
ks
o
me
whe
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e
e
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e
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e
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t
ht
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m whe
nt
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yg
o
.
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r
ema
ya
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s
obema
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t
i
o
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o
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t
swhowi
l
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nt
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t
e
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a
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et
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i
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i
s
t
e
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l
p
,a
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e
a
r
na
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utt
hene
t
wo
r
k
.
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a
i
n,t
he
ya
r
ev
e
r
yhe
l
pf
ula
ndwi
l
ll
e
a
r
nq
ui
c
k
l
y
,butt
hepr
o
j
e
c
tt
e
a
m
mus
tf
o
c
ust
he
i
ra
t
t
e
nt
i
o
no
nt
ho
s
ewhoa
r
eb
e
s
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a
c
e
dt
os
uppo
r
tt
he
ne
t
wo
r
ki
nt
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o
mi
ngmo
nt
hsa
ndy
e
a
r
s
.
Y
o
unga
dul
t
sa
ndt
e
e
na
g
e
r
swi
l
lg
oo
1t
ouni
v
e
r
s
i
t
yo
r0nde
mpl
o
y
me
nt
t
a
k
i
ngt
he
i
rk
no
wl
e
dg
ea
nds
k
i
l
l
sa
bo
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hene
t
wo
r
kwi
t
ht
he
m.
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s
ey
o
ung
s
t
e
r
sma
ya
l
s
oha
v
el
i
t
t
l
ei
nWue
nc
ei
nt
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
,whe
r
e
a
no
l
de
ri
ndi
v
i
dua
li
sl
i
k
e
l
yt
obemo
r
ewe
l
l
k
no
wna
ndl
e
s
si
mpul
s
i
v
e
r
e
g
a
r
di
ngma
k
i
ngde
c
i
s
i
o
nst
ha
ta
1e
c
tt
hene
t
wo
r
ka
sawho
l
e
.

284

15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Ev
e
nt
ho
ug
ht
he
s
ei
ndi
v
i
dua
l
smi
g
htha
v
el
e
s
st
i
met
ol
e
a
r
na
ndmi
g
ht
a
ppe
a
rt
obel
e
s
si
nt
e
r
e
s
t
e
d,t
he
i
ri
nv
o
l
v
e
me
nta
ndpr
o
pe
re
duc
a
t
i
o
na
bo
ut
t
hes
y
s
t
e
mc
a
nb
ec
r
i
t
i
c
a
l
.
$e
r
e
f
o
r
e
,ak
e
ys
t
r
a
t
e
g
yi
nbui
l
di
ngas
uppo
r
tt
e
a
mi
st
oba
l
a
nc
ea
ndt
o
di
s
t
r
i
but
et
hek
no
wl
e
dg
ea
mo
ngt
ho
s
et
ha
ta
r
ebe
s
tpl
a
c
e
dt
os
uppo
r
tt
he
ne
t
wo
r
kf
o
rt
hel
o
ngt
e
r
m.
Y
o
us
ho
ul
di
nv
o
l
v
ey
o
ungpe
o
pl
e
,buta
l
o
ng
s
i
det
he
mi
nv
o
l
v
eami
xo
f
mo
r
e ma
t
ur
ec
o
nt
r
i
but
o
r
s
.Fi
nd pe
o
pl
e who a
r
ec
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s
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

285

Whe
r
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286

15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

287

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288

15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

289

Y
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290

15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

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ui
d.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

291

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15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

293

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294

15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

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296

15. MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

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Trouble tracking and reporting

Tr
o
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s
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neha
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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

297

Ke
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pi
ngar
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c
o
r
do
fpr
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bl
e
msa
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nc
i
de
nt
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298

16. NETWORK MONITORING

16. NETWORK MONITORING

Introduction
Ne
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tt
he
ya
r
eg
e
t
t
i
ngf
r
o
mt
he
i
rI
S
P
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

301

Y
o
uc
a
na
c
hi
e
v
et
hi
sb
ymo
ni
t
o
r
i
nge
x
t
e
r
na
l
t
r
a
Nc
.
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t
e
r
na
lt
r
a
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ne
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l
l
yc
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a
s
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i
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hi
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nto
v
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raWi
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a
Ne
t
wo
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k(
WAN)
.Any
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df
r
o
m(
o
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ntt
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o
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na
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nc
l
ude
:
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nt
e
r
ne
tba
ndwi
dt
hc
o
s
t
sa
r
ej
us
t
i
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db
ys
ho
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c
t
ua
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e
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t
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ma
t
e
db
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a
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ude
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c
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a
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dbe
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a
nc
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us
epr
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ms
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o
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i
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l
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t
ht
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fMRTG o
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NMP
e
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bl
e
dde
v
i
c
e
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uc
ha
sar
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e
r
.I
fy
o
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ts
uppo
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tS
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,
t
he
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t
c
hbe
t
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e
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o
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ra
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o
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c
t
i
o
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a
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t
o
rt
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tt
r
a
Ncj
us
ta
sy
o
uwo
ul
dwi
t
ha
ni
nt
e
r
na
l
LAN.

Detecting network outages

Wi
t
hmo
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t
o
r
i
ngt
o
o
l
si
npl
a
c
e
,y
o
uno
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c
ur
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t
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me
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a
ni
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i
o
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ng
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o
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e
s
.
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tc
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et
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ua
lt
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o
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t
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e
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et
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a
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me
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ul
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o
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nt
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g
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t
e
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e
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o
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o
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ra
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c
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l
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or
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e
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t
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o
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r
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s
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t
ua
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us
a
g
ei
nl
i
newi
t
ht
ha
tpo
l
i
c
y
.

302

16. NETWORK MONITORING

Fi
g
u
r
eNM 1:Ag
r
a
p
hwi
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ha"
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a
tt
o
p
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o
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v
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me
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g
e
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o us
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o
g
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m s
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s Na
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p:
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www.
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e
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t
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ng y
o
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a
t
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l
y whe
n
pr
o
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e
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r
i
s
e
.
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t
hg
o
o
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t
o
r
i
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o
o
l
si
npl
a
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e
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o
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l
lb
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et
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us
t
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o
s
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e
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a
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dt
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ye
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c
t
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v
e
l
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mo
ns
t
r
a
t
i
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wi
ti
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i
ng
us
e
db
yt
heo
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

303

Y
o
ua
r
eno
t
i
0e
da
ut
o
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
ywhe
npr
o
b
l
e
msa
r
i
s
e
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ndy
o
uha
v
ehi
s
t
o
r
i
c
a
l
s
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
so
fho
wt
hene
t
wo
r
kde
v
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c
e
sa
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epe
r
f
o
r
mi
ng
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o
uc
a
nc
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c
kt
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c
ur
r
e
ntpe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
ea
g
a
i
ns
tt
hi
shi
s
t
o
r
yt
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e
ha
v
i
o
ur
,a
nd
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a
do
1pr
o
bl
e
msbe
f
o
r
et
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ybe
c
o
mec
r
i
t
i
c
a
l
.Whe
npr
o
bl
e
msdoc
o
me
up
,i
ti
ss
i
mpl
et
ode
t
e
r
mi
net
hes
o
ur
c
ea
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t
ur
eo
ft
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o
bl
e
m.
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o
urj
o
b
i
se
a
s
i
e
r
,t
heBo
a
r
di
ss
a
t
i
s
0e
d,a
ndy
o
urus
e
r
sa
r
emuc
hha
ppi
e
r
.

Monitoring your network

Ma
na
g
i
ngane
t
wo
r
kwi
t
ho
utmo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngi
ss
i
mi
l
a
rt
odr
i
v
i
ngav
e
hi
c
l
e
wi
t
ho
utas
pe
e
do
me
t
e
ro
raf
ue
l
g
a
ug
e
.
Ho
w doy
o
uk
no
w ho
wf
a
s
ty
o
ua
r
eg
o
i
ng
?I
st
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a
rc
o
ns
umi
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ue
la
s
e
Nc
i
e
nt
l
ya
spr
o
mi
s
e
db
yt
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l
e
r
s
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fy
o
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ne
ng
i
neo
v
e
r
ha
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e
v
e
r
a
l
mo
nt
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a
t
e
r
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st
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a
ra
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a
s
t
e
ro
rmo
r
ee
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e
ntt
ha
ni
twa
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f
o
r
e
?
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i
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a
r
l
y
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o
ra
ne
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e
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t
r
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c
i
t
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e
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l
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t
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o
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o
m ame
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r
?
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o
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a
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t
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o
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t
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e
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o
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us
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et
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r
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e
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y
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mf
o
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y
o
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t
wo
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:

Ne
t
wo
r
kbudg
e
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e
s
o
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e
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t
i
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s
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t
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t
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hene
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ki
nf
r
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t
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r
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t
her
e
q
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e
me
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so
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t
wo
r
kus
e
r
s
.

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t
wo
r
ki
nt
r
ude
r
sa
r
ede
t
e
c
t
e
da
nd 0
l
t
e
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e
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t
c
hi
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o
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ne
t
wo
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kt
r
a
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o
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n de
t
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ta
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l
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r
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l
s
e
r
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e
r
sa
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e
r
v
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c
e
s
.

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t
wo
r
kv
i
r
us
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r
ee
a
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l
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t
e
c
t
e
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o
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n bea
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e
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t
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e
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t
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k
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t
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o
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e
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o
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nt
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ne
tba
ndwi
dt
ha
ndde
s
t
a
bi
l
i
s
ey
o
urne
t
wo
r
k
.

304

16. NETWORK MONITORING

Tr
o
ubl
e
s
ho
o
t
i
ngo
fne
t
wo
r
kpr
o
bl
e
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sg
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e
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t
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f
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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

305

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306

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

307

Fi
g
u
r
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rp
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308

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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g
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l
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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

309

Fi
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310

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

311

$e
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Types of monitoring tools

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.

312

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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324

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

325

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326

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

335

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16. NETWORK MONITORING

What is normal?
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b
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et
o

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

337

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338

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

339

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340

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

341

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342

16. NETWORK MONITORING

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i
l
ea
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u
nt
.
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c
t
iwi
l
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a
l
c
ul
a
t
et
he95t
hpe
r
c
e
nt
i
l
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o
ry
o
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r
a
pho
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o
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o
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t
e
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s
c
a
r
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he
s
t5% o
ft
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Nc
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Monitoring RAM and CPU usage

By de
0ni
t
i
o
n,s
e
r
v
e
r
spr
o
v
i
dec
r
i
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c
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c
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v
a
i
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bl
e
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e
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r
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o
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e
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r
s mus
t ha
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e s
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e
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ma
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l
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e
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po
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l
.
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i
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r
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ur
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r
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t
e
,i
ti
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t
a
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e
pt
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s
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s
t
e
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e
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ur
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e
sa
r
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e
d.
I
fac
o
r
es
e
r
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e
r(
s
uc
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sapr
o
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ys
e
r
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e
ro
re
ma
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r
v
e
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r
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me
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y
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e
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t
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,a
c
c
e
s
st
i
me
sbe
c
o
mes
l
o
w.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

343

$i
si
so
f
t
e
npe
r
c
e
i
v
e
db
yus
e
r
sa
sane
t
wo
r
kpr
o
bl
e
m.
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r
ea
r
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e
v
e
r
a
lpr
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g
r
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mst
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e
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ni
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o
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ur
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e
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s
e
r
v
e
r
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mpl
e
s
tme
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ho
do
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ne i
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c
c
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c
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D bo
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nt
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o
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e
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o
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ll
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f
o
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e
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o
lc
a
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s
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us
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d.

Fi
g
u
r
eNM 25:RRDt
o
o
lc
a
ns
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o
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r
b
i
t
r
a
r
yd
a
t
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c
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u
s
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e
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r
e
s
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e
da
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e
r
a
g
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rt
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me
.
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i
ls
e
r
v
e
r
sr
e
q
ui
r
ea
de
q
ua
t
es
pa
c
e
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ss
o
mepe
o
pl
ema
ypr
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e
rt
ol
e
a
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e
t
he
i
re
ma
i
lme
s
s
a
g
e
so
nt
hes
e
r
v
e
rf
o
rl
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ngpe
r
i
o
dso
ft
i
me
.
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s
s
a
g
e
sc
a
na
c
c
umul
a
t
ea
nd0l
lt
heha
r
ddi
s
k
,e
s
pe
c
i
a
l
l
yi
fq
uo
t
a
sa
r
e
no
ti
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e
.
I
ft
hedi
s
ko
rpa
r
t
i
t
i
o
n us
e
df
o
rma
i
ls
t
o
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a
g
e0l
l
sup
,t
hema
i
ls
e
r
v
e
r
c
a
nno
tr
e
c
e
i
v
ema
i
l
.

344

16. NETWORK MONITORING

I
ft
ha
tdi
s
ki
sa
l
s
ous
e
db
yt
hes
y
s
t
e
m,a
l
lk
i
ndso
fs
y
s
t
e
m pr
o
bl
e
msma
y
o
c
c
ura
st
heo
pe
r
a
t
i
ngs
y
s
t
e
mr
unso
uto
fs
wa
ps
pa
c
ea
nd t
e
mpo
r
a
r
y
s
t
o
r
a
g
e
.
Fi
l
es
e
r
v
e
r
sne
e
dt
obemo
ni
t
o
r
e
d,e
v
e
ni
ft
he
yha
v
el
a
r
g
edi
s
k
s
.
Us
e
r
swi
l
l0ndawa
yt
o0l
la
nys
i
z
edi
s
kmo
r
eq
ui
c
k
l
yt
ha
ny
o
umi
g
ht
t
hi
nk
.
Di
s
k us
a
g
ec
a
n bee
nf
o
r
c
e
dt
hr
o
ug
ht
heus
eo
fq
uo
t
a
s
,o
rb
ys
i
mpl
y
mo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngus
a
g
ea
ndt
e
l
l
i
ngpe
o
pl
ewhe
nt
he
ya
r
eus
i
ngt
o
omuc
h.
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g
i
o
sc
a
nno
t
i
f
yy
o
uwhe
ndi
s
kus
a
g
e
,CPU ut
i
l
i
s
a
t
i
o
n,o
ro
t
he
rs
y
s
t
e
m
r
e
s
o
ur
c
e
sc
r
o
s
sac
r
i
t
i
c
a
lt
hr
e
s
ho
l
d.
I
fama
c
hi
nebe
c
o
me
sunr
e
s
po
ns
i
v
eo
rs
l
o
w,a
ndme
a
s
ur
e
me
nt
ss
ho
wt
ha
t
as
y
s
t
e
mr
e
s
o
ur
c
ei
sbe
i
nghe
a
v
i
l
yus
e
d,t
hi
sma
ybea
ni
ndi
c
a
t
i
o
nt
ha
ta
n
upg
r
a
dei
sr
e
q
ui
r
e
d.
I
fpr
o
c
e
s
s
o
rus
a
g
ec
o
ns
t
a
nt
l
ye
x
c
e
e
ds60% o
ft
het
o
t
a
l
,i
tma
ybet
i
met
o
upg
r
a
det
hepr
o
c
e
s
s
o
r
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l
o
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pe
e
dsc
o
ul
da
l
s
obea
sar
e
s
ul
to
fi
ns
uNc
i
e
nt
RAM.
Bes
ur
et
oc
he
c
kt
heo
v
e
r
a
l
lus
a
g
eo
fCPU,RAM,a
nddi
s
ks
pa
c
ebe
f
o
r
e
de
c
i
di
ngt
oupg
r
a
deapa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
rc
o
mpo
ne
nt
.
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i
mpl
ewa
yt
oc
he
c
kwhe
t
he
rama
c
hi
neha
si
ns
uNc
i
e
ntRAM i
st
ol
o
o
k
a
tt
heha
r
ddi
s
kl
i
g
ht
.
Whe
nt
hel
i
g
hti
so
nc
o
ns
t
a
nt
l
y
,i
tus
ua
l
l
yme
a
nst
ha
tt
hema
c
hi
nei
s
c
o
ns
t
a
nt
l
ys
wa
ppi
ngl
a
r
g
ea
mo
unt
so
fda
t
at
oa
ndf
r
o
mt
hedi
s
k
.
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si
sk
no
wna
st
hr
a
s
hi
ng
,a
ndi
se
x
t
r
e
me
l
yba
df
o
rpe
r
f
o
r
ma
nc
e
.
I
tc
a
nus
ua
l
l
ybe0x
e
db
yi
nv
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
ngwhi
c
hpr
o
c
e
s
si
sus
i
ngt
hemo
s
t
RAM,a
ndk
i
l
l
i
ngo
rr
e
c
o
n0g
ur
i
ngt
ha
tpr
o
c
e
s
s
.F
a
i
l
i
ngt
ha
t
,t
hes
y
s
t
e
m
ne
e
dsmo
r
eRAM.
Y
o
us
ho
ul
da
l
wa
y
sde
t
e
r
mi
newhe
t
he
ri
ti
smo
r
ec
o
s
te
1e
c
t
i
v
et
oupg
r
a
de
a
ni
ndi
v
i
dua
lc
o
mpo
ne
nto
rpur
c
ha
s
eawho
l
ene
wma
c
hi
ne
.
S
o
mec
o
mput
e
r
sa
r
edi
Nc
ul
to
ri
mpo
s
s
i
bl
et
oupg
r
a
de
,a
ndi
to
f
t
e
nc
o
s
t
s
mo
r
et
or
e
pl
a
c
ei
ndi
v
i
dua
lc
o
mpo
ne
nt
st
ha
nt
or
e
pl
a
c
et
hee
nt
i
r
es
y
s
t
e
m.
S
i
nc
et
hea
v
a
i
l
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
fpa
r
t
sa
nds
y
s
t
e
msv
a
r
i
e
swi
de
l
ya
r
o
undt
hewo
r
l
d,
bes
ur
et
owe
i
g
ht
hec
o
s
to
fpa
r
t
sv
s
.who
l
es
y
s
t
e
ms
,i
nc
l
udi
ngs
hi
ppi
ng
a
ndt
a
x
e
s
,whe
nde
t
e
r
mi
ni
ngt
hec
o
s
to
fupg
r
a
di
ng
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

345

Summary
I
ns
umma
r
yi
nt
hi
sc
ha
pt
e
rwe
'
v
et
r
i
e
dt
og
i
v
ey
o
ua
ni
ns
i
g
hti
nt
oho
wt
o
mo
ni
t
o
ry
o
urne
t
wo
r
ka
nd c
o
mput
i
ng r
e
s
o
ur
c
e
sc
o
s
te
1e
c
t
i
v
e
l
ya
nd
e
Nc
i
e
nt
l
y
.
We
'
v
ei
nt
r
o
duc
e
dma
nyo
fo
urf
a
v
o
ur
i
t
et
o
o
l
st
oa
s
s
i
s
ty
o
u.Ma
nyo
ft
he
m
a
r
et
r
i
e
da
ndt
e
s
t
e
db
yma
nyne
t
wo
r
ko
pe
r
a
t
o
r
s
.
Ho
pe
f
ul
l
yy
o
uha
v
eunde
r
s
t
o
o
dt
hei
mpo
r
t
a
nc
eo
fmo
ni
t
o
r
i
ngt
oe
na
bl
e
y
o
ut
o bo
t
hj
us
t
i
f
y upg
r
a
de
swhe
n ne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yt
ot
ho
s
ef
undi
ng t
he
upg
r
a
de
s
,pl
usmi
ni
mi
s
et
hei
mpa
c
to
fpr
o
bl
e
msa
st
he
yo
c
c
ur
.
$ee
ndr
e
s
ul
ti
sk
e
e
pi
ngy
o
urne
t
wo
r
ka
ndc
o
mput
i
ngr
e
s
o
ur
c
e
she
a
l
t
hy
a
ndk
e
e
pi
nga
l
lo
fy
o
urus
e
r
sha
ppywi
t
ht
hes
e
r
v
i
c
ey
o
ua
r
epr
o
v
i
di
ng
t
he
m.

346

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Introduction
Ac
hi
e
v
i
ngl
o
ng
t
e
r
ms
us
t
a
i
na
b
i
l
i
t
yi
spe
r
ha
pst
hemo
s
tdi
Nc
ul
tg
o
a
lwhe
n
de
s
i
g
ni
ng a
nd o
pe
r
a
t
i
ng wi
r
e
l
e
s
s ne
t
wo
r
k
s
.$e pr
o
hi
bi
t
i
v
ec
o
s
to
f
I
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
yi
nma
nyc
o
unt
r
i
e
s
,pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
l
yt
ho
s
ewhoa
r
ehe
a
v
i
l
y
r
e
g
ul
a
t
e
db
yt
heg
o
v
e
r
nme
nt
,i
mpo
s
e
sas
ub
s
t
a
nt
i
a
lo
pe
r
a
t
i
nge
x
pe
ns
et
ha
t
ma
k
e
st
he
s
ene
t
wo
r
k
ss
e
ns
i
t
i
v
et
oe
c
o
no
mi
cWuc
t
ua
t
i
o
nsa
ndne
c
e
s
s
i
t
a
t
e
s
i
nno
v
a
t
i
o
nt
oa
t
t
a
i
nv
i
a
bi
l
i
t
y
.
S
ubs
t
a
nt
i
a
l pr
o
g
r
e
s
si
n t
he us
eo
f wi
r
e
l
e
s
s ne
t
wo
r
k
sf
o
rr
ur
a
l
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nsha
sbe
e
na
c
c
o
mpl
i
s
he
do
v
e
rt
hepa
s
tf
e
wy
e
a
r
s
,duei
n
l
a
r
g
epa
r
tt
ot
e
c
hno
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
br
e
a
k
t
hr
o
ug
hs
.
Lo
ng
di
s
t
a
nc
el
i
nk
sha
v
ebe
e
nc
o
ns
t
r
uc
t
e
d,hi
g
hba
ndwi
dt
hde
s
i
g
nsa
r
e
po
s
s
i
bl
ea
nds
e
c
ur
eme
a
nst
oa
c
c
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
sa
r
ea
v
a
i
l
a
bl
e
.I
nc
o
nt
r
a
s
t
,
t
he
r
eha
v
ebe
e
nf
e
we
rs
uc
c
e
s
s
e
swi
t
ht
hede
v
e
l
o
pme
nto
fs
us
t
a
i
na
bl
e
bus
i
ne
s
smo
de
l
sf
o
rwi
r
e
l
e
s
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t
wo
r
k
s
,pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
l
yf
o
rr
e
mo
t
ea
r
e
a
s
.
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s
e
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ne
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pe
r
i
e
nc
e
sa
nd o
bs
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
nso
fe
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i
s
t
i
ngne
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k
s
,a
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s
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e
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o
me
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e
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ur
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e
l
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ntbe
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a
c
t
i
c
e
s
,t
hi
sc
ha
pt
e
r
wi
l
lf
o
c
uso
n do
c
ume
nt
i
ng me
t
ho
dsf
o
rb
ui
l
di
ng s
us
t
a
i
na
bl
e wi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
k
s
.
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nt
hepa
s
tde
c
a
de
,t
he
r
eha
sbe
e
nt
r
e
me
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r
o
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nI
nt
e
r
ne
ta
c
c
e
s
s
a
c
r
o
s
st
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r
l
d.Mo
s
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i
t
i
e
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v
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r
e
l
e
s
so
rDS
Lne
t
wo
r
k
sa
nd0br
e
o
pt
i
cc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nst
ot
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t
,whi
c
hi
sas
ub
s
t
a
nt
i
a
li
mpr
o
v
e
me
nt
.
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v
e
r
t
he
l
e
s
s
,o
ut
s
i
deur
ba
na
r
e
a
s
,I
nt
e
r
ne
ta
c
c
e
s
si
ss
t
i
l
laf
o
r
mi
da
bl
e
c
ha
l
l
e
ng
e
.$e
r
ei
sl
i
t
t
l
ewi
r
e
di
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ebe
y
o
ndpr
i
nc
i
pa
lc
i
t
i
e
si
n
ma
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o
unt
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i
e
s
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r
e
f
o
r
e
,wi
r
e
l
e
s
sr
e
ma
i
nso
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ft
hef
e
wc
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i
c
e
sf
o
r
pr
o
v
i
di
nga
1o
r
da
bl
eI
nt
e
r
ne
ta
c
c
e
s
s
.
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r
ea
r
eno
w pr
o
v
e
nmo
de
l
sf
o
rr
ur
a
la
c
c
e
s
sus
i
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r
e
l
e
s
s
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sbo
o
k
wa
swr
i
t
t
e
nf
o
rt
ho
s
ewi
s
hi
ngt
oc
o
nne
c
tt
he
i
rc
o
mmuni
t
i
e
s
.
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de
l
sde
s
c
r
i
be
dhe
r
ea
r
es
ma
l
l
e
ri
ns
c
a
l
ea
ndus
ea
1o
r
da
bl
ede
s
i
g
ns
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

