Fluid Mechanics - R.K.Bansal PDF

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A TextBook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines

-Dr. R. K. Bansal
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Chapters:
<click on the names to jump to the chapter directly>
01. Properties of Fluids

02. Pressure and Its Measurements
03. Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces
04. Buoyancy and Flotation
05. <not scanned>
06. Dynamics of Fluid Flow
07. Orifices and Mouthpieces
08. Notches and Weirs
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1
CHAPTER
Properties of Fluids
'
I. I
INTROD UCTION
Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behu\iour of the flu ids (liquids or
gases) at rest as well. as in motion. Thus thi s branch of science deals \Vith the static. kinematics and
dynamic aspects of fluids. The study or fluids at rest is cailed fl uid statics. The study of l1uids in motion,
where pre. sure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also
considered fo r the fluids in motion . that branch of science is called lluid dynamics.
~
1.2
PROP ERTIES OF FLUIDS
~Y
D~n,ity
1
o r Mass Density.
or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the
mass of a lluid to its volume. Thu mass per unit volume of a flui d is called denslly. It IS denoted the
symbol p (rho). The unit of mass density in Sl unit is kg per cubic metre, i.e .. kg/m3. The density o f
liquids may be considered as constant while th;H of gases changes with the variation of pres!'urc and
lemperature.
Mathemmieally. mass density is written as.
Mass of fluid
p- - - -- - Vo lume of tluid
The value of density of water is I gm/cm~ or 1000 kg/m 3.
~ic
Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a tluid is the

ratio between the wei~hl of a fluid to its YQl,tll11c. Thus weight per unit Yolumc of a lluid is called weight
density and it is denoted by the symbol1r.
Weight or nuid ( Mass of nuid) X Acceleration due to gravit~
Thus mmhematically, w = ---''---- Volume of fluid
Volume o r flu id
Masso flluidx g
= Volume o f lluiJ
Ma~s of lluid _ P1
:
=pxg
{
Volume of nu"iJ-
..
\,
.t =~i]
... ( I. I )
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! 2 Fluid Mechanics
The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m 3 in SI units.
I .2. 3 Se,ecifi c Volurpe. Specific vol ume of a fluid is defined as theJ?ohrme of a fl'l! id occupied by
a unit masf~"e;;tunc per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. MathematicaUy, it is expre~sed
as
I
-I ~
Mass of fluid p
Volume
volume is the reciprocaJ of mass density. 1t is expressed as m 3/kg. It is commonly
1= Volume of fluid
Specific volume
Thus spec
applied t gases.
Mass of fluid
I. .
Specific Gravity . Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of
a fluid to the weight density (or density) of ytandard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water
and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. ~e_ecific gravity is also called relative ~sity;.l!_i s
dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbolS.
_/
Mathematical,l~.v:5'"(for
Weight density (density) of liquid

liquids)= _ ___.:;_ _ _ .:.......:_ _.:...;__ _..:..._
Weight density (density) of water
~for gases)
Weight density (density) of gas

= ----=- -=---...:--.:...;_-'=-Weight density (density) of air
Thus weight density of a liquid = S x Weight density of water

=S x 1000x9.8l N/m 3
The density oi a liquid
= S x Dens ity of water
S x lOOO.kgfm 3 .
... (l. IA)
If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity
of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence
density of mercury = I 3.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m 3.
Problem 1.1
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid
which weighs 7 N.
Solu tion. Given :
Volume = I litre=
IO~ m 3
I litre= I
~OO m 3
or .llitre = 1000 cm
Weight= 7 N
(i) Specific weight (w)
(ii) Density (p)
(iii) Specific gravity
Weight
= (
Volume
IV
7N
3
)
= 7000 N/m . Ans.
1
3
-- m
1000
70()()
= - = - - kg/m = 713.5 kg/m . Ans.

g
9.81
Density of liquid
Density of water
=0.7135. Ans.
713.5
= -1000
Density of water= I 000 kg/m~ }
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Properties of Fluids 3 j
Problem 1.21
g ral'ity
Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific
= 0.7
Solution. Given :
Volume= l litre= I x 1000 cm3 =
Sp. gravity
10
m3 = 0.00 1 m3
S=0.7
(i) Density ( p)
Using equation ( l . I.A),

Density (p)
{ii) Specific weight ( w)
=S x
Using equation ( I. I),
1000 kg/m 3 = 0.7_ x 1000 = 700 kg!m 3 Ans.
= p x g = 700 X 9.81 Nlrn 3 =6867 N/m3 Ans.
{iii) Weight ( W)
Weight
We know that specific weight =---=Volume
\V
or
\V
w= - - or6867= - 0.00. 1
0.00 I
W 6867 x 0.001 6.867 N. Ans.
.... 1.3
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluu.l which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of
lluid over another adjacent layer of the lluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance dy' aparr. rnO\'Cone
over the other at different velocities. say 11 and 11 + du as shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together with
relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers:
The top layer causes a shear stress on the
adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a
u +du
slwar stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear
str.<?ss is proportional to the rate of change of velocIty ~ith respect Ill y. It is denoted by symbol
t called Tr.u.
du
MathematicalIy.
'( o c -
dy
du
or
Fig. 1.1
=)..ld
Velocity variation near a solid bonud.lr)'.
where J..l (called nw) is the constant o proportiOnality and is known as the Cy-efficient of dynamic vi~.:-osi ty
du represents t1e
I rate o.f shear stram
. or rate o tsI1ear d e.ormauon
"
. or veloc1ty
. grau1ent.
.,.
or on Iy v1scosJty.-
dy
From e.quat1on ( J . _ ). we have )..l =
(du)
't
...(I.J)
dy
Thus vis<.:usi ty is :tlso defi ned as the shear stress required to produce unit rate ufshear strain.
1.3. 1 Units of Viscosity.
quantities in equation ( 1.3)
The units of viscosity
i~
11htaincd by putting the
dimcn~i111l~
,,f the
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\,
Shear stress
Force/ Area
Change of velocity - (Length)
I
Time x Length
Change of distance
fl= - -- - - - -
Forcc/(1ength) 2
Force x Time
(Length) 2
Time
In MKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (m), in CGS system, ~orce is represented by
dyne and length by
and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length by metre (m).
em
MKS unit of viscosity
CGS unit of viscosity
kgf-sec
m2
dyne-sec
cm 2
2
In the above expression N/m is also known as Pascal which is represented by Pa. Hence N/m =Pa
= Pascal
SI unit of viscosity Ns/m 2 Pa s.
2
=
=
Sl unit of viscosity
Newton-sec
Ns
The unit of viscosity in CGS is also called Poise which is equal to dyne-;ec
em
The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS unit to CGS unit is given below:
one kgf -sec
m2
9.81 N -sec
=-.,--m2
{ : 1 kgf
=9.81 Newton}
But one Newton= one kg (mass) x one ( m 2 ) (acceleration)

sec
= ( IOOOgm)x(lOOcm)
sec 2
= 1000 x 100
dyn~
= lOOOx 100 gm-cm

2
sec
{-: dyne= gm x s :2 }
one kgf-sec = 9.81 x 100000 dyne-sec- ;-9.81 X 100000

dyne-sec
m2
100 x 100 x cm 2
cm 2
-----
= 98. 1 dyne-sec = 98.1 poise

cm 2
{: dyne-sec =Poise}
cm
Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get
its equivalent numerical value in MKS.
But
..
.
one kgf -sec
9.81 Ns
,
= - - , - = 98 . 1 p01se
m-
one Ns
98.1
.
.
- -2 - = - - potse = I0 po1se
m
9.81
Alternate Method. One potse =
or
.
1 Ns
0 ne potse = - - 2
dyne x s ( 1 gm x I cri1)
s
=
x --,
em 2
s2
em
10m
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sl
!em
= I gmx - 2-
But dyne
I
- - ko
1000 "'
=~:::
I
sm
100
I
k2 - 1 kg
= - - x 100 --=- = - 1000 s m 10 s mI gm
..:::__ One poise
or
. ......__
J--!:!.. = 10 potse.
- - S1rr-- -
'-.
--- -
_ :-.-otc. (I) In SI units second is represented by s' and not by 'sec' .

(ii) If viscosi1y is ghen in poise. i1 must be divided by H51o get its eq~va~numencal value in ~I units.
Some1imes a unil of ,iscosily as cenripoisc is used where
. .
I
.
-1
I centipOISe= pOise or l c P = P
[cP ~-Centipoise, P Poise]
100
100
he viscosity o f water at 20C is 0.01 poise or 1.0 cen1ipoise.
Kinematic Viscosity. It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic-viscosity and density of
uid. Iris denoted by the Greek symbol ( v) called ' nu. Thus, mathematically,
I v = Viscosity = 1:.
\ .
...( 1.4)
Density
The units of kinematic viscosity is obtaine as

Units ___;c._
of ll _- - r;{}rce x Time
v = __
Units of p - (Len!!thi x
~
Mass 3
(Length)
Len!:!th
.
Mass x --~,.. x Tunc
(Timet
--~-~~---
(~na;:,J__..
= (Length)
Force x 1'tmr- ._,

Mass
L~ngth
:
j
Force = Mass x A~c. )

Lenglh
=Massx - - 2. Tim~
-'---~-
Time
.
In MKS nnd SL the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre 2/sec or m 2/sec while in CGS units it is written
as cm 1/s. In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known stoke.
-- t-)2
Thus, one stoke
=cm11
Centistoke means
I
= - stoke .
100
100
m /s
-
. 4 m2/s
=-10-
N1. vton's Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (-r) on a lluid element layer is
proportional to the rate of ~hc;tr ~train...Thccon~tant of proportionality is ~ a il ed the co-efficient
or ,- i~~:osity. Mathematically, it is expre~sed as gi' en by equation (I . ~) or as
du
. ,V.3
dirt:'~tly
t = ~t - .
--
\, -"'
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Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do . .
obe~ove relation are called Non-newtonian fluids.
v.4
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperatur affects the viscosity.~ vi.scosit.J

i uids decrea~es with.the increase of temperature while the viscosit of ases increases Wiih diiC
__,_.....mc~se of temperature. This ~due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive on:es ~
molecufar mom~tum transfer. In liquids. the coh~ive forces redominates the molecular mo~Dar
tum trans e ue to closely packed mo ecu es nd with the increase in temperature, the co es1ve oras
irncreases Wit t e resu to ecreasing vise ity. But il! case oFgases the cohesive force are small aid
rnolecutar momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular momeoniia
transfer mcreases and hence viSCOSity increases. The relation between viscosity and temperature far
li,9_iilas and gases are:
'
,2
(i)F::nquids,I= ~ C+at,+6r'
... (1.4A)
where Jl =Viscosity ofliquid at tC, in poise

To="Viscosityof li'quJctar0C, in poise--are constantsi"or the-liquid- - - - -----,...-.
For water,
flo = f:"79 x 10" 3 poise. a = 0.03368 and~ = 0.000221.
The equation ( 1.4 A) shows that with the i~rease Qf temp~r_ature, the viscosity decreases.
aT=
[11
..
(ii) Fo.r ~gas,

=Jlo +at- ~::u
(1.48)
where TOr air J.lo =0.000017. a - e.000000056, ~ = 0.1189 X l0- 9.
T~(f.4 B) shows that with the increase of temperature. the viscosity increases.
T~~~~-of Fluids . ...T..he fluids may be classified into the following five types:
1. Ideal fluid,
2. Real fluid,
3. Newtonian fluid,
4. Non-Newtonian fluid, and
5. Ideal plastic fluid.
1. Ideal F luid. A fluid, which is incomfessible and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluT\ fu'e al fluid is only
an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity.
.
2. Real fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known
as real fluid. All the fluids: in actual practice, are real fluids.
3. 1'\cwtoninn Fluid. A real fluid, in which th~.shear stress
is directly, proportional to the ~ate of shear stmj.n (or velocity
gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid .
4. Non-Nrwtonian fluid. A real fluid, in which t~ar
VELOCITY GRADIENT ( ~)
stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
Fig. 1.2 Types of fluids.
gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.
S. Ideal Plastic Fluid. A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield valu~ and sl!ear s~ is
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or veloc1ty gradient), is known as ideal plastic; fluid.
' __k'.f.S
Problem 1.3
If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by ;: = !.. y - / in which u is~
3
.
velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above tl;e plate, determine the shear siress 11
y = 0 andy= 0./5 m. Take dynamic viscosity offluid as ~.63 poises.
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Prop erties of Fluids
u= -y-y
3
Solution . Given :
(dll)
(dll \J
dJ
M)=O
dr
Value of 1.1 = 8.63 poise=
= -2 - 2(0) =
3
)-=0
or dy
at .\=0.15
du
2
= - -2v
dy
3
-
..
(dll)
(dll)
or dy
Also
-2
3
=0.667
= - - 2x.l5 =.667-.30= 0.367

3
y=0. 15
2
8 63
SI units= 0.863 N s/m
10
.
.
du
Now shear stress IS g;ven by equation ( l.2 ) as t = 1.1 - .
dy
(i) Shear stress at y
=0 is given by
t = J.L
0
(~ 14,)
)
= 0.863 x 0.667 = 0.5756 N/m
A~s.
v=O
(ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 misgiven by
(~u~)
(t)y =O.IS = J.L

~
=0.863 X 0.367 = 0.3167 N/m2 Ans.

~=0.15
-.3
..
0.025 11i111 disrontfrom a fixed plate, moves at60 cmls and requires a force of
2 N per unit area i.e .. 2 N/111 2 to maintaiir this speed. Determine the fl:,id viscosity benreen the plates.
~olution. Given : ~
Oi sta n~e between plates.
dy
=.025 mm
=.025 x 10 - 3 m
= 60 cm/s = 0.6 m/s
Velocity of upper plate,
11
Force on upper plate,
F = 2.0 -
FIXED PLATE
Fig. 1.3
This is the value of shear stress i.e. , t

Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is ll
. the equation
. . ( 1.2) , we have 't
Usmg
where
= =0.60 m/s
o-3 m
du =Change of velocity= u - 0 u
dy ;:: Change ?f distance = .025 X I
't
:.
du.
=1.1 dy
=Force per unit area = 2.0 -.;

111
~~
.02~:~0-3 . . ~l = 2.0 X .025 X lQ -: = 8.33 X 10-~ N~

0.60
m=R.33 xI WI{ 10 poise= 8.33 x 10- poisc.~s.
2.0 = l..l
Problem 1.5 A flat pl<11e of ~a /.5 X Hf mni1 is pulll'd 1dth a spl'ed (Jj 0.-lmlr relatilt to another
plate located at a distance t!t (1..1!5 111111 .fitml it. Fi~~tl the force o11d il()lt't'l~i,d ttl 11~
spt'ed. if the fluid separating tllt'lll is havinx l'i.rc:osity as I poise.
.-===~r J.'
.,
.-
scanned
'! . by Fahid
. Solution. Given :
Area of the plate,
A = 1.5 x 106 mm 2 = 1.5 m2
'speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 rnls
Distance between the plates, dy =0.15 mm =0.15 X w-3 m
.
.
VISCOStty
.
1 Ns
11 - 1 poise - - ,..- 10 m2
' equation
. (1. 2) we h ave 't = ~ -du = - I x
0.4
USing
dy
10 .I5xlo- 3
(i) :.
Shear foice,
=266.66 -mN2
F = 't x area= 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans.
(ii) Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 rnlsec
= FX u = 400x0.4 = 160 W. Ans.

Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The oil is used
for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 em and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.p.m.
Solution. Given :
~ =1 poise = ....!.._
N:
10m
Dia. of shaft,
D =l Ocm =O.lm
Distance between shaft'and journal bearing,
dy = 1.5 rom ; 1.5 x w- 3 m
Speed of shaft.
N l 50 r.p.m.
Tangential speed of shaft is given by
u= nDN = n x 0.1xl50 =0. 785 rn/s
60
60
du
Using equation (1.2),
't = ~ -,
dy
where du =change of velocity between shaft and bearing =u - 0 =u
= -101x 1.s0.785
=52.33 N/m.2 Ans.
3
x w1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of a11 oil, which is used for lubrication between a
square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30 as shown in
Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 Nand it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform
velocity of 0.3 mls. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm.
~~
,!'
:
>
..
Solution. Given :
Area of plate,
Angle of plane,
Weight of plate,
Velocity of plate,
=0.8 x 0.8 =0.64 m

e =30
W= 300N
u =0.3 rnls
..
~~"->_,.:::_.,,--:---
~ ().
-> ~
'1 .. ::
= 300N
Fig. 1.4
* Power = Fx 11 N rnls = F xu W (: Nrnls =Watt)

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Properties C?f Fluids
91
Thickness Of Oil film,

t = dy = 1.5 mm = 1.5 X 10- 111
Let the viscosity of fluid berween plate and inclined plane is 1.1
Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60 300 cos 60 = 150 N
Thus lhe shear force, F . on the bon om surface of the plale = J50 N
and shear stress,
150
= 0.64
_!____
Area
~ow using equation ( 1.2). we have
N!m2
dll
t=l.l dy
where du =change of velocity= 11- 0 = u = 0.3 nl/s
dy =t = 1.5 x 10- 3 m
150
0.3
0.64 = 1.1 1.5 X I
o-3
150 x l5xl0- 3
2
1.1= - -- -- = 1.1 7Ns/m = 1.17 x 10= 11 .7 poise. ..\ns.
0.64x 0.3
P ro ble m 1.8 r l\"0. hariumtal.p!ates are placed 1.25 em aJl(lrt, the SP.ac:e. hetween them being filled
with oil ofviscosiry 14 poises. Calc11late th e shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a ,elociry
of 2.5 m/s.
(A.M.I.E .. 1972)
Solution. Gi,en :
Distance between plates.
dy = 1.25 em= 0.0 125 m

.
14
Viscosity,
Jl = 14 p01se = -
Ve locity of upper plate,
u = 2.5 m/sec.
10
. .
.
Shear stress 1s g1Yen by equatiOn ( 1.2) as,
N slm
du
= Jl dy
\Vhere du = Change of velocity betw~~n plates= 11 - 0 = 11 = 2.5 m/sec.
t
dy ;_ 0.0125 m.
14 . 2.5
T
=lOX .O l 2S
=280 N/m . Ans.
Problem f .9 The space benveen ll1'o square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the
plate is 60 em. Tire thickness ofthe oil film is 12.5 mm. The 11pper plate, which moves nt 2.5 metre per
sec req11ires a force of 98. 1 N to maintain the speed. Determine :
(i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil i11 poise. and

(ii) the kinematic 1iscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of th e oil is 0.95.
(A .M.I.E .. Winter 1977)
Solution . Ghe n :
Each side of;\ ~quare plate
:. Area.
Thickness of ~'il film.
Vet
..
~
1y " '
"1'1';, plaoe.
= 60 em = 0.60 m
2
A 0.6 X 0.6 = 0.36 m
dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10__; m
u = 2.5 m/sct.:
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:. Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 rnlsec

Force required on upper plate, F == 98. I N
Shear stress,
't =
Force
Area
98.1 N
=A= 0.36 m 2
(I) Let j.! = Dynamic viscosity of oil

Using equation ( 1.2),
't
du
98.1
=u or - . d y . 036
25
=r- x ---=I25 X 10- 3
11
I2.5 X 10-J _ I
~
- .3635 2
0.36
2 .5
m
1.3635 x I 0 13.635 poise. Ans.
_ 98.1
ll - - X
I Ns
( : m 2
= IOpoise)
(ii) Sp. gr. of oil, S = 0.95

Let v = kinematic viscosity of oil
Using equation ( l.l A),
p = S x 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m 3
M ass density of oil,
1.3635 (
Using the relation, v
.,
N~)
= !: . we get v =
m = .001 435 m2/sec = .00 1435 x 104 cm2/s
p
950
=14.35 stokes. Ans.
( : cm 2/s = stoke)
P;oblem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kglnl The shear stress m
a point in oil is 0.2452 Nlm 2 and l'elocity gradient at that poinr is 0.2 per second.
Solution. Given :
M ass density.
Shear stress,
Velocity gradient,
Using the equatjon ( 1.2),
p =981 kg/m 3
-r =0.2452 N/m 2
du
= 0.2 s
dy
du
=11or 0.2452 =j.! x 0 .2

dy
ll = 0.245 = 1.226 Ns/m2

0.200
Kinematic viscosity vis givt:n by
226
v = H:_ = 1.
= . I 25 X 10- 2 m2/sec
p
98 1
= 0. 125 x 10- 2 x 10 4 cm 2/s =0. 125 x 10 2 cm 2/s
= 12.5 crn 2/s = 12.5 s toke. Ans.
( : cm2/s =stoke)
Problem 1.11. Determine the specifir: g ravity of a fluid ha ving viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic
viscosity 0.035 stokes.
Solution. Given :
Viscosity, Jl
=0.05 poise =
0 05
N s/m 2
10
scanned
by Fahid
~
Kinematic viscosity.
111
=0.035 stokes
= 0.035 cm 2/s
{ : Stoke= cm 2/s}
=0.035 X ] o- ~ m2/s
Usin2 the relation v
= 1:.
we get 0.035 x
p
~
0.05
p = -- x
Problem 1.12
gravity !.9.
10
.035 X 10-'~
I0
Sp. gr. of liquid
0 05
10- 4 = x
Density of liquid
Density of water
---
.!..p
.
'
= 1-+28.5
kg/nl"
1-+285
=-=
1000
., 1.4 - 8) :: 1.43. Ans.
Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic l"iscosiry 6 stokes and specific
Solution. Given :
Kinematic viscvsiry
Sp. gr. of liquid
Let the viscosity of liquid
= 6 Stokes
1.9
=6 cm2/s =6 X 10- 4 ml/s
=j.k
Now'sp. gr. of a liquid
or
1.9
Density of the liquid

Density of water
. _of I iqu~
= -D_e_n_si_,t):...
1000
= 1000
. . Density of liquid
kg
1.9 = 1900 J
m
v = 1:, we get
p
. . l' sing the relation
6x 10- 4
= _ll_
.,..
1900
f..l = 6 X 10-J X 1900 = l.l4 Nslm 2
= 1.14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans.
'
Problem 1.13 The velocity distributionforflow over a flat plate is given hy u = -:f y- .i in which
u is the 1elocity inmerre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear srress
ar y = 0. I 5 111. Take dynamic viscosity ofjluid as 8.6 poise.
3
,
u = - ,. - ,.Solu tion. Given :
4 ..
du
~
= - -2\' '
dy
4
.
At-'' = 0.15.
du
dy
).1
= - -2 x 0.15=0.75 - 0.30=0.45
4
. . S.5 N s
= 8.5 pOI~l' = --,\

I 0 m"
(-:
(() (ltliSC
Ns)
=(...m
,
scanned by Fahid
du
85
N
N
=~ = - x 0.45 - 2 = 0.3825 - 2 Ans.
dy
10
m
m
Problem 1.:.1J.--The dyn(lmic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is
6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the '
bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.
Sc;>lution. Given :
Viscosity
1.5mm
~~:: Yo~;m
ll;:: 6 poise
=~Ns= 06 Ns
10m2
m2
Dia. of shaft,
Speed of shaft,
Sleeve length,
Thickness of oil film,
=
=
=
~::':J JHAFT
D 0.4 m
N 190 r.p.m
3
L 90 mm 90 X
m
3
t = I .5 mm = 1.5 X l o- m
SLEEVE
w-
Fig. 1.5
.
. f
f .. rr. D N rr. x 0.4 x l 90
I
Tangentlal
velocity o sha t, u = ___.._ =
= 3.98 m s
60
60
du
Using the relation
t = ll dy
where d11 = Change of velocity = 11 - 0 =11 = 3.98 m/s
dy = Change of distance = t = 1.5 X I o- 3 o/
t
=-fax
>'
This is shear stress on shaft

Shear fo'r ce on the shaft, F
198
1.5 X 10- 3
= 1592
I'\lm 2
=Shear stress x Area
= 1592 X rr.D XL= 1592 X 1t X .4 X 90 > 10- 3 =180.05 N
.,Torque on the shaft,
T = Force x D = 180.05 x 0.4 = 36.01 Nm
2
2
= 2rr.NT =2rr.xl90x36.0I = 7l 6.48 W. Ans.
60
60
*Power lost
Problem 1.15 If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is a parabolic with the vertex 20 em
from the plate, where the velocity is 120 em/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at
a distance ofO, 10 and 20 em from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise.
" s oJution. Given :
Distance of vertex from plate = 20 em
V clocity at vertex,
tt = 120 em/sec
Viscosity,
~t
.
85 Ns
=8.5 pOise=
-, = 0.85.
10 m-
- 1 --.
=120 em/sec
20cm
power m
. S.I. umt
.
2 nN
2nNT
=T * w = T x - Watt= - - Watt
60
60
Fig. 1.6
scanned by Fahid
The v~locity profile is given parabolic and equal! on of velocity profile is

u =al +by+ c
where a, band care constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as:
(a) at y =0, u =0
(b) at y = 20 em, u = 120 em/sec
du
(c) at y = 20 em, = 0.
dy
Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get
c =0.
Boundary condition (b) on substitution in (i) gives
120 = a(20) 2 + b(20) = 400a + 20b
Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i) gives
du
= 2ay+b
dy
131
...(i)
... (ii)
... (iii)
or
0 =2 x a x 20 + b = 40a + b
Solving equations (ii) and (ii.l) for a and b
From equation (iii),
b ;:: - 40a
Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get
120 = 400a + 20 x (- 40a) .= 400a - 800a =- 400a
120
3
a = - - =- - ;::-0.3
-400
10
b=-40x(- 0.3)= 12.0
Substituting the values of a, band c it1 equation (i),
u =- 0.3l + 12y.
yelocity Gradient
du
=- 0.3
dy
at y =0, Velocity
gradient,(:~]
2y + 12 = - 0.6y + 12
=-0.6x0+ J2 ;:: 12/s.Ans.
) .r=O
at y = 10 em,
= - 0.6 x 10 + 12 = - 6 + 12 = 6/s. Ans.