347

Oura
i
mi
st
opr
o
v
i
dee
x
a
mpl
e
so
fho
wwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
sc
a
nbede
s
i
g
ne
d
t
oe
x
pa
nd s
us
t
a
i
na
b
l
ea
c
c
e
s
swhe
r
el
a
r
g
et
e
l
e
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nso
pe
r
a
t
o
r
s
ha
v
eno
ty
e
ti
ns
t
a
l
l
e
dt
he
i
rne
t
wo
r
k
si
nt
oa
r
e
a
st
ha
two
ul
do
t
he
r
wi
s
eno
t
bee
c
o
no
mi
c
a
l
l
yf
e
a
s
i
bl
eb
yt
r
a
di
t
i
o
na
lmo
de
l
s
.
Two c
o
mmo
n mi
s
c
o
nc
e
pt
i
o
nsmus
tbe di
s
pe
l
l
e
d.Fi
r
s
t
,ma
ny pe
o
pl
e
a
s
s
umet
ha
tt
he
r
ei
so
nepr
e
f
e
r
r
e
dbus
i
ne
s
smo
de
lt
ha
twi
l
lwo
r
ki
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v
e
r
y
c
o
mmuni
t
y
,a
ndt
hek
e
yt
os
uc
c
e
s
si
st
o0ndt
ha
to
ne
e
ur
e
k
a
s
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
I
n pr
a
c
t
i
c
e
,t
hi
si
sno
tt
hec
a
s
e
.Ea
c
hc
o
mmuni
t
y
,t
o
wn o
rv
i
l
l
a
g
ei
s
di
1e
r
e
nt
.$e
r
ei
snopr
e
s
c
r
i
be
dmo
de
lt
ha
tme
e
t
st
hene
e
dso
fa
l
la
r
e
a
s
.
De
s
pi
t
et
hef
a
c
tt
ha
ts
o
mepl
a
c
e
sma
ybes
i
mi
l
a
ri
ne
c
o
no
mi
ct
e
r
ms
,t
he
c
ha
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
so
fas
us
t
a
i
na
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l
ebus
i
ne
s
smo
de
lv
a
r
yf
r
o
mc
o
mmuni
t
yt
o
c
o
mmuni
t
y
.
Al
t
ho
ug
ho
nemo
de
lma
ywo
r
ki
no
nev
i
l
l
a
g
e
,a
no
t
he
rv
i
l
l
a
g
ene
a
r
b
yma
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s
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e
s
st
hes
a
mene
c
e
s
s
a
r
yq
ua
l
i
t
i
e
sf
o
rt
hi
smo
de
lt
obes
us
t
a
i
na
bl
e
.
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nt
hi
sc
i
r
c
ums
t
a
nc
e
,o
t
he
ri
nno
v
a
t
i
v
emo
de
l
smus
tbec
us
t
o
mi
s
e
dt
o0t
t
hec
o
nt
e
x
to
ft
hi
spa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
rc
o
mmuni
t
y
.
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t
he
rmi
s
c
o
nc
e
pt
i
o
ni
st
ha
ts
us
t
a
i
na
b
i
l
i
t
yha
st
hes
a
mede
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t
i
o
nf
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ra
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l
pe
o
pl
e
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t
ho
ug
ht
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st
e
r
mg
e
ne
r
a
l
l
yme
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t
e
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ope
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i
s
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t
e
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y
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hi
sc
ha
pt
e
rf
o
c
us
e
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r
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nt
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s
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us
s
i
o
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c
o
no
mi
c
c
o
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t
i
o
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0na
nc
i
a
la
ndma
na
g
e
r
i
a
l
)t
ha
no
t
he
ra
s
pe
c
t
so
fs
us
t
a
i
na
bi
l
i
t
y
.
Al
s
o
,i
ns
t
e
a
do
ft
heho
r
i
z
o
nbe
i
ngi
nde
t
e
r
mi
na
t
e
,i
tc
e
nt
r
e
so
nat
i
me
pe
r
i
o
do
f0v
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e
a
r
st
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r
i
o
di
nwhi
c
ht
he
s
eI
CT i
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ea
nd
wi
r
e
l
e
s
st
e
c
hno
l
o
g
i
e
sa
r
ee
x
pe
c
t
e
dt
obeus
e
f
ul
.
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,t
het
e
r
ms
us
t
a
i
na
b
i
l
i
t
ywi
l
lbeus
e
dt
oe
nc
a
ps
ul
a
t
eas
y
s
t
e
m de
s
i
g
ne
d
t
ope
r
s
i
s
tf
o
ra
ppr
o
x
i
ma
t
e
l
y0v
ey
e
a
r
s
.Aswee
x
pl
a
i
ne
de
a
r
l
i
e
ri
nt
hebo
o
k
,
wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
si
nl
o
c
a
lc
o
mmuni
t
i
e
so
f
t
e
ns
t
i
mul
a
t
et
heg
r
o
wt
ho
f
c
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
ya
ndus
a
g
e
,a
ndt
hei
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
no
f0br
ebe
g
i
nst
obe
c
o
mea
r
e
a
l
i
t
y
.
S
oc
r
e
a
t
i
ngas
us
t
a
i
na
b
l
emo
de
lf
o
ry
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
kma
yl
e
a
dt
o
g
r
o
wt
ho
fo
t
he
r ne
t
wo
r
k
sa
nd i
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
no
fl
o
ng
e
rt
e
r
m g
r
e
a
t
e
r
ba
ndwi
dt
h0br
el
i
nk
s
.
Wi
r
e
l
e
s
swi
l
lt
he
nl
i
k
e
l
yc
o
nt
i
nuet
oc
oha
bi
ta
l
o
ng
s
i
de0br
ei
ny
o
ur
ne
t
wo
r
ka
si
tg
r
o
wsi
ns
i
z
ea
ndr
e
a
c
h.

348

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Whe
n de
t
e
r
mi
ni
ng a
nd i
mpl
e
me
nt
i
ng t
hebe
s
tmo
de
lf
o
ra wi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
k
,s
e
v
e
r
a
lk
e
yf
a
c
t
o
r
swi
l
lhe
l
pt
oe
ns
ur
ei
t
ss
uc
c
e
s
s
.
$i
sc
ha
pt
e
ri
sno
tme
a
ntt
obeag
ui
def
o
rma
na
g
i
ngs
us
t
a
i
na
bl
ewi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
k
s
.
Ra
t
he
r
,t
hi
si
sa
ho
wt
o
g
ui
des
e
e
k
i
ngt
opr
e
s
e
nta
na
ppr
o
a
c
ht
ha
twi
l
l
e
na
bl
ey
o
ut
o0ndt
hemo
de
lt
ha
tbe
s
t0t
sy
o
urs
i
t
ua
t
i
o
n.
$et
o
o
l
sa
ndi
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
nc
o
nt
a
i
ne
dwi
t
hi
nt
hi
sc
ha
pt
e
rwi
l
lhe
l
ppe
o
pl
e
s
t
a
r
t
i
ng wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
st
oa
s
kt
her
i
g
htq
ue
s
t
i
o
nsa
nd g
a
t
he
rt
he
ne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yda
t
at
ode
0net
hemo
s
ta
ppr
o
pr
i
a
t
ec
o
mpo
ne
nt
so
ft
he
i
rmo
de
l
.
Ke
e
pi
nmi
ndt
ha
tde
t
e
r
mi
ni
ngt
hebe
s
tmo
de
li
sno
tas
e
q
ue
nt
i
a
lpr
o
c
e
s
s
whe
r
ee
a
c
hs
t
e
pi
sf
o
l
l
o
we
dunt
i
lc
o
mpl
e
t
i
o
n.
I
nf
a
c
t
,t
hepr
o
c
e
s
si
so
ng
o
i
nga
ndi
t
e
r
a
t
i
v
e
.
Al
lo
ft
hes
t
e
psa
r
ei
nt
e
g
r
a
l
l
yc
o
nne
c
t
e
dt
oe
a
c
ho
t
he
r
,a
ndo
f
t
e
ny
o
uwi
l
l
r
e
v
i
s
i
ts
t
e
pss
e
v
e
r
a
lt
i
me
sa
sy
o
upr
o
g
r
e
s
s
.

Create a mission statement

Wha
tdoy
o
uwa
ntt
oa
c
c
o
mpl
i
s
hb
ys
e
t
t
i
ngupy
o
urne
t
wo
r
k?
I
ts
e
e
msl
i
k
eas
i
mpl
eq
ue
s
t
i
o
n.Ho
we
v
e
r
,ma
nywi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
sa
r
e
i
ns
t
a
l
l
e
dwi
t
ho
utac
l
e
a
rv
i
s
i
o
no
fwha
tt
he
ya
r
edo
i
nga
ndwha
tt
he
yho
pe
t
oa
c
c
o
mpl
i
s
hi
nt
hef
ut
ur
e
.$e0r
s
ts
t
e
pi
nv
o
l
v
e
sdo
c
ume
nt
i
ngt
hi
s
v
i
s
i
o
nwi
t
ht
hei
nputo
fy
o
ure
nt
i
r
et
e
a
mo
rs
t
a
1.

Wha
ti
st
hepur
po
s
eo
ft
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k?
Whodo
e
st
hene
t
wo
r
ks
e
e
kt
os
e
r
v
e
?
Wha
tdo
e
st
hene
t
wo
r
kdot
oa
ddr
e
s
st
hec
o
mmuni
t
y

s
ne
e
dsa
ndt
oc
r
e
a
t
ev
a
l
ue
?
Wha
ta
r
et
hepr
i
nc
i
pl
e
st
ha
tg
ui
det
hene
t
wo
r
k?

Ag
o
o
dmi
s
s
i
o
ns
t
a
t
e
me
nte
x
pr
e
s
s
e
st
hepur
po
s
eo
fy
o
urne
t
wo
r
ki
na
c
o
nc
i
s
e
,me
a
ni
ng
f
ulwa
ywhi
l
ea
r
t
i
c
ul
a
t
i
ngy
o
urv
a
l
ue
sa
nds
e
r
v
i
c
e
s
.
Abo
v
ea
l
l
,y
o
urmi
s
s
i
o
npr
o
v
i
de
sav
i
s
i
o
no
ft
hea
s
pi
r
a
t
i
o
nsf
o
ry
o
ur
wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

349

I
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
ha
te
v
e
r
yt
e
a
m me
mbe
rwo
r
k
i
ngt
obui
l
dt
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
ki
si
nc
l
ude
di
nt
hepr
o
c
e
s
so
fde
v
e
l
o
pi
ngy
o
urmi
s
s
i
o
n,whi
c
h
he
l
psc
r
e
a
t
ef
ur
t
he
rbuy
i
n.I
twi
l
lg
a
r
ne
rs
uppo
r
ta
ndc
o
mmi
t
me
ntno
t
o
nl
yf
r
o
my
o
urs
t
a
1,buta
l
s
of
r
o
mc
us
t
o
me
r
s
,pa
r
t
ne
r
sa
nddo
no
r
s
,whi
c
h
wi
l
lf
ur
t
he
ry
o
uro
v
e
r
a
l
lo
bj
e
c
t
i
v
e
s
.
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nt
hedy
na
mi
cwo
r
l
do
ft
e
c
hno
l
o
g
y
,t
hene
e
dso
fc
us
t
o
me
r
sa
ndt
hebe
s
t
wa
yt
os
a
t
i
s
f
yt
ho
s
ene
e
dsc
ha
ng
er
a
pi
dl
y
;t
he
r
e
f
o
r
e
,t
hede
v
e
l
o
pme
nto
f
y
o
urmi
s
s
i
o
ni
sa
no
ng
o
i
ngpr
o
c
e
s
s
.
Af
t
e
rde
0ni
ngt
hei
ni
t
i
a
lmi
s
s
i
o
n wi
t
hy
o
urt
e
a
m,y
o
u mus
tc
o
nduc
t
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
ht
ode
t
e
r
mi
newhe
t
he
rt
hi
s0r
s
tc
o
nc
e
pt
i
o
ni
sa
l
i
g
ne
d wi
t
ht
he
r
e
a
l
i
t
i
e
so
fy
o
ure
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
.Ba
s
e
do
na
na
na
l
y
s
i
so
ft
he e
x
t
e
r
na
l
e
nv
i
r
o
nme
nta
ndy
o
uri
nt
e
r
na
lc
o
mpe
t
e
nc
i
e
s
,y
o
umus
tc
o
ns
t
a
nt
l
ymo
di
f
y
t
hemi
s
s
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
ho
utt
hel
i
f
e
c
y
c
l
eo
ft
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
.

Evaluate the demand for potential offerings

$ene
x
ts
t
e
pi
n de
r
i
v
i
ngy
o
urbus
i
ne
s
smo
de
li
nv
o
l
v
e
sa
s
s
e
s
s
i
ngt
he
c
o
mmuni
t
y

sde
ma
nd f
o
rt
he ne
t
wo
r
k

spr
o
duc
t
sa
nd s
e
r
v
i
c
e
s
.Fi
r
s
t
,
i
de
nt
i
f
yt
hei
ndi
v
i
dua
l
s
,g
r
o
upsa
ndo
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
nsi
nt
hec
o
mmuni
t
yt
ha
t
ha
v
eane
e
df
o
ri
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
na
ndwo
ul
dbe
ne
0tf
r
o
mt
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k

s
o
1e
r
i
ng
s
.P
o
t
e
nt
i
a
lus
e
r
sc
o
ul
dc
o
ns
i
s
to
fawi
dev
a
r
i
e
t
yo
fi
ndi
v
i
dua
l
sa
nd
o
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
nst
ha
ti
nc
l
ude
,buta
r
eno
tl
i
mi
t
e
dt
o
:

F
a
r
me
r
s
a
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
i
o
nsa
ndc
o
o
pe
r
a
t
i
v
e
s
Wo
me
n

sg
r
o
ups
S
c
ho
o
l
sa
nduni
v
e
r
s
i
t
i
e
s
Bus
i
ne
s
s
e
sa
ndl
o
c
a
le
nt
r
e
pr
e
ne
ur
s
He
a
l
t
hc
l
i
ni
c
sa
ndho
s
pi
t
a
l
s
Re
l
i
g
i
o
usg
r
o
ups
I
nt
e
r
na
t
i
o
na
la
ndl
o
c
a
lno
ng
o
v
e
r
nme
nt
a
lo
r
g
a
ni
z
a
t
i
o
ns(
NGOs
)
Lo
c
a
la
ndna
t
i
o
na
lg
o
v
e
r
nme
nta
g
e
nc
i
e
s
Ra
di
os
t
a
t
i
o
ns
Or
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
nsi
nt
het
o
ur
i
s
ti
ndus
t
r
y

Onc
ey
o
ue
s
t
a
bl
i
s
hal
i
s
to
fa
l
lt
hepo
t
e
nt
i
a
lus
e
rg
r
o
upso
ft
hene
t
wo
r
k
,
y
o
u mus
t de
t
e
r
mi
ne t
he
i
r ne
e
ds f
o
ra
c
c
e
s
st
oi
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n a
nd
c
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n.Of
t
e
n,pe
o
pl
ec
o
nf
us
es
e
r
v
i
c
e
swi
t
hne
e
ds
.

350

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Af
a
r
me
rma
yne
e
dt
og
a
t
he
ri
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
no
nma
r
k
e
tpr
i
c
e
sa
ndc
l
i
ma
t
i
c
c
o
ndi
t
i
o
nst
oi
mpr
o
v
ehi
sc
r
o
py
i
e
l
da
nds
a
l
e
s
.P
e
r
ha
pst
hewa
yi
nwhi
c
h
heg
e
t
st
hi
si
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
ni
st
hr
o
ug
ht
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t
;ho
we
v
e
r
,t
hef
a
r
me
r
c
o
ul
da
l
s
or
e
c
e
i
v
et
hi
si
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
hS
MSo
v
e
ramo
bi
l
epho
neo
r
t
hr
o
ug
h Vo
i
c
eo
v
e
rI
nt
e
r
ne
t Pr
o
t
o
c
o
l(
Vo
I
P)
.I
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
nt t
o
di
1e
r
e
nt
i
a
t
ebe
t
we
e
n ne
e
dsa
nd s
e
r
v
i
c
e
sbe
c
a
us
et
he
r
ema
ybev
a
r
i
o
us
wa
y
st
os
a
t
i
s
f
yt
hef
a
r
me
r

sne
e
ds
.Y
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
ks
ho
ul
dl
o
o
kf
o
r
t
hebe
s
twa
yt
of
ul
0l
lt
hef
a
r
me
r

sne
e
ds
,t
he
r
e
b
yc
r
e
a
t
i
ngv
a
l
uea
tt
he
l
o
we
s
tc
o
s
tf
o
rt
heus
e
r
.
Whe
na
s
s
e
s
s
i
ngt
hene
e
dso
ft
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
,i
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
o0g
ur
eo
ut
whe
r
et
hene
t
wo
r
kc
a
nbr
i
ngt
hemo
s
tv
a
l
uet
oi
t
sus
e
r
s
.
Fo
ri
ns
t
a
nc
e
,i
nt
hes
ma
l
lt
o
wno
fDo
ue
nt
z
a
,Ma
l
i
,at
e
l
e
c
e
nt
r
ema
na
g
e
r
e
v
a
l
ua
t
e
dt
hepo
t
e
nt
i
a
lbe
ne
0t
so
fe
s
t
a
bl
i
s
hi
ngawi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
kt
hr
o
ug
h
di
s
c
us
s
i
o
nswi
t
hs
e
v
e
r
a
ll
o
c
a
lo
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
ns
.Hei
nt
e
r
v
i
e
we
do
nel
o
c
a
l
NGO t
ha
tdi
s
c
us
s
e
di
t
sne
e
dt
os
e
ndmo
nt
hl
yr
e
po
r
t
st
oi
t
she
a
dq
ua
r
t
e
r
s
o
Nc
ei
nBa
ma
k
o
.Att
ha
tt
i
me
,t
he
r
ewa
snoI
nt
e
r
ne
ta
c
c
e
s
si
nDo
ue
nt
z
a
.
I
no
r
de
rt
oe
ma
i
la c
o
py o
ft
her
e
po
r
t
,t
heNGO s
e
nto
ne o
fi
t
s
e
mpl
o
y
e
e
st
oMo
pt
io
nc
eamo
nt
h,r
e
s
ul
t
i
ngi
nt
r
a
ns
po
r
t
a
t
i
o
na
ndl
o
dg
i
ng
c
o
s
t
s
,a
swe
l
la
st
heo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
yc
o
s
to
fha
v
i
ngt
hee
mpl
o
y
e
eo
uto
ft
he
o
Nc
ef
o
rs
e
v
e
r
a
lda
y
se
a
c
hmo
nt
h.
Whe
nt
het
e
l
e
c
e
nt
r
ema
na
g
e
rc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
e
dt
het
o
t
a
lmo
nt
hl
yc
o
s
t
si
nc
ur
r
e
d
b
yt
heNGO,hewa
sa
bl
et
o de
mo
ns
t
r
a
t
et
hev
a
l
ueo
fa
nI
nt
e
r
ne
t
c
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nt
hr
o
ug
hc
o
s
ts
a
v
i
ng
st
ot
heo
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n.
As
s
i
s
t
a
nc
ef
r
o
mk
e
ypa
r
t
ne
r
sma
ya
l
s
obene
c
e
s
s
a
r
yt
os
e
c
ur
es
us
t
a
i
na
bi
l
i
t
y
f
o
ry
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
.Dur
i
ngt
hi
spha
s
e
,y
o
us
ho
ul
dc
o
nne
c
twi
t
h
po
t
e
nt
i
a
lpa
r
t
ne
r
sa
nde
x
pl
o
r
emut
ua
l
l
ybe
ne
0c
i
a
lc
o
l
l
a
bo
r
a
t
i
o
ns
.
Y
o
uc
a
ne
v
a
l
ua
t
et
hede
ma
nd i
ny
o
urc
o
mmuni
t
yb
yc
o
nt
a
c
t
i
ngy
o
ur
po
t
e
nt
i
a
lc
us
t
o
me
r
sa
nda
s
k
i
ngq
ue
s
t
i
o
nsdi
r
e
c
t
l
yo
rt
hr
o
ug
hs
ur
v
e
y
s
,f
o
c
us
g
r
o
ups
,i
nt
e
r
v
i
e
wso
rt
o
wnha
l
lme
e
t
i
ng
s
.
Co
nduc
t
i
ng r
e
s
e
a
r
c
ht
hr
o
ug
h ar
e
v
i
e
wo
fs
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
ldo
c
ume
nt
a
t
i
o
n,
i
ndus
t
r
yr
e
po
r
t
s
,c
e
ns
us
e
s
,ma
g
a
z
i
ne
s
,ne
ws
pa
pe
r
sa
nd o
t
he
rs
e
c
o
nda
r
y
da
t
as
o
ur
c
e
swi
l
la
l
s
ohe
l
pt
og
i
v
ey
o
uab
e
t
t
e
rpi
c
t
ur
eo
fy
o
url
o
c
a
l
e
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

351

$eg
o
a
lo
ft
hi
sda
t
ac
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
o
ni
st
oo
bt
a
i
nat
ho
r
o
ug
hunde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ngo
f
t
hede
ma
ndf
o
ri
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
na
ndc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
ni
ny
o
urc
o
mmuni
t
ys
o
t
ha
tt
hene
t
wo
r
kbe
i
ngc
r
e
a
t
e
dr
e
s
po
ndst
ot
ho
s
ene
e
ds
.Of
t
e
n,wi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
k
st
ha
tdono
ts
uc
c
e
e
df
o
r
g
e
tt
hi
sk
e
ys
t
e
p
.
Y
o
ure
nt
i
r
ene
t
wo
r
ks
ho
ul
db
eba
s
e
do
nt
hede
ma
ndi
nt
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.I
f
y
o
us
e
tupawi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
ki
nwhi
c
ht
hec
o
mmuni
t
ydo
e
sno
t0ndv
a
l
ue
o
rc
a
nno
ta
1o
r
di
t
ss
e
r
v
i
c
e
s
,i
twi
l
lul
t
i
ma
t
e
l
yf
a
i
l
.

Establish appropriate incentives

Of
t
e
n,t
he
r
ei
sl
i
t
t
l
ee
c
o
no
mi
ci
nc
e
nt
i
v
ef
o
rs
ubs
i
s
t
e
nc
e
ba
s
e
de
c
o
no
mi
c
pa
r
t
i
c
i
pa
nt
st
oa
c
c
e
s
st
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t
.I
na
ddi
t
i
o
n,t
hec
o
s
to
fa
c
q
ui
r
i
nga
c
o
mput
e
ro
rmo
bi
l
es
ma
r
tpho
ne
,l
e
a
r
ni
ngt
o us
ei
t
,a
nd g
e
t
t
i
nga
n
I
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nf
a
ro
ut
we
i
g
hst
he e
c
o
no
mi
cr
e
t
ur
nst
ha
ti
tc
a
n
pr
o
v
i
de
.
$e
r
eha
sr
e
c
e
nt
l
ybe
e
ns
o
mede
v
e
l
o
pme
nto
fa
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nst
ha
ta
ddr
e
s
s
t
hi
sl
a
c
ko
fi
nc
e
nt
i
v
e
,s
uc
ha
sma
r
k
e
ti
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
ns
y
s
t
e
ms
,q
ua
l
i
t
y
s
t
a
nda
r
dsi
mpo
s
e
db
yi
mpo
r
t
i
ngc
o
unt
r
i
e
s
,a
ndc
o
mmo
di
t
i
e
se
x
c
ha
ng
e
s
.
I
nt
e
r
ne
ta
c
c
e
s
sbe
c
o
me
sa
no
b
v
i
o
usa
dv
a
nt
a
g
ei
ns
i
t
ua
t
i
o
nswhe
r
ek
no
wi
ng
t
heda
y
t
oda
ypr
i
c
e
so
fpr
o
duc
t
sc
a
n ma
k
eas
i
g
ni
0c
a
ntdi
1e
r
e
nc
ei
n
i
nc
o
me
.
Es
t
a
bl
i
s
hi
nga
ppr
o
pr
i
a
t
ee
c
o
no
mi
ci
nc
e
nt
i
v
e
si
spa
r
a
mo
untt
ot
hes
uc
c
e
s
s
o
ft
hene
t
wo
r
k
.
$ene
t
wo
r
kmus
tpr
o
v
i
dee
c
o
no
mi
cv
a
l
uet
oi
t
sus
e
r
si
n awa
yt
ha
t
o
ut
we
i
g
hsi
t
sc
o
s
t
s
,o
ri
tmus
tbec
he
a
pe
no
ug
ht
ha
ti
t
sc
o
s
t
sa
r
ema
r
g
i
na
l
a
nda
1o
r
da
bl
et
oi
t
sus
e
r
s
.I
ti
sc
r
uc
i
a
lt
ode
s
i
g
nane
t
wo
r
kwi
t
hv
i
a
bl
e
e
c
o
no
mi
cus
e
sa
nd wi
t
hc
o
s
t
st
ha
ta
r
el
e
s
st
ha
nt
hee
c
o
no
mi
cv
a
l
ue
pr
o
v
i
de
db
yi
t
.
Addi
t
i
o
na
l
l
y
,t
oc
r
e
a
t
eapr
o
pe
ri
nc
e
nt
i
v
es
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
,y
o
umus
ti
nv
o
l
v
et
he
c
o
mmuni
t
yi
nt
hec
r
e
a
t
i
o
no
ft
hene
t
wo
r
kf
r
o
mt
hebe
g
i
nni
ngo
ft
he
pr
o
j
e
c
t
,ma
k
i
ngs
ur
et
ha
tt
hi
si
ni
t
i
a
t
i
v
ei
so
r
g
a
ni
ca
ndno
ti
mpo
s
e
df
r
o
m
t
heo
ut
s
i
de
.
Tobe
g
i
n,y
o
us
ho
ul
dt
r
yt
oa
ns
we
rt
hef
o
l
l
o
wi
ngq
ue
s
t
i
o
ns
:
1.Wha
te
c
o
no
mi
cv
a
l
ue c
a
nt
hi
sne
t
wo
r
kg
e
ne
r
a
t
ef
o
rt
he l
o
c
a
l
e
c
o
no
mya
ndf
o
rwho
m?
2.Ho
wmuc
hpe
r
c
e
i
v
a
bl
ee
c
o
no
mi
cv
a
l
uec
a
nbeg
e
ne
r
a
t
e
d?

352

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

3.Ca
npr
e
s
e
nti
mpe
di
me
nt
sbeo
v
e
r
c
o
met
oa
l
l
o
wt
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c
hi
e
v
e
me
nto
f
t
he
s
ee
c
o
no
mi
cr
e
t
ur
ns
?
Bya
ns
we
r
i
ngt
he
s
eq
ue
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i
o
ns
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hene
t
wo
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kwi
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I
nt
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e
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l
o
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ut
os
a
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e$X i
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g
e
sa
ndt
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a
ns
po
r
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a
t
i
o
nc
o
s
t
spe
r
mo
nt
h.