(dduJ
y y =lO
at y = 20 em,
;:: - 0.6 x 20 + 12 =(:!..!!_J

d y \" : ~
12 + 12 = 0. Ans.
Shear Stresses
Shear stress is gi\'en by,
du
t = ~
dy
\,
scanned by Fahid
lt4 Fluid Mechanics .

(i) Shear stress at y
-r =j.1.
=0,
(du)
dv
(ii) Shear stress aiy = 10,
'r
=I!(~~)
)
(iii) Shear stress at y
=20,
-r
=0.85 X 12.0 = 10.2 N/m2.

y=O
y~ I O
=I! (~u)
y
=0.85 X 6.0 = 5.1
N/m .
=0.8S X 0 =0. Ans.

y=20
Proble m 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve.
The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cm/s, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the
shaft. Determin_e the speed if a force of 200 N is applied.
(A.M.I.E., Summer I 980)
Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, u1 =SO cmfs
when force,
F 1 :; 40 N.
Let speed of sleeve is u 2 when force, F2 200 N.
Using relation
where 1:
du
"C=Jldy
=Shear stress = -Force

- =-FA
Area
du =Change of velocity= 11 - 0
dy =Clearance= y
=11
F
u
- = 11A
y
F = A j.1.t1 au
t . A,
I!
andy are constant}
F; F2
-=u, 1'2
. .
I
40 200
S ubstttutmg va ues, we get - = I~
SO
u, =
-
sox 200 =50 x 5 = 250 cm/s. Ans.

40
Pro ble m 1 .17 A 15 em diameter 1errical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of
diameter 15.10 em. Both cylinders are 25 em high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a
liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a ~ Nm is rPquired to rotate the inner cylinder at
100 r.p.m.. determine the viscosity of the fluid.
(A.M. I:E., Winter 1979)
Solution. Given :
Diameter of cylindt!r
Oia. of outer cylinder
Length of cylinders,
Torque,
IS em = 0.1 5 m
= 15.10cm = 0. 151 m
L = 25 em 0.25 m
T= ~2.Q Nm
scanned by Fahid
Speed,
Let the viscosity
.
N = 100 r.p.m.
=J.1
.
. '
Tangential velocity of cylmder, u
1t DN
=~ =
0.15 X 100
=0.7854 m/s
60
2
1t x 0.15 x 0.25 =.1178 m
1t X
Surface area of cylinder,
A =1tD x L =
Now using re!ation
"t=J.l. -
du
dy
where du = u- 0 = u = .7854..rnfs
- 0005 m
- 0.151 - 0.150 m-..
dY-
J.1 X_.7854
't = .:....__
__
.0005
..
Shear force,
7854
F = Shear stress x Area = 11 x
x .1178
..
Torque,
T = Fx D
2
.0005
7854
12.0 = J.1 X
.0005
11
.1178 X~
2
12.0 x .0005 x 2 =0 _864 N s/m2

.7854x.ll78x .15
=0.864 x 10 =8.64 poise. Ans.
Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 em apart. The sp.ace between the surfaces is filled
thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre
with glycerine. What fore~ is required to drag
between the two large ptane.sur}aces at a speed of0.6 m/s, if:
( i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and
(ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 em [rom one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic
1
N s!m 2
viscosity of glycerine= 8.10 X
avery
w-
Solution. Given : .
Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 em
Area of thin plate,
A = 0.5 mz
Velocity of thin plate,
u = 0.6 mls
Viscosity of glycerine,
J.1 = 8.10 x 10- 1 N s/m2
Case I. When the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane
surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)]
Let
F 1 =Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate
F2 =Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate
F =Total force reguired to drag the plate
1.2cm
2.4cm
''
... F
1.2cm
Fig. 1.7 (a)
Then
F= F 1 + F2
J:'he shear stress ('t2) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,
scanned by Fahid
j16 ;:.
~luid MechaJ1i.c~-;~~~ ..
(du)
dv
't 1 =).1-
where
du =Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface
= 0.6 m/sec
dy ==Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface
=1.2 em =0.012 m (plate is a thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected)
t 1 = 8.10 X 10-l
X(~)=
40.5 N/m 2
.012
F 1 =Shear stress x Area

= t 1 X A = 40.5 X 0.5 = 20.25 N
Similarly shear stress (t2) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by
Now shear force,
t2
=J.1 (du)
=8.10 X 10- l X (__Q} =40.5 N/m2
dy
OD12
2
..
..
Fl t l X A = 40.5 X 0.5 = 20.25 N

o
F = F 1 + F1 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans.
en the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8cm from one of
the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (b)].
Let the thin plate is a distance 0.8 em from th.e lower plane surface.
Then distance of the plate from the upper plane surface
2.4cm
= 2.4-0.8 = 1.6 em = .016 m
(Neglecting thickness of the plate)
The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate,
F 1 =Shear stress x Area= t 1 x A
~ (!!!!.)
xA =8.10 x w-x(~)
xo.~ =..15.18 N
dy
OD16
I
F 2 =t2 XA=Jl
0.8cm
l
Fig. 1.7 (b)
..
(du)
xA
dy
= 8.10 X JO- I X
Total force
-""'"':'.-- --.. F
The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate,
..
1.6 em
(___Q_}
X 0.5 = 30.36 ~
0.8/100
requif~d =F 1 + F 2 = 15.18 + 30.36 =45.54 N. Ans. /
"
Prob lem 1.1 9 A 1-ertical gap 2.2 em wide of infinite extent contains a fluid~! viscosity 2.0 N s!m 2
:nd specific gra1ity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 111 X 0.2 em is to be lifted up with a cqnstant
velocity of 0.15 mlsec, _through the gap. If the plate is in the middle ofthe gap, find the force required.
The weight of the plate is ./0 N.
.......
So lut ion. Gi,en :
Width of gap
= 2.2 em, viscosity, J.1 = 2.0 N s/m2
Sq. gr. of fluid
=0.9
scanned by Fahid
..
Weight density of fluid

= 0.9 X 1000 = 900 kgf/m3 = 900 X 9.81 N/m 3
(": 1 kgf = 9.8 1 N)
Volume of plate
=1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2 em
=1.2 X 1.2 X .002 m3 =.00288 m 3

Thickness of plate
= 0.2 em
Velocity <?f plate
= 0.15 mlsec
Weight of plate
= 40 N.
When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate
of plate from vertical surface, of the gap
'
Fig. 1.8
= (Width of gap- ~ckness of plate)
= (2.2-2 0.2) = I e-m== .0 I m.

Now the shear force on the left side of the _metallic plate,
F 1 =Shear stress x Area
=J.l (!!!.!.)
dy
X
I
5
Area = 2.0 X (O.l )
.OJ
II
1.2 X 1.2 N
(': Area = 1.2 x 1.2 m2)
=43.2 N.
Similarly, the shear ~orce on the right side of the metallic plate,
0 5
.oi
. . Total shear force
= F 1 + F2 = 43.2 + 43.2 == 86.4 N.
In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be
taken into account.
The upward thrust= Weight of fluid displaced
= (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced
=9.81 X 900 X .00288 N
( : Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plate= .00288)
=25.43 N.
The net force acting in the d?wnward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust
= Weight of plate- Upward thrust = 40 ,.. 25.43 = 14.57 N
.
.
:. Total force req'uired to lift the plate UJ3
~
= Total shear force+ 14.57 = 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97 N. Ans.
F2 = Shear stress x Area= 2.0
x ( .1 ) x 1.2 x 1.2 = 43.2 N
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence theimodyn_amic properties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo large
scanned by Fahid
Its
Fluid Mechanics ,
variation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature
(absolut~) of a gas is given by the equation of state as
p 'V
= RT or
=RT
.. --... ( 1.5)
where p =Absolute pressure of a gas in N/m 2
'V =Specific volume=
.!.
p
R = Gas constant
T =Absolute temperature in K
p =Density of a gas.
1.4. I Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R
is obtained from equation (1.5) as
p ,
R= pT
(i) In MKS units
R _ kgf/m
= kgf-m
- (!~ )oK kg . K
(ii) In S I units, pis expressed in Newton/m2 or N/m 2 .
R = N/m
kg_ X K
= N-m =Joule
kg-K kg-K
(Joule= N-m]
m3
= -kg-K
For air,
R in MKS
=29.3
kgf -m
kgo.K
N-m
J
R in SI =29.3 x 9.8 1 - - . = 287 - kg0K
kg-K
..
..
1.4.2 Isothermal Process. If the changes in density occurs at cons!ant temperature, then the
process is called isothennal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by
.!!... = Constant
...( 1.6)
1.4.3 Adiabatic Process . If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the
gas, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the
relationship between pressure ;nd density is given by
-?
=Constant
p
...( 1.7)
where k = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure an~ const~nt volume.
= 1.4 fo<aiL
- \;
scanned by Fahid
'
1.4.4 Univers al Gas Const ant.
Let
m = Mass of a gas i~ kg
\;/ = Volume of gas of mass m
p = Absolute pressure
T = Absolute temperature
p'V =mRT
... (1.8)
Then, we have
where R = Gas constant.
Equation (1.8) can be made universal, i.e., applicable to all gases if it is expressed in mole-basis.
n =Number of moles in volume of a gas
Let
\;/=Volume of the gas
M = Mass of the gas molecules
Mass of a hydrogen atom

m = Mass of a gas in kg
n X M = m:
Then, we have
Substituting the value of'nz ~n equation (1.8), we get
p'V = n x MxRT
... (1.9)
The product M x R is called unjversal gas constant and is equal to 848 kgf-m in MKS units and
.
kg-mole K
8314 J/kg-mole Kin SI units.
One kilogram mole i~ defined a~ the.product of one kilogram mass of the gas and its mole-cular weight.
Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 N!n/ at 25oC and at an absolute pressure of0.25 N/mm2 Detern;ine the gas constant and density of the gas.
.Solution. Given :
Weight density,
Temperature,
w = 16 N/m
t =25C
T = 273 + 1 =273 + 25 =288K
4
2
p =0.25 N/mm2 (abs.) = 0.25 x 106 N/m2 =25 x 10 N/m
(i) Using relation w = pg, density is obtained as
w
16
p =- = -
(ii) Using equation (1.5),
9~1
=1.63 kg/m3 . Ans.
.!!.. = RT
p
R = _!!_= 25xl0
pT 1.63 X 288
Nm
532.55 kg K . Ans.
.,
Problem 1,21 A cylinder oj0.6 m3 in volume contains air at 50C and 0.'3 Nlmm 2 absolute p ressure. The air is compressed to 0.3 nl Find (i) p ressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal
process and (ii) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4.
: : ... J .
Solution. Given :
Initial volume,
'V 1 =0.6 m3
scanned by Fahid
120
Fluid Mechanics ~
(I= 50C
T1 = 273 +50= 323K
2
6
2
p 1 =0.3 N/mrn =0.3 X 10 N/m
3
'<1 2 0.3 m
k 1.4
Temperature
Pressure
Final volume
=30 X 10 4 N/m2
=
=
(i) Isothermal process :
.!!.. =Constant or p'<l =Constant.
pI'</ I
=P2'r/2
Pi '<1,
p2 = - - =
'</2
30 X 10 X 0.6
6
2
I
2
= 0.6 x 10 N/m = 0.6 N/mm . Ans.
0.3
(ii) Adiabatic process :
Using equation ( f .7),
4p
-..~k
Pi vi
=Constant or p '<lk =Constant

-..~k
= P2v2.
'<lk
'r/ 2
P2 =Pi-+ = 30 X 10 X
(0
6)!.4
= 30 X 104 X 21.-t
0.3
--
= 0.791 x 106 N/m 2 = 0.791 N/mm 2 Ans.

For temperature, using equation ( 1.5), we get
p'<l = RT and alsop '<lk =Constant
RT
or
or
RT
and x '</
'</
'</
RNk- l =Constant
p =-
= Constant
T '<lk- t =Constant
{ : R is also constant}
:.: r, "~I k- 1 =r2 "~;-
- l ~323 ( 06 )I.4-J.O = 323 X2.4 = 426.2K

1(~)t
'r/2
0.3
T =T
2
t2
~,
= 426.2 - 273 =153.2C . Ans.
Problem 1.22 Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of /0C if
the voluine is 0.4 n{ Molecular weight of ;1itrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable.
Solution. Given :
Mass of nitrogen
= 5 kg
Temperature,
t = l0C
T= 273 + 10 = 283 K
Volum~ of nitrogen,
'</ =0.4 m 3
Mqlecular.weight
=28
Using ~quat ion (1.9), we have p'<l = n x M x RT
scanned by Fahid
'.
.
N-m
where M x R =Universal gas constant= 8314 - - - kg-mole K
and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight= (kg-mass) x 28
.
8314
N-m
R for rutrogen = - - = 296.9 - 28
kgK
The gas laws for nitrogen is p"f = mRT, where R =Characteristic gas C<?nstant
p X 0.4 =5 X 296.9 X 283
or
p
..I
'~
= 5 x 2969 X 283 = 1050283.7 N/m 2 = 1.05 N/mm2 Ans.

0.4
MPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS

Compressibility is the reciprocal of the b\llk modulus of
elasticilX! K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress
t~volumetric strain.
Constder a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig. 1.9.
Let rt = yolume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder
p =-Pressure of gas when volume is \1
Let the pressure is increased top+ dp, the volume of gas
decreases from rt tort- d'l:/.
Then increase in pressure
=dp kgf/m2
Decrease in volume
=d"f
....
~- v-
_.,.. d'tl
' / ' 'I)
IT
I
I
I
I
I
.., ,. /f.
I~
I
I
t%
I
I
I
,,.
~ PISTON
.. ..
i--3
"'
CYLINDER
Fig. 1.9
d"f
=-\!
- ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure.
Volumetric strain
:.
Bulk modulus
K = Increase of pressure
Volumetric strain
=..!!!?._= -dp 'l;j

-d\1
"V
... (1.10)
=K
...(1.11)
lationship betwee n Bulk Modulus (K) and Press u re (p) for a Gas
The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for two different
processes of compression are as :
(1) For Isothermal Process. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (p) and density
(p) of a gas as
.!!.. =Constant
p
scanned by Fahid
j22 Fliiid Mechanics

pV =Constant
or
Differentiating this equation, we get (p a~d V both are variables)
pdV + Vdp = 0
or pdV = - Vdp
OJ
- Vdp
p =----;tV
Substituting this value in equation (1.1 0). we get

K =p
(ii) For Adiabatic Process. Using equation (1.7) for adiabatic process
... (1.12)
-?
= Constant or p Vk = Constant
p
.
Differentiating, we getpd('tl). + 'ifk(dp)
p X k X \;fk-l dV + \:lk dp; 0
or
=0
[Cancelling vk-t to both sides)
pkdV + Vdp =0
or
pkdV =- Vdp
or
or
pk=- Vdp
dV
Hence from equation ( 1.1 0), we have

K=pk
where K = Bulk modulus and k = Ratio of specific heats .
... (l.l3)
..Problem 1.23 Detc=mine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid 1 i
increased_ from 70 N!cm 2 to 130 N!cm2 The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 per cent.
Solution. Given :
=70 N/cm2
Initial pressure
= 130 N/cm 2
Final pressure
dp =Increase in p~essure = 130 - 70 = 60 N/cm 2
Decrease in volume
=0.15%
d\:1
....
0.15
- - =+ - v
100
Bulk modulus, K is given by equation ( 1.1 0) as
K =_!}__ = 60 N /cm
dV
.15
60x!OO
.15
=4 x 104 N/cm2. Ans.
IOO
---""
Pr~blem 1.24
What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid ll'hich is compressed in a cylinder

from a volume of0.01_25 m3 at'8o N!cm 2 pressure to a volume of0.0124 m3 at 150 Nlcm2 pressure ?
Solution. Given :
Initial volume,
v
Final volume
Decrease in volume. d\:1
= 0.0125 m 3
=0.0124 m3
=.0125-.0124 = .0001 nr'
-
\,
scanned by Fahid
'I
dV
--
.0001
=-.0125
=
=
Initial pressure
80 N/cm2
Final pressure
150 N/cm2
:. Increase in pressure, dp =(150 - 80) =70 N/cm2
Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as
dp
70 2
K
dV .OOOJ 70 x 125 N/cm
,' p
-;v
--
.0125
= 8.15 x to' Ntcffi' . ~ns.

: 6-- SURFACE TENSION AN D CAPillARITY
~nrface tension is defmed as the.tensile force acting on the surface of<\ liquid in contact with a as or
on ~urface between two immisc1
sur ace e aves e a em ranee

under teD!lo~ The magnitude of this force per unit length of tbe free surface will have the ~arne value as
tne surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter cr (called sigma). In MKS units. it is
expressed as kgf/m while in SJ units as N/m.
The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by
Fig. 1.10. Consider three moleculesA, 8, C of a liquid in a mass
of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally
by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant
force acting on the molecule A is zero. But fhe molecule B ,
which is situated near the free surface, is acted Jpon by upward
and downward 'forces which are unbalanced. Thus a net
resuitant force on molecule B IS acting in the downward
---:...-:...-==. . .-:...
direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid,
doesexperience a resultant downward force. All e molecules
Fig. 1.10 Surface terzsion.
on the free surface
erience a downward force Thus the free
n film under tension of the surface of the li uid act as though it is
------------------------------~
~-:...-:...
:~
~-:....-=--:...-
Surface Te ns ion on liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid o~

adius 'r'. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to su ce tension will be actin
Let cr = u ace tension of the liquid
~p:= Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity)
d Dia. of droplet.
.
Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The.forces acting on one half (say left halO will be
(i) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of t~e cut portion as shown in
f!g . 1.11 (b) and this is eguat to
cr x Circumference
=<JX1td
scanned by Fahid
!24 : Fiwd Mechanics.:, ..
= 2: d2 as shown
(ii) pressure force on the area 2: d 2 and p x
in Fig. 1.1 1 (c). These two forces will be eq~al and opposite
under equilibrium conditions, i.e.,
CD
(a) DROPLET
(b) SURFACE TENSION
7t
d- =(J X 1td
X -
or
... (1.14)
(c) PRES~URE FORCES
Equation(~.14)showsthat
thedecreaseofdiameterof
the droplet, pressure intensity instde the droplet increases.
Fig. 1.11
Forces on droplet:
"
1.6.2 Surface Te ns io n on a Hollow Bubble. - A hollow bubble like.a SQ.l!P bubbJe)n air has tWo
surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected tuurface
'teDsro ii. fnS'Ucl) case, we have -::__ _
:_ .
_
px
d2 =2x (oxrrd)
2:
4
2orrd
So
p= - - = -
2:_ d 2
...(l.l5)
4
1.6.3 Surface Tension on a liquid jet. Comider a liquid jet of diameter d' and length 'L' as
shown in Fig. 1_,..!2,
Let p = Pressd're intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure
o =Surface tension of the liquid.
Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet, we have _
Force due to pressure
p X area of semi jet
=pxLxd
=C1 X 2L.
Force due to surface tension

Equating the forces, we have
pXLXd = oX2L
ax2L
p= Lxd
..
... (1.1 6)
d- ---~
(a)
(b}
_
_ _ _:fi~J.l2 F!!_rces l!E. liquid jet.
The surface Tension of water in contact with ai0Jt 2flC is 0.0725 N/~. Tlte pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 Nlcm 2 greqr.g_r than the outside wessure. Calculp:(e..tl.!!
diameter of the droplet of water.
_
Pro6iem 1.25
Solution. Given :
Sp_rface.tension,
o =0.0715 N/m
Pressure intensity, pin excess of outside pressure is
p
.
Let
=0.02 N/cm2 = 0.02 x
d = dia. of the droplet

I
104
!:!...
10 2
scanned by Fahid
Using equation ( 1.14), we get p =

d=
40
or 0.02 x 104 =
4x0.0725
0.02 X (1~)
4 0 0725
x
= .00145 m = .00 145 x 1000 = 1.45 mm. Ans.
Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside
pressure is 2.5 N!m 2 above atmospheric pressure.
Solution. Given :
d = 40 mm =40 X
. Dia. of bubble,
Pressure in excess of outside, p = 2.5 N/m 2
For a soap bubble, using equation ( I .15), we get
p
8a
= -d
a=
or
2.5
w-3 m
2.5 X 40 X 10-3
8xa
= 40 x w-3
N/m = 0.0125 N/m. Ans.
Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N!cm 2
(atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as
0:0725 Nlm of water.
Solution. Given :
d = 0.04 mm = .04 X J0- 3 m
Dia. of droplet,
2
'
4
'
Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32
N/cm = 10.32 x IO:..Nirrr
Surface~tension,
a = 0.0725 N/m
.
The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside press~e is given by equation (1.14)
or
p = 40" = 4 x 0.0725 = 7250 N/m2 = 7250 N = 0 _725 N/cm2

d
.04 X 10- 3
104 cm 2
:. Pressure inside the droplet = p +Pressure outside the droplet
=0.725 + 10.32 =11.045 N/cm2 Ans.

~.4 Capillarity. (!apitlarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in ~smalflUhe tel!Ki.ve to the-adjacent gen~ral level of liquid wncn the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
The rise pf liquid.surface is known a:s ca illar rise while the fall of the li uid surface is known as .
~
capillary depressio It is expressed in terms of em or rilm of liquid~
{; val ue depends upon the S!JZCific weight of the liquid, diameter of the
a~ " e ~
tube an~ace tension of the liquid]
~
~res"Sion for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass tube of small
diameter 'd' opened at both ends and is inserted in.a liquid, say water.
The liquid will rise in the tube above the level.of. the liquid.
Let h =height of the liguid in the tube. Under a~tat~ of equilibrium,
the welglit of liquid of height his balanced'by the force at the surface of
the 1rquid in the tube:'BUt ihe force at the surface of the hquid m the tube
.
ffdue to surface tension_:'
Fig. 1.13 Capillary rise.
-=t:Ct a = Surface tension of liquid
//
scanned by Fahid
,...
126
Fluid Mechanics
"
\.
... ( 1.1 7)
where p Density of liquid

Vertical component of the surface tensile force
(cr X Circumference) X cos e
=cr X 1td X COS 9
... (1.18)
~librium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), \~C get
~ d2 x h p x g
4
=cr x 1td x cos e

cr X
1 d X COS 9
h = - - -- -
or
4 cr cose
-. ... ( 1.1 9)
p xgxd
!!:d2xpxg
4
The value of e between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos e is
equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by
4 cr
h=---
... (1.20)
pxgxd
Expression for Capillary Fall.lf the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the revel of mercury in the tube
will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14.
Let h Height oJ depression in tube.
Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface
tension acting in the downward direCtiOn and IS equaJ to cr X 1td X COS
Second force is due to hydr.ostatic force acting upward and is equal to.intensity of pressure at a depth
' h' x Area
;J!J7
e.
1[
=px -d
=pgxhx- d- {: p= pgh}
1[
'
. Equating the two, we get
.,
cr X 1td X
COS
= pg h X
1C
-
d"
II= 4crcose /
pgd
Value of for mercury and glass tube is 128
:.
.r;
'
... (.21)
MERCURY
Fig. 1.14 .
Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in a gla--ss tube of 2_._5_mm diameter 1rhen immersed
vertically in (a)'water and (bj mercury. Take surface tensions cr 0.0725 N!mforwater ania= 0.52 Nlm
for mercury in COl!'( act with air. The specific gmvity for mercury is gi~en as 13.6 and angle contact
=D~
-
of
Solution . Given :
Dia. .of tube,
d 2.5 mm 2.5-x 10-3 m
Surface tenstion, cr for water =' 0.0725 "N/m
cr for mercury
:: 0.52 N/m
Sp. gr. of mercury
13.6
\,
scanned by Fahid
. . Density
13.6 x 1000 kglm3.
(a) Capillary rise for water (9 = 0)
40
Using equation (1.20), we get h
p><gxd
0 0725
x
1000x9.81x25x10-3
=.0118 m =1.18 em. Ans.

(b) For mercury
Angle of constant between mercury and glass tube, 9 = 130
. equa t'ton (l .2 l ), we ge th
U smg
= 4crcose =.:. . - -4x0.52xcos130

- - ---'-----=-3
PXgXd
13.6x 1000 X 9.81 X 2.5 X 10-
=- .004 m =- 0.4 em. Ans.

The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.
Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of4 mm diameter, when
imme'ised in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20C and the values of the
surface tension of water and mercury at 20C in contact with air are 0.073575 Nlm and 0.51 N!m
respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero that for mercury 1.30. Take density of water at
(U.P.S.C. Engg. Exam., 1974)
20C as equal to 998 kg!m 3.
Solution. Given :
Dia of tube,
d = 4 mm = 4 X Io-3 m
The capillary effect (i.e .. capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as
h = 4dcos9
pxgxd
where
cr =surface tenstion in kgf/m
e =angle of contact, and p =density .
(i) Capillary effect for water
cr 0.073575 N/m, 9
p = 998 kg/m3 at 20C
1.
=oo
4 X 0.073575 X C0$0 _ Sl l0-3 ~ , Sl

A
J1 ..:.
- 7
x
m - . mm. ns.
998 X 9.81 X 4 X 10-J
(ii) Capillary effect for mercury
e = 130 and
=sp. gr. x 1000 =13.6 x 1000 =13600 kg/m2
cr =0.51 N/m,
p
I _
. 4 X 051 X cos 1300
_
__
A
- - - - -- ----:- - 2 .46 x 0 3 m- 2 .46 mm. ns.
13600x9.8Ix4x10-3
The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.

h
__
Problem 1.30. The capillaty rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its
minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air= 0.0725 N/m.
Solution. Given :
Capillary rise,
Surface tension,
h = 0.2 mm = 0.2 x 103 m
cr
=0.0725 N/m
scanned by Fahid
Let dia. of tube

=d
The angle e for water
=0
Density (p) for water.
= 1000 kg/m 3
Using equation (1.20), we get
4 cr
h=
pX g X d
'or 0.2 x 10- 3
0.0725
= -4-x --
1000 X 9.81 X d
4 0 0725
X
0 148
14 8
A
1000 X 9.81 X .2 X 10-l = .
m = . em. US.
d --
Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 14.8 em.
Problem 1.31 Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be ~~sed to measure water level if
the capillary rise in the tube is to be res.rricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact
(Converted to SI Units, A.M.I.E ., Summer 1985)

with air as 0.073575 Nlf!l.
Solution. Given :
Capillary rise,
h = 2.0 mm = 2.0 X
w-3 m
=0 .073575 N/m
Surface tension,
cr
Let dia. of tube
=
The angle e for water
=
The density for water,
p=
Using equation ( 1.20), we get
d
0
1000 kg/m 3
II
__ . 4cr
?
_3 _ 4 x 0.073575
'-----:- or-0 x 10 - - - - -- , pxgxd
IOOOx9.8 1xd
4 X 0.073575
= 0.015 m
1000 X 9.81 X 2 X J0-3
=1.5 em. Ans.
Thus minimum diameter of me tube should be 1.5.cm.
Problem 1.32 An oil of 1iscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve.. The
diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m and it r,otates at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in oil for a sle.'eve
[Delhi University, December,-1992 (NS))
length of 100 mm. The thickness of oil film is 1.0 mm.
Solution. Given :
Viscosity,
f..l = 5 poise .
Dia. of shaft,
Speed of shaft,
Sleeve length.
Thickness of oil film.
=0.5 Ns/m
10
0=0.5 m
N = 200 r.p.m.
3
L = 100 mm = 100 X
m =0.1 in
3
t = 1.0 mm =I X 10- m
Tangential velocity of shafi,
11
= -
Using the relation,
...
w-
= !!:.E!:'_ =
60
7t
x 0.5 X 200 = 5.235 m/s
60
du
't=f..l dy
'~
i
scanned by Fahid
I,.
= ==
where, du Change of velocity u- 0 u 5.235 mls

dy = Change of distance = t =1 X w-3 m
't =
05 X 5235 = 2617.5 N/m2

1 X 10-3
Thisis the shear stress on the shaft

=
:. Shear force on the shaft, F Shear stress x Area = 2617.5 x 1tD x L

= 2617.5 X 1t X 0.5 X 0.1 = 410.95 N
Torque on the shaft,
T= Forcex D =410.95 x
05
. ( :
Area =rtD X L)
= 102.74 Nm
2rtN
Power* lost =T x ro Watts =T x - - W
60
21t X 200
= 102.74 x
= 2150 W = 2.15 kW. Ans.
60
VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization (which
depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperatUre condition) occurs because of continuous escaping
of the molecules thro~;~gh the free liquid surface.
Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel Let the temperature of liquid is
20"C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporise at lOO"C. When vaporization takes place,
the molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the
space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exert a pressure
on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid. Or this is the pressure at
which the liquid is converted into vapours.
Again consider the same liq~d at 20C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the press)Jre
above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the
pressure is reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the
boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20C. Thus a liquid may boil even
at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than
the vapour pressure of the liquid at th.!lt temperature.
.
Now consider a flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any poin~ in this flowing liquid becomes
equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these
vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise
to high impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material
from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known
as cavitation.
Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region
where the pressure of the liquid falls below che vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour
bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is
created. The metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures,
which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the
name is cavitation.
.
.
'2rrNJ
2rr.NT W Th
I
I .
2TtN
* Power m
case of S.I. Unit=
Tx ro o r - - Watts o r - - k . e angu ar ve oc1ty ro = "'6(}'
60
60,000
scanned by Fahid
LI3_
0 __
A_w_d_M_~
__aru
_-~--------------------------------------~~
HIGHLIGHTS
1. The weight density or specific weight o( a fluid is equal to weight per unit volume. It is also equal to,
w=p xg.
2. Specific volume is t~e reciprocal of mass density.
proporuon
al to lheveIocny
gra d'tent du. M ath emauc
all.~.
du
3. The s hear stress IS
y, '( = 1-1-.
dy
dy
4. Kinematic viscosity v is given by v = E.. .
5. Poise and stokes are the units of viscosity and kinematic viscosity respectively.
6. To convert the unit of viscosity from poise to MKS units, poise should be <llvided by 98.1 and to convert
poise into SI units, the poise should be divided by 10. SI unit of viscosity is Ns/m2 or Pa s, where N/m2
= Pa= Pascal.
7. For a perfect gas, the equatio11 of state is
.!!.. = RT
p
kgf-m
where R = gas constant and for air= 29.3-- = 287 J/kg K.
kgoJ<
8. For-isothermal process.- E. =Constant whereas for adiabatic process, ~ =constant.

p .
p
9. Boll< modol"' of <lmdy ;, g;v'" .H K
(:Jr
10. Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity or=-.

/{
11. Surface tension is expressed in N/m ordyne/cm. The relation between surface tension (cr) and difference
of pressure (p) between the inside and outside of a liquid drop is given ~ p =
";. .
.. '
For a soap bubble,
p=
~~,::
8cr
d.
-~
For a liquid j et,
1
J
~tJ
. or ,,"all o f a 1'tqut'd.IS gtven

.
b y h = 4crcos9
12 Capt:IIary !lse
wd
The value of 9 for water is taken equal to zero and for mercury equal to 128.
EXERCISE 1
.
(A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS

I. Define the following fluid properties :
.
Dens_ity, w~ight density. specific volume and specific gravity of a fluid.
2. Differentiate between : (i) Liquids and gas~~. (ii) Real fluids and ideal fluids, (iii) Specific weight and
specific volume of a nuid.

J. Jl~t is the difference 'between dynamic viscosity _and kinematic ,-iscosity ? State their
me surements.
units of
scanned by Fahid
. t
31 j
4. Explain the terms : (i) Dynamic viscosity, and (ii) Kinematic viscosity. Give their dimensions.
(A.M./.., Summer 1988)
5. State the Newton's law of viscosity and give examples of its application. (Delhi University, June 1996)
6. Enunciate Newton's law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid motion. What is the
effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air?
(A.M. /.., Winter 1987)
7. Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids.
8. What do you understand by terms : (i) Isothermal process, (it) Adiabatic process, and (iii) Universal-gas
constant.
9. Define compressibility. Prove that compressibility for a perfect gas undergoing isothermal compression is
. 1sentrop1c
.
. compress JOn IS -l .
-I wh'l1e for a perfect gas un dergo111g
p
10. Define surface tension. Prove that the relationship between surface tension and pressure inside a droplet of
liquid in excess of outside pressure is given by p = :cr .
11. Explain the phenomenon of capillarity. Obtain an expression for capillary rise of a liquid.
II
12. (a) Distinguish between ideal fluids and real fluids. Explain the importance of compressibility in fluid
flow.
(A.M./.., Summer 1988)
(b) Define the terms : density, specific volume, specific gravity, vacuum pressure. compressible and incompressible flu ids.
(R.G.P. Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal S 2002)
13. Define and explain Newton's law of viscosity.
(Delhi University. April ] 992)
14. Convert I kg/s-m dynamic viscosity in poise.
(A.M./.., IVinrer 1991)
15. Why does the viscosity of a gas increases with the increase in temperature while that of a liquid decreases
with increa~e in temperature ?
(A.M./... Wimer 1990)
I 6. (a) How does viscosity of a fluid vary 11 ith temperature?
(b) Cite examples where surface tension effects play a prominent role.
(J.N. T. U.. Hyderabad S 2002)
l7. (i) Develop the expression for the relation between gauge pressure P inside a droplet of liquid and the
surface tension.
(ii) Explain the following :
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids. vapour pressure, and compressibility. (R.G.P. V., Bhopal S 2001)
(B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity.
3
(A.M. l.E., Summer /986) [Ans. 9600 N/m3, 978.6 kg/m , 0.978]
2. The velocity distribution for flow ~vera flat plate is given by u =
3.
4.
5.
6.
~2 y -l12 where 11 is the

. point velocity
in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress' at y = 9 em. Assume
2
dynamic viscosity as 8 poise.
(Nagpur University} [Ans. 0.839 N/m )
2
A plate, 0.025 mm distant form a fixed plate, moves at 50 cm/s and requires a force of 1.471 N/m to
4
maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates in the poise. [Ans. 7.357 x 10- )
Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used for lubrication in the
clearance between a I 0 em diameter shaf! and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.0 mrn and shat
rotates at 200 r.p.m.
(Ans. 125.56 Nfrn]
Two plates are placed at a distance of0.15mm apart. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate having
surface area 1.0 m2 is pulled at 0.3 m/s. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if thl!
fluid ~eparating them is having viscosity 1.5 poise.
[Ans. 300 N, 89.8 Wj
An oil film of thickness I .5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.9 mx 0.9 mandan
inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20. The weight of the square is 392.4 Nand it slides down
the plane with a uniform velocity of0.2 nlls. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil.
[Ans. 12.42 poise)
scanned by Fahid
l32 Fluid Mechanics
1. In a stream of glycerine in motion, at a certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per sec per metre.
The mass density of fluid is 1268.4 kg per cubic metre and kinematic viscosity is 6.30 x 104 square metre
2
per second. Calculate the shear stress at the point.
(U.P.S.C., 1975) [An s. 0.2 N/m ]
2
8. Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 980 kg/!11 ':"hen at a certain point in the oil, the shear
stress is 0.25
Nlm~ and velocity gradient 0.3/s.
[ Ans. 0.000849 m. or 8.49 stokes]

sec
'
9. Determine the specific gravity of a nuid having viscosity 0.07 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.042 stokes.
[Ans. 1.667]
10. Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 2.0.
[Ans. 11.99 poise]
11. Jf the velocity distribution of a fluid over a plate is g.i\'en by 11 = (3/4) y
where u is the velocity in metre
per second :u a distance 'of y metres above the plate. determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 metre. Take
dynamic \"lSCOSit)' of the nuid as 8.5 X 10- 5 kg-sec/m 2 . (A.M.1.., Wimer 1974) [Ans. 3.825 X 10-S kgf/m 2]
12. An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of shaft is 0.5 m
and it rotates at 200 r.p.m. C~culate the power lost in the oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness
of the oil film is 1.0 mm.
[Ans. 2.15 kW)
-l.
13. The velocity distribution o,er a plate is given by u =
3.
3
y-
in which
11
is the velocity in rn/sec at a
distance of y m above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 0, 0.1 and 0.2 m. Take ll = 6 poise.
[Ans. 0.4, 0.028 and 0.159 N/m 2]

14. ln question 13, find the distance in metres above the plate, at which the shear stress is zero.
[Ans. 0.333 m)
15. The velocity profile of a viscous fluid ove r a plate is'paraootic with vertex 20 em from the plate, where the
velocity is 120 cm/s. Calculate the velocity gradient and shear stress at distances ofO, 5 and 15 em from the
plate, given the viscosity of the fluid= 6 poise.[Ans. 12/s, 7.18 N/m 2; 9/s, 5.385 N/m2 ; 3/s, I.795 Nlm 2]
2
16. The weight of a gas is given as 17.658 N/m3 at 30C and at an absolute pressure of 29.43 N/cm . Determine the gas constant and also tbc density of the gas.
...
,
1.8 kg 539.55 N -m]

kgo K
rAns. --;r
3
2
17. A cylinder of 0.9 m in volume contains air at ooc and 39.24 N/cm absolu~e pressure. The air is com3
pressed to 0.45 m . Find (i) the pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process, (ii) pressure and
temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4 for ai r.
[A ns. (i) 78.48 N/Cm1 , (ii) 103.5 N/m 2, 140C}
3
Calculate
the
pressure
exened
by
4
kg
mass
of
nitrogen
gas
at
a temperature of l5C if the volume is 0.35 m
18.
2
Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28.
[Ans. 97.8 N/cm ]

19. The pressure of a liquid is increased from 60 N/cm 2 to 100 N/cm2 and volume decreases by 0.2 per cent.
Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity.
[Ans. 2 x t<f N/cm2)
20. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a nuid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of
0.009 m3 at 70 N/cm 2 pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m 3 at 270 N/cm 2 pressure. [Ans. 3.6 x 103 N/cm 2)
11. The surface tension of water in contact with ai r at 20C is given as 0.0716 ~/m. The pressure inside a
droplet of water is to be 0.0147 N/cm 2 greater than the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the
dropletofwater.
[A ns. 1.94 mm]
21. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of30 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 1.962 N/m 2 above
atmosphere.
[Ans. 0.00735 N/m]
B. Tite surface tension of water in contact with air is given as 0.0725 N/m. The pre~sure outside the droplet of
'\\':tter of diameter 0.02 mm is atmospheric ( 10.32

water.
c~ 2 ) . Calcu;ate the pre>sttre within the droplet of

[Ans. 11:77 N/cm 2l_.
scanned by Fahid
l,
Prope~es of Fluids 33 j
'24. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 3.0 n:un diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water; and
(b) mercury. Take surface tensions for mercury and water as 0.0725 N/m and 0.52 N/m respectively in
[A ns. 0.966 em, 0.3275 em]
contact with air. Specific gravity for mercury is givep as I 3.6.
25. The capillary rise in the glass tube used for measuring water level is not to exceed 0.5 mm. Determine its
minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air= 0.07112 N/m.
[Ans. 5.8 em)
26. (SI. Units). One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity.
(Converted to SJ units, A.M.!. E., Summer 1986) [Ans. 9600 N/m3; 979.6 kg/m 3 ; 0.9786]
27. (SI Units). A piston 796 mm diameter and 200 mm long works in a cylinder of 800 mm diameter. If the
annular space is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 cp (centi-poise), calculate the speed of descent of
the piston in vertical position. The weight of the piston and axial load are 9.81 N.
[Ans. 7.84 m/s)
28. (SI Units). Find the capillary rise of water io a tube 0.03 em diameter. The surface tension of water is
0.0735 N/m.
[Ans. 9.99 em]
29. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of two litres of a liquid which weight 15 N.
(Delhi University, April 1992) [Ans. 7500 N/m 3, 764.5 kg/m 3, 0.764]
30. A 150 mm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter l 51 mm.
Both the cylinders are of250 mm height. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid of viscosity
I 0 poise. Determine the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r.p.m.
(Delhi Uni1ersiry, April 1992) [A ns. I 3.87 Nm]
31. A shaft of diameter 120 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter I 22 mm at a speed of 360 r.p.m.
The space between the shaft and the bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 6 poise. Find the
power absorbed in oil if the length of bearing is 100 mm.(Delhi Uni1ersiry, May 1998) [Ans. 115.73 W)
32. A shaft of diameter I 00 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 102 mm at a space of 360
r.p.m. The space between the shaft aod bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 poise. The
length of the bearing is 200 mm. Find the power absorbed in the lubricating oil.
(Delhi University, June /996) [Ans. 11 1.58 W)
33. Assuming that the bulk modulus of elastici ty of water is 2.07 x 106 kN/m 2 at standard atmospheric
conditions, .determine the increase of pressure necessary to produce I% reduction in volume at the same
temperature.
(Delhi University, June 1997)
6
[H in t.K=2.07xl0 kN/m
-d'V
;-q-
Increase in pressure (dp) = K x
I
= 0.01.
100
(~~'if.) = 2.07 x 106 ~ 0.01 = 2.07 x 104 kN/m2. '.i\ns. ]
34. A square plate of size 1 mx I m and weighing 350 N slides down an inclined plane with a uniform velocity
of 1.5 m/s. The inclined plane is laid on a slope of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal and has an oil film of 1 mm
thickness. Calculate the dynamic 'liscosity of oil.
[J.N. T. U., Hyderabad, S 2002]
[ Hint. A= 1 x 1 = I m 2, W = 350 N, u = 1.5 m/s, tan 9 =
~ = BC
AB
12
Component of weight along the plane = W x sin 9

.
w here sm
e = -BC= 5
AC
13
F
Now
or
[: AC = JAB +BC
=J122+ 52=l3
W= 350 N
= W sin 9 = 350 x~ = 134.6 15
Fig. 1.15
13
du
t = 11 - where du = u - 0 = 11 = 1.5 mls and
dy
dy= I mm= 1 X 10- 3 .m
-AF =l.l -du

,
dy
. _ F dy _ 134.615 I X 10.. J.1 - - X - - -- - X - - A du

I
1.5
Ns _ O
.0897 ---., -
m .
.897 pOISe
Ans.]
scanned by Fahid
Pressure and its Measurement

..,.. 2.1
FLUID PRESSURE
A'r A
POINT
Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary, then the force exerted by
the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be perpendicular to the surface dA. Let dF is the force
the normal direction. Then the ratio of ' d F is k~own as the intensit~ of
dA
pressure or simply pre$'!)ure and this ratio is represented by p. Hence mathematically the pressure at a
point in a fluid at rest is
dF
p =
dA
If the force (F) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), then pressure at any point is given by
F
Force
p
Area
acting on the area
~ in
=A=
:. Force or pr~ssure force, F = p x A.

The units of pressure iue : (i) kgf/m 2 and kgf/cm 2 in M~S units, (ii) Newtonlm 2 or N/m 2 and
~/mm 2 in SI units. N/m 2 _is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other commonly used units of
p~ssure are :
kPa = kilo pascal = 1000 N/m2
bar= 100 kPa = 105 N/m 2
..,.. 2.2
PASCAL'S LAW
It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point

in.a static fluid is equal in all directions. This is proved a<>:
The f'tuid element is of very small dimensions i. e. , dx, dy
and ds.
.
.
Consider an a rbitr ary fluid element of wedge shape in a
fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig. 2.1. Let the width of the
ane of paper _is unity. and Pxelement perpendicular to _th~pl\
.,
34
Py .lX 1
fig. 2.1
Forces on a fluid element.
scanned by Fahid
35 1
p and P; are the pressures or intensity of pressur-e acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let
1
L4BC = 8. Then the forces acting on the element are :
I. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces.
2. Weight of element in the vertical direction.
The forces on the faces are :
= Px x Area of face AB
Force on the face AB
=P.~ X dy X 1
Similarly force on the face AC = p" x dx X I
Force on the face BC
= p~ x ds x J
Weight of element
= (Mass of-element) x g
= (Volume X p)
( ABxJ\C
)
g = ~
X I X p X g,
where p = density of fluid.

Resolving the forces in x-direction. we have
Px X dy X 1 - p (ds X I) sin (90 - 8) = 0
P.t x dy x I - P: ds x 1 cos 8 = 0.
or
ds cos 8 = AB
But from Fig. 2.1,
P.i X dy X l, - Pz X dy X ] = 0
=dy
. .. . (2. 1)
~=~
Similarly, resolving the forces in .'-direction, we get

p ,. x dx x I - p. x ds x I cos (90" - 8)-
'
or
Pv X dr: -
But ds sin
..
or
dr x d,
'
xl x p x g = 0
e dxdy
p , d S Sin - - - X p X g = 0.
.
'
.
2
= dx and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible.
py<lx- P; x dx =0
=PFrom equations (2.1) and (2.2), ,\c ha~e

Px =p,. = Pp,.
... (2.2)
... (2.3)
The above equation shows that the pressure' at any point in x, y and z di~ections is equal.
Since the choice of fluid element was completely a~bitrary, which means 'the pressure at any point
is the same in all directions.
~ 2 .3
PRESSURE VARIATIO N IN A FLUID AT REST
The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydrostatic Law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a
vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of
the fluid at that point. This is pro,~d as :
Consider a ~mall fluid element as shown in Fig. 2.2
Let M =Cross-sectional area of element
tJZ = Height of fluid element
p = Pressure on face AB
Z = Distance of fluid element from free surface.
\.REE SURFACE OF FLUID
-----------I---t-----.
-=-=-=-=-=-=-{,~-1-=-=-=.z. - - - z--=-=- - - - - - - - t. -
===========~~-f 8_~==============
:
_-_-J------'t:.Z ---------------- . . c--------_
-_-_-_-_-0
-_-_-_
-_-_-_-_-
-- ------ilp--t-----. )_-_-_-_-_-_-_
---------.~
- - - - - p+" 61.. l'lA . - - - -_-_-_-_-_.

dz
- ----.-_-_-
' F ig. 2.2
Forces on a fluid clem ent.
The forces acting on the fluid element .are \.
- .l,
scanned by Fahid
j36 Fluid Mechanics

1. Pressure force onAB = p x M and acting perpendicular to face AB in the downward direction.
2. Pressure
f~rce on CD =(p + ()p !1Z) x M, acting perpendicular to face CD, vertically upward
az
direction.
3. Weight of fluid element= Density x g x Volume = p x g x (M x 6..2).
4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite. For equilibrium of fluid
element, we have
pM - ( p
+ ~~ !1Z)
.1A
+ p X g X (M
X L\Z)
dp
..
pM - pM - CJZ !1ZM + p x g x M x Z = 0
or
dp
or
- -
az
1/
or
=0
dp .1ZM
az
dp
az
!1ZM + p
=p X g X Mt:Z
;~
or
M!1Z
=0
= p x g [cancelling M/1Z on both sidesJ

'.
=p Xg =w
(-: p xg
= w)
... (2.4)
where w = Weight density of fluid.

Equation (2.4) states that rille of increase of pressure in a vertical di rection is equal to weight
-density of the fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law.
By integrating the above equation (2.4) for liquids, we get
/dp = JpgZ
or
p= pgZ
... (2.5)
where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height of the point from free
surfaces.
From equation (2.5), we have
Z = _f!__
... (2.6)
pxg
Here Z is called p ressure head .