Y
o
umus
t0g
ur
eo
utho
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o
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kc
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ni
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v
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o
rt
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ec
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s
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re
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r
k
e
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r
ma
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i
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rt
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o
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a
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z
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hene
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ks
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e
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rt
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ef
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me
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o
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o
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a
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et
ome
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nt
s
.
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o ma
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l
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e
t
s(
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a
c
h)
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rt
e
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mi
na
l
st
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e
l
l
e
r
sa
nd
me
r
c
ha
nt
s(
$2/
hr
)
.
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o
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wo
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kmi
g
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l
s
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o
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i
det
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a
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o
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r
me
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st
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e
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e
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t
s
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o
umi
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o
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nt
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t
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e
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o
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nt
e
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ne
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e
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s
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e
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l
l
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et
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o
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t
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yl
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ng
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e
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nt
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a
i
n,k
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o
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e
a
t
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rt
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eme
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c
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nt
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l
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l
lbea
bl
et
oa
1o
r
df
o
ry
o
urs
e
r
v
i
c
e
s
.

Research the regulatory environment for wireless

$er
e
g
ul
a
t
o
r
ye
nv
i
r
o
nme
ntf
o
rwi
r
e
l
e
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l
s
oa
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nt
e
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r
s
t
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e
a
r
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ra
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r
g
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ni
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t
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n ha
st
her
i
g
htt
ous
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4GHz
f
r
e
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e
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t
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utal
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e
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n mo
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ts
i
t
ua
t
i
o
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4GHzi
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r
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et
ous
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l
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;ho
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e
r
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o
me
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o
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e
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t
r
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e
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e
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t
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o
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oa
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t
ho
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r
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l
e
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t
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k
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g
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e
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li
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o
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y
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t
o
ro
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ane
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kmi
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htha
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et
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q
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eal
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c
e
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et
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r
e
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i
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c
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e
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r
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a
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t
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v
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o
ra
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ne
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a
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nt
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e
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e
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e
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e
s
t
r
i
c
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o
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e
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o
rs
ma
l
lc
o
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t
i
e
st
os
ha
r
ea
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r
e
l
e
s
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t
wo
r
kwi
t
ho
t
he
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t
e
nt
i
a
l
l
yi
nt
e
r
e
s
t
e
dpa
r
t
i
e
so
ro
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
ns
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

353

Ot
he
rc
o
unt
r
i
e
sa
r
emo
r
epe
r
mi
s
s
i
v
ewi
t
hnos
uc
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e
s
t
r
i
c
t
i
o
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r
e
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e
s
s
ne
t
wo
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k
s
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ot
he po
s
s
i
bi
l
i
t
yt
os
ha
r
eI
nt
e
r
ne
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o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
yi
ns
ma
l
l
c
o
mmuni
t
i
e
si
sav
i
a
bl
es
o
l
ut
i
o
n.
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e
s
s
o
ni
st
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o
urr
e
s
e
a
r
c
ha
tt
heo
ns
e
t
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ns
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i
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o
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o
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t
ht
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a
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r
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o
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a
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t
y
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o
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o
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e
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t
ma
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r
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e
nf
o
r
c
e
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e
l
e
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sne
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i
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a
us
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ng
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e
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k
i
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a
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o
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ho
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da
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a
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r
ne
tPr
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(
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I
P)s
e
r
v
i
c
e
s
.
I
ns
o
mec
o
unt
r
i
e
st
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r
ea
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ec
o
mpl
i
c
a
t
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r
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e
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I
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e
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v
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a
t
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a
r
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a
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r
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uc
a
ns
t
a
r
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k
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pe
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aht
t
p:
/
/
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k
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pe
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a
.
o
r
g
/
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k
i
/
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i
c
e
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v
e
r
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P.

Analyse the competition

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x
tpha
s
ei
nt
hee
v
a
l
ua
t
i
o
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fy
o
urc
o
mmuni
t
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nv
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e
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i
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ft
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r
e
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e
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t
wo
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sc
o
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t
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o
n.Co
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o
r
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)
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st
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t
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v
e
l
y0t
t
hene
e
dso
ft
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
?

354

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Fi
na
l
l
y
,b
ya
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l
y
s
i
ngy
o
urc
o
mpe
t
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t
o
r
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mt
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us
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me
r
s
po
i
nto
fv
i
e
w
a
ndunde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ngt
he
i
rs
t
r
e
ng
t
hsa
nd we
a
k
ne
s
s
e
s
,y
o
uc
a
n de
t
e
r
mi
ne
y
o
urc
o
mpe
t
i
t
i
v
ea
dv
a
nt
a
g
e
si
nt
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.Co
mpe
t
i
t
i
v
ea
dv
a
nt
a
g
e
s
a
r
et
ho
s
ewhi
c
hc
a
nno
tbee
a
s
i
l
yr
e
pl
i
c
a
t
e
db
yt
hec
o
mpe
t
i
t
i
o
n.
Fo
re
x
a
mpl
e
,awi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
kt
ha
tc
a
ne
x
c
l
us
i
v
e
l
yo
1e
raf
a
s
t
e
rI
nt
e
r
ne
t
c
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nt
ha
nac
o
mpe
t
i
t
o
ri
sac
o
mpe
t
i
t
i
v
ea
dv
a
nt
a
g
e
.

Determine initial and recurring costs and pricing

Whe
ny
o
ua
r
epl
a
nni
ngt
os
e
tupa
ndo
pe
r
a
t
ey
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
,y
o
u
mus
tde
t
e
r
mi
net
her
e
s
o
ur
c
e
sne
e
de
dt
os
t
a
r
ty
o
urpr
o
j
e
c
ta
nd t
he
r
e
c
ur
r
i
ng o
pe
r
a
t
i
ng c
o
s
t
s
.S
t
a
r
t
up c
o
s
t
si
nc
l
udee
v
e
r
y
t
hi
ng y
o
u mus
t
pur
c
ha
s
et
os
t
a
r
ty
o
urwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
.
$e
s
ee
x
pe
ns
e
sc
a
nr
a
ng
ef
r
o
mt
he i
ni
t
i
a
li
nv
e
s
t
me
nty
o
u ma
k
ei
n
ha
r
dwa
r
e
,a
c
c
e
s
st
ot
o
we
r
sa
nds
oo
npl
use
q
ui
pme
ntf
o
ra
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nt
s
,
hubs
,s
wi
t
c
he
s
,c
a
bl
e
s
,s
o
l
a
re
q
ui
pme
nt
,UPS
,e
t
c
.t
ot
hec
o
s
t
st
or
e
g
i
s
t
e
r
y
o
uro
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
na
sal
e
g
a
le
nt
i
t
y
.
Re
c
ur
r
i
ngc
o
s
t
sa
r
ewha
ty
o
u mus
tpa
yt
oc
o
nt
i
nuet
oo
pe
r
a
t
ey
o
ur
wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
,i
nc
l
udi
ngt
hec
o
s
to
fI
nt
e
r
ne
ta
c
c
e
s
s
,t
e
l
e
pho
ne
s
,l
o
a
ns
,
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
i
t
y
,s
a
l
a
r
i
e
s
,o
Nc
er
e
nt
a
lf
e
e
s
,e
q
ui
pme
ntma
i
nt
e
na
nc
ea
ndr
e
pa
i
r
s
,
a
ndr
e
g
ul
a
ri
nv
e
s
t
me
nt
st
or
e
pl
a
c
ema
l
f
unc
t
i
o
ni
ngo
ro
bs
o
l
e
t
ee
q
ui
pme
nt
.
Ev
e
r
ypi
e
c
eo
fe
q
ui
pme
ntwi
l
le
v
e
nt
ua
l
l
ybr
e
a
kdo
wno
rbe
c
o
meo
ut
da
t
e
d
a
ts
o
mepo
i
nt
,a
ndy
o
us
ho
ul
ds
e
ta
s
i
dee
x
t
r
amo
ne
yf
o
rt
hi
spur
po
s
e
.
Ana
dv
i
s
a
bl
ea
ndv
e
r
yc
o
mmo
nme
t
ho
dt
ode
a
lwi
t
ht
hi
si
st
ot
a
k
et
he
pr
i
c
eo
ft
hede
v
i
c
ea
nddi
v
i
dei
tb
yt
hepe
r
i
o
do
ft
i
mey
o
ue
s
t
i
ma
t
et
ha
ti
t
wi
l
ll
a
s
t
.
$i
spr
o
c
e
s
si
sc
a
l
l
e
d de
pr
e
c
i
a
t
i
o
n.He
r
ei
sa
ne
x
a
mpl
e
.An a
v
e
r
a
g
e
c
o
mput
e
ri
ss
uppo
s
e
dt
ol
a
s
tf
o
rt
wot
o0v
ey
e
a
r
s
.I
ft
hei
ni
t
i
a
lc
o
s
tt
o
pur
c
ha
s
et
hec
o
mput
e
rwa
s$1,
000US
D,a
ndy
o
uwi
l
lbea
bl
et
ous
et
he
c
o
mput
e
rf
o
r0v
ey
e
a
r
s
,y
o
ura
nnua
lde
pr
e
c
i
a
t
i
o
nwi
l
lbe$200US
D.I
n
o
t
he
rwo
r
ds
,y
o
uwi
l
ll
o
s
e$16.
67US
De
v
e
r
ymo
nt
hs
ot
ha
ty
o
uc
a
n
e
v
e
nt
ua
l
l
yr
e
pl
a
c
et
hi
sc
o
mput
e
r
.Toma
k
ey
o
urpr
o
j
e
c
ts
us
t
a
i
na
bl
e
,i
ti
so
f
f
unda
me
nt
a
li
mpo
r
t
a
nc
et
ha
ty
o
us
a
v
et
hemo
ne
yt
oc
o
mpe
ns
a
t
ef
o
rt
he
de
pr
e
c
i
a
t
i
o
no
fe
q
ui
pme
nte
a
c
hmo
nt
h.
Ke
e
pt
he
s
es
a
v
i
ng
sunt
i
ly
o
u0na
l
l
yha
v
et
os
pe
ndt
he
mf
o
re
q
ui
pme
nt
r
e
pl
a
c
e
me
nt
.S
o
mec
o
unt
r
i
e
sha
v
et
a
xl
a
wst
ha
tde
t
e
r
mi
net
hepe
r
i
o
do
f
de
pr
e
c
i
a
t
i
o
nf
o
rdi
1e
r
e
ntt
y
pe
so
fde
v
i
c
e
s
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

355

I
na
nyc
a
s
e
,y
o
us
ho
ul
dt
r
yt
obev
e
r
yr
e
a
l
i
s
t
i
ca
bo
utt
hel
i
f
e
c
y
c
l
eo
fa
l
l
t
hei
mpl
e
me
nt
e
dg
e
a
ra
nd pl
a
nf
o
rt
he
i
rde
pr
e
c
i
a
t
i
o
nc
a
r
e
f
ul
l
y
.I
ti
s
i
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
or
e
s
e
a
r
c
ha
l
ly
o
urs
t
a
r
t
upc
o
s
t
si
na
dv
a
nc
e
,a
ndma
k
er
e
a
l
i
s
t
i
c
e
s
t
i
ma
t
i
o
nso
fy
o
urr
e
c
ur
r
i
nge
x
pe
ns
e
s
.
I
ti
sa
l
wa
y
sbe
t
t
e
rt
oo
v
e
r
budg
e
tf
o
re
x
pe
ns
e
st
ha
nt
ounde
r
budg
e
t
.
Wi
t
he
v
e
r
ywi
r
e
l
e
s
spr
o
j
e
c
t
,t
he
r
ea
r
ea
l
wa
y
sunf
o
r
e
s
e
e
nc
o
s
t
s
,e
s
pe
c
i
a
l
l
y
dur
i
ngt
he0r
s
ty
e
a
ro
fo
pe
r
a
t
i
o
nsa
sy
o
ul
e
a
r
nho
wt
obe
t
t
e
rma
na
g
ey
o
ur
ne
t
wo
r
k
.Fol
l
owi
ng
,i
sano
ne
x
ha
us
t
i
v
el
i
s
to
fc
a
t
e
g
o
r
i
e
so
fc
o
s
t
st
ha
t
y
o
us
ho
ul
di
nc
l
ude
,b
o
t
hi
ns
t
a
r
t
uppha
s
ea
ndf
o
ry
o
urr
e
c
ur
r
i
ngc
o
s
t
s
,
j
us
tt
og
i
v
ey
o
ua
ni
de
ao
fho
wt
og
e
ts
t
a
r
t
e
do
nc
a
l
c
ul
a
t
i
ngy
o
urc
o
s
t
s
:
-

Categories of Costs
La
b
o
u
rc
o
s
t
s Che
c
kups(
a
na
l
y
s
e
s
)a
ndc
o
ns
ul
t
a
nc
i
e
s
De
v
e
l
o
pme
ntc
o
s
t
sf
o
rpr
o
g
r
a
mmi
ng
,t
e
s
t
i
ng
,i
nt
e
g
r
a
t
i
o
ne
t
c
.
I
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
nc
o
s
t
s
Re
c
r
ui
t
i
ngc
o
s
t
s
Tr
a
i
ni
ngc
o
s
t
s(
i
nt
r
o
duc
t
i
o
na
ndo
ng
o
i
ng
)
Ha
ndl
i
ngc
o
s
t
s/s
a
l
a
r
i
e
sf
o
re
mpl
o
y
e
e
so
rf
r
e
e
l
a
nc
e
r
s
,i
nc
l
udi
ng
y
o
ur
s
e
l
f
Eq
ui
pme
ntma
i
nt
e
na
nc
es
t
a
1c
o
s
t
s
S
o
f
t
wa
r
es
uppo
r
ts
t
a
1c
o
s
t
s
S
e
c
ur
i
t
ype
r
s
o
nne
l
No
nl
a
b
o
u
rc
o
s
t
s Ac
q
ui
s
i
t
i
o
na
ndpr
o
duc
t
i
o
nc
o
s
t
s(
f
o
rha
r
dwa
r
el
i
k
ePCs
,VS
AT,
r
a
di
ol
i
nke
q
ui
pme
nta
nds
o
f
t
wa
r
e
)
Anc
i
l
l
a
r
ye
q
ui
pme
nt(
e
.
g
.
,s
wi
t
c
he
s
,c
a
bl
e
sa
ndc
a
bl
i
ng
,g
e
ne
r
a
t
o
r
,
UPS
,e
t
c
.
)
Da
t
apr
o
t
e
c
t
i
o
na
nds
e
c
ur
i
t
y
S
t
a
r
t
up i
nv
e
nt
o
r
y(
c
ha
i
r
s
,t
a
bl
e
s
,l
i
g
ht
i
ng
,c
ur
t
a
i
ns
,t
i
l
e
sa
nd
c
a
r
pe
t
i
ng
)
Pr
e
mi
s
e
sc
o
s
t
s(
ne
w bui
l
di
ng
,mo
di
0c
a
t
i
o
n,a
i
rc
o
ndi
t
i
o
ni
ng
,
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
lwi
r
i
nga
ndbo
x
e
s
,s
e
c
ur
i
t
yg
r
i
l
l
s
)
Le
g
a
lc
o
s
t
s
,s
uc
ha
sbus
i
ne
s
sr
e
g
i
s
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

356

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

I
ni
t
i
a
ll
i
c
e
ns
ec
o
s
t
s(
VS
AT)
I
ni
t
i
a
lma
r
k
e
t
i
ngc
o
s
t
s(
Wy
e
r
s
,s
t
i
c
k
e
r
s
,po
s
t
e
r
s
,o
pe
ni
ngpa
r
t
y
)
Ope
r
a
t
i
ngc
o
s
t
sf
o
rha
r
dwa
r
ea
nd o
pe
r
a
t
i
ng s
y
s
t
e
ms(
I
nt
e
r
ne
t
a
c
c
e
s
s
,t
e
l
e
pho
ne
,e
t
c
.
)
Re
nto
rl
e
a
s
i
ngr
a
t
e
s(
f
o
rt
o
we
rs
pa
c
ef
o
re
x
a
mpl
e
)
De
pr
e
c
i
a
t
i
o
no
fha
r
dwa
r
ea
nde
q
ui
pme
nt
Li
c
e
ns
ef
e
e
s
Co
ns
uma
bl
e
sa
ndo
Nc
es
uppl
i
e
s(
e
.
g
.
,da
t
ame
di
a
,pa
pe
r
,bi
nds
,
c
l
i
ps
)
Ope
r
a
t
i
o
na
lc
o
s
t
st
oma
i
nt
a
i
nda
t
apr
o
t
e
c
t
i
o
na
nds
e
c
ur
i
t
y
I
ns
ur
a
nc
epr
e
mi
ums
Co
s
t
sf
o
re
ne
r
g
ya
ndt
oe
ns
ur
epo
we
rs
uppl
y
Lo
a
npa
y
me
nt
s
,c
a
pi
t
a
lc
o
s
t
sf
o
rpa
y
i
ngba
c
ky
o
urs
e
t
upc
o
s
t
s
Co
s
t
sf
o
ra
dv
e
r
t
i
s
i
ng
Lo
c
a
lf
e
e
s
Le
g
a
la
nda
c
c
o
unt
i
ngs
e
r
v
i
c
e
s

Toi
mpr
o
v
ey
o
urc
ha
nc
e
so
fs
us
t
a
i
na
b
i
l
i
t
y
,i
ti
sg
e
ne
r
a
l
l
ybe
s
tt
oma
i
nt
a
i
n
t
hel
o
we
s
tc
o
s
ts
t
r
uc
t
ur
ef
o
ry
o
urne
t
wo
r
k
.
I
no
t
he
rwo
r
ds
,k
e
e
py
o
ure
x
pe
ns
e
sa
sl
o
wa
spo
s
s
i
bl
e
.
Ta
k
et
i
met
ot
ho
r
o
ug
hl
yr
e
s
e
a
r
c
ha
l
lo
fy
o
urs
uppl
i
e
r
s
,pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
r
l
yt
he
I
S
Ps
,a
nds
ho
pa
r
o
undf
o
rt
hebe
s
tde
a
l
so
nq
ua
l
i
t
ys
e
r
v
i
c
e
.Onc
ea
g
a
i
n,be
c
e
r
t
a
i
nt
ha
twha
ty
o
u pur
c
ha
s
ef
r
o
m s
uppl
i
e
r
sc
o
r
r
e
s
po
ndswi
t
ht
he
de
ma
ndi
nt
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.
Be
f
o
r
ei
ns
t
a
l
l
i
nga
ne
x
pe
ns
i
v
eVS
AT,e
ns
ur
et
he
r
ei
sas
uNc
i
e
ntnumbe
ro
f
i
ndi
v
i
dua
l
sa
ndo
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
nsi
ny
o
urc
o
mmuni
t
ywi
l
l
i
nga
nda
bl
et
opa
y
f
o
rus
i
ngi
t
.
De
pe
ndi
ngupo
nde
ma
ndf
o
ri
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
na
c
c
e
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sa
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l
i
t
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n
a
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e
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na
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i
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ho
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o
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t
i
v
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ea
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o
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a
t
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a
i
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ot
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i
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e
a
t
i
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mi
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t
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o
l
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pi
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o
s
t
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to
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i
t
y
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a
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e
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o
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i
t
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el
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o ma
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f
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t
i
o
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ul
d be
s
pe
ndi
ngmo
r
eo
nma
i
nt
e
na
nc
ei
nt
hel
o
ngr
un.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

357

$ea
mo
unto
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pe
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t
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i
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:

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e

I
ti
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o
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e
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e
c
tc
a
nbes
us
t
a
i
na
b
l
e
.

358

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Secure the 2nancing

Onc
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e
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o
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i
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l
(
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e
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a
t
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n(
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c
hs
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l
i
c
i
t
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a
r
i
o
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ng
o
v
e
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nt
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lo
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g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
ns
,pr
i
v
a
t
ec
o
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ni
e
sa
nd t
he
i
rpa
r
t
ne
r
st
o
s
ubmi
tpr
o
po
s
a
l
so
ut
l
i
ni
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he
i
rpl
a
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o
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o
j
e
c
t
swi
t
hi
nt
hec
o
ns
t
r
a
i
nt
s
o
ft
hedo
no
r
s
o
b
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
sa
ndg
ui
de
l
i
ne
s
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

359

I
nr
e
s
po
ns
et
ot
hi
sRFPo
rRFA,NGOsa
ndo
t
he
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et
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e
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s ba
s
e
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pe
c
i
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t
a
bl
i
s
he
d c
r
i
t
e
r
i
a
. Fi
na
l
l
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he do
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o
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a
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t
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t
.
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o
me
t
i
me
s do
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l
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os
uppl
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undi
ng t
os
uppo
r
ta
no
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g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n

s
o
pe
r
a
t
i
o
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,butt
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st
y
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ff
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smo
r
eunus
ua
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ha
nt
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i
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ras
pe
c
i
0cpr
o
j
e
c
t
.
Ano
t
he
rwa
yo
fa
c
c
e
s
s
i
ngt
hene
c
e
s
s
a
r
yf
undst
os
t
a
r
ta
nd ma
i
nt
a
i
na
wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
ki
st
hr
o
ug
h mi
c
r
o
0na
nc
e
,o
rt
hepr
o
v
i
s
i
o
no
fl
o
a
ns
,
s
a
v
i
ng
sa
ndo
t
he
rba
s
i
c0na
nc
i
a
ls
e
r
v
i
c
e
st
ot
hewo
r
l
d
spo
o
r
e
s
tpe
o
pl
e
.
Pi
o
ne
e
r
e
di
nt
he1970
sb
yo
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
nsl
i
k
eACCI
ON I
nt
e
r
na
t
i
o
na
la
nd
Gr
a
me
e
nBa
nk
,mi
c
r
o
c
r
e
di
t
,at
y
peo
fmi
c
r
o
0na
nc
e
,e
na
bl
e
se
nt
r
e
pr
e
ne
ur
s
t
or
e
c
e
i
v
el
o
a
nsi
ns
ma
l
la
mo
unt
so
fmo
ne
yt
os
t
a
r
tups
ma
l
l
e
nt
e
r
pr
i
s
e
s
.
De
s
pi
t
et
hef
a
c
tt
ha
to
f
t
e
ni
ndi
v
i
dua
l
sl
a
c
k ma
ny o
ft
het
r
a
di
t
i
o
na
l
q
ua
l
i
0c
a
t
i
o
nsne
e
de
dt
oo
bt
a
i
nl
o
a
nsl
i
k
ev
e
r
i
0a
bl
ec
r
e
di
t
,c
o
l
l
a
t
e
r
a
lo
r
s
t
e
a
dye
mpl
o
y
me
nt
,mi
c
r
o
c
r
e
di
tpr
o
g
r
a
msha
v
ebe
e
nhi
g
hl
ys
uc
c
e
s
s
f
uli
n
ma
nyc
o
unt
r
i
e
s
.
Ty
pi
c
a
l
l
y
,t
hepr
o
c
e
s
si
nv
o
l
v
e
sa
ni
ndi
v
i
dua
lo
rag
r
o
upc
o
mpl
e
t
i
nga
nd
s
ubmi
t
t
i
ngal
o
a
na
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ni
nt
heho
pe
so
fr
e
c
e
i
v
i
ngal
o
a
n,a
ndt
he
l
e
nde
r
,t
hei
ndi
v
i
dua
lo
ro
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
nt
ha
tpr
o
v
i
de
st
hel
o
a
n,g
i
v
i
ngmo
ne
y
o
nc
o
ndi
t
i
o
nt
ha
ti
ti
sr
e
t
ur
ne
dwi
t
hi
nt
e
r
e
s
t
.
$e us
eo
f mi
c
r
o
c
r
e
di
tt
of
und wi
r
e
l
e
s
s ne
t
wo
r
k
s do
e
s po
s
eo
ne
c
o
ns
t
r
a
i
nt
.Us
ua
l
l
y
,mi
c
r
o
c
r
e
di
ti
nv
o
l
v
e
sv
e
r
ys
ma
l
ls
umso
fmo
ne
y
.
Unf
o
r
t
una
t
e
l
y
,be
c
a
us
eal
a
r
g
ea
mo
unto
fc
a
pi
t
a
li
sne
e
de
dt
opur
c
ha
s
et
he
i
ni
t
i
a
le
q
ui
pme
ntf
o
rwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
ks
e
tup
,s
o
me
t
i
me
sami
c
r
o
c
r
e
di
t
l
o
a
ni
sno
ts
uNc
i
e
nt
.
Ho
we
v
e
r
,t
he
r
eha
v
ebe
e
nma
nys
uc
c
e
s
s
f
ula
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nso
fmi
c
r
o
c
r
e
di
tt
ha
t
ha
v
ebr
o
ug
htt
e
c
hno
l
o
g
yt
oc
o
mmuni
t
i
e
s
.Ane
x
a
mpl
ei
nc
l
ude
st
hes
t
o
r
y
o
fv
i
l
l
a
g
epho
neo
pe
r
a
t
o
r
s
.$e
s
ee
nt
r
e
pr
e
ne
ur
sus
et
he
i
rmi
c
r
o
c
r
e
di
tl
o
a
ns
t
opur
c
ha
s
emo
bi
l
epho
ne
sa
ndpho
nec
r
e
di
t
s
.
$e
yt
he
nr
e
ntt
heus
eo
ft
he
i
rmo
bi
l
epho
ne
st
oc
o
mmuni
t
yme
mbe
r
so
n
ape
r
c
a
l
lba
s
i
sa
nde
a
r
ne
no
ug
hmo
ne
yt
or
e
pa
yt
he
i
rde
bta
ndma
k
ea
pr
o
0tf
o
rt
he
ms
e
l
v
e
sa
ndt
he
i
rf
a
mi
l
i
e
s
.

360

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Ano
t
he
rme
c
ha
ni
s
mf
o
rg
e
t
t
i
ngf
undi
ngt
os
t
a
r
tawi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
ki
s
a
ng
e
lf
undi
ng
.
Ang
e
li
nv
e
s
t
o
r
sa
r
eno
r
ma
l
l
ywe
a
l
t
hyi
ndi
v
i
dua
l
st
ha
tpr
o
v
i
dec
a
pi
t
a
lf
o
r
bus
i
ne
s
ss
t
a
r
t
upi
ne
x
c
ha
ng
ef
o
rahi
g
hr
a
t
eo
fr
e
t
ur
no
nt
he
i
ri
nv
e
s
t
me
nt
.
Be
c
a
us
et
hev
e
nt
ur
e
si
nwhi
c
ht
he
yi
nv
e
s
ta
r
es
t
a
r
tupsa
nd,t
he
r
e
f
o
r
e
,
o
f
t
e
nhi
g
hr
i
s
k
,a
ng
e
li
nv
e
s
t
o
r
st
e
ndt
oe
x
pe
c
tdi
1e
r
e
ntt
hi
ng
si
na
ddi
t
i
o
n
t
ot
he
i
rr
e
t
ur
n.
Ma
nye
x
pe
c
taBo
a
r
dpo
s
i
t
i
o
na
ndma
y
bear
o
l
ei
nt
heo
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n.
S
o
mea
ng
e
l
swa
ntt
oha
v
eas
t
a
k
ei
nt
hec
o
mpa
ny
,whi
l
eo
t
he
r
spr
e
f
e
r
s
ha
r
e
si
nt
hec
o
mpa
nyt
ha
tc
a
nbee
a
s
i
l
yr
e
de
e
ma
bl
ea
tf
a
c
ev
a
l
ue
,t
hus
pr
o
v
i
di
ngac
l
e
a
re
x
i
tf
o
rt
hei
nv
e
s
t
o
r
.
Topr
o
t
e
c
tt
he
i
ri
nv
e
s
t
me
nt
s
,a
ng
e
l
sf
r
e
q
ue
nt
l
ya
s
kt
hebus
i
ne
s
s
e
sno
tt
o
ma
k
ec
e
r
t
a
i
nk
e
yde
c
i
s
i
o
nswi
t
ho
utt
he
i
ra
ppr
o
v
a
l
.Be
c
a
us
eo
ft
hehi
g
h
r
i
s
ki
nv
o
l
v
e
di
nde
v
e
l
o
pi
ngma
r
k
e
t
s
,i
ti
so
f
t
e
nc
ha
l
l
e
ng
i
ngt
o0nda
ng
e
l
i
nv
e
s
t
o
r
st
ohe
l
ps
e
t
upawi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
,butno
ti
mpo
s
s
i
bl
e
.
$ebe
s
twa
yt
o0ndpo
t
e
nt
i
a
li
nv
e
s
t
o
r
si
st
hr
o
ug
hy
o
urs
o
c
i
a
lne
t
wo
r
k
a
ndt
hr
o
ug
hr
e
s
e
a
r
c
ho
nl
i
ne
.

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the internal

situation
Ane
t
wo
r
ki
so
nl
ya
sg
o
o
da
st
hepe
o
pl
ewhowo
r
ka
ndo
pe
r
a
t
ei
t
.
$et
e
a
my
o
uputi
npl
a
c
ec
a
nme
a
nt
hedi
1e
r
e
nc
ebe
t
we
e
ns
uc
c
e
s
sa
nd
f
a
i
l
ur
e
.
$a
ti
swhyi
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
or
e
We
c
to
ny
o
urt
e
a
m
sq
ua
l
i
0c
a
t
i
o
nsa
nd
s
k
i
l
l
s
,i
nc
l
udi
ng t
ho
s
eo
fs
t
a
1a
nd v
o
l
unt
e
e
r
s
,i
nc
o
mpa
r
i
s
o
nt
ot
he
c
o
mpe
t
e
nc
i
e
sne
e
de
df
o
rawi
r
e
l
e
s
spr
o
j
e
c
t
.Fi
r
s
t
,ma
k
eal
i
s
to
fa
l
lt
he
c
o
mpe
t
e
nc
i
e
sne
e
de
dt
or
unawi
r
e
l
e
s
spr
o
j
e
c
ts
uc
c
e
s
s
f
ul
l
y
.
Ca
pa
c
i
t
ya
r
e
a
ss
ho
ul
di
nc
l
udet
e
c
hno
l
o
g
y
,huma
nr
e
s
o
ur
c
e
s
,a
c
c
o
unt
i
ng
,
ma
r
k
e
t
i
ng
,s
a
l
e
s
, ne
g
o
t
i
a
t
i
o
n,l
e
g
a
l
,a
nd o
pe
r
a
t
i
o
ns
,a
mo
ng o
t
he
r
s
.
Af
t
e
r
wa
r
ds
,i
de
nt
i
f
yl
o
c
a
lr
e
s
o
ur
c
e
st
of
ul
0l
lt
he
s
es
k
i
l
l
s
.Ma
py
o
urt
e
a
m
s
s
k
i
l
ls
e
t
st
ot
hec
o
mpe
t
e
nc
i
e
sne
e
de
d,a
ndi
de
nt
i
f
yk
e
yg
a
ps
.
Onet
o
o
lo
f
t
e
nus
e
dt
oa
s
s
i
s
twi
t
ht
hi
ss
e
l
f
e
v
a
l
ua
t
i
o
ni
sa
na
na
l
y
s
i
so
f
s
t
r
e
ng
t
hs
,we
a
k
ne
s
s
e
s
,o
ppo
r
t
uni
t
i
e
sa
nd t
hr
e
a
t
s
,c
a
l
l
e
dS
WOT.To
c
o
nduc
tt
hi
sa
na
l
y
s
i
s
,s
pe
c
i
f
yy
o
uri
nt
e
r
na
ls
t
r
e
ng
t
hsa
ndwe
a
k
ne
s
s
e
s
,a
nd
e
l
a
bo
r
a
t
eupo
nt
hee
x
t
e
r
na
lo
ppo
r
t
uni
t
i
e
sa
ndt
hr
e
a
t
si
ny
o
urc
o
mmuni
t
y
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

361

I
ti
si
mpo
r
t
a
ntt
ober
e
a
l
i
s
t
i
ca
ndho
ne
s
ta
bo
utwha
ty
o
udowe
l
la
nd
wha
ty
o
ua
r
el
a
c
k
i
ng
.
Bes
ur
et
odi
s
t
i
ng
ui
s
hbe
t
we
e
nwhe
r
ey
o
uro
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
ni
sa
tt
hebe
g
i
nni
ng
o
ft
hi
se
nde
a
v
o
urf
r
o
m whe
r
ei
tc
o
ul
dbei
nt
hef
ut
ur
e
.Y
o
urs
t
r
e
ng
t
hsa
nd
we
a
k
ne
s
s
e
sa
l
l
o
wy
o
ut
oe
v
a
l
ua
t
ey
o
urc
a
pa
c
i
t
i
e
si
nt
e
r
na
l
l
ya
nd be
t
t
e
r
unde
r
s
t
a
nd wha
ty
o
uro
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
nc
a
n do
,a
swe
l
la
si
t
sl
i
mi
t
s
.By
unde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ngy
o
urs
t
r
e
ng
t
hsa
nd we
a
k
ne
s
s
e
sa
nd c
o
mpa
r
i
ngt
he
mt
o
t
ho
s
eo
fy
o
urc
o
mpe
t
i
t
o
r
s
,y
o
uc
a
nde
t
e
r
mi
ney
o
urc
o
mpe
t
i
t
i
v
ea
dv
a
nt
a
g
e
s
i
nt
hema
r
k
e
t
.Y
o
uc
a
na
l
s
o no
t
et
hea
r
e
a
swhe
r
ey
o
uc
a
ni
mpr
o
v
e
.
Oppo
r
t
uni
t
i
e
sa
ndt
hr
e
a
t
sa
r
ee
x
t
e
r
na
l
,whi
c
he
na
bl
ey
o
ut
oa
na
l
y
s
er
e
a
l
wo
r
l
dc
o
ndi
t
i
o
nsa
ndho
wt
he
s
ec
o
ndi
t
i
o
nsi
nWue
nc
ey
o
urne
t
wo
r
k
.
$edi
a
g
r
a
m be
l
o
wwi
l
lhe
l
py
o
ui
nc
r
e
a
t
i
ngy
o
uro
wnS
WOTa
na
l
y
s
i
sf
o
r
y
o
uro
r
g
a
ni
s
a
t
i
o
n.Bes
ur
et
or
e
s
po
ndt
ot
heq
ue
s
t
i
o
nsa
s
k
e
da
ndl
i
s
ty
o
ur
s
t
r
e
ng
t
hs
,we
a
k
ne
s
s
e
s
,o
ppo
r
t
uni
t
i
e
sa
ndt
hr
e
a
t
si
nt
hes
pa
c
e
sde
s
i
g
na
t
e
d.
Strengths

Weaknesses

What do you do well?

What could you improve?
What unique resources can you draw Where do you have fewer resources
on? What do others see as your than others?
strengths?
What are others likely to see as
weaknesses?
Opportunities

Threats

What good opportunities are open to

you? What trends could you take
advantage of? How can you turn your
strengths into opportunities?

What trends could harm you? What is

your competition doing?
What threats do your weaknesses
expose you to?

Putting it all together

Onc
ey
o
uha
v
eg
a
t
he
r
e
da
l
lo
ft
hei
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n,y
o
ua
r
er
e
a
dyt
oput
e
v
e
r
y
t
hi
ngt
o
g
e
t
he
ra
nd de
c
i
deupo
nt
hebe
s
tmo
de
lf
o
rt
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
s
ne
t
wo
r
ki
ny
o
urc
o
mmuni
t
y
.Ba
s
e
do
nt
her
e
s
ul
t
so
fy
o
ure
x
t
e
r
na
la
nd
i
nt
e
r
na
la
na
l
y
s
e
s
,y
o
umus
tr
e
0ney
o
urmi
s
s
i
o
na
nds
e
r
v
i
c
eo
1e
r
i
ng
s
.Al
l
o
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st
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e
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r
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nt
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e
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e
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o
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nt
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a
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r
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o
uro
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e
r
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r
a
t
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ti
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e
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oe
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o
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a
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e
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t
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o
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r
a
i
nt
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ft
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l
o
c
a
le
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
.

362

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

To do t
hi
s
,y
o
u mus
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t
e
n 0nd i
nno
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a
t
i
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nt
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e
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nt
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a
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e
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e
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a
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o
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t
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l
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s
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e
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t
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e
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y wa
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o he
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a
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er
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e
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ss
us
t
a
i
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i
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t
y
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udywa
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o
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o
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ro
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t
e
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e
nt
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e

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o
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te
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pe
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r
ee
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e
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t
r
i
c
i
t
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nt
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ne
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c
e
s
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o
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r
e
a
t
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de
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o bec
o
ns
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r
uc
t
e
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or
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het
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l
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e
nt
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e

sc
o
s
t
sa
nd
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dea
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c
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s
si
nawa
yt
ha
twa
ss
us
t
a
i
na
b
l
e
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

363

I
nt
hi
si
ns
t
a
nc
e
,at
r
a
di
t
i
o
na
lVS
ATha
dbe
e
nus
e
df
o
rc
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
.
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we
v
e
r
,t
he
r
ewa
sauni
q
uewa
yo
fa
c
c
o
mmo
da
t
i
ngl
o
c
a
lc
o
mmuni
t
y
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r
o
ups
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i
mi
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e
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l
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t
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o
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nt
e
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ne
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e
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s
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r
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o
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a
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t
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o
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n
t
he c
o
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t
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r
e
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nt
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e
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smo
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a
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e
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o
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g
a
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t
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o
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ne
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k

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pe
r
a
t
i
o
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udi
ng t
he bi
l
l
i
ng a
nd pa
y
me
nt c
o
l
l
e
c
t
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e
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r
a
t
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nt
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r
e
ne
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k
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r
e
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e
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el
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c
a
le
c
o
no
mi
cr
e
s
o
ur
c
e
s
.

364

17. ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

Fi
g
u
r
eES2:Da
k
Ne
t
'
sr
o
a
mi
nga
c
c
e
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sp
o
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nt
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r
s
tMi
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l
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o
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k
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t
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smo
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a
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ei
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o
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ss
e
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r
.
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e
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a
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a
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e
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a
l
k
e
yc
o
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t
i
o
nsne
e
dt
obepr
e
s
e
nt
.

MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND SUSTAINABILITY

365

Fi
r
s
t
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r
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o pr
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.
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s mo
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GLOSSARY

Glossary

367

Glossary
0-9
802.11. While 802.11 is a wireless protocol in its own right, 802.11 is often used to
refer to a family of wireless networking protocols used mainly for local area
networking. Three popular variants include 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11a. See
also: Wi-Fi.

A
AC see Alternating Current
access point (AP). A device that creates a wireless network that is usually
connected to a wired Ethernet network. See also: CPE, master mode
accumulator. Another name for a battery.
ad-hoc mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices that allows the creation of a
network without an access point. Mesh networks often use radios in ad-hoc
mode. See also: managed mode, master mode, monitor mode
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). A protocol widely used on Ethernet networks
to translate IP addresses into MAC addresses.
address space. A group of IP addresses that all reside within the same logical
subnet.
advertised window. The portion of a TCP header that speciBes how many
additional bytes of data the receiver is prepared to accept.
Alternating Current (AC). An electrical current which varies over time in a cyclic
manner. AC current is typically used for lighting and appliances. See also: Direct
Current
amortization. An accounting technique used to manage the expected cost of
replacement and obsolescence of equipment over time.
ampliBer. A device used to increase the transmitted power of a wireless device.
amplitude. The distance from the center of a wave to the extreme of one of its
peaks.
anchor clients. Business clients of a subscription system who are reliable and
can be considered low-risk.

368

Glossary

AND logic. A logical operation that only evaluates as true if all of the items being
compared also evaluate as true. See also: OR logic.
anonymizing proxy. A network service that hides the source or destination of
communications. Anonymizing proxies can be used to protect people's privacy and
to reduce an organization's exposure to legal liability for the actions of its users.
anonymity. In computer networks, communications that cannot be linked to a
unique individual are said to be anonymous. The trade-off of anonymity versus
accountability in communications is an ongoing debate online, and rules about
anonymous communications vary widely around the world. See also:
authenticated
antenna diversity. A technique used to overcome multipath interference by using
two or more physically separated receiving antennas.
antenna gain. The amount of power concentrated in the direction of strongest
radiation of an antenna, usually expressed in dBi. Antenna gain is reciprocal,
which means that the effect of gain is present when transmitting as well as
receiving.
antenna pattern. A graph that describes the relative strength of a radiated Beld in
various directions from an antenna. See also: rectangular plot, polar plot, linear
polar coordinates, logarithmic polar coordinates
AP see Access Point
application layer. The topmost layer in the OSI and TCP/IP network models.
Argus see Audit Record Generation and Utilization System
ARP see Address Resolution Protocol
associated. An 802.11 radio is associated to an access point when it is ready to
communicate with the network. This means that it is tuned to the proper channel,
in range of the AP, using the correct SSID and other authentication parameters,
etc.
at. A Unix facility that allows timed, one-shot execution of programs. See also:
cron
attenuation. The reduction of available radio power as it is absorbed along a path,
such as through trees, walls, buildings, or other objects. See also: free space loss,
scattering
Audit Record Generation and Utilization System (Argus). An open source
network monitoring tool used for tracking fows between hosts. Argus is available
from http://www.qosient.com/argus .
authenticated. A network user that has proven their identity to a service or device
(such as an access point) beyond a shadow of a doubt, usually by some means
of cryptography. See also: anonymity

Glossary

369

azimuth. The angle that measures deviation with respect to the south in the
northern hemisphere, and with respect to the north in the southern hemisphere.
See also: inclination

B
bandwidth. A measure of frequency ranges, typically used for digital
communications. The word bandwidth is also commonly used interchangeably
with capacity to refer to the theoretical maximum data rate of a digital
communications line. See also: capacity, channel, throughput
battery. A device used to store energy in a photovoltaic system. See also: solar
panel, regulator, load, converter, inverter
beamwidth. The angular distance between the points on either side of the main
lobe of an antenna, where the received power is half that of the main lobe. The
beamwidth of an antenna is usually stated for both the horizontal and vertical
planes.
benchmarking. Testing the maximum performance of a service or device.
Benchmarking a network connection typically involves fooding the link with
trafBc and measuring the actual observed throughput, both on transmit and
receive.
BGAN see Broadband Global Access Network
BNC connector. A coaxial cable connector that uses a "quick-connect" style
bayonet lug. BNC connectors are typically found on 10base2 coaxial Ethernet.
bridge. A network device that connects two networks together at the data link
layer. Bridges do not route packets at the network layer. They simply repeat
packets between two link-local networks. See also: router and transparent
bridging Brewall.
bridge-utils. A Linux software package that is required for creating 802.1d
Ethernet bridges. http://bridge.sourceforge.net/
Broadband Global Access Network (BGAN). One of several standards used for
satellite Internet access. See also: Digital Video Broadcast (DVB-S) and Very
Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT).
broadcast address. On IP networks, the broadcast IP address is used to send
data to all hosts in the local subnet. On Ethernet networks, the broadcast MAC
address is used to send data to all machines in the same collision domain.
bypass diodes. A feature found on some solar panels that prevents the formation
of hot-spots on shaded cells, but reduces the maximum voltage of the panel.

370

Glossary

C
CA see CertiBcate Authority
Cacti (http://www.cacti.net/). A popular web-based monitoring tool written in PHP.
capacity. The theoretical maximum amount of trafBc provided by a digital
communications line. Often used interchangeably with bandwidth.
captive portal. A mechanism used to transparently redirect web browsers to a
new location. Captive portals are often used for authentication or for interrupting
a user's online session (for example, to display an Acceptable Use Policy).
cell. Solar panels are made up of several individual cells, which are electrically
connected to provide a particular value of current and voltage. Batteries are also
made up of individual cells connected in series, each of which contributes about
2 volts to the battery.
CertiBcate Authority. A trusted entity that issues signed cryptographic keys. See
also: Public Key Infrastructure, SSL
channel capacity. The maximum amount of information that can be sent using
a given bandwidth. See also: bandwidth, throughput, data rate
channel. A well deBned range of frequencies used for communications. 802.11
channels use 22 MHz of bandwidth, but are only separated by 5 MHz. See also:
Appendix B.
CIDR see Classless Inter-Domain Routing
CIDR notation. A method used to deBne a network mask by specifying the
number of bits present. For example, the netmask 255.255.255.0 can be
speciBed as /24 in CIDR notation.
circular polarization. An electro-magnetic Beld where the electric Beld vector
appears to be rotating with circular motion about the direction of propagation,
making one full turn for each RF cycle. See also: horizontal polarization, vertical
polarization
Class A, B, and C networks. For some time, IP address space was allocated in
blocks of three different sizes. These were Class A (about 16 million addresses),
Class B (about 65 thousand addresses), and Class C (255 addresses). While
CIDR has replaced class-based allocation, these classes are often still referred
to and used internally in organizations using private address space. See also:
CIDR notation.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing. CIDR was developed to improve routing
efBciency on the Internet backbone by enabling route aggregation and network
masks of arbitrary size. CIDR replaces the old class-based addressing scheme.
See also: Class A, B, and C networks.

Glossary

371

client. An 802.11 radio card in managed mode. Wireless clients will join a
network created by an access point, and automatically change the channel to
match it. See also: access point, mesh
closed network. An access point that does not broadcast its SSID, often used as
a security measure.
coax. A round (coaxial) cable with a center wire surrounded by a dielectric, outer
conductor, and tough insulating jacket. Antenna cables are usually made of coax.
Coax is short for "of common axis".
collision. On an Ethernet network, a collision occurs when two devices
connected to the same physical segment attempt to transmit at the same time.
When collisions are detected, devices delay retransmission for a brief, randomly
selected period.
conductor. A material that easily allows electric or thermal energy to fow through
without much resistance. See also: dielectric, insulator
connectionless protocol. A network protocol (such as UDP) that requires no
session initiation or maintenance. Connectionless protocols typically require less
overhead than session oriented protocols, but do not usually offer data protection
or packet reassembly. See also: session oriented protocol.
consistent platform. Maintenance costs can be reduced by using a consistent
platform, with the same hardware, software, and Brmware for many components
in a network.
constructive interference. When two identical waves merge and are in phase, the
amplitude of the resulting wave is twice that of either of the components. This is
called constructive interference. See also: destructive interference
controls. In NEC2, controls deBne the RF source in an antenna model. See also:
structure
converter. A device used to convert DC signals into a different DC or AC voltage.
See also: inverter
CPE see Customer Premises Equipment
cron. A Unix facility that allows timed and repeated execution of programs. See
also: at
Customer Premises Equipment. Network equipment (such as a router or bridge)
that is installed at a customer's location.

372

Glossary

D
data link layer. The second layer in both the OSI and TCP/IP network models.
Communications at this layer happen directly between nodes. On Ethernet
networks, this is also sometimes called the MAC layer.
data rate. The speed at which 802.11 radios exchange symbols, which is always
higher than the available throughput. For example, the nominal data rate of
802.11g is 54 Mbps, while the maximum throughput is about 20 Mbps). See also:
throughput
dB see decibel
DC see Direct Current
DC/AC Converter. A device that converts DC power into AC power, suitable for
use with many appliances. Also known as an inverter.
DC/DC Converter. A device that changes the voltage of a DC power source. See
also: linear conversion, switching conversion
decibel (dB). A logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the magnitude of
power relative to a reference level. Commonly used units are dBi (decibels
relative to an isotropic radiator) and dBm (decibels relative to a milliwatt).
default gateway. When a router receives a packet destined for a network for
which it has no explicit route, the packet is forwarded to the default gateway. The
default gateway then repeats the process, possibly sending the packet to its own
default gateway, until the packet reaches its ultimate destination.
default route. A network route that points to the default gateway.
Denial of Service (DoS). An attack on network resources, usually achieved by
fooding a network with trafBc or exploiting a bug in an application or network
protocol.
depreciation. An accounting method used to save money to cover the eventual
break down of equipment.
destructive interference. When two identical waves merge and are exactly out of
phase, the amplitude of the resulting wave is zero. This is called destructive
interference. See also: constructive interference
DHCP see Dynamic Host ConBguration Protocol
dielectric. A non-conductive material that separates conducting wires inside a
cable.
Digital Elevation Map (DEM). Data that represents the height of terrain for a
given geographic area. These maps are used by programs such as Radio Mobile
to model electromagnetic propagation.

Glossary

373

Digital Video Broadcast (DVB-S). One of several standards used for satellite
Internet access. See also: Broadband Global Access Network (BGAN) and Very
Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT).
dipole antenna. The simplest form of omnidirectional antenna.
Direct Current (DC). An electrical current which remains constant over time. DC
current is typically used for network equipment, such as access points and
routers. See also: Alternating Current
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). The radio modulation scheme used
by 802.11b.
directional antenna. An antenna that radiates very strongly in a particular
direction. Examples of directional antennas include the yagi, dish, and
waveguide antennas. See also: omnidirectional antenna, sectorial antenna
directivity. The ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular direction when
transmitting, or to receive energy from a particular direction when receiving.
diversity see antenna diversity
DNS see Domain Name Service
DNS caching. By installing a DNS server on your local LAN, DNS requests for an
entire network may be cached locally, improving response times. This technique
is called DNS caching.
dnsmasq. An open source caching DNS and DHCP server, available from
http://thekelleys.org.uk/
Domain Name Service (DNS). The widely used network protocol that maps IP
addresses to names.
dominant mode. The lowest frequency that can be transmitted by a waveguide of
a given size.
DoS see Denial of Service
DSSS see Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
DVB-S see Digital Video Broadcast.
Dynamic Host ConBguration Protocol (DHCP). A protocol used by hosts to
automatically determine their IP address.

374

Glossary

E
eavesdropper. Someone who intercepts network data such as passwords, email,
voice data, or online chat.
edge. The place where one organization's network meets another. Edges are
deBned by the location of the external router, which often acts as a Brewall.
electromagnetic spectrum. The very wide range of possible frequencies of
electromagnetic energy. Parts of the electromagnetic spectrum include radio,
microwave, visible light, and X rays.
electromagnetic wave. A wave that propagates through space without the need
for a propagating medium. It contains an electric and a magnetic component.
See also: mechanical wave
elevation see inclination
end span injectors. An 802.3af Power over Ethernet device that provides power
via the Ethernet cable. An Ethernet switch that provides power on each port is an
example of an end span injector. See also: mid span injectors
end-to-end encryption. An encrypted connection negotiated by both ends of a
communications session. End-to-end encryption can provide stronger protection
than link layer encryption when used on untrusted networks (such as the
Internet).
EtherApe. An open source
http://etherape.sourceforge.net/

network

visualization

tool.

Available

at

Ethereal see Wireshark.

Extended Service Set IdentiBer (ESSID). The name used to identify an 802.11
network. See also: closed network
external trafBc. Network trafBc that originates from, or is destined for, an IP
address outside your internal network, such as Internet trafBc.

F
Brestarter. A graphical front-end for conBguring Linux Brewalls available from
http://www.fs-security.com/.
Blter. The default table used in the Linux netBlter Brewall system is the Blter table.
This table is used for determining trafBc that should be accepted or denied.
Brewall. A router that accepts or denies trafBc based on some criteria. Firewalls
are one basic tool used to protect entire networks from undesirable trafBc.