Problem 2.1 A hydraulic press has a ram of30 em diameter and a plunger of 4.5 em diameter. Find
the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger is 500 N.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of ram,
D =30 em = 0.3 m
Dia. of plunger,
d =4.5 em =0.045 m
Force on plunger,
F =500 N
Find weight lifted
=W
Area of ram,
Area of plunger,
.A =
~
n
4
D =
a = - d2
(0.3)
=0.07068 m2
=-n4 (0.045)
=
.00159 m2
.
scanned by Fahid
371
Pressure intensity due to plunger

== Force on plunger == F == ~ Nlm 2
Area of plunger
a
.00159
PLUNGER
Due to Pascal's law, the intensity of pressure will be

equally transmitted in all directions. Hence the pressure
intensity at the ram
2
500
.
==
314465.4 N/m
.00159
==
But pressure intensity at ram
Fig. 2.3
Weight
== W == ~ N/m 2
Area' of ram
A
.07068
~ =3tM65.4
.07068
. . Weight
= 314465.4 x.07068 = 22222 N = 22.222 kN. Ans.
Problem 2.2 A hydraulic press lias a ram of 20 em diameter and a plunger of 3 em diameter. It is
used for lifting a 11eight of 30 kN. Find the force required at the plunger.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of ram,Area of ram,
Dia. of plunger
Area of plunger,
D = 20 em = 0.2 m
2
= -(.2)
=0.0314 m2
4
d=
=0.03 m
a= ~(.03) 2 =7.068 x 10-~ m2
4
lV= 30 kN = 30 x 1000 N =30000 N.
1t21t
A =- D
4
3 em
Weight lifted,
See Fig. 2.3.
.
. d
dd
Force
Pressure mtens1ty eve1ope ue to p1unger == - - =
Area
By Pascal's Law, this pressure is transmitted equally in
.
.
F
Hence pre~ure transmitted at the ram == -
-.
a
all directions
Force acting on ram == Pressure intensity x Area of ram
=F
a
xA ==
Fx.0314 N
7.068 x 10-4
But force acting on ram= Weight lifted== 30000 N

30000
Fx .03 14
7.068 X 10-4
~=_30_0_0_0_x_7_.0_68_x__
I O_~_
675.2 . Ans.
.0314
Problem 2.3 Calculate the pressure due to a column of0.3 of(a) water, (b) an oil of .vp. gr. 0.8,
and (c) mercw) of sp. gr. 13.6. Take density of II"Ctter, p 1000 kg!n/
Solution. Given :
Z= 0.3 m.
Height of liquid column.
r
scanned by Fahid
J38 . Fluid Mechanics

The pressure at any point in a liquid is given by equation (2.5) as
p
'
= pgZ
= I 000 kg/m 3
2
p = pgZ = 1000 X 9.81 X 0.3 =2943 N/m
= -2943 N/cm 2 = 0.2943 N/cm-., Ans.
(a) For water,
JO
(b) For oil of sp. gr. 0.8,

From equation (l.lA), we lulow that the density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid
multiplied by density of water.

p 0 = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water
(p 0 =Density of oil)
. . Density of oil,
=0.8 X p =0.8 X 1000 =800 kg/m3
Now pressure,
p =Po xg x Z
.
= 8PO x 9.81 x 0.3 =2354.4 -.;. = 235 ~.4

10
N
_=.0.2354 -=----2
Ans.
em
= 13.6- - - - - -----
(c) For mercury, sp. gr.
IN
em 2
- --- -- - ----
From equation (l.lA) we lulow thatthe density of a fluid is equal to specific gravity of fluid
multiplied by density of water
Ps = Specific gravity of mercury x Densi.ty of water
:. Density of mercury,
= 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m 3

p = Ps X g X Z
N
= 13600 X 9.81
X 0.3 = 40025 - ,
.
m
' _- -40025
_ OOl - -N2 Ans
- 4 - - 4
10
em
2
Problem 2 .4 The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 3.924 Nlcm Find the conesponding height of fluid when the fluid is: (a) water, and (b) oil of sp. gr. 0.9.
Solution. Given :
Pressure intensity,
N
4 N
= 3.924 - = 3.924 x 10 - 2
em 2
m
TJ:le corresponding height, Z, of the fluid is given by equation (2.6) as
Z = _p_
(a) For water,
pxg
p = 1000 kg/m 3
;
(b) For oil, sp. gr.
: . Density of oil
p
3.924 X 10 4
Z == - - ==
=4 m of water. Ans.
pxg
1000x9.81
=0.9
Po= 0.9 X I 000 =900 kg/m 3
4
3.924x
- -l0Z -- _P_ = p0 xg
900x9.81
by Fahid
= 4.44 mscanned
of oil. Ans.
Pressure apd its Measurement
39 1
Problem 2.5 An oil 'o fsp. gr. o:9 is COIIIaihed in a l'essel. AI a poilllthe height of oil is 40 111. Find
the corresponding heighT of lnlfer m the point.
Solution. Given :
S0 0.9
Sp. gr. of oil,
Height of oil,
Z0 40 m
Density of oil,
Po Sp. gr. of oil x Density 'of water 0.9 x 1000 900 kg/m 3
.
.
N
Intensity of pressure,
p =Po X g X Zo 900 X 9.8 1 X 40 - 2
m
=
=
=
. . Corresponding height of water =
P .
Dens1ty of water x g
900x9.81 x40
=
=0.9 x 40 = 36 m of water. Ans.
1000x9.8l
Problem 2.6 An open tank contains water upto a depth oi2 m 'and above it'an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 for
a depth of I m. Find the pressure intensity (i) at the inte,face of the two liquids. and (ii) at the bo110111
of the tank.
Solution. Given :
zl =' 2' m
Height' of water,
-~
Height of oil,
z2= 1m
t.O
Sp. gr. of oil,
S0 = 0.9
3
Density of water,
p 1 = 1000 kg/m
p 2 = Sp. gr. of oil x Density of water
2.0
Density of oil,
::WATER:;.::------ --- --------= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
~~:::~ ~~~~-K
-- -- -
Pressure intensity at any point is given by
-t
j_
(i) At interface,
p . :'
i.e., at A
Fig. 2.4
P. ~~~ Z.
=P2 X g X 1.0
= 9()() X 9.81 X
= 8829 -
N
2
1'.0
8829
= -
4-
10
(ii) At the bottom, i.e., at B
= P2 X g~ + P1
= 0.8829 .N/cm Ans.
Z1 = 900 X 9.81
X 1.0
1000 X 9.81 X 2.0
28449'
. 2
2
=8829 + 19620 = 28449. N/m = -- N/cm = 2.8449 N/cm Ans.
104
Problem 2. 7 The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hyd,:aulic ja'ck ate 3 em and
/0 em respectively. A force oj.80 N is applie_d on the small piston. Find the load lifted by the large
piston when :
(a) the pistons are, at the same le1el.
(b) small pision is 40 em above the large piston.
The density of the liquid in the jack is given as)OOO kg!nl
Solution. Given :
d= 3 em
Dra. of small piston,
gX
Area of small piston,
2
a=~ ttl=~ x (3) 2 = 7.068 cmscanned
by Fahid
4
4
' 140
Fluid Mechanics
D = 10 em
Dia. of large piston.

Area of larger piston.
A=!!.
x (10) 2
4
F= 80 N
=W.
= 78.54 cm2
r:orce on small pisto.n.

Let the load lifted
(a) When the pistons a re at the same level
Pressure intensity on small piston
F
80
2
- = - - N/cm
a
7.068
This is transmitted equally on the large piston.
. . Pressure intensity on the large piston
Fig. 2.5
80
=-7.068
Force on the large piston
= Pressure x Area
80
=- x 78.54 N = 888.96 N. Ans.
7.068
(b) When the small piston is 40 em above the large piston
- Pressure intensity on the small piston
F
80
N
= -;; = 7.068 em 2
. . Pressure intensity at section A - A
=F
SMALL
PISTON
+Pressure intensity due to height of 40 _e m of-liquid.
.
But pressure intensity due to 40 em of liquid
=p X g X h = 1000 X 9.81
= 1000 x 9.~1 x.40

10
Pressure intensity at section
A -A
N/crn2
0.4 N/m 2
= 0.3924 N/cm2
Fig. 2.6
=~
+ 0.3924
7.068
= 11.32 + 0.3924 = l 1.71 N/cm2
Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 11.71 N/cm2

Force on the large piston =Pressure x Area of the large piston
= 11.71 x A= 11.71 x 78.54 =919.7 N.
.... 2.4
ABSOLUTE, 'GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES
The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above
the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in other system,
pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus :
I. Absolute pressu r e is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute
vacuum pressure.
with the by
helpFahid
of a pressure
2. Gauge pressure is defined-as the pressure which is measured scanned
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric presPDF created by AAZSwapnil
sure on the scale is marked as zero.
Pr~ure and its Measurement

3. Vacuum pressure is defined as the pres- w
sure below the atmospheric pressure.
~
The relationship between the absolute pres- w
~
sure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are g:
shown in Fig. 2.7.
Mathematically :
(i) Absolute pressure
= Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
or
Pat> = Patm + P 8auge
(ii) Vacuum pressure
= Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure.
A
- ~
GAUGE PRESSURE
41 j
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
")..BSOLUTE
PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE ZERO. PRE.SSUR-E
Fig. 2.7
Relationship between pressures.
Note. (i) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15C is 101.3 kN/m2 or 10. 13 N/cm2 in SI unit. In case of
~IKS unit~. it is equal to 1.033 kgf/cm~.
(ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 -mm of mercury or I0.3:1 m of warcr.
Problem 2.8 Whar are rhe gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a poini 3 111 below th e free
Surface of a liquid h'!ving a densi(\. of /.53 X](/ kg/m1 if theatlllOSpheric pressure is equil'(i/enl IO
750 mm of mercury ? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of wMer = IOOO.kg!nl
(A.M. I.E., Summer 1986)
Solution. Given :
Depth of liquid,
Density of liquid,
Atmospheric pressure head,
- . . -
Z 1 =3m
p 1 = 1.53 x 103 kglm 3
Z 0 = 750 mm of Hg
750
=-=0.75 m of Hg
. 1000--- --
Atmqspheric pr_essure,
. PaJm =Po x g-x Z0 -where p0 = Density of Hg = Sp. gr. of me.rcury Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
Z0 = . Pressure head in terms of mercury.
and
2
I
Pac.m = (13.6 x HlOO) x 9.81 x Q.75 N/m
(-:
Z0 0.75)
2
= l 00062 N/m
Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free surface of'thc liquid is given by,
p =p 1 xgxZ1
9.81 X 3 =4?028 N/m 2

p 45028 N/m Ans
= Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
=45028 + 100062 = 145090 N/m 2 Ans .
. 7 (1.53
Gauge pressure,
Now absolute pressure
.,. 2.5
lpo<))
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
.
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices :

~ 2. M_echanical Gauges.
I . Manometers .
2.5 . 1 ManometeTs. Manometers .are defined as. the devices used for measuring the pressure at
oz point in a fluid by balancing the colu'mn of fluid oy the same or another
column of
fluid. They ()re
scanned
bythe
Fahid
dassified as :
~
., ~
l
I
:: ' 142
Fluid Mechanics
(a) Simple Manomerers,
(b) Differential Manometers.

.
Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring
the pressure by balancing the fluid column b); the ~pring or dead weight. The commonly used me<:hanical pressure gauges. are :
(a) Diaphragm pressu're g:wge,
(b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge, and
(d) Bellows pressure ga:.~ge.
2.5. 2
Mechani ca l Gauges.
,.. 2.6
SIMPLE MANOMETERS
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple
manometers are :
1. Piezometer;
2. U-tube Manometer, and .
3. Single Column Manometer.
2.6. 1
Piezometer. It is the simplest form of manometer used
for measuring gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other e~d is:..
open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.8. The rise of liquid gives
the pressure head at that poin_t. If at a point A, the height of liquid say
water is h in piezometer tube, then pressure at A
N
= pxgxh-., .
Fig. 2.8
2.6.2
l
Piezometer.
U-tube Ma nom et er. It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is
connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other e nd remains open to the
atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.9. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose
specific gravity is greater than the sp~cific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
(a) For gauge pressure
.Fig. 2.9
(b) For vacuum pressure
U-tllbe Manometer.
(a) For Gauge Pressure. Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose va1ue is p.
The datum line is A-A.

h 1 =Height of light liquid above the datum line
Let
h 2 = Height of heavy liquid above the-datum line
S 1 = Sp. gr. of light liquid
p! =.Density of light liquid= 1000 X S 1
S2 = Sp. gr.. of heavy liquid
Pz =Density of heavy liquid;:: I 000 X s2
scanned by Fahid
- IL_____________________________________________P_r_e_s_su_r_e_an
__d__it_s_~~ea_s_u_r_em
__e_n_t__4_3_Jj
-. As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum
line A-A in the left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same.
Pressure above A-A in the left column
p + p1 x g x h1
Pressure above A-A in the right column
p 1 x g x h2
Hence equating the two pressures
p + p 1glz 1 p2gh 2
=
=
=
-p=(p 2gh2 - p 1 xgxh 1).

...(2.7)
(b) For Vacuum Pressure. For measuring vacuum P.ressure, ihe level of the heavy liquid in the
manomt:ter will be as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b): Then
Pres~ure above A-A in the left column
= p2gh 2 + p 1gh 1 + p
Pressure head in the right column above _ A-A 0
P28h2 + p,gh 1 + p
.~
=0
... (2.8)
p = - (p2gh2 + p ,gh,).
The right limb of a simple U-wbe manometer co11taining rnercw}' is open ro the
atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe i11 which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is jlo, ...ing. The
centre of the pipe is 12 em below the level of mercury i11 the right limb. Find the pressure offluid in
the pipe if the difference of mercUI:r level in the tll'o limbs is 20 em.
Solution. Given :
5 1 =0.9
Sp. gr. of fluid ,
. . Density of fluid..
p 1 = S1 x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
f
12
Sp. gr. of mercury,
52 = 13.6
j
20cm
. . Density of mercury,
p 2 = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
Differem:e of mercury level
h2 = ~0 em =0.2 m
- Height of fluid from-A-A, --- h 1 = 20- 12 = 8 em= 0.08 m
A
A
..
Problem 2.9
T
1
Eet p =-Pressure of fluid in pipe

Equating the
I
j
press~re
above -A-A, we get
p + p,gh,
p + 900 X 9.81 X 0.08
=P28~
= 13.6 X
1000
8~2~
9.81 X .2
p 13.6 ~ 1000 X 9.81 X .2- 900 X 9.81 X 0.08
=26683 - 706 =25977 N/m2 = 2.597 N/cm2 Ans.
Problem 2.10 A simple U-tube manometer comaining mercury is connected to a pipe in which a
fluid of sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer is open to
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressitre in pipe, if the difference ofmercury level in the two limbs is 40
em and the height of fluid in the left from the cemre of pipe is I 5 em below.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of fluid,
s, 0.8
Sp. gr. of mercury,
52= 13.6
Density of fluid,
Pr = 800
Density of mer~ury,
P2 = 13.6 X 1000
or
..
Difference of mercury level. 112 :: 40 em= 0.4 n1. Height of liquid in left limb. h 1
in ptpe p. Equating. pressure above datum
scanned by Fahid
line A-A, we get
Fig. 2.11
= 15 em =0.15 m. .l.et the pressure
Fluid Mechanics
P =-
r p~gh 2 + p 1ghtl
= - !1 3.6x IOOOx9.8 1 x0.4 + 800x9.8 1 xb.I5]
= - (53366.4 + 1177.2 ]
:=-
5-i5-D.6 N/m~ = - 5 .. 454 N/cm1 . Ans.
Problem 2.11 A U-Tuhl' mtmOIIIl'ter is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line. ll'hich
is in exce.~s ofat1110.\pheric 11re~s11re. The right limb of tlw manometer contain s mercury and is open to
atmosphere. Th e co11taCI betll'een nater and mercury is in the left limb. Determine the pressure of
11ater in the mai11 line, if rhe difference in lel'el of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10 em and the
.free surface of merc11ry is i11 /eve/with the centre of the pipe. If the pressure o.f water in pipe line is
reduced to 9810 Nlm 2, calculate the new difference in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangements
(A.M.I.E., Winter 1989)
in both cqses.
Solution. Given :
Difference of mercury
:= 10 em= 0.1 m
The arrangement iS- shown i~ Fig. 2. I I (a)
Let PA = (pressure of water in pipe line (i.e., at point A)
The points 8 and C lie on the same horizontal line. Hence pressure at B should be equal to pressure
at C. But pressure at B
=Pressure at A + Pressure due to 10 em (or 0.1 m)
RIGHT LIMBof water
PA + p x g x h
WATER
where p = I 000 kg/m 3 and h = 0.1 m
= PA + 1000
9.81
0.1
=PA + 98 1 N/m2
... (i)
Pressure at C = Pressure at D +Pressure due to 10 em of mercury
= 0 + p0 x g x h0
where Po for mercury= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
and
h0 = 10 em = 0.1 m
.. Pressure at C=0+(13.6x IOOO)x9.81 xO. I
= 13341.6 N
...(ii)
But pressure at B is equal to pressure at C. Hence equating the equations (i) and (ii), we get
PA + 98 1 = 13341.6
LEFT LIMB-
10 em
MERCURY
Fig. 2.11 (a)
PA = 13341.6 - 981
=12360.6 - N2
m
Ans.
lind Part
Given, PA = 9810 N/m 2
Find new difference of mercury level. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2. 11 (b). In this case the
pressure at A is 98 10 Nlm 2 wh.ich is less than the 12360.6 N/m 2 . Hence mercury in left limb will rise.
The rise of mercury in left limb will be equal to the fall of mercury in right limb as the total volume of
mercury remains same.
Let x = Rise of mercury in left limb in em
Then fall of mercury in rig'ht limb =x em
scanned by Fahid
The points 8, C and D show the initial conditions whereas points 8*, C* and D* show the final
conditions.

or
or
or
The pressure at 8* = Pressure at C*

Pressure at A + Pressure due to (10- x) em of water
= Pressure at D* + Pressure due to
(10 - 2x) em of mercury
pA+p 1 xgxh 1 =p0 *+p 2 xgxh 2
1910+ 1000x9.81 x
'
(lO -x)
=0 + (13.6 X 1()00) X
or
or
or
451
10 em
100
9.81 X
c 01 ~X)
10-x
{10-2 x)
Ji~ ~ ~J-
Dividing by 9.81, we get .

1000 + 100 - lOx = 1360 - 272x
272x - 1 Ox = 1360 - ll 00
262x = 260
.
= -260
=
0.992 em
262
Fig. 2.11 (b)

New difference of mercury = 10 - 2x em =10- 2 x 0.992
=8.016 em. Aos.
Problem 2.12 Fig. 2.12 shows a conical yessel hav ing its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer
is connected. The reading ofthe manometer given in the figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the
reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely,filled with water.
Solution. Vessel is empty. Given :

-4 2M
Difference of mercury level
h2 ;= 20 ~m
Let h 1 = Height of water above x~x
Sp. gr. of mercury,
S2 = 13.6
Sp. gr. of w~ter,
S1 1.0
Density of mercury,
p2 13.6 x 1000
Density of water,
p 1 = 1000
Equating the pressure above datum line X-X, we have
X
xf'2 X g X h2 =p-1 X g X h 1
13.6 X JOOO X 9.81 X 0.2 = 1000 X 9.8~ X h 1
or
.h 1 = 2.72 m of water.
Vessel is full of water. When vessel is full of water, the
Fig. 2.12
pressure in the right limb will increase and ri1ercury level in the right lim~ will go down. Let the
distance through which merc ury goes down in the right limb be. y em as shown in Fig. 2. 13. The
mercury will rise in the left by a distance of y em. Now the datum line is Z-2. Equating the pr.essure
above the datum line. 2-Z.
Pressure in left limb = Pressure in right limb
13.6 X. 1000 X 9.81 X (0.2 + 2y/IOO)
= 1000 X 9.81 X (3 4- hi+ )1100)scanned by Fahid
=
=
1"46 Fluid Mechanics

13.6 x (0:2 + 2y/100):::: (3 + 2.72 + y/100)
2.72 + 27.2y/IOO = 3 + 2.72 + y/100
or
or
or
(27 .2y - y)l I 00
h1
= 2.72 ern)
= 3.0
26.2y = 3 X 100
300
or
( :
3M
=300
= 26.2 = I I .45 em
.
The difference of mercury level in two limbs
= (20 + 2y) em of mercury
=20 + 2 X
1y
11.45 = 20 + 22.90
1
h,
-- T
: +x (20 + 2y) em
x]
rz
.-y-
z-
= 42.90 em of mercury
j_
..
Reading of manometer= 42.90 em. Ans.
F ig. 2.13
Problem 2.13 A pressure gauge consists of two cylindrical bulbs Band C each of 10 sq. em crosssectional area, which are connected by a U-tube with vertical limbs each of 0.25 sq. em crosssectional area. A red liquid of specific gravity 0.9 is filled into C and clear water is filled" into B, the
surface of separation being in the limb attached to C. Find the displacement of the surface of
separation when the pressure on the surface in Cis g"reater than that in B by an amoimt equal to 1 em
head of water.
(A.M.I.E., Summer, 1978)
S olution . Given :
Area of each bulb Band C,
A= 10 cm2
Area of each vertical limb,
Sp. gr. of red
Let
liq~id
a = 0.25 cm2
Its density. = 900 kg!m 3
= 0.9
X-X = Initial separation level

he =Height of red Ljquid above X-X
hi!= Height of \Yater above X-X
Pressure above X-X in the left limb = 1000 x 9.81 x h8

Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x he
Equating the two pressure, we get
1000 X 9.81 X h 8 =900 X 9.81 X he
...(i)
h8 = 0.9 he
When the pressure head over the surface in C is
increased by I em of water, let the separation level
falls by an amount equal to Z. Then Y-Y becomes the
final separation level.
Now fall in surface level of C multiplied by crosssectional -area of bulb C must be equal to the fall in
separation level multiplied by cross-sectional area of
limb.
FINAL
SEPARATION
. . Fall in surface level of C

LEVEL
Fall in separation level x a
A
Z/40
Z/40
1
---t-.....,_
scanned by Fahid
Fig. 2.14

Zxa
=-- =
A
Zx 0.25
10
47 1
Z
= 40
Also fall in surface level of C

= Rise in surface level of B
=-
40
The pressure of I em (or 0.01 m) of water = pgh = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.01= 98. 1 N/m 2
Consider final separation-level Y-Y
Pressure above Y-Y in the left limb= 1000 x 9.8 1 ( Z + h 8 + ~)
Pressure above Y-Y
i~ the right limb= 900 x 9.8t(Z +he- ~)+ 98.1
1000 ~: 9.81
(z +
.
.Dividing by 9.81, we get
1000 ( Z
h8 + ~) =
40
+ h8 +
..
"40
4~) =900 ( Z + he ~ = 0.9

40
h8 =0.9 Ire
Dividing by 1000, we get Z + h8 +

But from equation (i),
(z + h~- ~)
9oo /< 9.81 + 98.1
~) + I0
(z +he-~)+
40
0.01
z + 0 .9 he+ ~ =3~z-~ o.9 --~:- o.9 he'+ 0.01_- - - -
or
or
Z=
40x 0.01
= 0.0678 m 6.78 em. Ans.