Glossary

375

fush. To remove all entries in a routing table or netBlter chain.

forwarding. When routers receive packets that are destined for a different host or
network, they send the packet to the next router closest to its ultimate
destination. This process is called forwarding.
forwarding loops. A routing misconBguration where packets are forwarded
cyclically between two or more routers. Catastrophic network failure is prevented
by using the TTL value on every packet, but forwarding loops need to be
resolved for proper network operations.
free space loss. Power diminished by geometric spreading of the wavefront, as
the wave propagates through space. See also: attenuation, free space loss,
Appendix C
frequency. The number of whole waves that pass a Bxed point in a period of
time. See also: wavelength, Hertz
front-to-back ratio. The ratio of the maximum directivity of an antenna to its
directivity in the opposite direction.
full duplex. Communications equipment that can send and receive at the same
time (such as a telephone). See also: half duplex
fwbuilder. A graphical tool that lets you create iptables scripts on a machine
separate from your server, and then transfer them to the server later.
http://www.fwbuilder.org/

G
gain. The ability of a radio component (such as an antenna or ampliBer) to
increase the power of a signal. See also: decibel
gain transfer. Comparing an antenna under test against a known standard
antenna, which has a calibrated gain.
gasiBcation. The production bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen that occurs when a
battery is overcharged.
globally routable. An address issued by an ISP or RIR that is reachable from any
point on the Internet. In IPv4, there are approximately four billion possible IP
addresses, although not all of these are globally routable.

H
half duplex. Communications equipment that can send or receive, but never both at
once (such as a handheld radio). See also: full duplex.

376

Glossary

Heliax. High quality coaxial cable that has a solid or tubular center conductor
with a corrugated solid outer conductor which enables it to fex. See also: coax
Hertz (Hz). A measure of frequency, denoting some number of cycles per
second.
HF (High-Frequency). Radio waves from 3 to 30 MHz are referred to as HF. Data
networks can be built on HF that operate at very long range, but with very low
data capacity.
hop. Data that crosses one network connection. A web server may be several
hops away from your local computer, as packets are forwarded from router to
router, eventually reaching their ultimate destination.
horizontal polarization. An electromagnetic Beld with the electric component
moving in a linear horizontal direction. See also: circular polarization, vertical
polarization
hot-spot. In wireless networks, a hot-spot is a location that provides Internet
access via Wi-Fi, typically by use of a captive portal. In photovoltaic systems, a
hot-spot occurs when a single cell in a solar panel is shaded, causing it to act as
a resistive load rather than to generate power.
hub. An Ethernet networking device that repeats received data on all connected
ports. See also: switch.
Huygens principle. A wave model that proposes an inBnite number of potential
wavefronts along every point of an advancing wavefront.
Hz see Hertz

I
IANA see Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICMP see Internet Control Message Protocol
ICP see Inter-Cache Protocol
impedance. The quotient of voltage over current of a transmission line,
consisting of a resistance and a reactance. The load impedance must match the
source impedance for maximum power transfer (50 for most communications
equipment).
inbound trafBc. Network packets that originate from outside the local network
(typically the Internet) and are bound for a destination inside the local network.
See also: outbound trafBc.
inclination. The angle that marks deviation from a horizontal plane. See also:
azimuth

Glossary

377

infrastructure mode see master mode

insulator see dielectric
Inter-Cache Protocol (ICP). A high performance protocol used to communicate
between web caches.
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The organization that administers
various critical parts of Internet infrastructure, including IP address allocation,
DNS root name servers, and protocol service numbers.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). A Network Layer protocol used to
inform nodes about the state of the network. ICMP is part of the Internet protocol
suite. See also: Internet protocol suite.
Internet layer see network layer
Internet Protocol (IP). The most com-mon network layer protocol in use. IP deBnes the
hosts and networks that make up the global Internet.
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP). The family of communication protocols that
make up the Internet. Some of these protocols include TCP, IP, ICMP, and UDP.
Also called the TCP/IP protocol suite, or simply TCP/IP.
Intrusion Detection System (IDS). A program that watches network trafBc, looking
for suspicious data or behavior patterns. An IDS may make a log entry, notify a
network administrator, or take direct action in response to undesirable trafBc.
inverter see DC/AC Converter
IP see Internet Protocol
iproute2. The advanced routing tools package for Linux, used for trafBc shaping
and other advanced techniques. Available from http://linux-net.osdl.org/
iptables. The primary command used to manipulate netBlter Brewall rules.
irradiance. The total amount of solar energy that lights a given area, in W/m2
ISM band. ISM is short for Industrial, ScientiBc, and Medical. The ISM band is a
set of radio frequencies set aside by the ITU for unlicensed use.
isotropic antenna. A hypothetical antenna that evenly distributes power in all
directions, approximated by a dipole.
IV characteristic curve. A graph that represents the current that is provided
based on the voltage generated for a certain solar radiation.

378

Glossary

K
knetBlter. A graphical front-end for conBguring Linux Brewalls. Available from
http://venom.oltrelinux.com/
known good. In troubleshooting, a known good is any component that can be
substituted to verify that its counterpart is in good, working condition.

L
lag. Common term used to describe a network with high latency.
lambda () see wavelength
LAN see Local Area Network
latency. The amount of time it takes for a packet to cross a network connection.
It is often (incorrectly) used interchangeably with Round Trip Time (RTT), since
measuring the RTT of a wide-area connection is trivial compared to measuring
the actual latency. See also: Round Trip Time.
lead-acid batteries. Batteries consisting of two submerged lead electrodes in an
electrolytic solution of water and sulfuric acid. See also: stationary batteries
lease time. In DHCP, IP addresses are assigned for a limited period of time,
known as the lease time. After this time period expires, clients must request a
new IP address from the DHCP server.
Line of Sight (LOS). If a person standing at point A has an unobstructed view of
point B, then point A is said to have a clear Line of Sight to point B.
linear polar coordinates. A graph system with equally spaced, graduated
concentric circles representing an absolute value on a polar projection. Such
graphs are typically used to represent antenna radiation patterns. See also:
logarithmic polar coordinates
linear conversion. A DC voltage conversion method that lowers the voltage by
converting excess energy to heat. See also: switching conversion
linear polarization. An electro-magnetic wave where the electric Beld vector stays
in the same plane all the time. The electric Beld may leave the antenna in a
vertical orientation, a horizontal orientation, or at some angle between the two.
See also: vertical polarization, horizontal polarization
link budget. The amount of radio energy available to overcome path losses. If the
available link budget exceeds the path loss, minimum receive sensitivity of the
receiving radio, and any obstacles, then communications should be possible.

Glossary

379

link layer encryption. An encrypted connection between link-local devices,

typically a wireless client and an access point. See also: end-to-end encryption
link-local. Network devices that are connected to the same physical segment
communicate with each other directly are said to be link-local. A link-local
connection cannot cross a router boundary without using some kind of
encapsulation, such as a tunnel or a VPN.
listen. Programs that accept connections on a TCP port are said to listen on that
port.
load. Equipment in a photovoltaic system that consumes energy. See also:
battery, solar panel, regulator, converter, inverter
Local Area Network (LAN). A network (typically Ethernet) used within an
organization. The part of a network that exists just behind an ISP's router is
generally considered to be part of the LAN. See also: WAN.
logarithmic polar coordinates. A graph system with logarithmically spaced,
graduated concentric circles representing an absolute value on a polar
projection. Such graphs are typically used to represent antenna radiation
patterns. See also: linear polar coordinates
long fat pipe network. A network connection (such as VSAT) that has high
capacity and high latency. In order to achieve the best possible performance,
TCP/IP must be tuned to match the trafBc on such links.
LOS see Line of Sight

M
MAC layer see data link layer
MAC address. A unique 48 bit number assigned to every networking device
when it is manufactured. The MAC address is used for link-local
communications.
MAC Bltering. An access control method based on the MAC address of
communicating devices.
MAC table. A network switch must keep track of the MAC addresses used on
each physical port, in order to efBciently distribute packets. This information is
kept in a table called the MAC table.
maintenance-free lead-acid batteries see lead-acid batteries
Man-In-The-Middle (MITM). A network attack where a malicious user intercepts
all communications between a client and a server, allowing information to be
copied or manipulated.

380

Glossary

managed hardware. Networking hardware that provides an administrative

interface, port counters, SNMP, or other interactive features is said to be
managed.
managed mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices that allows the radio to
join a network created by an access point. See also: master mode, ad-hoc
mode, monitor mode
master browser. On Windows networks, the master browser is the computer that
keeps a list of all the computers, shares and printers that are available in
Network Neighborhood or My Network Places.
master mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices that allows the radio to
create networks just as an access point does. See also: managed mode, ad-hoc
mode, monitor mode
match condition. In netBlter, a match condition speciBes the criteria that
determine the ultimate target for a given packet. Packets may be matched on
MAC address, source or destination IP address, port number, data contents, or
just about any other property.
Maximum Depth of Discharge (DoDmax). The amount of energy extracted from
a battery in a single discharge cycle, expressed as a percentage.
Maximum Power Point (Pmax). The point where the power supplied by a solar
panel is at maximum.
MC-Card. A very small microwave connector found on Lucent / Orinoco / Avaya
equipment.
mechanical wave. A wave caused when some medium or object is swinging in a
periodic manner. See also: electromagnetic wave
Media Access Control layer see data link layer
mesh. A network with no hierarchical organization, where every node on the
network carries the trafBc of every other as needed. Good mesh network
implementations are self-healing, which means that they automatically detect
routing problems and Bx them as needed.
message types. Rather that port numbers, ICMP trafBc uses message types to
deBne the type of information being sent. See also: ICMP.
method of the worst month. A method for calculating the dimensions of a
standalone photovoltaic system so it will work in the month in which the demand
for energy is greatest with respect to the available solar energy. It is the worst
month of the year, as this month with have the largest ratio of demanded energy
to available energy.
MHF see U.FL

Glossary

381

microBnance. The provision of small loans, savings and other basic Bnancial
services to the worlds poorest people.
mid span injectors. A Power over Ethernet device inserted between an Ethernet
switch and the device to be powered. See also: end span injectors
milliwatts (mW). A unit of power representing one thousandth of a Watt.
MITM see Man-In-The-Middle
MMCX. A very small microwave connector commonly found on equipment
manufactured by Senao and Cisco.
monitor mode. A radio mode used by 802.11 devices not normally used for
communications that allows the radio passively monitor radio trafBc. See also:
master mode, managed mode, ad-hoc mode
monitor port. On a managed switch, one or more monitor ports may be deBned
that receive trafBc sent to all of the other ports. This allows you to connect a
trafBc monitor server to the port to observe and analyze trafBc patterns.
Multi Router TrafBc Grapher (MRTG). An open source tool used for graphing
trafBc statistics. Available from http://oss.oetiker.ch/mrtg/
multipath. The phenomenon of refections of a signal reaching their target along
different paths, and therefore at different times.
multipoint-to-multipoint see mesh
mW see milliwatt
My TraceRoute (mtr). A network diagnostic tool used as an alternative to the
traditional traceroute program. http://www.bitwizard.nl/mtr/. See also: traceroute /
tracert.

N
N connector. A sturdy microwave connector commonly found on outdoor
networking components, such as antennas and outdoor access points.
Nagios (http://nagios.org/) A realtime monitoring tool that logs and notiBes a
system administrator about service and network outages.
NAT see Network Address Translation
nat. The table used in the Linux netBlter Brewall system to conBgure Network
Address Translation.
NEC2 see Numerical Electromagnetics Code

382

Glossary

NetBIOS. A session layer protocol used by Windows networking for Ble and
printer sharing. See also: SMB.
netBlter. The packet Bltering framework in modern Linux kernels is known as
netBlter. It uses the iptables command to manipulate Blter rules.
http://netBlter.org/
netmask (network mask). A netmask is a 32-bit number that divides the 16
million available IP addresses into smaller chunks, called subnets. All IP
networks use IP addresses in combination with netmasks to logically group hosts
and networks.
NeTraMet. An open source network
freshmeat.net/projects/netramet/

fow analysis tool available from

network address. The lowest IP number in a subnet. The network address is

used in routing tables to specify the destination to be used when sending
packets to a logical group of IP addresses.
Network Address Translation (NAT). NAT is a networking technology that allows
many computers to share a single, globally routable IP address. While NAT can
help to solve the problem of limited IP address space, it creates a technical
challenge for two-way services, such as Voice over IP.
network detection. Network diagnostic tools that display information about
wireless networks, such as the network name, channel, and encryption method
used.
network layer. Also called the Internet layer. This is the third layer of the OSI and
TCP/IP network models, where IP operates and Internet routing takes place.
network mask see netmask
ngrep. An open source network security utility used to Bnd patterns in data fows.
Available for free from http://ngrep.sourceforge.net/
node. Any device capable of sending and receiving data on a network. Access
points, routers, computers, and laptops are all examples of nodes.
Nominal Capacity (CN). The maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from a
fully charged battery. It is expressed in Ampere-hours (Ah) or Watt-hours (Wh).

Nominal Voltage (VN). The operating voltage of a photovoltaic system, typically

12 or 24 volts.
ntop. A network monitoring tool that provides extensive detail about connections
and protocol use on a local area network. http://www.ntop.org/
null. In an antenna radiation pattern, a null is a zone in which the effective
radiated power is at a minimum.

Glossary

383

nulling. A speciBc case of multipath interference where the signal at the receiving
antenna is zeroed by the destructive interference of refected signals.
number of days of autonomy (N). The maximum number of days that a
photovoltaic system can operate without signiBcant energy received from the
sun.
Numerical Electromagnetics Code (NEC2). A free antenna modeling package
that lets you build an antenna model in 3D, and then analyze the antennas
electromagnetic response. http://www.nec2.org/

O
OFDM see Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
omnidirectional antenna. An antenna that radiates almost equally in every
direction in the horizontal plane. See also: directional antenna, sectorial antenna
one-arm repeater. A wireless repeater that only uses a single radio, at
signiBcantly reduced throughput. See also: repeater
onion routing. A privacy tool (such as Tor) that repeatedly bounces your TCP
connections across a number of servers spread throughout the Internet, wrapping
routing information in a number of encrypted layers.
OR logic. A logical operation that evaluates as true if any of the items being
compared also evaluate as true. See also: AND logic.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
OSI network model. A popular model of network communications deBned by the
ISO/IEC 7498-1 standard. The OSI model consists of seven interdependent
layers, from the physical through the application. See also: TCP/IP network
model.
outbound trafBc. Network packets that originate from the local network and are
bound for a destination outside the local network (typically somewhere on the
Internet). See also: inbound trafBc.
overcharge. The state of a battery when charge is applied beyond the limit of the
battery's capacity. If energy is applied to a battery beyond its point of maximum
charge, the electrolyte begins to break down. Regulators will allow a small
amount of overcharge time to a battery to avoid gasiBcation, but will remove
power before the battery is damaged.
overdischarge. Discharging a battery beyond its Maximum Depth of Discharge,
which results in deterioration of the battery.
oversubscribe. To allow more users than the maximum available bandwidth can
support.

384

Glossary

P
packet. On IP networks, messages sent between computers are broken into
small pieces called packets. Each packet includes a source, destination, and
other routing information that is used to route it to its ultimate destination.
Packets are reassembled again at the remote end by TCP (or another protocol)
before being passed to the application.
packet Blter. A Brewall that operates at the Internet layer by inspecting source
and destination IP addresses, port numbers, and protocols. Packets are either
permitted or discarded depending on the packet Blter rules.
partition. A technique used by network hubs to limit the impact of computers that
transmit excessively. Hubs will temporarily remove the abusive computer
(partition it) from the rest of the network, and reconnect it again after some time.
Excessive partitioning indicates the presence of an excessive bandwidth
consumer, such as a peer-to-peer client or network virus.
passive POE injector see Power over Ethernet
path loss. Loss of radio signal due to the distance between communicating
stations.
Peak Sun Hours (PSH). Average value of daily irradiation for a given area.
photovoltaic generator see solar panel
photovoltaic solar energy. The use of solar panels to collect solar energy to
produce electricity. See also: thermal solar energy
photovoltaic system. An energy system that generates electrical energy from
solar radiation and stores it for later use. A standalone photovoltaic system does
this without any connection to an established power grid. See also: battery, solar
panel, regulator, load, converter, inverter
physical layer. The lowest layer in both the OSI and TCP/IP network models. The
physical layer is the actual medium used for communications, such as copper
cable, optic Bber, or radio waves.
pigtail. A short microwave cable that converts a non-standard connector into
something more robust and commonly available.
ping. A ubiquitous network diagnostic utility that uses ICMP echo request and
reply messages to determine the round trip time to a network host. Ping can be
used to determine the location of network problems by "pinging" computers in
the path between the local machine and the ultimate destination.
PKI see Public Key Infrastructure
plomb. A heavy piece of metal buried in the earth to improve a ground
connection.

Glossary

385

PoE see Power over Ethernet

point-to-multipoint. A wireless network where several nodes connect back to a
central location. The classic example of a point-to-multipoint network is an
access point at an ofBce with several laptops using it for Internet access. See
also: point-to-point, multipoint-to-multipoint
point-to-point. A wireless network consisting of only two stations, usually
separated by a great distance. See also: point-to-multipoint, multipoint-tomultipoint
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). A network protocol typically used on serial lines
(such as a dial-up connection) to provide IP connectivity.
polar plot. A graph where points are located by projection along a rotating axis
(radius) to an intersection with one of several concentric circles. See also:
rectangular plot
polarization. The direction of the electric component of an electro-magnetic wave
as it leaves the transmitting antenna. See also: horizontal polarization, vertical
polarization, circular polarization
polarization mismatch. A state where a transmitting and receiving antenna do not
use the same polarization, resulting in signal loss.
policy. In netBlter, the policy is the default action to be taken when no other
Bltering rules apply. For example, the default policy for any chain may be set to
ACCEPT or DROP.
port counters. Managed switches and routers provide statistics for each network
port called port counters. These statistics may include inbound and outbound
packet and byte counts, as well as errors and retransmissions.
power. The amount of energy in a certain amount of time.
Power over Ethernet (PoE). A technique used to supply DC power to devices using the
Ethernet data cable. See also: end span injectors, mid span injectors

PPP see Point to Point Protocol

presentation layer. The sixth layer of the OSI networking model. This layer deals
with data representation, such as MIME encoding or data compression.
private address space. A set of reserved IP addresses outlined in RFC1918.
Private address space is frequently used within an organization, in conjunction
with Network Address Translation (NAT). The reserved private address space
ranges include 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. See also: NAT.
Privoxy (http://www.privoxy.org/). A web proxy that provides anonymity through
the use of Blters. Privoxy is often used in conjunction with Tor.

386

Glossary

proactive routing. A mesh implementation where every node knows about the
existence of every other node in the mesh cloud as well as which nodes may be
used to route trafBc to them. Each node maintains a routing table covering the
whole mesh cloud. See also: reactive routing
protocol analyzer. A diagnostic program used to observe and disassemble
network packets. Protocol analyzers provide the greatest possible detail about
individual packets.
protocol stack. A set of network protocols that provide interdependent layers of
functionality. See also: OSI network model and TCP/IP network model.
PSH see Peak Sun Hours
Public key cryptography. A form of encryption used by SSL, SSH, and other
popular security programs. Public key cryptography allows encrypted information
to be exchanged over an untrusted network without the need to distribute a
secret key.
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI). A security mechanism used in conjunction with
public key cryptography to prevent the possibility of Man-In-The-Middle attacks.
See also: certiBcate authority

Q
quick blow. A type of fuse that immediately blows if the current fowing through it
is higher than their rating. See also: slow blow

R
radiation pattern see antenna pattern.
radio. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which waves can be
generated by applying alternating current to an antenna.
reactive routing. A mesh implementation where routes are computed only when it
is necessary to send data to a speciBc node. See also: proactive routing
realtime monitoring. A network monitoring tool that performs unattended monitoring over
long periods, and notiBes administrators immediately when problems arise .
reciprocity. An antenna's ability to maintain the same characteristics regardless if
whether it is transmitting or receiving.
recombinant batteries see lead-acid batteries

Glossary

387

rectangular plot. A graph where points are located on a simple grid. See also:
polar plot
Regional Internet Registrars (RIR). The 4 billion available IP addresses are
administered by the IANA. The space has been divided into large subnets, which
are delegated to one of the Bve regional Internet registries, each with authority
over a large geographic area.
regulator. The component of a photovoltaic system that assures that the battery
is working in appropriate conditions. It avoids overcharging or undercharging the
battery, both of which are very detrimental to the life of the battery. See also:
solar panel, battery, load, converter, inverter
repeater. A node that is conBgured to rebroadcast trafBc that is not destined for
the node itself, often used to extend the useful range of a network.
Request for Comments (RFC). RFCs are a numbered series of documents
published by the Internet Society that document ideas and concepts related to
Internet technologies. Not all RFCs are actual standards, but many are either
approved explicitly by the IETF, or eventually become de facto standards. RFCs
can be viewed online at http://rfc.net/.
return loss. A logarithmic ratio measured in dB that compares the power refected
by the antenna to the power that is fed into the antenna from the transmission
line. See also: impedance
reverse polarity (RP). Proprietary microwave connectors, based on a standard
connector but with the genders reversed. The RP-TNC is probably the most
common reverse polarity connector, but others (such as RP-SMA and RP-N) are
also commonplace.
RF transmission line. The connection (typically coax, Heliax, or a waveguide)
between a radio and an antenna.
RIR see Regional Internet Registrars
Round Trip Time (RTT). The amount of time it takes for a packet to be
acknowledged from the remote end of a connection. Frequently confused with
latency.
rogue access points. An unauthorized access point incorrectly installed by
legitimate users, or by a malicious person who intends to collect data or do harm
to the network.
Round Robin Database (RRD). A database that stores information in a very
compact way that does not expand over time. This is the data format used by
RRDtool and other network monitoring tools.
router. A device that forwards packets between different networks. The process
of forwarding packets to the next hop is called routing.
routing. The process of forwarding packets between different networks. A device
that does this is called a router.

388

Glossary

routing table. A list of networks and IP addresses kept by a router to determine

how packets should be forwarded. If a router receives a packet for a network that
is not in the routing table, the router uses its default gateway. Routers operate at
the Network Layer. See also: bridge and default gateway.
RP see Reverse Polarity
RP-TNC. A common proprietary version of the TNC microwave connector, with
the genders reversed. The RP-TNC is often found on equipment manufactured
by Linksys.
RRD see Round Robin Database
RRDtool. A suite of tools that allow you to create and modify RRD databases, as
well as generate useful graphs to present the data. RRDtool is used to keep
track of time-series data (such as network bandwidth, machine room
temperature, or server load average) and can display that data as an average
over time. RRDtool is available from http://oss.oetiker.ch/rrdtool/
rsync (http://rsync.samba.org/). An open source incremental Ble transfer utility
used for maintaining mirrors.
RTT see Round Trip Time

S
SACK see Selective Acknowledgment
scattering. Signal loss due to objects in the path between two nodes. See also:
free space loss, attenuation
sectorial antenna. An antenna that radiates primarily in a speciBc area. The
beam can be as wide as 180 degrees, or as narrow as 60 degrees. See also:
directional antenna, omnidirectional antenna
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). An end-to-end encryption technology built into
virtually all web browsers. SSL uses public key cryptography and a trusted public
key infrastructure to secure data communications on the web. Whenever you
visit a web URL that starts with https, you are using SSL.
Selective Acknowledgment (SACK). A mechanism used to overcome TCP
inefBciencies on high latency networks, such as VSAT.
Server Message Block (SMB). A network protocol used in Windows networks to
provide Ble sharing services. See also: NetBIOS.
Service Set ID (SSID) see Extended Service Set IdentiBer
session layer. Layer Bve of the OSI model, the Session Layer manages logical
connections between applications.

Glossary

389

session oriented protocol. A network protocol (such as TCP) that requires

initialization before data can be exchanged, as well as some clean-up after data
exchange has completed. Session oriented protocols typically offer error
correction and packet reassembly, while connectionless protocols do not. See
also: connectionless protocol.
shared medium. A link-local network where every node can observe the trafBc of
every other node.
Shorewall (http://shorewall.net/). A conBguration tool used for setting up netBlter
Brewalls without the need to learn iptables syntax.
sidelobes. No antenna is able to radiate all the energy in one preferred direction.
Some is inevitably radiated in other directions. These smaller peaks are referred
to as sidelobes.
signal generator. A transmitter that emits continuously at a speciBc frequency.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). A protocol designed to facilitate
the exchange of management information between network devices. SNMP is
typically used to poll network switches and routers to gather operating statistics.
site-wide web cache. While all modern web browsers provide a local data cache,
large organizations can improve efBciency by installing a site-wide web cache,
such as Squid. A site-wide web cache keeps a copy of all requests made from
within an organization, and serves the local copy on subsequent requests. See
also: Squid.
slow blow. A fuse that allows a current higher than its rating to pass for a short
time. See also: quick blow
SMA. A small threaded microwave connector.
SMB see Server Message Block
SmokePing. A latency measurement tool that measures, stores and displays
latency, latency distribution and packet loss all on a single graph. SmokePing is
available from http://oss.oetiker.ch/smokeping/
SNMP see Simple Network Management Protocol
Snort (http://www.snort.org/). A very popular open source intrusion detection
system. See also: Intrusion Detection System.
SoC see State of Charge
solar module see solar panel
solar panel. The component of a photovoltaic system used to convert solar
radiation into electricity. See also: battery, regulator, load, converter, inverter

390

Glossary

solar panel array. A set of solar panels wired in series and/or parallel in order to
provide the necessary energy for a given load.
solar power charge regulator see regulator
spectrum see electromagnetic spectrum
spectrum analyzer. A device that provides a visual representation of the
electromagnetic spectrum. See also: Wi-Spy

Speed. A generic term used to refer to the responsiveness of a network

connection. A "high-speed" network should have low latency and more than
enough capacity to carry the trafBc of its users. See also: bandwidth, capacity,
and latency.
split horizon DNS. A technique used to serve different answers to DNS requests
based on the source of the request. Split horizon is used to direct internal users
to a different set of servers than Internet users.
spoof. To impersonate a network device, user, or service.
spot check tools. Network monitoring tools that are run only when needed to
diagnose a problem. Ping and traceroute are examples of spot check tools.
Squid. A very popular open source web proxy cache. It is fexible, robust, fullfeatured, and scales to support networks of nearly any size. http://www.squidcache.org/
SSID see Extended Service Set IdentiBer
SSL see Secure Sockets Layer
standalone photovoltaic system see photovoltaic system
State of Charge (SoC). The amount of charge present in a battery, determined
by the current voltage and type of battery.
stateful inspection. Firewall rules that are aware of the the state associated with
a given packet. The state is not part of the packet as transmitted over the
Internet, but is determined by the Brewall itself. New, established, and related
connections may all be taken into consideration when Bltering packets. Stateful
inspection is sometimes called connection tracking.
stationary batteries. Batteries designed to have a Bxed location and in scenarios
where the power consumption is more or less irregular. Stationary batteries can
accommodate deep discharge cycles, but they are not designed to produce high
currents in brief periods of time. See also: lead-acid batteries
structure. In NEC2, a numerical description of where the different parts of the
antenna are located, and how the wires are connected up. See also: controls

Glossary

391

subnet mask see netmask

subnets. A subset of a range of IP networks, deBned by netmasks.
switch. A network device that provides a temporary, dedicated connection
between communicating devices. See also: hub.
switching conversion. A DC voltage conversion method that uses a magnetic
component to temporarily store the energy and transform it to another voltage.
Switching conversion is much more efBcient than linear conversion.