5.9
2.6 .3 Single Column Manometer. Single column manomter is a modified form of.a U-tube
manometer in which a reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to
tbe area oftl)e tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer as shown in Fig. 2.15.
Due to large cross-sectidnal area of the reservor, for any variation in pressure, the change in the
liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected andhe~ce the pressure is given
by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are two
rypes of single column manometer as :
I. Vertical Single Column Manometer.
1. Inclined Single Column Manometer.
1- Vertical Single Column Manometer
Fig. 2. 15 shows the vertical single column-manometer. Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir
J
scanned
by Fahid
md in the right limb of the manometer, when it is not connected to the pipe. ~hen the manometer is
,1 48 Fluid Mechanics
connected to the pipe. due to high pressure at A , the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed
downward and will.rise in the right limb.
Le_l t:,h =Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
11 1 = Rise of heavy liquid in right limb
11 1 =Height of centre of pipe above X-X
p11 = Pressure at A, ,which is to be measured
h,
= Cross-sectional area of the reservoir
=Cross-sectional area of the right limb

~ 1 =Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe
a
t.h
S2 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb

Fig. 2.15 Vertical single column
p 1 =Density of liquid in pipe

p 2 =Density of liquid -in reservoir
manomete'j.
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will caus~ a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.
Ax!J.h = axh2
!J.h = ax h2
- ... (i)
-A
Now consider the datum line Y-Y as shown in Fig. 2.15. Then pressure in the right limb above Y-Y.
=P2 X g X (llh + h2)

Pressure in the left limb above Y-Y = p1 x g x (llh + h 1) + PA
Equating these pressures, we have
= p1 x g X (t:Jz + h 1) + PA
PA = p 2g (llh + /z 2) - p 1g(llh + h 1)
p2 X g X (llh + 1! 2)
or
'= llh[p2g - Pt8l + h2P28 - htPt8
!J.h
= ax h2
A
PA
axh 2
=-A- [p2g- Pt8l + h2p2g -
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio
a
A
h,p,g
...(2.9)
becomes very small and can be
neglected.
Then PA = h 2p~ - h 1p1g
... (2.10)
From equation (2.10), it is clear t~at as h 1 is known
and hence by knowing ~or rise of 1"\eavy liquid in the
right limb, the pressure at A can be calculated.
2. In clined Single Column Manom eter
Fig. 2.16 shows the inclined single column manometer. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclinatio~ the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right
limb will be more.
T
h,
1 Ah
f
Fig. 2.16
Inclined single column
scanned by Fahid
manometer.
Pre~UrJ:! and its Measureme1;1t .~9 ~

L = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb. from X-X
Let
9 = Inclination of right limb with horizontal
h2 = Vertical rise of heavy liqu id in right limb. from X-X = L x sin 9

From equation '(2.1 0), the pressure at A is
.
PA =h2p2g - h,p,g.
Substituting the value of h2 , we get .
PA =sjn 8 x p2g- h 1p 1g.
.
... (2.11)
Problem 2.14 A single column manomete r is C0/1/lected to a pipe containing a liquid of sp. gr. 0.9
as shOWil in Fig. 2./7. Find the pressure.in the pipe iftfte area of the reservoir is I 00 times the area
of the iube for the manometer reading shown in Fig. 2. 17. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
~olution . Given_:
Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe,
S 1 -= 0.9
.
p 1 =900 kg/m 3
Density
= 13.6
P2 = 13.6 X
Sp. gr. of heavy liquid,
S2
Density,
40
1000
Area of reservoir = A =
100
Area of right limb
a
Height of liquid,
Rise of mercury in right limb,
h 1'= 20 em = OJ m
Fig. 2.17
h 2 = 40 em ::; 0.4 m
Let
jJA
=Pressure in pipe--
---------
-~ -
- ------ .. ---------
. PA = A h2[P28- p ,g] + h2P28 - h ,plg
1
=100
= 0.4
[133416 - 8829] + 53366.4 _ .-1765.8
100
0.4(13.6
1.000
.
.
9.8 1 - 900
--
= 533.664 + 53366.4 - 1765.8 N/m

~
2. 7
9.81] + 0.4 X 13.6
1000
9.81 - 0.2
900
9.8 1
= 52134 N/ro2 = 5.21 N/cm2 Ans.
DIFFERENTIA-L MANOMETERS
Differential manometers are the deVices used for measuring the difference of pressures between
two points in.a pipe or in two differe'nt- pipes. A differential mano.meter con.sists of a U-tube, containi:lg a heavy liquid, whose two ends are con nected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be
IDe3SUied. Most commonly types of differential manometer'S are :
I. U--tube differential manometer and
2- Imerted U-tube differential manometer .
scanned by
Fahid of U2.7.1 U-tube Di'fferential Manometer. Fig. 2.18 shows the differe.ntial
manometers
lllbe type.
t
...-.
Iso
fluid Mechanics .
T
X
1
x- (a)Two pipes at different levels
Fig. 2.18
(b) A and Bare at the same level
U-tube different~al manometers.
Fig. 2.18 (a). Let the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different
sp. gr. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pre~sure at A and B
ar~ PA and p8..

Let
'
~=Difference of mercury level in the U-tube.
y = bistance of. the centre of B, from the me~c~ry level in t~e right limb.~
x = Distance of the centre of A , from th~_mercury level in the right limb.

p 1 = Density of !~quid at A.
p 2 =Density of liquid at B.
p =Density of heavy liquid or m~rcury.

8
Taking datum line at X-X.

Pressure above X-X in the left limb= Ptg(h + x) + PA
where PA =pressure at A.
Pressure above X-X in the right limb= p8 x g x h + p 2 x g x y + p8
where p8 = Pressure at B.
'
Equating the two pressure, we have
p 1g(h + x) + PA = p8 x g x h + P28Y + Ps
PA-Ps= P8 x g X h + P28Y- Ptg(h + x)
=II
g(p8 - P1J + P28Y- p,gx
... (2.12)
. . Difference of pressure at A and B = h x g(p 8 - p 1) + p 2gy - p 1gx

Fig. 2.18 (b). A and Bare at the same level and contains the same liquid of density p 1 Then
Pressure above X-X in right limb = p 8 x g x h + p 1 x g x x + p 8
Pressure above X:X in left limb
= p 1 xg x (h + x) + PA
Equating the two pressure

p x g X h + p 1gx + p 8
= p 1 x g x (h + x) + PA
..
PA-Ps=
p8 x g x h + p1gx- p1g(h + .t)
=g X IJ(p~- p 1 ).
.. (2.13)
Problem 2.15 A pipe contains'"' oil of sp. gr. 0.9. A differintial manometer connected at the MO
points A and B shows a difference in mercury level as 15 em. Find thescanned
differenceby
of Fahid
pressure at the
two points.
Pres~ure and its Measurement

Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of oil,
S 1 = 0.9
Difference in mercury level,
..
Density. p 1 = 0.9 x 1000
= 900 kg/m3
= 15 em = 0.15 m
Sg = 13.6
:.. Density, Pg;::;, 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
/1
Sp. gr. of mercury,

The difference of pressure is given by equation (2. 13)
or
st l
PA-Po=gxh(pg- Pl)
,.
= 9.81 x 0.15 (13600- 900) = 18688 N/m 2 Ans.

Problem 2.16 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two pipes as
shown in Fig. 2.19. The pipe A conrain.f a liquid of sp. gr. = 1.5 while pipe 8 conwins a liquid of sp.
gr. =0.9. The pressures at A' and Bare I kgf!cm 2 and J..8(}kgf/cm 2 respectively. iind the difference
in mercury level itt the differentia/manometer.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of liquid at A. S 1 = 1.5 . . p 1 = 1500
Sp. gr."'0.9
Sp. gr. of liquid at B. S2 = 0.9 . . p 2 = 900
2
2
Pressure at A,
PA = 1 kgf/cm = I x 10" kgf!m
= JO"x 9.8 1 Nlri12 (: 1 kgf= 9.81 N)
Pa =1.8 kgf /cm2
Pressure at B.
Po= 1.8 kgf/cm 2
4
2
= 1.8 x 10 kgf/m
X
= 1.8 x IO~x 9.81 N/m 2 (: l kgf= 9.81 J'..}
Density of mercury
= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
Taking X-X as ~atum line.
Fig. 2.19
Pressure above X-X in the left limb
_ _ - __
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X h + .1500 x _9.8 1 X (2 + 3~- + PA
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X h + 7500 .X 9.81 + 9.8 1 X 104
Pressure above X -X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x (h + 2) + p0
=900 X 9.81 X (h + 2) + 1.8 X 10 4 X 9.8!_
Equati.ng the two pressure, we get
13.6 X 10()() X 9.8lh + 7500 X 9.81 + 9.81 X 104 .
= 900 X 9.81 X (h + 2) + 1.8 X 104 X 9.81
Dividing by 1000 x 9.81, we get
13.6h + 7.5 + 10 =(It+ 2.0) X .9 + 18
13.612 + 17.5 =0.9h + 1.8 + 18 =0.9/t + 19.8
or
(13.6- 0.9)h = 19.8- 17.5 or 12.7h = 2.3
or
2.3
.
h= =0.181 m = 18.1 em.
Ans.
12.7
Problem 2.1 7 A differential inanometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in Fig.
1.20. At 8 air pressure is 9.81 N/cm 1 ( abs), find the absolute pressure at A.
Solution. Given :
Air pressure at
or
B = 9.81 N/cm 2
4
p 8 =9.8 1 x 10 N/m2
scanned by Fahid
~ 52
Fluid Mechanics
=0.9 x 1000 =900 kg/mJ

Density of oil
~
oensity of mercury
= 13.6 x 1000 kg!m1
Le.t the pressure at A is P..1
Taking datum line at X-X
Pressure above X-X in the right limb
60cm
= 1000 X 9.8 1 X 0.6 + P'IJ
= 5886 + 98100 = 103986
OIL OF
Sp. gr.=0.9
Pressure above X-X in the left limb
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81. X 0.1 + 900
X
x9.81 x0.2+pA
= 13341.6 + 1765.8 + PA
MERCURY
Equating the two pressure head
Sp. gr.= 13.6
.
103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + PA
Fig. 2.20
.PA = 103986-.15107.4 = S8876.8
2
88876.8N
N
I
PA = 88876.8 N/m =
2 =8.887 2
~<fe~r
.10000 em
em
. . Absolute pressure at A = 8.887 N/cm 2 Ans.

2. 7.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer. It c_onsists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is
to be measured. It is used for measuring difference.of low pressures. Fig. 2.21 shows an inverted Utube differential manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more than the
pressure at B.
s
h 1 =Height of liquid in left limb below the datum Jjne X7X
Let
_h 2 =Height of liquid in right limb
h =Difference of light liquid
p 1 =Density of liquid at A
p 2 =Density of liquid at B
Ps =Density of light 11quid
PA = Pressure at A
p 8 = Pressure at B.
Taking X-X as datum line. Then pressure in the left limb below X-X
=PA - PI X g X hi.
Pressure in the right limb Below X-X
=p 8 - P2 X g X h2 - ps X g X h
Equating the two pressure
PA - P1 x g x h1 = Ps - P2 x g x h2 - Pj x g x h
or
PA- p8 = p 1 x g X h 1 - p2 x g x h 2 - Ps x g X h.
. .. (2.14)
Problem 2.18 Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential
111anometer having an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in the pipe A is 2m of water,
find the pressure in the pipe B for the manometer readings as shown in Fig. 2.22.
Solution. Given :
Pressure head at
A = P"' = 2 m of water
pg
PA=pxgx2= 1000x9.81 x2= I9620N/m 2

scanned by Fahid
Fig. 2.22 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line.
Pressure below X-X in the left limb = PA- p 1 x g x h 1
'
= 19620- 1000 X 9.81 X 0.3 = 16677 N/rn 2

Pressure'below X-X in the right limb
= p8 - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.1-800 X 9.81 X 0.12
=p8 -981-941.76 =p8 -1922.76
16677 =p8 - 1922.76
2
or
p 8 = 16677 + l922.76 = 18599.76 N/m
or
p 8 = 1.8599 N/cm2 Ans.
Fig. 2.22
Problem 2.19
In Fig. 2.23, a11 inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B
which convey water. The fluid in manometer is oil of sp. gr. 0.8. For the manometer readings shown
in the figure, find the pressure difference between A and B.
OIL OF
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. 0.8
= 0.8
Sp. gr. of oil
Ps = 800 kglm
:.
- x-
Difference of oil in the two limbs
= (30 + 20) -
30
=20 em
= PA
9.81
Taking datum line at X-X

Pressure in the left limb below X-X
1000
Fig. 2.23
=pA - 2943
Pressure in the right limb below X-X

= p8
1000 X 9.81 X 0.3-800 :X 9.81 X 0.2

2943-=-r-)69.6- p8 - :1J512.6- - - -
- _- =p8 -- -----.---- =p 8 - 4512.6 ---- ~ - -
Equating the two pressure PA- 2943
.-
p8 - PA = 4512.6-2943 = 1569.6 N/m 2 Ans.

Problem 2.20 I Fif}d ouJ the differential reading 'h' ofan inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of
specific gravity 0. 7 as the TTUliiOmetric fluid when connected across pipes-A and B as sho~n in Fig. 2.24
bdow, conveying liquids of specific gravities 1.2 and 1.0 alld-immiscible with manometric fluid. Pipes A
and B are located at the same level and assume the pressures at A and B to be equal.
Solution. Given :
fig. 2.24 shows the ariangemen~. Taking X-X as datum line.

l..cl
Density of liquid in pipe A
PA
= Pressure at A
p8
= Pressure at B
'= Sp. gr. x I000
= 1.2 X 1000
= 1200 kg/m 2
Density of liquid in pipe B
= I,~ 1000 = 1000 kglm3
Density of oil>
='0.7 x 1000= 700 kglm
i'
6 ~ .
!!: '
scanned by Fahid
j54
Fluid Mech anics
Now pressure below X-X in the left limb

=p11 -1200x 9.81 x0.3-700x9.81 xh
Pressure below X-X. in the right limb
= p8
1000
9.8 1
(lr
+ 0 .3)
Equating the two pressure. we get

1200
9.81
0.3 - 700
9.81 X. h =Pa- 1000
- 1200
9.81
0.3 - 700
9.81
PA -
But
PA
X
9.81 (h + 0.3)
=p8 (given)
h:::: - 1000
9.8 1 (h
+ 0.3)
Dividing by 1000 x 9.81

- 1.2
or
0.3
0.3- 0.1h:::: - (h + 0.3)
x 1.2.+ 0.1h = h + 0.3 or 0.36-0.3 =h..: 0.1h = 0.3h

h = 0.36 - 0.30 = 0.06 m
0.30 .
0 .30
. =
.!_-m= .!_ xioo~~ 20 em

: Aris. 5
5 -----
Problem 2 .21 An inverted U-tube manometer is connected to two horizontal pipes A and B
through which water is flowing. The vertical distance between the axes of these pipes is 30 em. When
an oil of specific gravity 0.8 is used as a gauge fluid, the vertical heights of water columns in the two
limbs of the inverted manometer (when measured from tlhe respective centre lines of the pipes) are
found to be same and equal to 35 em. Determine the difference of pressure between the pipes.
(A.M.I.~ .
Summer 1990)
Solution. Given :
Specific gravity of measuring liqurd
=0.8
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.24 (a).

Let
pA = pressure at A
p 8 = pressure at B.
The points C and D lie on the same horizontal line.

Hence pressure at C should be equal to pressure at D .
But pressure at C
And pressure at D
=PA- pg h
=PA - 1000 X 9.81 X (0.35)
=Ps - Pt8ht - P28h2
=p 8 - 1000 X 9.81 X (0.35) -
But pressure at C = pressure at
PA-
1000
9.81
or
35cm
800
9.8 1
- PA
0.3
B
1000
9.81
0.35 - 800
9.81
800x9.81 x0.3=p 8 -P;.

p8
.35
= p8
or
= 800 X 9.81
N
0.3 = 2354.4 - 2 Ans.
m
0.3
WATER
Fig. 2.24 (a)
scanned by Fahid
Pressure
.... 2 ~ 8
and its Measurement 55 1
PRESSURE AT A POINT IN COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
For compressible fluids. density (p) changes with the change of prt>ssure and tempe~ature. Such
problems arc encountered in aeronautics. oceanography and meteorology where we are concerned
with atmospheric* air where density, pressure and temperature changes with elevation. Thus f~
fluids with variable density, equation (2.4) cannot be integrated, unless the relntion~hip betweenp and
p is known. For gases the equation of state is
!!..
= RT
=..!!._
or
... (2. 15)
RT
dp
Now equation (2.4) is
- =w=pg=-xg
dZ
RT
dp =_Ldz
p
RT
... (2.16)
In. equation (2.4):' z is measured vertically downward. But if Z ' is. measured vertically up, then
dp = - pg and
dZ
h~nce e~uation ~2 ..I~) becomes.
dp =.=.! dl
... (2.17)
p
RT
2 .8. 1 Isothermal Process. Case I. If temperature T is constant which is true for isothermal
process, equation (2.17) can be int~gra~ed as
P
dp
JPop
Jz g
= - ~ RT d-:. =- RT
Jz
z:z
Jog ..E._= -g [Z- ZoJ

Po
RT
where Po is the pressure where height is Z0 . If the datum line is taken at
becomes the pressure at datum line.
or
log..E....
Po
= -g
Zo- then Zo = 0 and
Po
RT
=e- gZIRT
Po
or pressure at a height Z is g iven by p = p0 e- g'Z/RT
... (2.18)
2.8.2 Adiabatic Process. If temperature T is not constant but the process follows adiabatic
law then the relation between pressure and density is given by
..!!_
~ =Constant = C
... (i)
The standard atmospheric pressure, temperature and density referred to STP at the sea-level are :
3
scanned
by Fahid
Pressure= 101.325 kN/m2 ; Temperature= I5C and Density= 1.225 kg/m
.
ls6
Fluid Mechanics
where k is ratio of specific constant.

p
p =-
or
=(~)
... (ii)
Then equation (2.4) for Z measured venically up becomes,

d
d~
(rt
= - pg =-
dp
or
Integrating, we getJ PC 111 p-ut dp
Ilk
= - gdZ or C
= - gdZ
= J2
gdZ
g [z];o
- - +1
k
Po
-m-lp
f
- - +1
cllk
[
dp
;
1
c"k [P_:,k- ]P= -
or
Z,
Po
or
)1/k
=- g
.[Z]~
d'k =(;
Substituting this value of c_llk above,

p l/k
p-llk+l]P
--
. . [ p _.!_+1
k
or
.
~onstant.
can be taken inside]
Po
[ C is a
}'k = _P~_'k.
we get
= - g[Z-Zol
Po
=-g[Z-~]or[-k_p_JP
=-g[Z-~]
-k- l p
[P:::t]p
p
Po "
Po
_k_ [!!_ -Po] .=:... g[Z - ~]
. or
k - 1 p Po
. If datum line is taken at ~. where pressure, temperature and density are PO> T0 and PO> then Zo =0 .
or
_k_.[.i- ~] =- gZ
k- I p
Po
f!_
P
o;
i:_ _Po
p
= Po Po
gZ (k
=- gZ
(k - 1):
Po
- 1~ =:= Po [ 1- k k
Po
1 gZ
&.]
Po
scanned by Fahid

k
or
Po
P
Substituting lhc value of
Po
p
x.Q. = [ I +-=--- gZ Po J
k
4 = P~
57 1
... (iii)
Po
(Po)k = Po or Po =(Po )Ilk
or
Po
in equation (iii), we get
Lx(Po) ttk
Po
P
=[1-k-lgzh]
k
Po
:a x(:artlk =[1-k;lgZ~:J
or
=(_p_)k~l
=[1-~gzfu]
(L)t-i
Po
Po
k
Po
or
k-1 p ]N
k
_ _p = [ l- -
-. gZ -
Po
k
Po
Pressure at a height Z from ground level is given by
Jk-1
k-1
p
p =Po I - - gZ _Q_
[
k
Po
... (2.19)
in equation (2.19), Po = pressure at ground level, where Z0 =0

Po= density of air at ground level
Po
Equation of state is
Po
Substituting the values of
=RTo or fu=_l_
Po
RTo
fu 1n equation (2.19), we get

Po
k - 1 gZ
P =Po [ 1 - - - - k RT0
]k=l
... (2.20)
2 .8.3 Temperature at any Point in Compressible ~Juid . For the adiabatic process, the
temperature at any height in air is calculated as :
,
Equation of-state at ground level and at a height Z from ground level is written as
Po = RT0 and !!..
Po
=RT"
Dividing lhese equations, we get
( ;: ) +
or
f = ~; =~ ..
T
To
Po
Po
or
P Po
Po
P
-=-x - = -X-
... (i)
scanned by Fahid
Iss
Fluid Mechanics
But ..!!._ from cnuation (2.20) is given by

Po
k
..!!._
Po
Also for adiabatic process
~ = P~
RTc,
k
or Po ) = Po
(
Po
-p; = l~
or
]k=l
= [I_ k- I gZ
= (:.
r~
=[l-k-1 gZ](t~ )x(-;)=[l-k - 1 gZ]- k~ 1

k
RTc,
RT0
Substituting the values of..!!._ -and .Q_ in equation (i), we get

Po
P
k
I_= [l- k-1 gZlk="ix[l- k-1

T0
=[
R'fo J
8z]8._i=i =[ 1_k-I gZ]

k
_ k-I
1
T = T.
gZ]- N
RT0
R'fo
[I _ 1
RTc,
kgZ ]
... (2.2 1)
k RT.0
2.8.4 Temperature Lapse-Rate (L) . It is defined as the rate at which the temperature
changes with elevation. To obtain an expression for the temperature lapse-rate, the temperature given
by equation (2.21)- is differentiated with respect to Z as
0
~~ = :z [ro (1 - k ~ 1 ;~ )]
where T0 , K, g and R are constant
..
dT = - k - IX_LXTo= -g( k - 1)
dZ
k
RTc,
R
k
The temperature lapse-rate is denoted hy L and hence
(k-1)
L= dT = -g
... (2.22)
dl
R
k
In equation (2.22), if (i) k = I which means isoth~rmal process. dT =0, which 'means temperature
.
dZ
is constant ~'ith height.
(ii) If k > I. the lapse-rate is negative which means temperature decreases with the increase of
height. ..
In atmosphere, the value of k varies with height and hence the value of temperature lapse-rate also
varies. From the sea-level up to an elevation of about II 000 m (or II km). the temperature of air decreases
scanned by
Fahidconstant
remains
uniformly at the rate of. 0.0065C/m. from II 000 m to 32000 m, the temperature
PDF
created
byinAAZSwapnil
after
32000 m
air.
at - 56.SOC and hence in this range lapse-rate is zero. Temperature rises again
Pressure and its M easurement
59 j
Nlcm 1,
Problem 2 .22 (SI Units) If the atmosphere pressurl' at sea lel'el is 10.1./3
determine the
pressure m a height of 2500 m ossc1111i11g the pressure voriorio11 follows (i) Hydrostatic law, a11d (ii)
i:.othermallaw. The densiry of air is gile11 as 1.208 kg!m3 .
Solution. Given :
,
,
Po = I0. 143 N/cm =I0.143 x I 0 Nfm
Pressure at sea-level,
Height,
Z =2500 m
Density of air,
Po = 1.208 kg/m3
(i) Pressure by hyd rostatic law. For hydrostatic law, p is assumed constant and hence pis given
~
by equation d P
dZ
=- pg
Integrating, we get
JPdp =J-pgdZ=-pg J zdZ

Zo
Po
or
P- Po
For datum line at sea-level,
=- pg [Z- ZoJ
Z0 =0
p- Po =- pgZ or p =Po- pgZ
4
= 10.143 x 10 - 1.208 x 9.81 ~ 2500 [ : p =Po.::= 1.2_08]
= 7.18 N/cm2 Ans.