T
target. In netBlter, the action to be taken once a packet matches a rule. Some
possible netBlter targets include ACCEPT, DROP, LOG, and REJECT.
TCP see Transmission Control Protocol
TCP acknowledgment spooBng
TCP window size. The TCP parameter that deBnes how much data that may be
sent before an ACK packet is returned from the receiving side. For instance, a
window size of 3000 would mean that two packets of 1500 bytes each will be
sent, after which the receiving end will either ACK the chunk or request
retransmission.
TCP/IP see Internet protocol suite
TCP/IP network model. A popular simpliBcation of the OSI network model that is
used with Internet networks. The TCP/IP model consists of Bve interdependent
layers, from the physical through the application. See also: OSI network model.
tcpdump. A popular open source packet capture and analysis tool available at
http://www.tcpdump.org/. See also: WinDump and Wireshark.
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP). An encryption protocol used in
conjunction with WPA to improve the security of a communications session.
thermal solar energy. Energy collected from the sun in the form of heat. See
also: photovoltaic solar energy
thrashing. The state when a computer has exhausted the available RAM and
must use the hard disk for temporary storage, greatly reducing system
performance.
throughput. The actual amount of information per second fowing through a
network connection, disregarding protocol overhead.

392

Glossary

throughput testing tools. Tools that measure the actual bandwidth available
between two points on a network.
Time To Live (TTL). A TTL value acts as a deadline or emergency brake to signal
a time when the data should be discarded. In TCP/IP networks, the TTL is a
counter that starts at some value (such as 64) and is decremented at each router
hop. If the TTL reaches zero, the packet is discarded. This mechanism helps
reduce damage caused by routing loops. In DNS, the TTL deBnes the amount of
time that a particular zone record should be kept before it must be refreshed. In
Squid, the TTL deBnes how long a cached object may be kept before it must be
again retrieved from the original website.
TKIP see Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
TNC connector. A common, sturdy threaded microwave connector.
Tor (http://www.torproject.org/). An onion routing tool that provides good
protection against trafBc analysis.
traceroute / tracert. A ubiquitous network diagnostic utility often used in
conjunction with ping to determine the location of network problems. The Unix
version is called traceroute, while the Windows version is tracert. Both use ICMP
echo requests with increasing TTL values to determine which routers are used to
connect to a remote host, and also display latency statistics. Another variant is
tracepath, which uses a similar technique with UDP packets. See also: mtr.
traction batteries see lead-acid batteries
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). A session oriented protocol that operates
at the Transport Layer, providing packet reassembly, congestion avoidance, and
reliable delivery. TCP is an integral protocol used by many Internet applications,
including HTTP and SMTP. See also: UDP.
transmission power. The amount of power provided by the radio transmitter,
before any antenna gain or line losses.
transparent bridging Brewall. A Brewall technique that introduces a bridge that
selectively forwards packets based on Brewall rules. One beneBt of a transparent
bridging Brewall is that it does not require an IP address. See also: bridge.
transparent cache. A method of implementing a site-wide web cache that
requires no conBguration on the web clients. Web requests are silently redirected
to the cache, which makes the request on behalf of the client. Transparent
caches cannot use authentication, which makes it impossible to implement trafBc
accounting at the user level. See also: site-wide web cache, Squid.
transparent proxy. A caching proxy installed so that users web requests are
automatically forwarded to the proxy server, without any need to manually
conBgure web browsers to use it.
transport layer. The third layer of the OSI and TCP/IP network models, which
provides a method of reaching a particular service on a given network node.
Examples of protocols that operate at this layer are TCP and UDP.

Glossary

393

trending. A type of network monitoring tool that performs unattended monitoring

over long periods, and plots the results on a graph. Trending tools allow you to
predict future behavior of your network, which helps you plan for upgrades and
changes.
TTL see Time To Live
tunnel. A form of data encapsulation that wraps one protocol stack within
another. This is often used in conjunction with encryption to protect
communications from potential eavesdroppers, while eliminating the need to
support encryption within the application itself. Tunnels are often used
conjunction with VPNs.

U
U.FL. A very tiny microwave connector commonly used on mini-PCI radio cards.
UDP see User Datagram Protocol
unintentional users. Laptop users who accidentally associate to the wrong
wireless network.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP). Cable used for 10baseT and 100baseT
Ethernet, consisting of four pairs of twisted wires.
Useful Capacity (Cu ). The usable capacity of a battery, equal to the product of
the Nominal Capacity and the Maximum Depth of Discharge.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP). A connectionless protocol (at the transport layer)
commonly used for video and audio streaming.
UTP see Unshielded Twisted Pair

V
valve regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) see lead-acid batteries
vertical polarization. An electro-magnetic Beld with the electric component
moving in a linear vertical direction. Most wireless consumer electronic devices
use vertical polarization. See also: circular polarization, vertical polarization
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT). One of several standards used for satellite
Internet access. VSAT is the most widely deployed satellite technology used in
Africa. See also: Broadband Global Access Network (BGAN) and Digital Video
Broadcast (DVB-S).

394

Glossary

video sender. A 2.4 GHz video transmitter that can be used as an inexpensive
signal generator.
Virtual Private Network (VPN). A tool used to join two networks together over an
untrusted network (such as the Internet). VPNs are often used to connect remote
users to an organization's network when traveling or working from home. VPNs
use a combination of encryption and tunneling to secure all network trafBc,
regardless of the application being used. See also: tunnel.
VoIP (Voice over IP). A technology that provides telephone-like features over an
Internet connection. Examples of popular VoIP clients include Skype, Gizmo
Project, MSN Messenger, and iChat.
VPN see Virtual Private Network.
VRLA see valve regulated lead acid battery
VSAT see Very Small Aperture Terminal
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT). One of several standards used for satellite
Internet access. VSAT is the most widely deployed satellite technology used in
Africa. See also: Broadband Global Access Network (BGN) and Digital Video
Broadcast (DVB-S).

W
WAN see Wide Area Network
War drivers. Wireless enthusiasts who are interested in Bnding the physical
location of wireless networks.
wavelength. The distance measured from a point on one wave to the equivalent
part of the next, for example from the top of one peak to the next. Also known as
lambda ().
WEP see Wired Equivalent Privacy
wget. An open source command line tool for downloading web pages.
http://www.gnu.org/software/wget/
Wi-Fi. A marketing brand owned by the Wi-Fi Alliance that is used to refer to
various wireless networking technologies (including 802.11a, 802.11b, and
802.11g). Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity.

Glossary

395

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). A fairly strong link layer encryption protocol
supported by most modern Wi-Fi equipment.
Wi-Spy. An inexpensive 2.4 GHz spectrum analysis tool available from
http://www.metageek.net/.
Wide Area Network (WAN). Any long distance networking technology. Leased
lines, frame relay, DSL, Bxed wireless, and satellite all typically implement wide
area networks. See also: LAN.
wiki. A web site that allows any user to edit the contents of any page. One of the
most popular public wikis is http://www.wikipedia.org/
window scale. A TCP enhancement deBned by RFC1323 that allows TCP
window sizes larger than 64KB.
WinDump. The Windows version
http://www.winpcap.org/windump/

of

tcpdump.

It

is

available

from

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). A somewhat secure link layer encryption

protocol supported by virtually all 802.11a/b/g equipment.
Wireless Fidelity see Wi-Fi.
wireshark. A free network protocol analyzer for Unix and Windows.
http://www.wireshark.org/
WPA see Wi-Fi Protected Access

Z
Zabbix (http://www.zabbix.org/) A realtime monitoring tool that logs and notiBes a
system administrator about service and network outages.

APPENDICES

398

APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

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APPENDICES

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402

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408

APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

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APPENDICES

409

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APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

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APPENDICES

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412

APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

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APPENDICES

413

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414

APPENDIX A: ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION

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APPENDICES

415

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416

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APPENDICES

417

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418

APPENDIX B: CHANNEL ALLOCATIONS

APPENDIX B: CHANNEL ALLOCATIONS

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Channel
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Center Frequency
(GHz)

2.412

2.447

2.417

2.452

2.422

10

2.457

2.427

11

2.462

2.432

12

2.467

2.437

13

2.472

2.442

14

2.484

APPENDICES

802.11a
Channel

Center Frequency (GHz)

34

5.170

36

5.180

38

5.190

40

5.200

42

5.210

44

5.220

46

5.230

48

5.240

52

5.260

56

5.280

60

5.300

64

5.320

149

5.745

153

5.765

157

5.785

161

5805

419

APPENDICES

421

APPENDIX C: PATH LOSS

APPENDICES

423

APPENDIX D: CABLE SIZES

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Diameter (mm)

Ohms / Meter

Max
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0000

11.68

0.000161

302

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0.000203

239

00

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190

8.25

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150

7.35

0.000406

119

6.54

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94

5.83

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5.19

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4.62

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47

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2.91

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10

2.59

0.003276

15

424

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING

Us
et
he
s
et
a
bl
e
st
oc
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l
l
e
c
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f
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urs
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a
re
ne
r
g
ys
y
s
t
e
m.

General Data
Site Name
Site Latitude ()

Irradiation Data
Gdm(0), in kWh / m2 per day)

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Worst Irradiation Month

Reliability and System Operational Voltage

Days of Autonomy (N)
Nominal Voltage (VNEquip)

Dec

APPENDICES

Component Characteristics
Solar Panels
Voltage @ Maximum Power (Vpmax)
Current @ Maximum Power (Ipmax)
Panel Type/Model and Power (Wp)
Batteries
Nominal Capacity @ 100 H (CNBat)
Nominal Voltage (VNBat)
Maximum Depth of Discharge (DoDMAX)
or Usable Capacity (CUBat)
Regulator
Nominal Voltage (VNReg)
Maximum Current (ImaxReg)
DC/AC Inverter (if needed)

425

426

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING

Solar Panels
Voltage @ Maximum Power (Vpmax)
Current @ Maximum Power (Ipmax)
Panel Type/Model and Power (Wp)
Nominal Voltage (VNConv)
Instantaneous Power (PIConv)
Performance @ 70% Load

Loads
Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (DC)
Month of Greatest Consumption
x Usage
Description

# of Units

x Nominal
Power

Hours /
Day

= Energy
(Wh/day)

APPENDICES

427

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (DC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

ETOTAL DC
Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (AC)
Month of Greatest Consumption
x Usage
Description

# of Units

x Nominal
Power

Hours /
Day

= Energy
(Wh/day)

428

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING

Estimated Energy Consumed by the Loads (DC)

Month of Greatest Consumption

ETOTAL AC (before converter)

ETOTAL AC (after converter) = ETOTAL AC / 70%

Finding the Worst Month

Site Name
Site Latitude ()
Nominal Voltage of the Installation VN
(Month)
Inclination

Gdm () (kWh/m2
day)

APPENDICES

Site Name
Site Latitude ()
ETOTAL (DC)
(Wh/day)
ETOTAL (AC)
(Wh/day)
ETOTAL (AC + DC)=
Im (A) = ETOTAL
(Wh/day)
1kW/m2/ (Gdm() x
VN)
Worst Month Summary
Worst Month
Im (A)
ImMAX (A) = 1.21 x Im
ETOTAL (AC + DC)

429

430

APPENDIX E: SOLAR DIMENSIONING

Final Calculations
Panels
Panels in Series (NPS)

NPS = VN / VPmax =

Panels in Parallel (NPP)

NPP = ImMAX / IPmax =

Total Number of Panels

NTOT = NPS x NPP =

Batteries

Necessary Capacity
(CNEC)

ETOTAL(WORST
MONTH) / VN x N

Nominal Capacity
(CNOM)

CNEC / DoDMAX

Number of Batteries in
Series (NBS)

VN / VNBAT

Cables
Panels >
Batteries
Voltage Drop (Va - Vb)

Batteries >
Converter

Main
Line

APPENDICES

431

Panels
Panels in Series (NPS)
Panels in Parallel (NPP)

NPS = VN / VPmax =
NPP = ImMAX / IPmax =

Thickness (Section)
r x L x ImMAX / (Va - Vb)

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rc
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bl
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c
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mput
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t
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nd
Li
st
hel
e
ng
t
hi
nme
t
r
e
s
.

APPENDICES

433

APPENDIX F: RESOURCES
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434

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435

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436

APPENDIX F: RESOURCES

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APPENDICES

437

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APPENDICES

439

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440

APPENDIX F: RESOURCES

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442

CASE STUDIES

CASE STUDIES

CASE STUDIES

443

Case Studies - Introduction

Noma
t
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Equipment enclosures
Che
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s
t
a
t
i
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ns
.

444

Case Studies - Introduction

Antenna masts
Re
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s
.
$et
y
pi
c
a
lma
s
ti
st
he5 me
t
r
epo
l
e
,c
o
mpr
i
s
e
do
fas
i
ng
l
e30mm
di
a
me
t
e
rpi
pewhi
c
hi
st
he
npl
a
nt
e
di
nt
oc
e
me
nt
.I
t
'
sbe
s
tt
oc
o
ns
t
r
uc
tt
he
ma
s
ti
nt
wopa
r
t
s
,wi
t
har
e
mo
v
a
bl
ema
s
tt
ha
t0t
si
nt
oaba
s
ewhi
c
hi
s
s
l
i
g
ht
l
yl
a
r
g
e
ri
ndi
a
me
t
e
r
.Al
t
e
r
na
t
i
v
e
l
y
,t
hema
s
tma
ybema
dewi
t
ha
r
ms
t
ha
tc
a
nbes
e
c
ur
e
l
yc
e
me
nt
e
di
nt
oawa
l
l
.
$i
st
y
peo
fma
s
tc
a
nbea
ug
me
nt
e
db
ys
e
v
e
r
a
lme
t
r
e
swi
t
ht
heus
eo
fg
uy
l
i
ne
s
.
Tos
t
e
a
dyt
hepo
l
e
,pl
a
ntt
hr
e
el
i
ne
s120de
g
r
e
e
sa
pa
r
t
,f
o
r
mi
nga
na
ng
l
eo
f
a
tl
e
a
s
t33de
g
r
e
e
swi
t
ht
het
o
we
r
.
De
t
a
i
l
so
fho
wt
oe
a
r
t
ht
hema
s
tc
a
n bef
o
und i
nt
hec
ha
pt
e
rc
a
l
l
e
d
Ha
r
dwa
r
eS
e
l
e
c
t
i
o
na
ndCo
n0g
ur
a
t
i
o
n.

Involve the local community

Co
mmuni
t
yi
nv
o
l
v
e
me
nti
si
mpe
r
a
t
i
v
ei
na
s
s
ur
i
ng t
he s
uc
c
e
s
sa
nd
s
us
t
a
i
na
bi
l
i
t
yo
fapr
o
j
e
c
t
.I
nv
o
l
v
i
ngt
hec
o
mmuni
t
yi
napr
o
j
e
c
tc
a
nbe
t
he g
r
e
a
t
e
s
tc
ha
l
l
e
ng
e
,but i
ft
he c
o
mmuni
t
yi
s no
ti
nv
o
l
v
e
dt
he
t
e
c
hno
l
o
g
ywi
l
lno
ts
e
r
v
et
he
i
rne
e
ds
,no
rwi
l
li
tbea
c
c
e
pt
e
d.Mo
r
e
o
v
e
r
,a
c
o
mmuni
t
ymi
g
htbea
f
r
a
i
da
ndc
o
ul
ds
ub
v
e
r
ta
ni
ni
t
i
a
t
i
v
e
.Re
g
a
r
dl
e
s
so
f
t
hec
o
mpl
e
x
i
t
yo
ft
heunde
r
t
a
k
i
ng
,as
uc
c
e
s
s
f
ulpr
o
j
e
c
tne
e
dss
uppo
r
ta
nd
buy
i
nf
r
o
mt
ho
s
ei
twi
l
ls
e
r
v
e
.
Ta
k
ey
o
urt
i
mea
nd bes
e
l
e
c
t
i
v
ei
n 0ndi
ngt
her
i
g
htpe
o
pl
ef
o
ry
o
ur
pr
o
j
e
c
t
.No o
t
he
rde
c
i
s
i
o
n wi
l
la
1e
c
ty
o
urpr
o
j
e
c
tmo
r
et
ha
n ha
v
i
ng
e
1e
c
t
i
v
e
,t
r
us
t
e
dl
o
c
a
lpe
o
pl
eo
ny
o
urt
e
a
m.
I
na
ddi
t
i
o
n,t
a
k
eno
t
eo
fk
e
ypl
a
y
e
r
si
na
ni
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
n,o
rc
o
mmuni
t
y
.
I
de
nt
i
f
yt
ho
s
epe
o
pl
ewhoa
r
el
i
k
e
l
yt
obeo
ppo
ne
nt
sa
ndpr
o
po
ne
nt
so
f
y
o
urpr
o
j
e
c
t
.Ase
a
r
l
ya
spo
s
s
i
bl
e
,a
t
t
e
mptt
oe
a
r
nt
hes
uppo
r
to
ft
he
po
t
e
nt
i
a
lpr
o
po
ne
nt
sa
ndt
odi
1us
et
heo
ppo
ne
nt
s
.

CASE STUDIES

445

$i
si
sadi
Nc
ul
tt
a
s
ka
ndo
net
ha
tr
e
q
ui
r
e
si
nt
i
ma
t
ek
no
wl
e
dg
eo
ft
he
i
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
no
rc
o
mmuni
t
y
.
I
ft
hepr
o
j
e
c
tdo
e
sno
tha
v
eal
o
c
a
la
l
l
y
,t
hepr
o
j
e
c
tmus
tt
a
k
et
i
met
o
a
c
q
ui
r
et
hi
sk
no
wl
e
dg
ea
ndt
r
us
tf
r
o
mt
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.
Do no
tt
r
yt
oi
nt
r
o
duc
eat
e
c
hno
l
o
g
yt
oac
o
mmuni
t
y wi
t
ho
ut
unde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ngwhi
c
ha
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nswi
l
ls
e
r
v
et
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.
Whe
ng
a
t
he
r
i
ngi
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n,v
e
r
i
f
yt
hef
a
c
t
st
ha
ty
o
ua
r
eg
i
v
e
n.Mo
s
t
o
f
t
e
n,l
o
c
a
lpa
r
t
ne
r
swhot
r
us
ty
o
uwi
l
lbev
e
r
yf
r
a
nk
,ho
ne
s
t
,a
ndhe
l
pf
ul
.
Whe
nl
o
o
k
i
nga
tpa
y
me
ntme
t
ho
dsf
o
ry
o
urne
wwi
r
e
l
e
s
ss
e
r
v
i
c
e
,pr
e
pa
i
d
s
e
r
v
i
c
e
sa
r
ei
de
a
l
,a
st
he
ydono
tr
e
q
ui
r
eal
e
g
a
lc
o
nt
r
a
c
t
.Co
mmi
t
me
nti
s
a
s
s
ur
e
db
yt
hei
nv
e
s
t
me
nto
ff
undsbe
f
o
r
es
e
r
v
i
c
ei
sg
i
v
e
n.
Buy
i
na
l
s
or
e
q
ui
r
e
st
ha
tt
ho
s
ei
nv
o
l
v
e
di
nv
e
s
ti
nt
hepr
o
j
e
c
tt
he
ms
e
l
v
e
s
.A
pr
o
j
e
c
ts
ho
ul
da
s
kf
o
rr
e
c
i
pr
o
c
a
li
nv
o
l
v
e
me
ntf
r
o
mt
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.
Abo
v
ea
l
l
,t
he
nog
o
o
pt
i
o
ns
ho
ul
da
l
wa
y
sbee
v
a
l
ua
t
e
d.I
fal
o
c
a
la
l
l
y
a
nd c
o
mmuni
t
y buy
i
nc
a
nno
tbe ha
d,t
hepr
o
j
e
c
ts
ho
ul
dc
o
ns
i
de
r
c
ho
o
s
i
ngadi
1e
r
e
ntc
o
mmuni
t
yo
rbe
ne
0c
i
a
r
y
.
$e
r
emus
tbeane
g
o
t
i
a
t
i
o
n;e
q
ui
pme
nt
,mo
ne
y
,a
ndt
r
a
i
ni
ngc
a
nno
tbe
g
i
f
t
s
.$ec
o
mmuni
t
ymus
tbei
nv
o
l
v
e
da
ndt
he
yt
o
omus
tc
o
nt
r
i
but
e
.

Now read on
I
nt
hene
x
tc
ha
pt
e
r
so
ft
hi
ss
e
c
t
i
o
ny
o
uwi
l
l0nds
o
meo
fo
urpr
o
j
e
c
t
s
de
s
c
r
i
be
d,whi
c
hho
pe
f
ul
l
yy
o
uwi
l
l0ndus
e
f
ult
ol
e
a
r
nf
r
o
m.
Weha
v
e
nti
nc
l
ude
dCa
s
eS
t
udi
e
sf
r
o
me
a
r
l
i
e
rv
e
r
s
i
o
nso
ft
hi
sbo
o
ke
x
c
e
pt
f
o
rt
heo
nei
nVe
ne
z
ue
l
awhi
c
hwa
se
x
t
r
e
me
l
yi
ns
t
r
ume
nt
a
li
ne
s
t
a
bl
i
s
hi
ng
t
hev
i
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
fl
o
ng di
s
t
a
nc
eo
ut
do
o
rpo
i
ntt
o po
i
ntl
i
nk
sf
o
rr
ur
a
l
c
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
.
OneCa
s
eS
t
udyno
ti
nc
l
ude
di
nt
hi
ss
e
c
t
i
o
nbutunde
r
t
a
k
e
nb
yI
nv
e
ne
o
whoa
r
ewo
r
k
i
ngc
l
o
s
e
l
ywi
t
ht
het
e
a
mi
nv
o
l
v
e
di
nwr
i
t
i
ngt
hi
sbo
o
kc
a
n
bef
o
unda
tt
hef
o
l
l
o
wi
ngURL.

446

Case Studies - Introduction

Le
db
yAndr
i
sBj
o
r
ns
o
nwhoi
sI
nv
e
ne
o
'
sCTO,t
he
r
ei
ss
o
mev
e
r
yus
e
f
ul
i
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
ni
nhi
swr
i
t
e
upo
ft
hepr
o
j
e
c
t
.
ht
t
p:
/
/
www.
i
nv
e
ne
o
.
o
r
g
/
90k
mwi
r
e
l
e
s
s
l
i
nk
f
o
r
mf
a
ng
a
no
i
s
l
a
nd/
Weho
pey
o
uno
we
nj
o
yr
e
a
di
nge
a
c
ho
ft
heCa
s
eS
t
udi
e
sf
o
l
l
o
wi
ngt
hi
s
i
nt
r
o
.Y
o
uwi
l
ls
e
ewhowa
si
nv
o
l
v
e
da
ndo
fc
o
ur
s
et
he
i
rpr
o
0l
ei
si
nc
l
ude
d
i
nt
heAc
k
no
wl
e
dg
e
me
nt
so
ft
hi
sbo
o
k
.
Al
lo
ft
hea
ut
ho
r
sha
v
ebe
e
ni
nv
o
l
v
e
di
n 0e
l
d de
pl
o
y
me
nt
sa
nd a
l
s
o
mo
ni
t
o
ro
urF
a
c
e
bo
o
kpa
g
ewhi
c
hy
o
uc
a
n0ndhe
r
e
.
ht
t
ps
:
/
/
www.
f
a
c
e
bo
o
k
.
c
o
m/
g
r
o
ups
/
wi
r
e
l
e
s
s
u/
S
oa
sy
o
u be
g
i
nt
o pl
a
ny
o
urne
x
tde
pl
o
y
me
nt
,pl
e
a
s
edo po
s
ta
ny
q
ue
s
t
i
o
nsy
o
uha
v
ef
o
rt
hee
x
pe
r
t
st
or
e
s
po
ndt
o
.

CASE STUDIES

447

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in

Venezuela
Introduction
Al
t
ho
ug
ht
hi
sCa
s
eS
t
udyi
ss
e
v
e
r
a
ly
e
a
r
so
l
dno
w,weha
v
el
e
f
ti
ti
nt
hi
s
v
e
r
s
i
o
no
ft
heb
o
o
ka
si
ts
t
i
l
lt
ot
hi
sda
yi
st
hel
o
ng
e
s
te
v
e
rs
uc
c
e
s
s
f
ulpo
i
nt
t
opo
i
nto
ut
do
o
r802.
11t
e
s
t
.He
r
ey
o
uwi
l
l0ndt
hepi
o
ne
e
r
i
ngwo
r
ko
f
t
ho
s
e who a
r
es
t
i
l
la
ut
ho
r
i
ng t
hi
sbo
o
k
.And i
nf
a
c
ts
o
me o
ft
he
pr
e
pa
r
a
t
i
o
nwo
r
ki
nv
o
l
v
e
di
nt
hes
e
t
upo
ft
hi
st
e
s
ti
ss
t
i
l
lr
e
l
e
v
a
ntf
o
rt
ho
s
e
pl
a
nni
ngl
o
ngdi
s
t
a
nc
eo
ut
do
o
rl
i
nk
s
.Enj
o
yr
e
a
di
ng
!