(ii) Pressure b y Isothermal Law. Pressure at any height Z by isothermal law is given by equation
(2. 18) as
P =Po
e-gZIRT
_gZ><Po
.= 10.143
= 10.143 x
: 10. 143
104 e.
Po
104 e
l04 e(-
2500
[:
~: =RT and p g = w
0
0]
Po
X
1.208
9.81 )/l0.1J3
10"
= 101430 X e- 292 = 101430 x _I_ =75743 N/m2

1.3391
75743
= - -4-
Nlcrn
7.574 N/cm . Ans.
10
'
Problem 2.23 The barometric pressure at sea level is 760 mm of mercury ll'hile that on a mounwin
top is 735 mm, if the de11sity of air is assumed constant at' 1.2 kg!m3, what is the elevation of the
mountain top.
"
(A.M. I.E., Summer, 1988)
Solution. Given :
Pressure* at sea,
Po= 760 mm of Hg
760
2
2
X 13.6 X 1000 x 9.81 N/m
101396 N/m
1000
'" Here pressure head (Z) is given as 760 mm of Hg. He~ce (p/pg) = 760 mm of Hg. The density (p) for mercury
= 13.6x 1000 kgtm3 Henc<; pressure (p) will be eq ual top x 'g x Z i.e.,
760
13.6scanned
x 1000 x 9.81
N/m
by xFahid
1000
160
Fluid Mechanics
p
Pressure at mountain.
=735 mm of Hg
735
13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 = 98060 N/m 2
1000
Density of ai"r,
p = 1.2 kg/m3
.Let h = Height of the ll)ountain from sea-leyel.
We know that as the elevation above the sea-level increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases.
Here the density of air is given constant, hence the pressure at any height 'h' above the sea-level is
given by the equation,
p =Po-p x g x h
=--X
_ Po - p _ 101396 - 98060 . _
A
h- 283 .33 m. ns.
pxg
1.2 x 9.81
or
Pro blem 2 .24 Calculate the pressure at a height (Jf 7500 m above sea !{!vel if the atmospheric
p ressure is /0./43 Nlcm 2 and temperature is l 5C at the sea-level, assuming (i) air is incompressible,
(ii) p ressure variation fol/o11s isothermal law, and (iii) pressure variation follows adiabatic law.
Take the densit} of air at the sea-level as equal to /.285 kg!m 1. Neglect variatio11 of g with altitude.
S olution. Given :
Hei&ht above sea-level.
Z =7500 m
Po= 10.143 N/cm2 = J0.143 x 104 N/rn2
Temperature at sea-le,eJ.
t0 = l5C
T0 -;, 273 + 13 =288K

p = Po = 1'.285 kg/m 3
Density of air.
(i) Pressure when air is incompressible :
dp
- = - pg
dZ
J dp =- JZozpgdz
or p- Po=- pg[Z -
P
Po
p=po-pgZ
= 10.143 X 104
or
ZoJ
{: Z0 :::datumline=O}
7500
2
N
6887 N/[11 ::::; 0.688 - 2 A~.
1.285
9.81
= 101430-- 94543 =
em
(ii) Pressure variation follows isothermal law :

Using equation (2.18), we have
p := p0 e- g7/RT
= Poe- gZPctPo
{-:
::
~ RT :. ~: = RIT}
= 10 j430 e- gZPo'Po = 101430 e- 7500 x 1.285 x 9.811101430
= 101430 e- 9320
= 101430 x .39376
=39939 N/m 2 or 3.993 N/cm 2 Ans.
(iii) Pressure variation follow s adiabatic law : [k = 1.4]
Using
equati~n
(2.19), we have
p = p0 l - k '
kl(k - if
gZ &.
Po ]
,scanned
where p 0 by
= IFahid
.285 kg/m 3
Pressure ana it~ Measurement 61 j

1.4
(1.4- 1.0)
(7500 X 1.285)]i7-J:O
p= 101430 1X.
9 8 1 X - - - -[
1.4
101430
= 101430 (l -
.2662)1.4/A
= 101430 X (.7337)35
= 34310 N/m 2 or 3.431 - Ans.

em 2
Prob lem 2.25 Calculate the pressure and density of air at a height of 4000 m from sea-level
where pressure and temperature of the air are 10.143 N!cnl and l5C respectively. The temperature
lapse rate is given as 0.0065Cim. Take density of air at sea-level equal to 1.285 kglm1.
Solution. Given:
Height,
Z = 4000 m
Po= 10.143 N/cm2 = 10.143 x 104 = 101430 -
Temperature at sea-level,
t 0 = 15C
T0 = 273 + 15 =288K
Temperature lapse-rate,
dT
= -dZ
=...: 0.0065K/rn
Po = 1.285 kg/mr - - - .
Using equation (2.22), we have L
or
=~~ =-! ( ~ 1)
k
9 81
- 0.0065 =-
R
(k - 1). where R=
k
x(k-
Po
Po1Q
101430
= 274.09
l.285x288
-~-:-:-:-
1
)
= - 9-81
274.09
k
k- 1 = 0.0065x274.09 =0.
1815
- 0.0065
9.81
k[J - .1815] =I
1
1
= - - = 1.222
1-.1815 .8184
Thls means that the value of power index k = 1.222.
(l) Pressure at 4000 m height is given by equation (2.19) as
k =
- -1 gZ _.Q.
p
p =Po [ 1 -k k
Po
]*-
.
where k = 1.122 and Po= 1.285
1.222
1.222- 1.0)
'4000 X 1.285 ]~
p = 101430 [ 1- (
_
X 9.81 X - - - - - 1 222
10 1430
= 101430 (1- 0.09] 550 = 101430 X .595
= 60350 N/m 2
=6.035 --.;.. Ans.

em
scanned by Fahid
162
Fluid Mechani<:s
(ii) Density. Using c:quation of !.late. we get
!!..
p
where
= RT
p = Pressure at 4000 m height
p = Density at 4000 m height. .

T = Temperature at 4000 m height
Now T is calculated from temper(\ture lapse-rate as
dT
tat4000m=t0 + dZ x4000= 15 -.0065 x4000= 15-26=-II"C
T = 273 + t = 273 - II
=262"K
60350
3
3
Density is given by
p =- =
k!!hn = 0.84 kg/m . Ans.
RT 214.09 X 262. Problem 2.26 An aeroplane is flying at an altitude of 5000 m. Calculate the pressure around the
aeroplane, given the lapserate in the atmosphere as 0. 0065"Kim. Neglect variation of g with altitude.
and temperature at ground
level as 10.143 Nlcm 1 and 15"C and density of air as
Take_pressure
.
..
~
1.285 kg/em.
Solution . Given :
Height,
Z = 5000 m
Lapse-rate,
L = dT =- .0065"K/m
dZ
4
p 0 = I 0.143 x I0 Nlm1
r0 = 15"C
T 0 = 273 + I5 = 288"K
Pressure at ground level.

..
Density,
..
Po= 1.28_5 kg/m3
Temperature at 5000 m height = T0 + Of X Height = 288 - .0065 X 5000

dZ
= 288 - 32.5 = 255.5"K

First find the value of power index k as
-From equatiOn
. (2.22), we have L = -dT =- -g(-k - - 1)
dZ
-.0065 = -
or
where
9!1(k;l)
101430
R = _!'!!_=
= 274.09
p0 T0 1.285 x 288
-.0065 = -~(k -l
..
274.09
kk = 1.222
The pressure js given by equation (2: 19) as
p ] \ i--=1 )
. k- I
p =p0 1- - - gl - 0
[
k
Po
scanned by Fahid
63j
1.222
= 101430 [1-().222- 1.0) X 9.81 X 5000 X 1.285]~

1.222
101430
1.221
]m
222
5000
285
= 101430 [1-
X 9.81 X
X J.
1.222
101430
= 101430 [I - 0.1 1288]550 = 101430 X 0.5175
=5.249 N/cm2 Ans.
= 52490 N/m3
.,
HIGHLIGHTS
;er
1. The_pressure at any paint in a fluid is defined a{the force

unit area.
2. The Pascal's law ~tates that intensity of pre~sure for a fluid at rest is equal in all directions.
3_: -Pr~sure variation at a point in a fluid at rest is given by the hydrostatic law wbicb.states that the rate
.. of increase of piessur~ it\ the vertically downw"arQ_ directi<?n is1 equ~ the SJ>C;Cific, y.reight,'of the fluid,
dp
dzr= w -:Jp~x~g~-::::::::=:::::=::::=:=-::- ::_,;:;:==:;::=:::::::=::::;::-:::__

--4:-Tiie-pressU-rea'nrny-pmnt-in-a-inc~mpre-s-sible~floid\ll'qui"tl)-w~ual<o-tlre-product-ohlerisity-of
fluid at that point, acceleration due to gravity and vertical height from free surface of fluid,
p=pxgxZ.
5. Absolute pressure is the pressure in which absolute vacuum pressure is taken as datum while
gauge pressure is the pressure in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum,
Pabs. =P atm + Pgauge.
6. Manometer is a device used for measuring pressure at a point in a fluid.
7. Manometers are classified as (a) Simple manometers and (b) Differentiat manometers.
8. Simple manometers are used for measuring pressure at a point while differential man?meters are u-sed
for measuring the difference of pressures between the two points in a pipe, '?f two differ~nt pipes.
9. A single column manometer (or micrometer) is used for measuring small pressures, where accuracy is
~u~d.
10. The pressure at a point in static compressible fluid is obtained by combining two equations, i.e.,
equation of state for a gas and equation gi~en by h.>:drostatic law.
11. The pressure ,at a height Z in a static compressible fluid '(gas) under going isoth~rmal compression
(*
= const.) .
P =Po e- g71RT
where Po = Absolute pressure at sea-level or at ground level

Z = Height from sea or ground level .
,.
R = Gas constant
T = Absolute temperature.
12. The pressure and temperature at a height Z in a static compressible fluid (gas) undergoing adiabatic
compression (p/p1 = const.)
p0 ]t~J =p [1-k -1 -gZ r~1

scanned
by Fahid
k-1
p =p0 1---gZ[
.
k
Po
RTo
LI6_4_ _F_lu_i_d_M
__ec_h_a_n_ic_s_________________ _ _________ ________ _ ______~L
T =T.0 [1 - k k
and temperature,
gZ ]
R1Q
where p 0 , T0 are pressure and temperature at sea-level k = 1.4 for air.

13. The rate at which the temperature changes with elevation is known as Temperature Lapse-Rate. It is
given by
(k -1)
L '- --g - \ R
k
if (I) k = I , temperature is zero.
(i1) k > I, temperature decreases with the increase of height.
EXERCISE 2
1. Define pressure. Obtain an expression for the pressure intensity al a point in a fluid.
f. State and prove the Pascal's law.

3. What do you understand by Hydrostatic Law ?
4. Differentiate between : (i) Absolute and gauge pressure, (ii) Simple manometer and differential manometer, and (iii) Piezometer and pressure gauges.
5. What do you mean by vac uum pressure ?
6. What is a manometer ? Ho,\ are they classified ?
7. What do you mean by single column manometers ? How are they used for the measurement of
pressure ?
8. What is the difference between U-tube differential manometers and invened U-tube differential
manometers ? Where are they used ?
_
.
9. Dis!inguisb between manometers and mechanical gauges. What are the different types of m~ha!Jical
pressure gauges ?
10. Derive an expression for the pressure at a height Z from sea-level for a static air when the compression
of the air is ;tSSumed isothermal. The pressure and temperature at sea-levels are p0 and T0 respectively.
11. Prove that the pressure and temperature for an adiabatic process at a height Z from ~-level for a static
air are:
k
Po=Po [ 1- -k - -I - gZ
.
k R1Q
]k:t
IgZ-]
andT=To 1- -k - -
R1Q
where Po and T0 are the pressure and temperature at sea-level.

12. What do you understand by the term, 'Temperature Lapse-Rate' ? Obtain an expression for the
temperature Lapse-Rate.
13. What is hydrostatic pressure distribution ? Give one example where pressure distribution is non(A.M./.E. Winter 1990)
hydrostatic.
1~. Explain briefly th~ working principle of Bourdon Pressure Gauge with a neat sketch.
(J.N.T.U., Hyderabad, S 2002)
(B) NUME RIC AL PROBLEMS
1. A hydraulic press has ram of 30 em diameter and a plunger of 5 em diameter. Find the weight lifted by
the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger is 400 N.
[Ans. 14.4 kN]
Fahid
2. A liyd~ulic press bas a ram of 20 em diameter and a plunger of~ em scanned
tli(\meter. Itby
is used
for lifting a
PDF created by[Ans.
AAZSwapnil
.
SOON]
weight o(JP. kN. find the force required at the plunger.
...
...
Pre'ss~e.and its Measurement 65 ~

3. Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.4 m of (a) water, (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.9, and (c) mercury of sp. gr.
4.
5.
6.
7.
kg
2
,
'
.
13.6. Take dens1ty of water, p = I 000---r.
[Ans. (a) 0.3914 Nlcm . (b) 0.353 N/crn, (c) 5.33 N/cm]
m
.
The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 4 .9 N/crn 2 . Find the corresponding height uf fluid when
it is: (a) water, and (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8.
[Ans. (a) 5 rn of wat~r. (/J) 6.25 m of oil]
An oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is contained in a vessel. At a point the height of oil is 20 m. Find the corresponding
height of water at that point.
[Ans. 16m]
An open tank contains water up to a depth of 1.5 m and above it an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 for a depth of 2 m.
Find the pressure intensity : (1) at the interface of the two liquids, and (ii) at the bottom of the tank.
[Ans. (i) 1.57 N/cm 2, (ii) 3.04 N/cm2]
The diameters of a small piston and a large piston.of a hydraulic jack are 2 em and I 0 em respectively. A
force of 60 N is applied on the small piston. Find the load lifted by the large piston, when : (a) the pistons
are at the same level, and (b) small piston is 20 em above the large piston. The densiiy of the liquid in the
jack is given as 1000
k~.
[Ans. (a) 1500 N, (b) 1520.5N)
8. Detennine the gauge and absolute pressure at a point whlch is 2.0 m below the free surface of water. Take
atmospheric pressure as 10.1043 N/cm2
[Ans. 1.962 N/cm2 (gauge), -12.066 N/cm2 (abs.))
9. A simple mano_meter is used to measure the pressure. of oil (sp. gr. = 0.8) flowing in a pipe line. Its right
10.
11.
12.
13.
u.
limb is open to the atmosphere and left limb is connected to the pipe. The centre of the pipe is 9 em
below the level of mercury.(sp. gr. 13.6) in the right .limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two
liro"bs is 15 em~ dete.~<: _th~~bsol_u_te~ P!es_su~e J!f th~--~-i~-~e_p_ipe if..~!~::.. L1~-~lj:-: Winrej, 1977)
2
- .. .. . -- ...
[Ans. I2.058N/cm)
A simple manometer (U-tube) containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is
flowing. The pressure in the pipe is vacuum. The other end of the manometer is open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum, pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level In the two limbs is 20 em
[Ans.- 27.86 N/cm 2)
and height of oil in the left limb from the centre of the pipe is 15 em below.
A single column vertical manometer (i.e., micrometer) is connected to a pipe containing oil of sp. gr. 0.9.
The area of the reservoir is 80 times the area of the manometer tube. The resenoir contains mercury of
sp. gr. 13.6. The level of mercury in the reservoir is at a height of 30 em below the centre of the pipe and
difference of mercury levels in the reservoir and right limb is 50 em. Find the pressure in the pipe.
2
[A ns. 6.474 Nfcm J
A pipe contains an oil of sp. gr. 0.8. A differential manometer connected at the two points A and B of
the pipe shows a difference in mercury level as 20 em. Find the difference of pressure at the two points.
[Ans. 25113.6 N/m2]
A U-tube differential manometer connects two pressure pipes A and B. Pipe A contains carbon tetrachloride having a specific gravity 1.594 under a pressure of 11.772 N/cm 2 and pipe 8 contains oil of sp. gr. 0.8
under a pressure of 11.772 N/cm2 . The pipe A lies 2.5 m above pipe B. Find the difference of pressure
(A.M. l. E. December, 1974) [An s. 31.36 em of mercury]
measured by mercury as fluid filling U-tube.
A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in Fig. 2.25. At B air pressure
2
[Ans. 6.91 N/cm2]
is 7.848 N/cm (abs.), find tbe absolute pressure at A.
AIR
OIL
S~. 9:-=0.8
-1
OILSp. gr.
~:r-~R
fi. ~~ =--
50cm
2cm
.1
10cm
1
-MERCURY
Sp. gr.=13.6 .
Fig. 2.25
0.8
T .
30cm
t-
100cm
SO em
J.
WATERby Fahid
scanned
PDF
created by AAZSwapnil
Fig. 2.26
166 Fluid Mechanics

15. An inverted differential m;mometer containing an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is connected to find the difference of
pressures at two p(:)ints uf a pipe containing water. If the manometer reading is 40 em, find the difference of pressures.
[Ans. 392.4 N/m~]
16. In above Fig. 2.26 shows an in\'erted differential manometer connected to two pipes A and 8 containing
water. The fluid in manometer is oil.of sp. gr. 0.8. For the manometer readings ~hown in the figure, find the
(Ans. 0.26 m of water]
difference of pressure head between A and B.
17. If the atmosphaic pressure at sea-level is I0.143 N/cm 2, determine the pressure at a height of 2000 m
assuming that the pressure variation,follows : (I) Hydrostatic law, and (ii) Isothermal law. The density
of air is given as 1.208 kg/m3
fAns. (i) 7.77 N/cm2, (ii) 8.03 N/cm3]
18. Calculate the pressure at a height of 8000 m above sea-level if the atmospheric pressure is I 0 1.3 kN/m 2
and temperature is I5C at the sea-level assuming (i) air is incompressible, (ii) pressure variation
follows adiabatic law, and (iii) pressure variation follows isothermal law. Take the density of air at the
sea-level as equal to 1.285 kg/m3. Neglect variation of g with altitude.
[Ans. (i) 607.5 N/m2 , (ii) 31.5 kN/m2 (iii) 37.45 k~/m 2 ]
19. Calculate the pressure and density of air at a height of 3000 m above sea-level where pressure and
temperature of the air are 10.143 N/cm 2 and ISC respectively. The temperature lapse-rate is given as
[Ans. 6.896 N/cm 2 0.937 kg/m 3]
0.0065 Kim. Take density of air at sea-level equal to 1.285 kg/m 3.
.20. An aeroplane is flying at an altitude of 4000 m. Calculate the pressure around the aeroplane, given the
lapse-rate in the atmosphere as 0.0065 Kim. Neglect variation of g with altitude. Take pressure and
temperature at ground lc'el as 10.143 N/cm 2 and l5C respectively. The density of air at ground level
is given as 1.285 kg/m;.
[Ans . 6.038 N/cm 2]
.2 1. The atmosphere pressure at the sea-level is 101.3 kN/m 2 and the temperature is l5C. Calc ulate the
pressure 8000 m abov~: ~ea- level , assuming (i) air is in compress~ble, (ii) isothcrm!il va~iation of pr.essure and density, and tiii) adiabatic variation of pressure and density. Assume density of ai r at sealevel as 1.285 kg/m3 . Neglect variation of 'g' with altitude.
[Ans. (i) 501.3 N/m 2, (ii) 37.45 kN!m 2 , (iii) 3 1.5 kN/m2]
22. An oil of sp. gr. is 0.8 under a pressure of 137.2 kN/m2
(i) What is the pressure head expressed in metre' of water ?
.(ii) What is the pressure head expressed in metre of oil ?
[Ans. (I) 14m, (ii) 17.5 m]
23. The atmospheric pressure at the sea-level is 101.3 kN/m2 and temperature is I5C. Calcul ate the pressure 8000 m above sea-level, assuming : (i) isothermal variation of pressure and density, and (i1)
adiabatic variation of pressure and density. Assume density of air at sea-level as 1.285 kg/m3 Neglect
variation of 'g ' with altitude. ..
Derive the formula that you may use. (De/h(Univ~;~ity, 1992) [Ans: (i) 37.4:5 kN/m2 (ii) 31.5 kN/m 2]
24. What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 4 m below the free surface of a liquid of
specific gravity I .53, if atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 men of mercury.
(Delhi University, /992) [Ans. 60037 Nlm 2 and 160099 N/m 2]
25. Find the gauge pressure and absolute pressure in N/m 2 at a point 4 m below the free surface of a liquid
of sp. gr. 1.2, if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of mercury .
. (Delhi University. May 1998J.. lAos. 470~8 N/m~; 147150 N/m 2 )
.26. A tank contains a liquid of specific gravity O.S. Find the absolute pressure and gauge pre~sure at a
poinL which is 2 m below the free surf;>ce of the liquid. The atmospheric pressure head is equivalent to
760 mm of mercury.
(Delhi Unin!rsity. June 1996) IAns. 117092 N/m~ : 15696. N/m 2]
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3
CHAPTER
Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces

..
J1o>
3.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the fluids (i.e., liquids and gases) at rest. This means that there will be no
relative motion b~tween adjacent or neighbourin_g fluid layers. The velo9ity gradient, which is equal to
the.cha!lgc of velocity between two _adjacent fluid layers divideg by the dis_tjmce bet'een the layers, will
be zero or du = 0. The shear stress which is equal to~~
~
~ will also be zero. Then the forces acting on

~
the fluid particles will be :

1. due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface,
2. due to gravity (or self-weight of fluid particles).
J1o>
3.2
TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE
Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface either plane or curved when
the fluid comes in conta~.t with the surfaces. This force always acts normal to the surface.
Cen tre of pressu re is defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the surface. There
are four cases of submerged surfaces on which the total pressure force and centre of pressure is to he
determined. The submerged surfaces may bl!:
1. Vertical plane surface,
2. Horizontal plane surface,
3. Inclined plane surface, and
4. Curved surface.
J1o>
3. 3
VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Let A =Total area of the surface
h =Distance of C. G. of the area from free surface of liquid
G =Centre of gravity of plane surface
P = Centre of pressure
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid.
67
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168
Fluid Mechanics
(a) T otal Pnssurr 1Fl. The total pressure on the surface may
be determined by dividing the entire surface into a number of
small parallel strips. The force on small strip is then calculated
and the total pressure force on the whole area is calculated by
integrating the force ori small strip.
Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at a depth of h
from free surface of liquid as shown in Fig. 3."1
Pressure intensity on the strip,
p = pgh
(Sec equation 2.5)
Area of the strip,
dA = b xdh
Total pressure force on strip,
dF=p x Area
= pgfl X b X dh
Total pressure force on the whole surface.
F
But
Fig. 3.1
=JdF =Jpgh X b X dh =pg Jb X h X dh
Jb X h X dh = J11 X dA
= Moment of surface area about the free surface of liquid
=Area of surface X Distance of C.G. from free surface

=A
..
F= pgAh
...(3. 1)
For water the value of p =1000 kglm 3 and g =9.81 m/s 2 The force will be in Newton.
(b) Centre of Pressure (h*). Centre of pressure is calculated by using the "Principle of Moments" ,
which states that the moment of the resultant force about an axis is equal to the sum of moments of the
components about the same axis.
The resultant force F is acting ill P, at a distance h* from free surface of the liquid as shown in
Fig. 3.1. Hence moment of the force F about free surface of the liquid = F x h* ~
... (3.2)
.Moment of force dF, acting on a strip about free surface of liquid
= dF X h
{ : dF = pgh X b X dh}
=pgh X b X dh X h
Sum of moments of all such forces about free surface of liquid
pgh X b X dh X h
=pg I b X h X hdh
= pg Jbh2 dh =pg Jh 2 dA
But
(:
bdh
= dA)
Jh~dA = Jbh dh
2
==Moment of inertia of the surface about free surface of liquid
= fo
Sum of moments about free surface
= pgfo
Equating (3.2) and (3.3), we get
... (3.3)
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Hydrostat~~ Forces on Surfaces

F xh*
691
=pg/0
F= pgAh
But
pgAh
or
lz*
= pg/0
lz*
= pg!C!_ = IC!_
pgAh
... (3.4)
Ah
By the theorem of parallel axis, we have

10
=fc +Ax h 2
where/G =Moment oflnertia of area about an axis passing through the C. G. of the area and parallel to
the free surface of liquid.
Substituting lc in equation (3.4); we get
h*
= IG +Ahl =
Ah
lc_ +h
... (3 .5)
Ah
In equation (3.5), h is the distance of C.G. of the area of the vertical surface from free surface of the
liq~id.
Hence from equation (3.5), it is clear that :

(i) Centre of pressure (i.e .; h*) lies below the Eentre of gravity of th~vertical surface.
(it) The distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid is independent of the denaity of the
liquid.
Table 3.1
Thc m oments of inertia ond o thcr ~{'omet ril' properties of some important plane surfaces
I
I Moment of inertia
i about an axis passing
Plane surface
~--------------------,_
C. G. from the
base
Area
____________
'
through C.G. and

parallel to base (/c)
Moment of
inertia about
base (10)
.L-----~----------~~+---------~
1. Rectangle
d
x=2
bd
bh
2. TJiapgle
x=3
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170
Fluid Mechanics
C. G. from the
Plane surface
Area
base
MomeTII of inertia
about an axis passing.
through C.G. and
Moment of
inertia about
base (lo)
parallel to base (Ia>
3. Circle
\
\
!f
\
l \_ G~ )
..
mP
- -
d
x= 2
-..
rrtr
64
4. Trapezium
.[Z~~G~
x=
(2a+b)~
a+b 3
(a+b) x h
2
4ab bl)
+ +
36(a+b)
( a2
X 1!3
Problem 3.1 A rectangular plane suJface is 2 m wide and 3 m deep. It lies in vertical plane in
water. Determine the total pressure and posiJion of centre of pressure on the plane surface when its
upper edge is horizontal and (a) coincides with wate~ surface, (b) 2.5 m below the free water surface.
Solution. Given :
Width of plane surface,
b =2 m
Depth of planesurface,
d =3m
(a) Upp-er edge coincides with water surface (Fig. 3.2). ToW pressure is given by equation
(3.1) as
F= pgAh
where
FREE WATER SURFACE
p = 1000 kg/m 3, g = 9.81 m/s2

A = 3 x 2 =6m 2,
--
h =.!. (3) = 1.5 m.
2
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 6 X 1.5
= 88290 N. Ans.
Ia
l G._l
P.
Ah
where
/G
=M.O.I. about C.G. of the area of surfac.e

3
= bd = 2x3 . = 4.5 m4
12
12
-.
-.
h.
Depth of centre of pressure is given by equation (3.5) as

h* = -=+h
--
3m
_j
l---2m- l
Fig. 3.2
scanned by Fahid
Hydrostatic F~rces on Surfaces <" 71 1

h* =
(b)
Upper edge is 2.5 m
~
+ 1.5 = 0.5 + 1.5 = 2.0 m. Ans.
6x 1.5
b~low water surface (Fig. 3.3). Total pressure (F) is given by (3. 1)
F = pgAJi
where
=2.5 + 22 =: 4.0 m
F:: 1000x9.81 x6x4.0
=: 235440 N. Ans.
Centre of pressure is given by h* = 1q_ + h
Ah
where lc =: 4.5, A = 6.0,
.---------- t
I +
.
h =Distance of C. G. from free su rface of water
WATER SURFACE
------- -:.-:.--.--_--_--
2.5 m
G
P
3.0m
h"
h =4.0
h*
45
+4.0
6.0x4.0
Fig. 3.3
= 0.1875 + 4.0 = 4.1875 = 4.1875 m. Ans.

Problem 3.2 Determine the total pressure on a circular plate of diameter 1.5 m which is placed
vertically in water in such a way that the centre of the plate is 3 m below the free smface of II'Oter.
Find the position of centre ofpressure also.
FREE SURFACE
Solution. Given : Dia. of plate, d = 1.5 m
:. Area,
1t
A= -
- __ -::_:_--_--_--_--_--..--_-- ___-2
(1.5) = J.767 m
3.Qm
h =: 3.0 m
Total pressure is given by equation (3.1 ),
F:: pgAh
=1000 X 9.81 X 1.767 X 3.0 N

=52002.81 N. Ans.
Position of centre of pressure (h*) is given by equation (3.5)
h* =
where l c
1td
=: -
64
C!..
Ah
+h
I--1.Sm~
Fig. 3.4
= 1t X641.5 =0.2485 m4
h*
0.2485
= 1.767x 10 + 3.0 =0.0468 + 3.0

=3.0468 m. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
jn
Fluid Mechanics
Problem 3.3
the sluice is
A rectcmgzilar sluice gate is situated on the l'ertical wall ofa lock. The 1errical side of
,r metres in length and depth of centroid of the area is 'p' m betow the water swface.
d2 )
Pro ve that the depth of pressure is equal to ( p+
p
12
FREE SURFACE
~:;-:-':.-".::~
d~ I
Solution. Given:
Depth of vertical gate
=dm
Let the width of gate
bm
.. Area,
A =bxdm 2
Depth of e.G. from free surface
~:
f f
I: ff
hl'_
Fig. 3.5
ii =p m.
Let /r* is the depth of centre of pressure from free surface. which is given by equation (3.5) as
h*
I
= Ah
~
+ h, where fc
(bd3/
h* = -
12
= -bd12
bxdxp +p= - d2-
12p
+p
or
d2
p + - . Ans.
12
Problem 3.4 A circular opening, 3 m diameter, in a vertical side of a tank is closed by a disc of
3 m diameter 11hiclt ca11 rotate about a hori::.ontal diameter. Calculate :
( i) the force on the disc, and
(ii) the torque required to maini~;,; the disc in equilibrium in the-vertical position when the head
of water abo1e the horizontal diameter is 4 m.
(A.M.I.E., Winter, 1977)
Solution . Given :
Dia. of opening;
Area,
Depth of e.G.,
' d=3m
A =
2: X
4
32 = 7.0685 ro 2
h=4m
(i) Force on the d}~~ is given by equation (3.1) as
F = pgAh = 1000 X 9.81 X 7.0685 X 4.0
=27{368'N = 277.368 kN. Ans.

(ii) To find the torque required to maintain the disc in equilibrium, first calculate the point of application of force acting on the disc, i.e., centre of pressure oft he force F. The depth of centre of pressure (h*)
is given by ~quation (3.5) as
.
JI"'
fc
= -.f:+ 1I =
Ah
d2 .
- -- + 4.0
16 x 4.0.
32'
=16x -tO
+ 4 .0 0.14 + 4.0 = 4: 14 m
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'
Hydrostati~ Forces onS~a~es ~i]
.....
,
Fig. 3.6
The forceFis acting at a distance of 4.14 m from free surface. Moment of this force about horizontal
diameter X-X
= F x (h *-h)= 277368 (4. 14- 4.0) = 38831 Nm. Aps.

Hence a torque of 38831 Nm must be applied on the disc in the clockwise direction.
Proble m 3.5 A pipe line which is 4 m in diameter contains a~gate valve. The pressure at the centre
of the pipe is 19.6 N!cm2 If the pipe is filled with oil of sp. gr. 0.87, find the force exerted by the oil
upon the 8ate and position qf centre of pressure.
(C,o.nver_te~ t_~ SI Vnjts, A.M.I.l~ . 'iji~t~r. 1975)
Solutio n . Given :
'
_Dia. of pipe,
d=4m
Fig. 3.7
Area,
Sp. gr. of oil,
:. Density of oil,
:. Weight density of oil,
Pressur~atthecentreofpipe,
..
..
= 2:. x 42 =47t m2
4
s =0.87
Po= 0.87 x I000 = 870 kg/m 3
ll"o =Pox g = 870 x 9.81 N/m 3
2
p = 19.6 N/cm = 19.6 x 10 N/m
19.6x l0 4
= 22.988 m
w0
870x9.81
. \
The height of equivalent free oil surface from the centre'of pipe= 22.988 m.
Pressure head at the centre = -
The depth of C.G. of the gate valve from free oil surface h = 22.988 m.
(i) Now the force exerted by the oil on the gate is .given by
F= pgAJi
where p =density of oil = 870 kg/m~
F 870 X 9.81 x 41t X 22.988 = 2465500 N

(it) Position of centre of pressure (It*) is given by (3.5) as
=2.465 MN. Ans.
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174
Fluid Mechanics
rr d.a
h*
fc
64
=-=+h=
Ah
!: d2 X f,
d~
+ h= ---=+h=
1611
42
. + 22.988
16 X 22.988
= 0.043 + 22.988 = 23.031 m. Ans.