Background
$a
nk
st
o af
a
v
o
ur
a
bl
et
o
po
g
r
a
phy
,Ve
ne
z
ue
l
aa
l
r
e
a
dyha
ds
o
mel
o
ng
r
a
ng
eWLAN l
i
nk
s
,l
i
k
et
he70k
ml
o
ngo
pe
r
a
t
e
db
yFunda
c
i
t
eM
r
i
da
be
t
we
e
nPi
c
oEs
pe
j
oa
ndCa
na
g
ua
.
Tot
e
s
tt
hel
i
mi
t
so
ft
heWi
Fit
e
c
hno
l
o
g
y
,i
ti
sne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yt
o0ndapa
t
h
wi
t
ha
nuno
bs
t
r
uc
t
e
dl
i
neo
fs
i
g
hta
ndac
l
e
a
r
a
nc
eo
fa
tl
e
a
s
t60% o
ft
he
0r
s
tFr
e
s
ne
lz
o
ne
.
Whi
l
el
o
o
k
i
nga
tt
het
e
r
r
a
i
ni
nVe
ne
z
ue
l
a
,i
ns
e
a
r
c
ho
fas
t
r
e
t
c
hwi
t
hhi
g
h
e
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
na
tt
hee
ndsa
ndl
o
wg
r
o
undi
nbe
t
we
e
n,I0r
s
tf
o
c
us
e
di
nt
he
Gua
y
a
nar
e
g
i
o
n.Al
t
ho
ug
hpl
e
nt
yo
fhi
g
hg
r
o
undsa
r
et
obef
o
und,i
n
pa
r
t
i
c
ul
a
rt
hef
a
mo
us"
t
e
puy
s
"(
t
a
l
lme
s
a
swi
t
hs
t
e
e
pwa
l
l
s
)
,t
he
r
ewe
r
e
a
l
wa
y
so
b
s
t
a
c
l
e
si
nt
hemi
ddl
eg
r
o
und.Mya
t
t
e
nt
i
o
ns
hi
f
t
e
dt
ot
heAnde
s
,
who
s
es
t
e
e
ps
l
o
pe
s(
r
i
s
i
nga
br
upt
l
yf
r
o
mt
hepl
a
i
ns
)pr
o
v
e
da
de
q
ua
t
ef
o
r
t
he t
a
s
k
.Fo
rs
e
v
e
r
a
ly
e
a
r
s
,Iha
v
ebe
e
nt
r
a
v
e
l
l
i
ng t
hr
o
ug
hs
pa
r
s
e
l
y
po
pul
a
t
e
da
r
e
a
sduet
omypa
s
s
i
o
nf
o
rmo
unt
a
i
nbi
k
i
ng
.I
nt
heba
c
ko
f
myhe
a
d,Ik
e
ptar
e
c
o
r
do
ft
hes
ui
t
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
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e
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o
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o
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s
t
a
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o
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c
a
t
i
o
ns
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ode
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ui
l
ai
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no
ut
s
t
a
ndi
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a
c
ef
o
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o
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a
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o
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c
a
t
i
o
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tha
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na
l
t
i
t
udeo
f4100m a
ndi
sa
bo
utat
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o
m myho
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o
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r
i
da
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rt
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t
he
re
nd,I0na
l
l
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o
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a
t
e
dt
het
o
wno
fElBa
l
,
i
nCo
j
e
de
sS
t
a
t
e
.

448

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

Us
i
ngt
hef
r
e
es
o
f
t
wa
r
eRa
di
oMo
bi
l
e
(
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o
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e
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e
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i
o
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ft
he0r
s
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e
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s
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ng280k
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t
we
e
n
Pi
c
ode
lAg
ui
l
aa
ndElBa
l
.
, over a 280 km path

Action Plan
Onc
es
a
t
i
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t
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s
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e
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a
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e
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e
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et
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l
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e
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i
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oc
a
r
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o
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ro
fy
e
a
r
s
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ro
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e
c
e
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et
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e
s
ho
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he
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er
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e
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sa
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o
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e
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e
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ro
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he
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e
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y
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e
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e
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o
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e
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e
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e
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e
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n bel
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a
t
e
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o
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i
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r
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e
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t
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e
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t
l
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o
rapa
i
ro
fWRT54Gs
.

CASE STUDIES

449

Pico del Aguila Site Survey

OnJ
a
nua
r
y15,2006,Iwe
ntt
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c
og
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at
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e
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o
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t
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t
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g
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e
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r
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u
a
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st
ot
h
eNo
r
t
h
.

450

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

$er
a
di
opr
o
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eo
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a
i
ne
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t
hRa
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ur
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LD 2:

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g
u
r
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LD 2:Ma
pa
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o
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l
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g
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e
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l
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ft
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e280k
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nk
.

CASE STUDIES

451

I
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.

452

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

Wewe
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CASE STUDIES

453

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454

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

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CASE STUDIES

455

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456

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

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CASE STUDIES

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458

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

Mrida, Venezuela, 17 April 2006.

Oney
e
a
ra
f
t
e
rpe
r
f
o
r
mi
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hee
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pe
r
i
me
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s
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r
i
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o
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i
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e
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ur
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ti
t
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o ac
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Can we do better?
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yt
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n.
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ni
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CASE STUDIES

459

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LD 13:

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g
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me
nt
i
ngTDMA.

460

Case Study - Long Distance 802.11 in Venezuela

Fi
g
u
r
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LD 1
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r
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dr
a
di
ol
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neo
fs
i
g
ht
.

Acknowledgments
Wewi
s
ht
oe
x
pr
e
s
so
urg
r
a
t
i
t
udet
oMr
.I
s
ma
e
lS
a
nt
o
sf
o
rl
e
ndi
ngt
he
me
s
ha
nt
e
nnat
obei
ns
t
a
l
l
e
da
tElAg
ui
l
aa
ndt
oEng
.Andr

sPi
e
t
r
o
s
e
mo
l
i
f
o
rs
uppl
y
i
ngt
hes
pe
c
i
a
ls
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a
1o
l
di
ngj
o
i
nt
sus
e
df
o
rt
hei
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
na
nd
t
r
a
ns
po
r
t
a
t
i
o
no
ft
hea
nt
e
nna
s
.
We
'
da
l
s
ol
i
k
et
ot
ha
nk t
he AbdusS
a
l
a
m I
nt
e
r
na
t
i
o
na
lCe
nt
r
eo
f
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r
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a
lPhy
s
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c
sf
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rs
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r
t
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ng Ca
r
l
o Fo
nda

st
r
i
pf
r
o
m I
t
a
l
yt
o
Ve
ne
z
ue
l
a
.

CASE STUDIES

461

Fi
g
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462

Case Study: Pisces Project

Case S tudy: P isces P roject

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rl
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nt
e
r
ne
t
.

CASE STUDIES

463

Fi
g
.
CS
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wf
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g
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sma
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s
l
a
nd
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no
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ma
wa
y
.

464

Case Study: Pisces Project

Fi
g
u
r
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P4:Mo
u
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t
t
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r
yba
c
kup
.

CASE STUDIES

465

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Fi
g
u
r
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P6

466

Case Study: Pisces Project

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sTI
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a
r
c
hg
r
o
up
.

CASE STUDIES

467

Case Study - University Of Ghana

campus wireless network
Introduction
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r
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nai
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he
g
r
o
wi
ngne
e
dso
fo
urus
e
r
s
.

468

Case Study - University Of Ghana campus wireless network

Wi2 setup and installation

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t
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swi
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s
sv
l
a
no
na
s
wi
t
c
h.

CASE STUDIES

469

I
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rde
t
a
i
l
s
.

470

Case Study - University Of Ghana campus wireless network

Pictures of our project and installation

Fi
g
u
r
eCS
G1:Ou
rc
a
mp
u
s

Fi
g
u
r
eCS
G2:Ou
rc
a
mp
u
s

CASE STUDIES

Fi
g
u
r
eCS
G3:Ac
l
a
s
s
r
o
o
m

Fi
g
u
r
eCS
G4:el
i
b
r
a
r
y

471

472

Case Study - University Of Ghana campus wireless network

Fi
g
u
r
eCS
G5:Oneo
fo
urAPs

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g
u
r
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y
o
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to
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v
e
r
s
i
t
yo
fGh
a
nac
a
mp
u
swi
t
hAP'
s
.

CASE STUDIES

473

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g
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t
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t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
so
fo
u
r
u
s
a
g
e
.

474

Case Study - University Of Ghana campus wireless network

Fi
g
u
r
eCS
G9:Be
l
o
wa
r
es
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
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e
s
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nt
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c
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e
ru
s
e
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r
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mt
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ec
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nt
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o
l
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r
.

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urma
i
nc
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ng
e
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e
t
t
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ng ag
o
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rt
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l
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t
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o
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ss
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l
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ng
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g
ne
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t
ht
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s
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t
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wo
r
kus
i
ngc
y
be
r
o
a
m.

CASE STUDIES

475

Next steps
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ude
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476

Case Study -Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India

Case Study - Airjaldi's Garhwal Network,

India
Introduction
I
nv
e
r
s
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o
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ft
hi
sbo
o
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nc
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ude
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mt
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nt
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ub
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e
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t
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Airjaldis Garhwal Network:

Wo
r
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ngTo
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o
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et
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ro
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t
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t
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o
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r
o
und18
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hs
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l
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l
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e
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v
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e
a
s
o
na
bl
epr
i
c
e
s
.

CASE STUDIES

477

Fur
t
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480

Case Study -Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India

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482

Case Study -Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India

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484

Case Study -Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India

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486

Case Study -Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India

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e
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o
no
mi
cf
e
a
s
i
bi
l
i
t
y
.

CASE STUDIES

487

S
o
meo
fo
urne
wc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nsha
v
epr
o
v
e
nt
obes
oc
ha
l
l
e
ng
i
nga
st
o
r
e
q
ui
r
ear
e
l
a
yf
o
re
a
c
h ne
wl
o
c
a
t
i
o
ns
,c
l
e
a
r
l
yno
ta
ne
a
s
ye
c
o
no
mi
c
pr
o
po
s
i
t
i
o
n.
S
i
z
ea
spr
o
uda
swea
r
ei
nt
hes
i
z
eo
ft
hene
t
wo
r
k
,at
r
a
v
e
ldi
s
t
a
nc
eo
f
o
v
e
r10ho
ur
sbe
t
we
e
ni
t
st
oe
x
t
r
e
mepo
i
nt
si
ss
t
r
e
t
c
hi
ngo
utt
e
a
m,who
mo
v
emo
s
t
l
yo
nbi
k
e
s
,t
ot
hel
i
mi
t
,wi
t
hs
o
met
r
o
ubl
e
s
ho
o
t
i
ngt
r
i
ps
l
a
s
t
i
ngo
v
e
rt
woda
y
so
na
c
c
o
unto
ft
r
a
v
e
l
.
Ec
o
no
mi
cv
i
a
bi
l
i
t
y t
hedua
lmo
unt
a
i
nv
a
l
l
e
y
/
s
pa
r
s
epo
pul
a
t
i
o
nhi
g
h
de
ns
i
t
ymo
de
l
,whi
c
hi
sa
ni
mpl
i
c
i
tac
r
o
s
s
s
ubs
i
dyha
spr
o
v
e
ns
uc
c
e
s
s
f
ul
,
butha
sno
tf
ul
l
ys
o
l
v
e
dt
hec
ha
l
l
e
ng
eo
fe
c
o
no
mi
cv
i
a
bi
l
i
t
yi
nma
r
g
i
na
l
mo
unt
a
i
no
usa
r
e
a
s
.Ourr
e
s
po
ns
e
st
ot
he
s
ec
ha
l
l
e
ng
e
se
v
o
l
v
ec
o
ns
t
a
nt
l
y
.
Pr
e
s
e
nto
b
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
nsa
nds
t
e
psi
mpl
e
me
nt
e
di
nc
l
ude
:
Ene
r
g
yweha
v
el
e
a
r
ntt
ha
ts
o
l
a
r
po
we
r
e
dr
e
l
a
y
sa
r
et
heo
nl
yr
e
a
lo
pt
i
o
n
f
o
rt
heGa
r
hwa
lne
t
wo
r
k(
a
sf
o
rma
nyo
t
he
rl
o
c
a
t
i
o
ns
)
.
I
nt
r
y
i
ng t
or
a
t
i
o
na
l
i
z
et
he c
o
s
t
sf
o
rc
l
i
e
nt
swe ha
v
el
i
mi
t
e
do
ur
de
pl
o
y
me
ntt
opr
i
v
a
t
e
/
s
ma
l
lbus
i
ne
s
sc
l
i
e
nt
st
oc
l
us
t
e
r
swhe
r
eami
ni
mum
o
f10c
l
i
e
nt
swi
t
hade
ma
ndo
fa
tl
e
a
s
t1Mb
pspe
rc
l
i
e
ntc
a
nbei
de
nt
i
0e
d
wi
t
hi
na56mo
nt
hpe
r
i
o
d.A l
o
we
rde
ns
i
t
yme
a
nshi
g
he
rpr
i
c
e
sa
ndi
s
us
ua
l
l
yr
e
q
ue
s
t
e
db
yc
l
i
e
nt
sf
o
rwho
s
eo
pe
r
a
t
i
o
nsc
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
yi
se
s
s
e
nt
i
a
l
.
Weha
v
ea
l
s
obe
g
unt
oo
1e
ra
pa
y
me
nts
pr
e
a
df
o
rt
i
mec
o
mmi
t
me
nt

de
a
l
s
:c
l
i
e
nt
spa
yf
o
rt
hec
o
s
to
fe
q
ui
pme
nta
ndr
e
l
a
y
s(
o
rt
he
i
rs
ha
r
eo
fi
t
)
o
v
e
rape
r
i
o
do
ft
i
me
,i
ft
he
ya
g
r
e
et
oac
o
nt
r
a
c
t
ua
ll
o
c
ki
npe
r
i
o
do
fo
v
e
r
t
woy
e
a
r
s
.
Re
l
a
y
st
hebe
s
tl
o
c
a
t
i
o
ni
sno
tne
c
e
s
s
a
r
i
l
yt
heo
newi
t
ht
hebe
s
tc
o
v
e
r
a
g
e
ONL
Y
,buto
net
ha
tpr
e
s
e
nta
no
pt
i
ma
lc
o
mbi
na
t
i
o
no
fv
i
s
i
bi
l
i
t
y
,s
e
c
ur
i
t
y
,
a
c
c
e
s
s
i
bi
l
i
t
ya
ndpr
i
c
e
.I
nc
e
r
t
a
i
nc
a
s
e
st
hi
sme
a
nsahi
g
he
rnumbe
ro
f
r
e
l
a
y
s
,butwebe
l
i
e
v
et
ha
to
nt
hewho
l
et
hi
si
sac
he
a
pe
ra
ndmo
r
e
r
a
t
i
o
na
lo
pt
i
o
n.
S
i
z
eas
i
mpl
es
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
ot
hes
i
z
epr
o
bl
e
m wo
ul
d bet
o br
e
a
kt
he
ne
t
wo
r
kt
os
ma
l
l
e
rs
ub o
ra
ut
o
no
mo
usne
t
wo
r
k
.We a
r
eus
i
ng t
hi
s
a
ppr
o
a
c
hi
no
t
he
rne
t
wo
r
k
s
,whe
r
et
hes
i
z
el
i
mi
ti
sc
o
ns
i
de
r
e
db
yar
o
l
eo
f
t
humbo
fama
x
.o
ft
hr
e
eho
urt
r
a
v
e
lt
oas
i
t
e
.
$i
sho
we
v
e
rma
k
e
sl
i
t
t
l
es
e
ns
ei
nas
pa
r
s
ene
t
wo
r
ks
uc
ha
st
heuppe
r
Ga
r
hwa
lr
e
a
c
he
s
.

488

Case Study -Airjaldi's Garhwal Network, India

$ec
o
mpr
o
mi
s
es
o
l
ut
i
o
nwec
a
mea
c
r
o
s
swa
spl
a
c
e
me
nto
f
s
t
a
g
i
ngpo
s
t
s

i
ns
t
r
a
t
e
g
i
cne
t
wo
r
kj
unc
t
i
o
ns
.
Es
s
e
nt
i
a
l
l
y
,t
he
s
e
po
s
t
s
a
r
es
t
o
r
a
g
es
pa
c
e
swhe
r
ee
q
ui
pme
nti
sk
e
pti
n
s
uNc
i
e
ntq
ua
nt
i
t
i
e
st
os
e
r
v
eade
0ne
dc
a
t
c
hme
nta
r
e
a
.
Whi
l
eno
ts
a
v
i
ngt
het
r
a
v
e
lt
i
me
,i
ta
l
l
o
wso
urt
e
a
mt
omo
v
eq
ui
c
k
l
y
wi
t
ho
utha
v
i
ngt
oc
a
r
r
ya
l
o
nghe
a
v
ya
ndbul
k
ye
q
ui
pme
nt
.$ee
v
o
l
ut
i
o
n
o
fas
t
a
g
i
ngpo
s
tt
oa
no
pe
r
a
t
i
o
na
lba
s
ewi
l
lc
o
mewhe
nk
e
e
pi
ngat
e
a
mo
f
t
wope
o
pl
ea
ts
uc
hal
o
c
a
t
i
o
nc
o
ul
db
ej
us
t
i
0e
db
yi
t
sc
l
i
e
ntde
ns
i
t
ya
nd
r
e
v
e
nue
s
.
Ec
o
no
mi
cv
i
a
bi
l
i
t
yAi
r
J
a
l
di

so
v
e
r
a
r
c
hi
ngg
o
a
li
st
or
e
a
c
huns
e
r
v
e
da
nd
unde
r
s
e
r
v
e
da
r
e
a
swi
t
hhi
g
hq
ua
l
i
t
yi
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
.Ass
uc
h,t
he
c
r
o
s
s
s
ubs
i
dymo
de
li
sj
us
t
i
0e
da
sapa
r
t
i
a
ls
o
l
ut
i
o
nt
ot
hec
ha
l
l
e
ng
e
sf
a
c
e
d
b
yma
nya
s
pi
r
i
ngr
ur
a
li
nt
e
r
ne
tpr
o
v
i
de
r
sl
a
c
k
i
ngt
hes
k
i
l
l
so
rde
s
i
r
et
o
bui
l
dne
t
wo
r
k
so
ft
hes
c
a
l
eo
ft
heGa
r
hwa
lne
t
wo
r
k
.
$a
ti
sho
we
v
e
rc
a
nno
tbet
heo
nl
ye
c
o
no
mi
ca
v
e
nuef
o
rde
pl
o
y
me
nti
n
s
uc
hc
ha
l
l
e
ng
i
nge
nv
i
r
o
nme
nt
s
.
Oura
t
t
e
mpt
st
oi
nc
r
e
a
s
et
hev
i
a
bi
l
i
t
yo
f
mo
unt
a
i
n pr
o
v
i
s
i
o
n
i
nc
l
ude
a
g
g
r
e
s
s
i
v
epr
i
c
i
ngo
fhi
g
he
rba
ndwi
dt
hpa
c
k
a
g
e
st
hema
r
g
i
na
lc
o
s
tf
o
r
hi
g
he
rba
ndwi
dt
hi
sr
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
l
yl
o
w,a
l
l
o
wi
ngushi
g
he
rma
r
g
i
na
lr
e
v
e
nue
s
whi
l
es
t
i
l
lbe
i
nga
bl
et
oo
1e
rv
e
r
yr
e
a
s
o
na
bl
ede
a
l
sf
o
rs
uc
hpa
c
k
a
g
e
s
.
$i
ss
t
a
ndsi
n ma
j
o
rc
o
nt
r
a
s
tt
ot
heno
ns
c
a
l
a
bl
edo
ng
l
ea
nd VS
AT
s
o
l
ut
i
o
nst
ha
ta
r
eo
f
t
e
nt
hea
l
t
e
r
na
t
i
v
e
st
oo
urs
e
r
v
i
c
e
si
nt
he
s
ea
r
e
a
s
.At
t
he o
t
he
re
nd o
ft
he s
pe
c
t
r
um,we ha
v
e be
g
un o
1e
r
i
ng l
i
mi
t
e
d
t
i
me
/
ba
ndwi
dt
hpa
c
k
a
g
e
s
.
Al
t
ho
ug
hmo
r
ee
x
pe
ns
i
v
eo
nape
r
uni
tba
s
i
s
,t
he
s
epa
c
k
a
g
e
sa
r
ea
ppe
a
l
i
ng
t
oc
l
i
e
nt
swho wi
s
ht
ol
i
mi
tt
he
i
rc
o
ns
umpt
i
o
nt
ot
he
i
re
c
o
no
mi
c
wi
l
l
i
ng
ne
s
st
opa
y
.
Fut
ur
epl
a
nsi
nc
l
udei
nt
r
o
duc
t
i
o
no
f
4C
:l
o
c
a
lc
e
nt
e
r
swhe
r
eus
e
r
sc
a
n
ut
i
l
i
z
eba
ndwi
dt
hf
o
rCl
a
s
s
r
o
o
ms
e
t
up(
o
nl
i
nei
ndi
v
i
dua
ll
e
a
r
ni
ng
,l
i
v
e
t
e
a
c
hi
ngt
oac
l
a
s
s
r
o
o
me
t
c
.
)Ci
ne
ma(
wa
t
c
hi
ng0l
mso
ro
t
he
ro
nl
i
ne
c
o
nt
e
nta
tal
o
c
a
lc
e
nt
e
r
)
,Ca
f
(
i
nt
e
r
ne
tc
a
f
whe
r
epe
o
pl
ec
a
n us
e
i
ndi
v
i
dua
lc
o
mput
e
r
s
)a
ndCo
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
y(
t
hr
o
ug
hl
o
c
a
lho
t
s
po
ti
nt
hea
r
e
a
o
ft
hec
e
nt
e
ro
rt
hr
o
ug
hc
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
yde
a
l
st
oho
us
e
sa
ndo
Nc
e
ss
o
l
da
t
t
heCa
f

)
.

CASE STUDIES

489

Summary
$eGa
r
hwa
lne
t
wo
r
k wa
sc
r
e
a
t
e
di
nr
e
s
po
ns
et
o ar
e
q
ue
s
tf
r
o
ma
n

a
nc
ho
rc
l
i
e
nt

,ami
c
r
oba
nk
i
nge
nt
e
r
pr
i
s
ef
o
rwho
mc
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
ywa
sa
ne
c
e
s
s
a
r
yc
o
ndi
t
i
o
nf
o
ras
uc
c
e
s
s
f
uli
mpl
e
me
nt
a
t
i
o
no
fi
t
sv
i
s
i
o
no
fr
ur
a
l
ba
nk
i
ng
.Ai
r
J
a
l
dir
e
s
po
nde
dt
ot
hede
pl
o
y
me
ntc
ha
l
l
e
ng
ewi
t
ht
heho
peo
f
e
ns
ur
i
nghi
g
hq
ua
l
i
t
ya
ndhi
g
ha
v
a
i
l
a
bi
l
i
t
ybr
o
a
dba
ndi
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
o
n
a
nd l
o
ng
t
e
r
m e
c
o
no
mi
cs
us
t
a
i
na
b
i
l
i
t
y
.$e
s
eo
bj
e
c
t
i
v
e
swe
r
er
e
a
c
he
d
t
hr
o
ug
h ac
o
mbi
na
t
i
o
no
fc
a
r
f
ulde
pl
o
y
me
ntpl
a
nni
ng
,ut
i
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
no
f
na
t
ur
a
lt
o
po
g
r
a
phi
ca
s
s
e
t
s
,e
x
pa
ns
i
o
no
ft
hene
t
wo
r
kf
r
o
mt
hes
pa
r
s
e
l
y
po
pul
a
t
e
d mo
unt
a
i
nt
e
r
r
a
i
nst
ot
hemo
r
ede
ns
e
l
yi
nha
bi
t
e
d Dhe
r
dun
v
a
l
l
e
y
,a
nda
g
g
r
e
s
s
i
v
epr
i
c
i
ngo
nhi
g
he
rba
ndwi
dt
hpa
c
k
a
g
e
s
.Fut
ur
epl
a
ns
i
nc
l
ude f
ur
t
he
re
x
pa
ns
i
o
no
ft
hene
t
wo
r
k
,
t
hi
c
k
e
ni
ng
o
ft
hec
l
i
e
nt
de
ns
i
t
yi
ne
x
i
s
t
i
nga
r
e
a
sa
nde
nr
i
c
hi
ngo
fpa
c
k
a
g
e
sa
nds
e
r
v
i
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490

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Red Hook initiative Wi2 & Tidepools

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m.

CASE STUDIES

491

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g
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492

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Fi
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j
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CASE STUDIES

493

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494

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

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CASE STUDIES

495

RHIWi
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i
s
he
d
me
di
apr
o
g
r
a
mso
nac
o
l
l
a
bo
r
a
t
i
v
e
,huma
nc
e
nt
e
r
e
dde
s
i
g
npr
o
c
e
s
st
ha
t
c
a
l
l
e
dupo
nt
hek
no
wl
e
dg
ea
ndi
nt
e
r
e
s
t
so
fl
o
c
a
lr
e
s
i
de
nt
s
.
$r
o
ug
ho
utt
he0r
s
ty
e
a
r
,Ba
l
dwi
na
nd S
c
hl
o
s
she
l
d wo
r
k
s
ho
pswi
t
h
c
o
mmuni
t
yme
mbe
r
st
ode
t
e
r
mi
nel
o
c
a
lne
e
dsa
ndg
a
t
he
rde
s
i
g
ni
de
a
sf
o
r
Ti
de
po
o
l
s
,de
v
e
l
o
pe
db
y Ba
l
dwi
nf
o
rpi
l
o
t
i
ng o
nt
heRHIne
t
wo
r
k
.
Ti
de
po
o
l
si
sa
no
pe
ns
o
ur
c
ec
us
t
o
mi
z
a
bl
el
o
c
a
lma
ppi
ngpl
a
t
f
o
r
m bui
l
t
us
i
ngJ
a
v
a
s
c
r
i
pt
,Le
a
We
t
J
S,PHPa
ndMo
ng
o
DB.

496

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Ba
l
dwi
nde
s
i
g
ne
di
tf
o
rl
o
c
a
lc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
n,pl
a
c
e
ma
k
i
ng
,a
nd
o
r
g
a
ni
z
i
nga
r
o
unde
v
e
nt
s
,i
s
s
ue
s
,a
ndc
o
mmuni
t
ya
s
s
e
t
s
.

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI7:Wo
r
k
s
h
o
pt
oi
d
e
nt
i
f
yl
o
c
a
lne
e
d
sf
o
rRHIWi
Fine
t
wo
r
k
.(
Ph
o
t
ob
y
Be
c
k
yKa
z
a
ns
k
y
)
.

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI8:Ti
d
e
p
o
o
l
sma
po
fRHIWi
Fine
t
wo
r
k
.

CASE STUDIES

497

$ec
o
mmuni
t
ywo
r
k
s
ho
pspr
o
duc
e
di
de
a
sf
o
rl
o
c
a
la
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nst
ha
t
wo
ul
da
ddr
e
s
ss
pe
c
i
0cne
e
dsi
de
nt
i
0e
db
yt
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.
$ene
e
dsi
de
nt
i
0e
di
nt
hec
o
mmuni
t
ywo
r
k
s
ho
pswe
r
e
:

Ac
c
e
s
st
ot
heI
nt
e
r
ne
t(
a
tho
me
,v
i
amo
bi
l
e
,a
nda
tne
i
g
hbo
r
ho
o
d
k
i
o
s
k
s
)
.
Ac
c
o
unt
a
bl
ec
o
mmuni
t
ypa
r
t
i
c
i
pa
t
i
o
n(
FAQs
,e
l
e
c
t
r
o
ni
cbul
l
e
t
i
n
bo
a
r
ds
,S
MSe
na
bl
e
df
e
a
t
ur
e
s
)
.
Ac
c
e
s
st
or
e
s
o
ur
c
e
s(
e
mpl
o
y
me
nta
nds
k
i
l
l
ss
ha
r
i
ng
)
.
Lo
c
a
lI
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
nS
y
s
t
e
m(
hi
s
t
o
r
i
c
a
la
r
c
hi
v
e
,l
a
ndma
r
k
s
)
.
Mul
t
i
l
i
ng
ua
l(
S
pa
ni
s
h,Ar
a
bi
ca
ndTa
g
a
l
o
g
)
.
Pl
a
y
f
uli
nt
e
r
f
a
c
et
opr
o
mo
t
ee
x
pl
o
r
a
t
i
o
n.

I
nt
hes
umme
ro
f2012,Ba
l
dwi
nj
o
i
ne
dOTI

ss
t
a
1,a
ndOTIbr
o
ug
ht
a
ddi
t
i
o
na
lt
e
c
he
x
pe
r
t
i
s
et
ot
hec
o
l
l
a
bo
r
a
t
i
o
na
l
o
ngwi
t
he
x
pe
r
i
e
nc
ec
l
o
s
i
ng
di
g
i
t
a
ldi
v
i
de
sa
ndde
v
e
l
o
pi
ngc
o
mmuni
t
y
c
o
nt
r
o
l
l
e
di
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
.
$e o
r
g
a
ni
z
a
t
i
o
n

se
x
pe
r
i
e
nc
ei
n De
t
r
o
i
ta
nd Phi
l
a
de
l
phi
a pr
o
v
i
de
d
g
ui
da
nc
eo
nho
wt
oc
o
l
l
a
bo
r
a
t
ewi
t
hc
o
mmuni
t
i
e
st
ha
tha
v
ebe
e
ns
o
c
i
a
l
l
y
,
g
e
o
g
r
a
phi
c
a
l
l
ya
ndt
e
c
hno
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
l
yi
s
o
l
a
t
e
dwi
t
hi
nc
i
t
i
e
s
.
Dur
i
ngt
hemo
nt
hsf
o
l
l
o
wi
ngt
hei
ni
t
i
a
lt
e
s
t
so
ft
hel
o
c
a
lne
t
wo
r
k
,OTI
a
ndRHIf
o
c
us
e
do
nr
e
a
l
i
z
i
ngt
hr
e
ei
ni
t
i
a
la
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nst
ha
two
ul
dus
et
he
Ti
de
po
o
l
spl
a
t
f
o
r
ma
ndr
uno
v
e
rt
hel
o
c
a
lwi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
:

Whe
r
e

st
heB61Bus
?-Ana
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nf
o
ra
c
c
e
s
s
i
ngr
e
a
l
t
i
mebus
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
nsa
nd a
r
r
i
v
a
lt
i
me
sus
i
ng da
t
af
r
o
m t
heMe
t
r
o
po
l
i
t
a
n
Tr
a
ns
i
tAut
ho
r
i
t
y

sBus
Ti
meAPI(
l
a
u
nc
h
e
dOc
t
o
b
e
r9,2012)
.
S
t
o
p& Fr
i
s
kS
ur
v
e
y-As
ur
v
e
ya
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nt
ha
tr
e
s
i
de
nt
sc
a
nus
e
t
odo
c
ume
ntpo
l
i
c
ei
nt
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
nsi
nRe
dHo
o
ka
ndi
mpr
o
v
epubl
i
c
s
a
f
e
t
y(
l
a
u
nc
h
e
dOc
t
o
b
e
r17,2012)
.
RHIRa
di
o-Ano
nl
i
ner
a
di
os
t
a
t
i
o
n,s
t
r
e
a
mi
ngc
o
nt
e
ntpr
o
duc
e
d
b
yt
heY
o
ut
hRa
di
oGr
o
upa
tRHI(
u
nd
e
rd
e
v
e
l
o
p
me
nt
)
.

498

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI9:Ma
g
ne
ta
d
v
e
r
t
i
s
i
ng"
Wh
e
r
e
'
st
h
eB6
1Bu
s
"
.Ti
d
e
p
o
o
l
sa
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n.

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI1011:Mo
b
i
l
eu
s
e
ri
nt
e
r
f
a
c
ef
o
r"
Wh
e
r
e
'
st
h
eB61Bu
s
?
"
a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n.

CASE STUDIES

499

Expansion after superstorm Sandy

OnOc
t
o
be
r29,2012,S
upe
r
s
t
o
r
mS
a
ndyde
v
a
s
t
a
t
e
dl
o
wl
y
i
ngRe
dHo
o
k
a
l
o
ngwi
t
hmuc
ho
ft
hes
ur
r
o
undi
ngr
e
g
i
o
n.Ami
dpo
we
ro
ut
a
g
e
sa
nd
Wo
o
di
ng
,t
hene
e
df
o
ra
c
c
e
s
st
oc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nss
y
s
t
e
msf
o
ri
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n
a
b
o
utwha
twa
sha
ppe
ni
nga
ndwhe
r
ehe
l
pwa
sne
e
de
dbe
c
a
mec
r
uc
i
a
l
.
$eRHIbui
l
di
ngwa
so
neo
ft
hef
e
wl
o
c
a
t
i
o
nst
ha
tha
dma
na
g
e
dt
ok
e
e
p
po
we
ra
nd,a
sar
e
s
ul
t
,RHIWi
Fiha
ds
t
a
y
e
dupt
hr
o
ug
ht
hes
t
o
r
m.I
nt
he
da
y
si
mme
di
a
t
e
l
yf
o
l
l
o
wi
ngt
hes
t
o
r
m,upt
o300pe
o
pl
epe
rda
ywe
r
e
a
c
c
e
s
s
i
ngt
hene
t
wo
r
kt
oc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
ewi
t
hl
o
v
e
do
ne
s
,l
e
a
r
nwha
twa
s
ha
ppe
ni
ngi
nt
her
e
s
to
ft
hec
i
t
y
,a
nds
e
e
kr
e
c
o
v
e
r
ya
s
s
i
s
t
a
nc
e
.

Wei
mme
d
i
a
t
e
l
ys
a
wc
o
mmu
ni
c
a
t
i
o
nsa
so
neo
ft
h
ec
r
i
t
i
c
a
lne
e
d
si
nt
h
e
c
o
mmu
ni
t
y
,
s
a
y
sTo
nyS
c
hl
o
s
s
.
Wewa
nt
e
di
tt
ob
ea
se
a
s
ya
sp
o
s
s
i
b
l
ef
o
r
p
e
o
p
l
et
oc
o
nt
a
c
tt
h
e
i
rne
t
wo
r
k
st
o@ndh
o
u
s
i
ng
,g
a
i
na
c
c
e
s
st
oi
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
n,
a
ndr
e
p
o
r
tt
h
e
i
rs
a
f
e
t
ys
t
a
t
u
s
.

Te
x
tme
s
s
a
g
i
ngwa
st
hemo
s
twi
de
l
ya
ndi
ns
o
mec
a
s
e
st
heo
nl
yme
a
ns
o
fc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nf
o
rne
i
g
hbo
r
ho
o
dr
e
s
i
de
nt
sa
f
t
e
rt
hes
t
o
r
m,s
oi
na
ma
t
t
e
ro
fda
y
s
,OTIde
v
e
l
o
pe
dRHIS
t
a
t
us-a
nS
MSt
oMa
ppl
ug
i
nf
o
r
Ti
de
po
o
l
sus
i
ngt
heTr
o
poAppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nPr
o
g
r
a
mmi
ngI
nt
e
r
f
a
c
e(
API
)f
o
r
ha
ndl
i
ngS
MS me
s
s
a
g
e
sa
nd t
heGo
o
g
l
eGe
o
c
o
di
ngAPIf
o
rha
ndl
i
ng
na
t
ur
a
ll
a
ng
ua
g
ea
ddr
e
s
s
e
s
.
RHIS
t
a
t
uspr
o
v
i
de
dame
a
nsf
o
rr
e
s
i
de
nt
st
ot
e
x
tt
he
i
rl
o
c
a
t
i
o
na
ndne
e
ds
t
o ac
o
nt
a
c
tnumbe
r
,whi
c
ha
ut
o
ma
t
i
c
a
l
l
y ma
pst
hei
nf
o
r
ma
t
i
o
ni
n
Ti
de
po
o
l
swi
t
ht
hr
e
a
de
d di
s
c
us
s
i
o
ns
oo
t
he
r
si
nt
hec
o
mmuni
t
yc
a
n
r
e
s
po
nd.

500

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI1
2:S
c
r
e
e
ns
h
o
to
fRHI
/
S
t
a
t
u
sa
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n,wh
i
c
hp
l
o
t
sS
MS
me
s
s
a
g
e
so
naTi
d
e
p
o
o
l
sma
p
.
Asr
e
c
o
v
e
r
ypr
o
g
r
e
s
s
e
d,Fr
a
nkS
a
nbo
r
n,aFe
de
r
a
lEme
r
g
e
nc
yMa
na
g
e
me
nt
Admi
ni
s
t
r
a
t
i
o
n(
FEMA)I
nno
v
a
t
i
o
n Fe
l
l
o
w,r
e
a
c
he
do
utt
oRHIa
bo
ut
e
x
pa
ndi
ngt
hene
t
wo
r
kt
of
ur
t
he
rs
uppo
r
tr
e
c
o
v
e
r
ye
1o
r
t
si
nRe
dHo
o
k
.
S
a
nbo
r
n r
e
c
r
ui
t
e
d v
o
l
unt
e
e
r
sf
r
o
m NYC Me
s
h a
nd Ha
c
DC, a
Wa
s
hi
ng
t
o
n, DC ba
s
e
d ha
c
k
e
r
s
pa
c
e
,a
nd c
o
o
r
di
na
t
e
d wi
t
h t
he
I
nt
e
r
na
t
i
o
na
lTe
c
hno
l
o
g
yDi
s
a
s
t
e
rRe
s
o
ur
c
eCe
nt
e
r(
I
TDRC)
.
OTIa
l
r
e
a
dyha
das
t
o
r
eo
fr
o
ut
e
r
sa
tRHIf
r
o
m be
f
o
r
et
hes
t
o
r
m.
Wi
t
ht
e
c
hni
c
a
ldi
r
e
c
t
i
o
nf
r
o
m OTIa
ndo
pe
r
a
t
i
nga
c
c
o
r
di
ngt
ot
heg
o
a
l
s
e
s
t
a
bl
i
s
he
db
yRHI
,t
het
e
a
ms
e
tupaFEMAs
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
el
i
nko
nt
her
o
o
fo
f
RHIa
ndi
ns
t
a
l
l
e
daCo
mmo
t
i
o
nr
o
ut
e
ro
nt
her
o
o
fo
fa
na
ut
obo
dys
ho
p
do
wnt
hebl
o
c
kf
r
o
m RHI
.
Pr
e
v
i
o
us
l
y
,t
heo
wne
ro
ft
hes
ho
pha
dbe
e
nr
e
l
uc
t
a
ntt
oho
s
tar
o
ut
e
r
,a
s
hedi
dno
ts
e
eabe
ne
0ti
ndo
i
ngs
o
.Ho
we
v
e
r
,a
st
hec
o
mmuni
t
yr
a
l
l
i
e
di
n
r
e
s
po
ns
et
ot
hec
r
i
s
i
s
,t
hea
ut
obo
dys
ho
pbe
c
a
meak
e
yl
i
nkbe
t
we
e
nt
he
I
nt
e
r
ne
tg
a
t
e
wa
ya
tRHIa
ndt
her
o
ut
e
ro
v
e
r
l
o
o
k
i
ngCo
1e
yPa
r
k
,whi
c
h
ha
db
yt
he
nbe
c
o
mea
ni
mpo
r
t
a
nta
i
ddi
s
t
r
i
but
i
o
npo
i
ntf
o
rRe
dHo
o
k
.
Al
t
ho
ug
ht
hes
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
eupl
i
nkwa
so
1e
r
e
df
o
ro
nl
y30da
y
sa
ndpr
o
v
i
de
d
mo
de
s
tba
ndwi
dt
h,t
he me
s
h ne
t
wo
r
kc
o
ul
d di
s
t
r
i
but
et
he I
nt
e
r
ne
t
c
o
nne
c
t
i
o
nt
ok
e
yl
o
c
a
t
i
o
nswhe
r
er
e
s
i
de
nt
s
,0r
s
tr
e
s
po
nde
r
s
,a
ndr
e
c
o
v
e
r
y
v
o
l
unt
e
e
r
sne
e
de
di
tmo
s
t
.

CASE STUDIES

501

Ast
hec
o
mmuni
t
yc
a
met
o
g
e
t
he
rt
or
e
s
po
ndt
ot
hes
t
o
r
m,t
hene
e
dt
o
g
r
o
wt
hi
sr
e
s
i
l
i
e
ntc
o
mmuni
c
a
t
i
o
nsi
nf
r
a
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ebe
c
a
mec
l
e
a
r
.
Wi
t
hpo
we
ra
ndwa
t
e
rs
t
i
l
lo
1i
nmuc
ho
fRe
dHo
o
ki
nt
hef
o
l
l
o
wi
ng
mo
nt
h,ma
ny l
o
c
a
lo
r
g
a
ni
z
a
t
i
o
nsa
nd r
e
s
i
de
nt
sr
e
a
c
he
do
utt
o he
l
p
.
Br
o
o
k
l
y
nFi
be
r
,al
o
c
a
lI
nt
e
r
ne
ts
e
r
v
i
c
epr
o
v
i
de
r(
I
S
P)
,v
o
l
unt
e
e
r
e
da
n
a
ddi
t
i
o
na
lg
a
t
e
wa
yt
oRHIWi
Fi
.
To a
dd t
heg
a
t
e
wa
yi
nt
ot
heme
s
h,OTI
,RHIa
nd Br
o
o
k
l
y
n Fi
be
r
i
ns
t
a
l
l
e
da5GHzUbi
q
ui
t
iNa
no
s
t
a
t
i
o
nLo
c
or
o
ut
e
rr
unni
ngAi
r
OS(
t
o
r
e
c
e
i
v
et
he0be
rs
i
g
na
l
)
,a
ndaUbi
q
ui
t
iNa
no
s
t
a
t
i
o
nr
unni
ngCo
mmo
t
i
o
n
(
a
sawi
r
e
l
e
s
sa
c
c
e
s
spo
i
nt
)
,o
nt
he3r
dWo
o
ro
ft
heVi
s
i
t
a
t
i
o
n Chur
c
h
Re
c
t
o
r
yo
nt
hewe
s
ts
i
deo
fCo
1e
yPa
r
k
.
$ec
hur
c
hwa
sa
l
s
owi
t
ho
utpo
we
ra
tt
het
i
me
,butt
het
e
a
mi
ns
t
a
l
l
e
da
n
uni
nt
e
r
r
upt
i
bl
epo
we
rs
uppl
yt
ha
tc
o
ul
dr
unt
her
o
ut
e
r
sf
o
r12ho
ur
sa
ta
t
i
me
.

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI13:Ro
o
f
t
o
pno
d
e
.I
nt
h
ea
f
t
e
r
ma
t
ho
fS
u
p
e
r
s
t
o
r
mS
a
nd
y
,
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
na
lc
o
mmu
ni
t
yme
mb
e
r
so
>e
r
e
dt
oh
o
s
tRHIWi
Fino
d
e
sa
ndal
o
c
a
lI
S
P
d
o
na
t
e
dI
nt
e
r
ne
tc
o
nne
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
.

502

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI14:Ro
o
f
t
o
pno
d
ei
ns
t
a
l
l
e
da
f
t
e
rS
u
p
e
r
s
t
o
r
mS
a
nd
y
.

S
i
nc
et
hes
t
o
r
m,RHIWi
Fiha
ss
uppo
r
t
e
da
ppr
o
x
i
ma
t
e
l
y100us
e
r
spe
r
we
e
ke
v
e
nwi
t
ho
utpr
o
mo
t
i
o
no
ft
her
e
s
o
ur
c
e
.
Da
t
ac
o
l
l
e
c
t
e
db
yCo
mmo
t
i
o
no
nc
ur
r
e
ntDHCPl
e
a
s
e
s
,a
swe
l
la
st
he
Go
o
g
l
eAna
l
y
t
i
c
so
nt
hel
a
ndi
ngwe
bpa
g
e
,s
ho
wt
ha
tr
e
s
i
de
nt
sa
ppe
a
rt
o
bepr
i
ma
r
i
l
yc
o
nne
c
t
i
ngus
i
ngAndr
o
i
dde
v
i
c
e
sa
ndAppl
ei
P
o
dTo
uc
he
s
.
I
na
ddi
t
i
o
n,ma
nyr
e
s
i
de
nt
sus
et
hec
o
mput
e
rwo
r
k
s
t
a
t
i
o
nsi
nt
heRHI
me
di
al
a
ba
swe
l
la
st
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
sa
v
a
i
l
a
bl
ei
nRHI
.RHIi
ss
e
r
v
i
nga
sbo
t
ha
phy
s
i
c
a
la
nd s
o
c
i
a
la
nc
ho
rf
o
rt
he wi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
,dr
i
v
i
ng di
g
i
t
a
l
a
do
pt
i
o
n,e
duc
a
t
i
ngt
hene
i
g
hbo
r
ho
o
d,a
ndc
o
o
r
di
na
t
i
ngr
e
l
i
e
fe
1o
r
t
s
.

CASE STUDIES

503

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI15:RHIWi
Fine
t
wo
r
kma
p
.Ba
s
ema
p(
c
)Go
o
g
l
eMa
p
s2013.

Fi
g
u
r
eCs
OTI16:Me
s
hne
t
wo
r
kt
o
p
o
l
o
g
yv
i
e
we
di
nOLS
RVi
z
.

504

Case Study - Open Technology Institute

Sustainability & future goals

RHIwi
l
lc
o
nt
i
nuet
ode
v
e
l
o
pt
hepr
o
j
e
c
twi
t
ht
heg
o
a
lo
fs
uppo
r
t
i
ng
c
o
mmuni
t
y
wi
der
e
c
o
v
e
r
yf
r
o
mS
upe
r
s
t
o
r
mS
a
ndy
.
Wi
t
hs
uppo
r
tf
r
o
m Ne
wY
o
r
kCi
t
yWo
r
k
f
o
r
c
eDe
v
e
l
o
pme
ntf
undi
ng
,RHI
a
ndOTIa
r
el
a
unc
hi
ngat
r
a
i
ni
ngpr
o
g
r
a
mi
nJ
a
nua
r
y2013t
oe
ng
a
g
e
ne
i
g
hbo
r
ho
o
dr
e
s
i
de
nt
si
nma
i
nt
a
i
ni
nga
ndg
r
o
wi
ngt
hewi
r
e
l
e
s
sne
t
wo
r
k
.
Mo
de
l
e
do
nt
he
Di
g
i
t
a
lS
t
e
wa
r
ds
c
ur
r
i
c
ul
um de
v
e
l
o
pe
db
yOTIa
nd
Al
l
i
e
dMe
di
aPr
o
j
e
c
t
si
n De
t
r
o
i
t
,Mi
c
hi
g
a
n,t
hec
ur
r
i
c
ul
um wi
l
lt
r
a
i
n
y
o
unga
dul
t
st
oi
ns
t
a
l
lne
wr
o
ut
e
r
s
,ma
i
nt
a
i
ne
x
i
s
t
i
ngo
ne
s
,a
ndpr
o
mo
t
e
a
do
pt
i
o
no
ft
heRHIWi
Fine
t
wo
r
kt
hr
o
ug
ho
utRe
dHo
o
k
.
$eRHIDi
g
i
t
a
lS
t
e
wa
r
dswi
l
lpr
i
o
r
i
t
i
z
ea
ddi
t
i
o
na
lpubl
i
cs
pa
c
e
sf
o
r
ne
t
wo
r
ke
x
pa
ns
i
o
na
nd wo
r
kwi
t
ho
t
he
rr
e
s
i
de
nt
st
ode
s
i
g
nne
w,l
o
c
a
l
a
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
ns
.OTIwi
l
lc
o
nt
i
nue t
oa
s
s
i
s
ti
nt
hede
v
e
l
o
pme
nto
ft
he
a
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nsa
nd s
uppo
r
tt
he e
ng
i
ne
e
r
i
ng o
ft
he ne
t
wo
r
ki
nc
l
o
s
e
c
o
l
l
a
bo
r
a
t
i
o
nwi
t
ht
hec
o
mmuni
t
y
.

Cost of the network

Do
na
t
e
dl
a
bo
rf
r
o
ml
o
c
a
lr
e
s
i
de
nt
sa
ndt
e
c
hno
l
o
g
i
s
t
.I
ns
t
i
t
ut
i
o
na
ls
uppo
r
t
f
r
o
m RHIa
ndOTI
.
Ha
r
dwa
r
e(
~$50t
o~$85e
a
c
hr
o
ut
e
r
)
.
I
ns
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
n(
35wo
r
kho
ur
sf
o
rt
wope
o
pl
epe
rs
i
t
e
)
.Ba
ndwi
dt
h(
do
na
t
e
d
b
yRHI
,Br
o
o
k
l
y
nFi
be
r
,a
ndFEMA)
.
Tr
a
i
ni
ngpr
o
g
r
a
mf
o
rl
o
c
a
lr
e
s
i
de
nt
st
oma
i
nt
a
i
na
nde
x
pa
ndne
t
wo
r
ka
s
pa
r
to
famuni
c
i
pa
le
mpl
o
y
me
ntpr
o
g
r
a
m.

Lessons learned
Ha
v
i
ngr
e
l
a
t
i
o
ns
hi
psa
nda
nc
ho
rwi
r
e
l
e
s
sno
de
si
npl
a
c
epr
i
o
rt
oadi
s
a
s
t
e
r
f
a
c
i
l
i
t
a
t
e
sr
a
pi
dne
t
wo
r
kde
pl
o
y
me
ntt
hr
o
ug
h:
Al
r
e
a
dy
e
s
t
a
bl
i
s
he
d r
e
l
a
t
i
o
ns
hi
ps wi
t
h k
e
y c
o
mmuni
t
y
s
t
a
k
e
ho
l
de
r
s
.
A he
i
g
ht
e
ne
d l
e
v
e
lo
ft
e
c
hno
l
o
g
i
c
a
ll
i
t
e
r
a
c
y i
n t
he
c
o
mmuni
t
y
.
Pr
e
po
s
i
t
i
o
ne
d wi
r
e
l
e
s
s ne
t
wo
r
k e
q
ui
pme
nt i
n t
he
ne
i
g
hbo
r
ho
o
d.

CASE STUDIES

505

$emo
s
tc
ha
l
l
e
ng
i
ngi
nv
e
s
t
me
nti
si
nt
hei
ni
t
i
a
lo
r
g
a
ni
z
i
nga
ndde
s
i
g
n
pha
s
ebe
f
o
r
ea
nyv
a
l
uei
sr
e
a
l
i
z
e
d.
Co
mmuni
t
y
de
s
i
g
ne
da
ppl
i
c
a
t
i
o
nsa
ddv
a
l
uet
oal
o
c
a
lne
t
wo
r
k
,e
v
e
na
ta
s
ma
l
ls
c
a
l
e
.

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