Or centre of pressure is below the centre of the pipe by a distance of 0.043 m. Ans.
Problem 3.6 Deten11ine the total P':essure and ce11tre of pressure on an isosceles triangular plate
ofbase -lm and altitude 4 m \'.hen it is immersed vertidtlly in an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. The base of the plate
FREE OIL
m---!
coincides with the free surface of oil.
4
~~~~~~~~~~ven:
:~:~:~~~~}w~::~:~
Height of plate.
b=4m
h=4m
..
A = b x h = 4x4
Area,
-: :
=8.0 m2
Sp. gr. of oil.

S 0.9
Density of oil.
The distance of C.G. from free surface of oiJ.
= -I X h =-I X 4
3
I~
I
_j_
F ig. 3.8
= 1.33 m.
Total pressure (f) is give_n byF = pgAh

900 X 9.81 X 8.0 X 1.33 N = 9597.6. N. Ans.
Centre of pressure (h*) from free s urf~c~ of_EiJ_is given by
'h*
= ' c_ + h
Ah
where fc
=M .O.I: of triangular section about its C. G.
= bh3 = 4x43 =7.1 1 m"

36
36
1
h* =
?.1
+ 1.33 =0.6667 + 1.33 = 1.99 m. Ans.
8.0 X 1.33
Problem 3.7 A 1ertical sluice gate is used tc cover an opening i11 a dam. The opening is 2 m wide
and 1.2 m high. On the upstream of the gate, the liquid of sp. gr. 1.45, lies upto a height of 1.5 m
abo1e the top of tire gate, 11hereas on the downstream side the water is available up to a height touching the top of the gate. Find the rem/rant for::e acting 011 the gate a11d position of ce11tre of presmre.
Fi,id also the force acting hori:.on.t alh at the top of the gate 11/iich is capable of opening it. Assume
(A.M.J.E.. May, 1975)
that the gate is hinged at the bottom.
Solution. Gi\'en :
Width of gate.
b=2m
Depth of gate,
d = 1.2 m
1
.. Area,
A =b X d =2 X 1.2 =2.4 m
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Sp. g~. or'liquid
1.45

Density of liquid,
P1
F1
Let
751
=1.45 X 1000 =1450 kg/m

=Force exerted by the fluid of sp. gr. 1.45 on gate
3
F 2 =Force exerted by water on the gate.
F 1 = p 1g x A x
The force F 1 is given by

where
h1
=1.45 x 1000 = 1450 kglm

h1 =Depth.of e.G. of gate from free surface of liquid
2
p1
1.2
= 1.5 + - = 2.1 m.
2
LIQUID OF
Sp. gr.=1.45
F
UPSTREAM
FREE. SURFACE
OFWATER
DOWN STREAM
Fig. 3.9
F 1 = 1450 X 9.8 1 X 2.4 X 2.1

F2 =p 2g.Ah2
Similarly,
where p 2 1;ooo kg/.m 3
N
- - =...7169J
.- .-.
=
h2 =Depth of e.G. of gate from free surface of water
1
= - x 1.2 = 0.6 m
2
..
F2
1000 X 9.81 X 2.4 X 0.6 14126 N
(z) Resultant force on the gate= F 1 - F 2 = 71691- 14126 = 57565 N. Ans.
(ii) Position of centre of pressure of resultant force. The force F 1 will be acting at a depth of h 1*
from freesurface of liquid, given by the relation
h 1* =
where
bd 3
12
fc = -
Distance of F 1 from
AhI
2 X 1.2
=-- =0.288 m-1
12
III
..
fr
::... +h )
"
' =
hin&~
.288
+ 2.1 = 0.0571 + 2.1
2.4 X 2.i
=2.1571 m
.: -=::(1.5+ 1.2) -h 1*=2.7 - 2.1571 =0.5429m
The foree F1 will be acting at a depth of 11 2* from free surface of water

and is given
by
scanned
by Fahid
I
176
Fluid Mechanics
where
f c; = 0.288
4 -
m , h 2 = 0.6 m. A= 2.4 m .
h/'
-
0288 + 0.6 = 0.2 + 0.6 =0.8 m

2.4 X 0.6
Distance of F2 from hinge

= 1.2 - 0.8 =0.4 m
The resultant force 57.565 N will be acting at a distance given by
71691 X .5429-14126 X 0.4
=
57565
= 38921- 5650.4 m ab ove h'mge
57565
= 0.578 m above the hinge. Ans.
(iii) Force at the top of gate which is capable of opening the gate. Let F is the force required on
the top of the gate to open it as shown in Fig. 3.9. Taking the moments ofF, F 1 and F2 about the hinge,
~~
F X 1.2 + F2 X 0.4
=F 1 X .5429
F = F;
.5429 - F2
or
X 0.4
1.2
7169 I X .5429-14126 X 0.4
=
1.2
=27725.5 N. Ans.
38921- 5650.4
1.2
Problem 3.8 A caisson for closing the errtrance to a dry dock is of trapezoidal form 16m wide at
tl1e top and 10m ~ride at the bottom qnd 6 m deep. Find the total pressure and centre of pressure on
the caisson if the water on the outside is just level with the top and dock is empty.
WATER SURFACE ~
...__ _ _ 16m
Solution. Given :
= 16m
Width at top
= lOrn
Width at bottom
d=6m
Depth,
Area of trapezoidal ABCD,
A = ( BC + AD.) x d
2
= (10+ 16)
x6=78 m2
Fig. 3.10
Depth of C.G. of trapezoidal are~ ABCD from free surface of water,

10x6x3+ (! 6 -IO) x6x..!.x6
h=
2
78
-. . = 180+36 =2.769 m from water surface.

.
78
(i) Total Pressure (F). Total pressure, F is given by
scanned by Fahid
\
l
Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 77j
F =pgAh = 1000 x 9.81
78
2.769 N
=2 1 18783 :.'\ = 2.ll8783 MN. A ns.
(ii) Centre of Pressure (h*). Centre of pressure is given by equation (3.5) as
= l c_ + Ji
h*
Ah
where lc =M.O.I. of trapezoidal ABCD about its C.G.
lc 2
=M.O.I . of rectangle FBCE about its C.G.

=M.O.l. of two ds ABF and ECD about its C. G.
l c;,
=bd
l c;,
Let
Then
= 10x6 = J&Om4
12
12
lc;, is the M.O.L of the rectangle about the axis passing through G 1
..
M.O.I. of the rectangle about the axis passing through the C.G. of the trapezoidal I c, +Area of
rectangle x x 12
where x 1 is distance between the C.G. of rectangle and C. G. of trapezoidal
=(3.0-2.769) = 0.231 m
. . M.O.I. of FBCE passing through C.G. of trapezoidal
180 + 10 X 6 X (0.231)"2 = 180 + 3.20 183.20 m~
Ia
Now
=M.O.I. of :Y.BD in fig. 3.11 about G, = bd

36
-
=(16-JO)x63 =36 m 4 _
36
The distance between the C.G. of triangl!! and C.G. of trapezoidal
(2.769- 2.0) 0.769
. . M.O.I. pf the two 6s about an axis passing through C.G.- of trapezoidal
1
2
D
F,E
l c 2 +Area of triangles x (.769) - Ar---...:...;:=-----.
=36.0 + 6 X 6 X (.769)2
2
=36.0 t 10.64 =46.64
Ia
=M.O.I. of trapezoidal about its C.G.
6m
= M .O.I. of rectangle about the C.G. of trapezoidal

+ M.O.L of triangles about the C. G. of the trapezoidal
= 183.20 + 46.64 = 229.84 m 4

h*
"here
B,q
lc = -=
+h
Ah
,--~
!
Fig. 3.11
=78, h = 2.769
h*
229.84
. ;
+ 2.769 = 1.064 + 2.769 =3.833 m. Ans.
78 X 2.769
Alternate Method
scanned by Fahid
The distance of the C. G. of the trapezoidal channel from surface AD is given by (referto Table 3.1 on
page 69)
j78
Fluid Mechanics
(2a+b)
x=
(a +b)
II
x-
(2xl0+16)
(10+16)
6
3
a= IO,b = 16and11=6)
(:
x-
36
= - x 2 = 2.769 m
26
This is also equal to the distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal from free surface of water.
h =2.769 m
..
Total pressure,
(:
F= pgAh
A=78)
=1000 x 9.81 x 78 x 2.769 N =2118783 N. Ans.
Centre of Pressure
Ic
(h*) = ~+h
Ah
Now !0 from Table 3.1 is given by,---
2
2
2
(a 2 +4~b+b ) . -~ (l0 +4xl0x16+16 )
3
I =
xh =
x6
G
36(a +b)
36(10 + 16)
= (IOQ + 640 + 256)

36x26
2f6 = 2;9.846
229.846 + 2.769
78 X 2.769
= 3.8~3 m. Ans.
A trapezoidal channel 2 m wide at the bollom and 1 m deep has side slopes 1 : 1.
h*
Problem 3.9
Determine :
( i) the total pressure, a,nd
(ii) the centre of pressure on the vertical gate closing the channel when it is full of water.
,
(A.M.l.E., Summer, 1978)
...----4 m
Solution. Given :
Width at bottom
Depth,
Side slopes
:. Top width,
Area of rectangle FBEC,
=2m
d= 1m
= 1: l
AD = 2 + 1 + l = 4 m
2
A 1 =2 x l = 2 m
4 2
2
Area of two triangles ABF and ECD, A2
- ) x 1 1m
2
2
. . Area of trapezoidal ABCD.
A =A 1 + A2 = 2 + l = 3 m
Depth of C. G. of rectangle FBEC from water surface,
=(
h1 =- = 0.5 m
2
-.-..!
Fig. 3.12
scanned by Fahid
I
I
Hydrostatic Forces an Sur.faces
79 j ..
Depth of C. G. of two triangles ABF and :;CD from water surface.

-
h =-xI=- m
Depth of C. G. of trapezoidal A.BCD from free surface of water
'
h=
A1 X h1 + A2 X h2 = 2 X 0.5 +I
X 0.33333
(2 + 1)
( A1 + A2 )
= .44444
(i) Total Pressure (F). Total pressure F is given by
F= pgAh
= 1000 X .9.81 X 3.0 X 0.44444 =13079.9 N. Ans.

(ii) Centre of Pressure (h*). M.O.I. of rectangle FBCE about its C.G.,
bd 3 2 X 13 I 4
IG1 =-- = - - = - m
or
12
12
M.O.I. of FBCE about an ax.is passing through the C. G. of trapezoidal

lc 1* =IG 1 +A 1 x [Distance between C. G. of rectangle and C. G.
of trapezoidal]2
+ 2 X[Ji1
- Ji)2
X (0.5- :4444f = .1666 + .006182 = 0.1727

6
M.o'.I. of the two triangles ABF and ECD about their e.G.!
= _!_ + 2
= bd3 = (l+l)x.13 = ~ = J_
m4 .
36
36
36 18
M.O.I. of the two triangles about the e.G. of trapezoidal,
I
lc2 * = Ic, + Az X [Distance between e.G. of triangles and e .G.
. of trapezoidalf
1
. -
=J_
+ 1X [Ji- h2]
18
_!_ + 1X [.444418
.!.J
3
= _!_ + (.1111 ) 2 = 0.0555 + (.1111)2

18
= .0555 + 0.01234 =0.06789 m

M.O.I. of the trapezoidal about its C.G.
fc = l c, *+ fc~ * = .1727 + .06789
=0.24059 m4
Then centre of pressure (I!*) on the vertical trapezoidal.

..
h*
024059
.
+ .4444 = 0.18046 + A444 = 0.6248
All
3x.4444
scanned by Fahid
:::. 0.625 m. Ans . .
= I ~ + h- =
Iso Fluid Mechanics

Alternate Method
The distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal channel from surface AD is given by (refer to Table 3.1 on
page 60).
x=
(2a+b)
(a+b)
x- =
3
(2x2+4) I
x(2+4)
3
(:
a=2,b=4andh = I)
=0.444 m
h =x = 0.444 m
Total pressure,
=pgAh = 1000 X 9.81 X 3.0 X .444

=13079 N. Ans.
(:
A= 3.0)
IG -
Centre of pressure,
h* =-= +h
Ah
where /G from T able 3.1 is given by
2
I =
G
h*
(a +4ab+b.2 )
36(a+b)
Xh
=100.2407
x.444
(2 2 +4x2x4+4 2 )
=~
36(2+4) .
XI
52
\-4
= - - =0.2407 m
36x6
:1
+ .444 =0.62 ~- m . A ns.
Problem 3.10 A square aperture in the vertical side of a tank has one diagonal vertical and is
completely covered by a plane plate hinged along one of the upper sides of the aperture. The diago
nals of the aperture are 2 m long and the tank contains a liquid of specific gravity 1.15: The centre of
aperture is 1.5 m below the free swface. Calculate the thrust exerted on the plate by the liquid and
position of its centre of pressure.
(A.M.I.E., Suminer, 1986)
Solution. Given: Diagonals of aperture, AC =BD = 2m
:. Area of square aperture, A = Area of MCB +Area of MCD
=ACxBO+ACxOD=2xl +2xl = I+I = 2 .0m2
2
2
2
=1.15
p = 1.15 X 1000 = 1150 kg/m 3
Sp. gr. of liquid

Density of liquid,
Depth of centre of aperture from free surface,
h = 1.5 m.
scanned by Fahid
Fi.!!. 3.13
Hyd.r9static Forces on Surfaces
81 1
(i) The thrust on the plate is given by
F pgAh
(ii) Centre of pressure (h*) is given by
h*
where Ia
= 1150 X 9.81 X 2 X 1.5 = 33844.5. Ans.
lc =-=+h
Ah
=M.O.L of ABCD about diagonal AC

=M.OJ . of triangle ABO aboutAC + M.O.L oftriang1eACD aboutAC
= ACxOB
12
ACxOD
12
+----
: M.O.l.of a triangle about its base= bh

(
.
12
2xl 3
2xl 3
12
12
= - - + - - =-+-=- m4
.
h*
=-2 X3- 1.5
+ 1.5
= 3 X 2 X 1:5
t 1.5 = 1.611 m. Ans.
Problem 3.11 A tank contains water upto a height of0.5 m above the base. An immiscible liquid of
sp. gr. 0.8 is filled on the top of water up to I 111 height. Calculate :
'(i) total pressure on one side of the tank,
(ii) the position of centre of pressure for one side of the tank, which is 2 111 wide.
Solution. Given :
=0.5m
Depth of water
=1m
Depth of liquid
Sp. gr. of liquid
= 0.8
P 1 = 0.8 x 1000.= 800 kg!m 3
Density of liquid,
p2 l 000 kgim 3
Density of water,
=2m
Width of tank
(l) Total pre;ssure on one side is calculated by drawing pressure diagram, which is shown in Fig. 3.14.
pA = 0
Intensity of pressure on top,
Intensity of pressure on D (or DE), Po= p1g.h 1
2
800 x 9.81 x 1.0 7848 N/m
Tm
1
-r
. .__ . _ . ._... .
A
~...r
~nr5o7b-.:"~~~:
3~ Sp. gr.=0.8 ::;:
F1
--------:::::=:
=: :-t::~~=:.-
------ - ,
0.5 m -:::-=WATER .;::-:::

.L -;::; - --- - -~-
f-ig. 3.1--l
Intensity of pressure o n base (or BC). p 8

~ow
force
= p1gh 1 + p2g x 0.5

=7848 + I 000 X 9.81 X 0.5 =7848 "+ 4905 = 12753 N!m 2
F 1 = Area of MD x Width of tank
=-2I
AD X DE X 2.0
by Fahid
= -2Iscanned
X I X 7848 X 2.0 =7848 N
PDF
created by AAZSwapnil
ls2
f
Auid Mechanics
F~
Force
= Area of rectangle DBFE x Width of tank

= 0.5 X 7848 X 2 = 7848 N
F3 = Area of t.EFC X Width of tank

I
=-
I
.
EF X FC X 2.0 = - X 0.5 X 4905 X 2.0 = 2452.5 N
F = F 1 + F 2 + F3
:. Total pressure.
7848 + 7848 + 2452.5 18148.5 N. Ans.

(ii) Centre of Pressure (h *). Taking the moments of all force about A, we get
F x h*
=F 1 x ~3 AD + F. 2 (AD + ..!_2 BD) + F3[AD +. ~3 BD]
18 I48.5 X h* = 7848 X ~
-3
= 5232 + 9810
* = 18312
05
7848 ( 10 + )
2
2452.5 (1.0 +~X .5)
+ 3270"= 183 12
.
1.009 'rn from top. Ans . .
18148.5
Problem 3.12 A cubical tank has sides of 1.5 m. It contains water for the lower 0.6 m depth. The
upper remaining parr is filled with oil of specific gravity. 0.9. Calculate for one vertical side of the
tank:
(a) total pressure, and
(A.M.I.E., Winter, 1"987)
(b) position of centre ofpressure.
Solution. Given :
Cubical tank of sides 1.5 m means the dimensions of the tank are I .S m x 1.5 m x I .5 m.
Depth of water
=0.6 m
Depth of liquid
= 1.5'- 0.6 =0.9 m
Sp. gr. of liquid
= 0.9 .
Density of liquid,
p 1 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
Density of water,
p 2 = 1000 kg/m3
_
(a) Total pressure on one vertical side is calculated by drawing pressure diagram, which is shown in
Fig. 3.15.
h
----
:
.
TI ..... ..... . . . . .
l+i._~=~::~~~::~0_.,_~~~~:._:._:~
r-..- . -. .-. .-.~
.. .-~
...-.~
..-..-.-.-..,.
~ j1~ ~ 11 ttt~~F::.:;: :;: : :;: :;:;:;
:::::: : :: ;-:::::::::: ::::

OIL OF_s .P.<;>R.=0.9/::/
1.5 m
; ; ; ; ; : :. :. :..:;; ::::::::::::
:...J:: D
15m
.j
Fig. 3.15
scanned by Fahid
831
Intensity of pressure at A, PA =0
Intensity of pressure at D, Po= p 1g x h = 900 x 9.81 x 0.9 = 7946. I Nim 2
Intensity of pressure at 8, p 8 =p 1gh 1 + p2gh 2 =900 x 9.81 x 0.9 + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6
7946.1 + 5886 = 13832. I N/m2
Hence in pressure diagram:
DE= 7946.1 N/m 2,BC = 13832.1 N/m2 , FC =5886 N/m2
The pressure diagram is split into triangle AD, rectangle BDEF and triangle EFC. The total pressure force consists of the following components :
(i) Force
F 1 =Area of triangle AD x Width of tank
Hx AD x DE) x
(t X 0.9 X 7946.1) X 1.5 N =5363.6 N
1.5
( :
Width = 1.5 m)
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the triangle AD, i.e., at a distance of~ x 0.9 =0.6 m below A
3
F, =Area of rectangle BDEF x Width of tank

- =(BD X D E) X 1.5 (0.6 X i946.l) X 1.5 7151.5
(ii) Force
06
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the rectangle BDEF i.e., at a distance of 0.9 +
.
.2
below A.
(iii) Force
F.; = Area of triangle EFC x Width of tank
=
(f X EF X FC)
1.5 ;:='(t X 0.6 X 5886)
= 1.2 m
1.5 =2648.7 N
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the triangle EFC, i.e., at a dis.tance of 0.9 + ~ x 0.6 = 1.30 m
. - . -
3.
- - -
- . - . - --.
below A.
. . Total pressure force on one vertical face of the tank,
F=F1 + F 2 +F3
I
5363.6 + 7151.5 + 2648.7 15163.8 N. Ans.
(b) Position of centre of pressure
Let the total for<:'e F is acting .at a depth of h* from the free surface of liquid, i.e., from A.
Tiling the moments of all forces about A, we get
F X h* =Fl X 0.6 + F2 X 1.2 + FJ X 1.3
Fi
fj X 0.6 + X 12 + fj X 1.3
h*= ~------~----~---
or
5363.6 X 0.6 + 715 1.5 X 1.2 + 2648.7 X 1.3

I5163.8
= 1.005 m from A. Ans.
~
3.4
HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LI QUID
Consider a plane horizontal surface itnmersed in a static fluid. As every point bf the surface is at the
~edepth from the free surface of the liquid. the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface
arid equal to, p pgh, where his depth of surface.
Fahid
scanned by
Fluid Mechanics -
I
Let
FREE SURFACE
A = Total area of surface

Then total force, F. on the surface
:-+:-:.:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:f-:
-
l /~1
= p x Area = pg x h x A= pgAli
.1._,_
\\'here Ji = Depth of C. G. from free surface of liquid= h
G
also h * = Depth of centre of pressure from free surface= h .
I_ Prob lem 3.13 Fig. 3.17 shows a tankfull of water. Find:
Fig. 3.'16
(i) Total pressure on the bottom of tank.
(ii) Weight of water in the tank.
(iii) Hydrostatic paradox between the results of (i) and ( ii). Width of tank is 2 in.
Solution. Given :
o.4m
Depth of water on bottom of tank
'
h 1 =3 + 0.6 =3.6 m
Width of tank
=2m
Length of tank at bottom - . =4 m
Area at the bottom,
A = 4X2 = 8m2
(i) Total pressure F, on the bottom is
----- F-=
3m
pgAh =WOO X 9.81 X 8 X 3.6
=2S2S28 N. Ans.
(ii) Weight of water in tank= pg
Fig. 3.17
x Volume of tank
= 1000 X 9.81 X (3 X 0.4 X 2 + 4 X .6 X 2]

= 1000 x 9.8 1 [2.4 + 4.8] = 70632 N. Ans.
(iii) From the results of (i) and (ii), it is observed that the total weight of water in the tank is much
less than the total pressure at the bottom of the tank. This is known as Hydrostatic paradox .
.... 3.5
INCLINED PLANE SU RFAC E SU BM ERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid in such a way that the plane of the
surface makes an angle with the free surface of the liquid as shown in Fig. 3.18.
_____________
(>-\
>-~AREAdA
Fig. 3.18 Iucliued immersed smface.

Let A =Total area of inclined surface
Ji = Depth of C.G. of inclined area from free surface

h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid
0 =Angle made by the ptane of the surface with free liquid surface.
scanned by Fahid
85 1
Let the plane of the s_urface. if produced meet the free liquid surface at 0. Then 0-0 is the axis
perpendicular to the plane of the surface.
Let
=distance of the C.G. of the inclined surface from 0-0
y* = distance of the centre of pressure from 0-0.
Consider a small strip of area
at a depth 'h' from free surface and at a distance y from the axis
0-0 as shown in Fig. 3.18.
Pressure intensity on the strip,
p = pgh
. . Pressure force, dF, on the strip, dF p x Area of strip pgh x dA
dA
Total pressure force
~n the whole area,

h
h
y
where
dF
h*
y*
ydA
pg X y
pghdA
=y sin e
F=
But
J =J
F=
- = - = - = sm
But from Fig. 3.18,
sin 8 X
dA = pg sin 9 fydA
=Ay
y = Distance of C. G. from axis 0 -0

F = pg sin 9
yx A
=pgAii
( :
h := y sin 8) ... (3.6)
Centre of Pressure (h*)

Pressure force on the strip,dF = pghdA
=pgy sin 9 dA
Moment of the force; dF, about axis 0 -0
=dF X y =pgy sin 9 dA
Sum of mom~nts of all such forces about 0 -0
;
But
= jpgsin 9 /
[h
X
y = pg sin 9ldA
d.A=:pgsin9
\ '*
.
Now
JldA-
Jl dA =M.O.I. of the surface about
. . Sum of moments of all forces about 0-0 =pg sin.Ef /0

Moment of the total force, F, about 0-0 is also given by
=Fxy*
where y* =Distance of centre of pressure from 0 -0.
Equating the two values given by equations (3.7) and (3 .8)
F x y* =pg sin 9 10
or
= pg sin 9 / 0
=y sin 9]
0-0
=10
... (3.7)
... (3.8) .
... (3.9)
!,.,:::._ _,.::.
"* . - .
y* = -.-. F= pgAh.
sm e
and 10 by the theo!e!'" of parallel axis= IG + Ay
2
.
scanned by Fahid
\ 86 Fluid Mechanics
Substituting these. values in equation (3.9). we get
* = pg sine [ /0 +Ay-2]
-h sin 9
pgAh
. 2e
h* = -Stn--- l/o + A-2]
Y
Ah
h .
-:;:y = sm e
But
or
\1
h
=-sine
sin e [ fa +Ax-I?2
h* = ---=-
Ah
h*
or
sin e
= lo sin29 + h
... (3.10)
Ah
If e
=90, equation (3. 10) becomes same as equation (3.5) which is applicable to!vertically plane
submerged surfaces.
.
ln equation (3.10), 1 M.O.I. of inclined surfaces about an axis passing through G and parallel to 0-0.
0
Problem 3.14 (a) A rectangular plane surface 2m Wide and 3m deep lies in water in such a w~y
that its plane makes an angle of 30 with the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure and
position of centre of pressure wizen the upper edge is 1.5 m below the free water surface.
S olution. Given :
FREE WATER SURFACE
Width of plane surface, b =2m

Depth,
d=3 m
Angle,
9 = 30
D istance of upper edge from free water surface= 1.5 m
(i) Total pressure force is given by equation (3.6) as
F= pgA~
3
where p = 1000 kg!m
2
A =bxd=3x 2 6 m
h Depth of C.G. from free water surface
= 1.5 + 1.5 sin 30
Fig . 3.19
{: h =AE + EB = 1.5 + BC sin 30 = 1.5 + 1.5 sin 30 }
= 1.5 + 1.5 x
= 2 .25 m
F 1000
9.81
6 X 2.25 = 132435 N. Ans.
(ii) Centre of pressure (h*)
Using equation (3. 10), we have

2
I sm 9
h *-- G All
+-,,
wh erel0 =
bd3
2X3
!2=!2 =4.5 m
I
4.5 X -4
2 30o
h* = 4 .5 X SIO
+ 2.25 =
+ 2.25
6 X 2.25
6 X 2.25
= o :0833 + 2.25 = 2.3333 m. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
H ydrostatic Forces on Surfaces
871
Pro blem 3.14 (b) A rectangular plane su1jace 3m ll'ide and 4 m deep lie.~ in water in such a way
that its plane makes an angle of 30 with the free Slllface of water. Determine the total pressure force
and position of centre of pressure, when the upper edge is 2 m below the free surface.
(Delhi University, Dec. 2002)
Solution. Given :
Free surface of water
b = 3 m . d = 4 m, e = 30
A
D
Distance of upper edge from free surface of water = 2 m
(i) Total pressure fo rce is given by equation (3.6) as
where
._
F=pgAh
3
p = 1000 kglm ,
2
A = b x d =3 x 4 = 12 m
and .
ii = Depth ofC.G. of plate from

free water surface
= 2 +BE= 2 + BC sin
View normal
to plate
. .
= 2 + 2 sin 30 = 2 + 2 x - = 3 m
2
Fig. 3.19 (a)
F= 1000x9.81 x 12X3 = 353167 N=353.167kN.Ans.

(ii) Centr e of pr essur e (h*)
2
Using equation (3.10), we have h* = .lc sin

.
Ah
e+h
bd 3 3 X 43
4
wberelc= - -= --=16m
- 12
12
1
16 x4
16xsi.n 2 30
+3
+ 3 3.111 m. Ans.
12 X 3
36
Problem 3 . 1~ (a) A circular plate 3.0 m diameter is-immersed in water in such a way that its
greatest and least depth below the free surface are 4 m and 1.5 m respectively. Determine the total
pressure on one.face of the plate and position of the centre of pressure:
Solution. Given :
/FREE WATER SURFACE
h
Dia.ofplate,
Area,
Distance
=- -
d =3.0m
lt
-----7t
A=- d =- (3.0) = 7.0685 m

4
4
.
DC
= 1.5 m. BE= 4 m
1.5 m
..
.;
. . . .
Distance of C.G. from free surface
=h = CD+ GC sin e;, 1.5 + 1.5 sin e

'
But
sinS= AB = BE-A= 4.0 -DC

BC
Be_
3.0 .
= 25
3.0
..
=0.8333
h = 1.5 +
;.
'
4.0- 1.5
3.0
scanned by Fahid
Fig. by
3.20AAZSwapnil
PDFm created
1.5 x .&)33 = 1.5 + 1.249 = 2.749
~
C.-
-~~~~~====~~~~~~~~~~~-.~i~
ILs_s~;__F_lu_i_d _M__~c~h~a_n_ic_s______________________________~------------------~'
(i) Total pressur.~ (F)
=pgAh
= 1000 X 9.81
7.0685
2.749 = 190621 N. Ans.
(ii) Centre of pressur e (h *)
I sin 2 8
.Using equation (3. 10), we have h* =
' :'
where
'r(
/G;;: ,-
.. 64
.4
1t
Ah
+h
a = - (3) =3.976m
64
h~ = 3.976 X (.8333) X .8333 + 2. 749 = 0.1420 + 2.749

7.0685 X 2.749
=2.891 m . Ans.
Problem 3..15 (b)
If in the above problem, the given circular plate is having a concentric circular
hole of diameter 15m, then calculate the total pressure and position of the, centre ofpressure on one
face of the plate. . _ _
E
o
Solution. Given: [Refer to Fig. 3.20 (a)]
d = 3.0
Dia. of plate,
Area of solid plate =
2:. d2 = 2:. (3i = 7.0685 m2

4
Dia . .of hole in the plate, d 0
= 1.5 m
. . Area of hole
2:. d0 2 = 2:.
4
(1.5) 2 = 1.7671 m2
. . Area of the given plate. A = Area of solid plate -Area of hole

= 7.0685 - 1.7671
=5.3014 m2
Distance CD = 1.5, BE = 4 m
Fig. 3.20 (a)
Distance of C.G. from the free surface,
h =CD + GC sin 8
= 1.5 + 1.5 sine
But
sin e = AB = BE- AE
BC
BC
h
=4 3
1.5 = 2.5
3
= 1.5 .+ 1.5 x -2.5

= 1.5 + 1.25 = 2.75 m
3
(i) Total pressure force (F)
F= pgA
= 1000 X 9.81 X 5.3014 X 2.75

'
= 143018 N =143.018 k N. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
..
Hydr_ostatic Forces
on Surfac~s
~9 ~
(ii) Position of centre of pressure (h*)

2
h* = / 0 sin 8+ h
Ah
\
7t
7t
where 10 = - [d - d 0 ] = - [3 - 1.5
64
- 64
.. -:
A=
sine
2:.
4
[d2- do2] =
= 2~5
2:.
4
[32- 1.52]
44
. .
1m
m2
''
and h ~ 2.75
16 [32 + 1.5 2] X (23.5)

=. :1. : :._ ___
___,~--<...._
2.75
+ 2 .75 = J X 11.25 X 6.25 + ?- 7)_

16x2.75x9
=0.177 + 2.75 = 2.927 m. Ans.

Problem 3.16 A circular plate 3 metre diameter is submerged in water as shown in Fig. 3.21. Its
greatest and least depths are below the surfaces being 2 metre and I metre respectively. Find: (i) the
total pressure on front face of the plate, and (ii) the position of centre of pressure.

Water surface
Solution. Given :
E
Dia. of plate,
d =3.0 m
Area,
Distance,
lnMBC,
A=
2:.
4
(3.0) 2 =7.0685 m~
DC = I m, BE= 2 m
si~ e = AB =B - AE =BE - DC-= 'i.0-1.0 =_!.
AC"
BC BC
3.0 .
3
The centre of gravity of the plate is at the middle of BC, i.e., at a distance 1.5 m from C.
The distAnce of centre of gravity from the free surface of the-water is given by
h =CD+ CG sin 8 = 1.0 + 1.5 x 1
= 1.5 m.
(i) Total pressure on the front face of the plate is given
(: sin 8 = j-)
b.
F = pgAh
= I000 x 9.8 1 x 7.0685 x
1.5 = 10401 3 N. Ans.

Let the distance of the centre of pressure from the free surface of the water be h*. Then using equation
3.1 0), we have
scanned by Fahid
j90 .Fluid Mechanics
where
1t
-t'1t
lc =- a = -
Jt~
d~
16
9x 1.5
(3) . A = - d. h = 1.5 m and SIDe= 't

4
~
'64
64
Suostituting the values. '-.:e get
_!:
h*
= 64
(I
d~ X )2
+ 1.5
3
2
!5_d X 1.5
=- x - -
+ 1.5
32
=- - - - + 1.5 =.0416 + 1.5 =1.5416 m. Ans.
16 X 9 X 1.5
Problem 3.17 A rectangular gate 5 m x 2m is hinged at its base and inclined at 60 to the horizon tal as shown in Fig. 3.22. To keep the gate in a stable position, a counter weight of 5000 kgf is
attached at the upper end of the gate as shown in figure. Find the depth of water at.1which the gate
begins to fall. Neglect the weight of the gate andfriction at the hinge and pulley.
8
S.olution. Given :
+ oav ~ . . '
Length of gate
5m
W ~ . '!lr B
__
_
_
---=2m
Width of gate
------------1 F'
e =60
w =5000 kgf
=5000 X 9.81 N
=49050N
(: l kgf=9.81 N)
As the'pulley is frictionless, the force acting at B = 49050 N. First
fino tQ.t{ total force F acting on the gateAB for a given depth of water.
5
11
From figure,
AD = A
-sine' sin 60 .J3 /2 .J3
=-
=-
,_Fig. 3.22
=~
Area of gate immersed in water, A =AD x Width x
~ x2= ~
.
_. h
Also depth of the C. G. of the immersed area= h =- 0.5 h
2
4h
h
19620 2
TotalforceFisgivenby F=pgAh= 1000x9.81 x .fjx J2= .J3 h N
.'
The centre of pressure of the immersed surface, h* is given by

2
where
h* = I c sin 0
Ah
I 0 = M.O.l. of the immersed area
+h
=bx(AD)3
12
2 (2h)
\2x
.J3
scanned by Fahid
Hy~rostatic Forces 011 Surfac~s . ~l j
h..
~ _2/!'_J3 1-)' +!: ~

X (
9X
Now in the IJ.CHD,
CH = ..h*
~ X !!_
J3
Jlr'
18h 2
x!:o
2
!:~!:"
6
h + Jh
2/o
= 23", LCDH =60
CH =sin 60
CD
CD =
_E!_ =~ = __3!:_ =~
sin 60
J3
sin 60
3x-
2h
4h
AC=AD - CD=- - - - -
.J3
Jx J3
2
6h - 4h
3.Jj -
3./3
2h
=-,::; m
3v 3
Taking the moments a.bout hinge, we get
19620 ")
2h
49050 X 5.0 =F X AC =--;;;- h- .X r;,
v3
3v3
or
.245250 = 39240 113
3x3
h3
= 9 X 245250 =56.25
..
39240
=(56.25) 113 =3.83 m. Ans.
Problem 3.18 An inclined rectangular sluice gate AB 1.2 m by 5 m size as shown in Fig. 3.23 is
installed to controlled the discharge of water. The end A is hinged. Determine the force normal to the .
gate applied at.B to open it.
Solution. Civen :
.
A= Area of gate=:= 1.2 x 5.0 6.0 m2

Depth of C.G. of the gate from free surface of the water.= h
D G= BC -BE
FREE WATER SURFACE 0
5.0 - BG sin 45
=
=
=5.0 - 0.6 x J2I = 4.576 m
= pgAh
=1000 X 9.8 1 X .6.0 X 4.576

= 269343 N
-h
HINGE
The to tal pressure force (F) acting on the gate,

F
G~
H'l-
E~A
G;(
~
a'S;"
a -c~
/(a)
/.(b)
This force is acting at H, where the depth of H from

f~ surface is given by
scanned by Fahid
... " .
) 92 Fluid MeChanics ::.:

where
bd 1
12
Depth of centre of pressure
Distance,
1
.I
X 1.2
= 5.0 12
=0.72 m
h" =
0.72 x sin 1 45
+ 4.576 = 0. 13 + 4.576 = 4.589 m
6 X 4.576
h*
=sin45
011
h*
. 4 589
OH = - - = --1
sin 45
' .fi
But from Fig. 3.23 (a) ,
10 = M.O.I of gate = -
=4.589 x J2 = 6.489 m
Distance,
BO = -= 5x.fi =7.071 m
sin 45
Distance,
BH =BO - OH =7.071-6.489 =0.582 m

. . Distance
AH =AB- BH = 1.2- 0.582 =0.618 m
Taking the moments about the hinge A
P x AB =F_ '?< (A H) - ...

where P is the force no~mal to the gate applied at B :
..
1.2
=269343 X 0.618
P = 269343 x 0.618
1.2
=138708 N. Ans.
Problem 3. 19 A gate supporting water is shown in Fig. 3.24. Find the height h ofthe water so that
the gate tips about the hinge. Take the width of the gate as unity.
Solut ion. Given :
0 = 60
D.tstance,
AC __ __h_ _ _2h
, sin 60 J3
where h = Depth of water.

The gate will start tipping about hinge B if the resultant pressure force acts at B. If the resultant
pressure force passes through a point which is lying from B to C anywhere on the gate, the gate will tip
over the hinge. Hence limiting case is when the resultant force passes through B. But the resultant force
passes through the centre of pressure. Hence for the given position point B becomes the centre of pressure. Hcn~e depth of centre of pressure,
h*
=(h- 3) m
FREE WATER SURFACE
But h* is also given by

Taking width of gate unity. Then
fI
1
Area,
=AC X
2h x l ; -h = "
I = J3
JX
10
bd
= 12=
I x AC
12
31 )3
2~
v:>
12
Fig. 3.24
8h 3
211 3
=12x3xJ3=9xJ3
scanned by Fahid
Hyd'=ostatic Forces on Surfaces

21! 3
93 1
'3
211 3 X h
4
h h h 2h
+-= - ---=---'-+=- + - = 2
h 2 '
9ft
2 6 2 3
sin 2 60
h* = - -- X
9 X J3
2h
-. fj x2
Equating the two values of h*,

h- 3
2h
= 2h
or I t - - =3
3
3
h = 3 x 3 =9 m
..
Height of water for tipping the gate
or
h
- =3
=9 m . Ans.
Problem 3.20 . A rectangular sluice gate AB, 2 m wide and 3 m long is hinged at A as shown in
Fig. 3.25. It is kept closed by a weight fixed to the gate. The total weight of the gate and weight fixed
to the gate is 343350 N. Find the -height of the 1\"ater 'h' which will just cause the gate to open. The
centre of gravity of the weight and gate is at G.
Solution. Given:
b =2m ; Length of gateL= 3,m
Wid!h of gate,
Weight.of gate and
=2X J =6m2
W =343350 N
Angle of inclination,
e = 45
::
Area,
Let h is therequired
hei~ht
of water.
Depth of C.G. of the gate and weight= ii

From Fig: 3.25 (a),
h = .h -
ED = h - (AD- AE)
------
= h - (AB sin e - EG tan 9)
=h ._ (3 sin 45 -
=h- (2.121 -
{-: tan 9 =
;~ :. AE= EG tan e}
0.6 tan 45)
0.6) = (h- 1.521) m
The total pressure force, F is given by
F= pgAh = 1000 X 9.81 X 6 X (h- 1.521)

= 58860 (h - 1.521) N.
lbe total force F is acting at the ce.ntre of pressure as show11 in Fig. 3.25 (b) at H . The depth.ofH from
free surface is given by It* which is equal to
h* =
I sin 2 9
' . bd 3 2x3 3 54
G
+h. where 10 = - - = - - = Ah
12
1;2
12
2
h*= 4.5x sin 45 +(/t - I.S 2 l)=
6 X (It .- 1.521)
0.375
(/t - 1.521 )
=4.5 m4
+ (h - l.S 2 I)m
scanned by Fahid
I
.194 Fluid Mechanics
FREE WATER SURFACE
---.~~~~~~~~~--~
c
- _________________
-----------------...------ ..---- --
HINGE
...
h*
A
(a)
1~~~~- --8~~--~~-=-(b)
-..-. -
Fig . 3.25
Now taking moments about hinge A, we get

343350 x EG =FxAH
or
343350 X 0.6 = F
AK
X --
sin450
~]
[ .From MKH, Fig. 3.24 (b) AK = AH sin 0 = AH sin 45 :. AH = Slfl 45
AK = 343350 X 0.6 X sin 45
58860 (h - 1.521)
But
AK=h*-AC=
= 0.3535 X 7
(h -1.521)
375
+(h-1.521)-AC
(h- 1.521)
... (i)
... (ii)
But
AC = CD - AD = h - AB sin 45 = h - 3 x sin 45 = h - 2.121
. . Substituting this value in (ii),' we get
.375
+(h - 1.521)-(h - 2.121 )
521
AK= h-1.
375
.
+ 2.121 -1.521
. h -1.521
Equating the two values of AK from (i) and (iii)
375
= h -1.52
+ 0.6
1
... (iii)
scanned by Fahid
951
0.3535 X 7
0.375
=
+0.6
h -1.521
h - 1.521
0.3535 X 7 = 0.375 + 0.6 (h- 1.521) = 0.375 + 0.6 h- 0.6 X 1.521
or
0.611 = 2.4745- .375 + 0.6 X 1.521 = 2.0995 + 0.9126 =3.0121
or
:ta l 21
I1 =- - =5.02 m. Ans.
0.6
Problem 3.21 Find the total pressure and position of centre of pressure on a triangular p{ate of
bose 2m and height 3m which is immersed in water in such a way that the plan of the plate make.~ 011
mrgle of 60 with the free surface of the water. The base of the plate is parallel to water surface and at
a depth of 2.5 m from water surface.
FREE WATER SURFACE
Solution. Given.
- --- t60~
r >
Base of plate,
b =2 m
--il
Height of plate,
h 3m
1_
~
-:.:::r--1
..
Area,
=b x h =
2
2 x 3 = 3 m2
2
Inclination,
e =60 I
Depth of centre of gravity from free st~rface of w~er,
h =2.5 + AG sin 60
=2.5 + -31
J3
3 X-
2.5/
G"'1
"1:>~
:
<IJJ'y
/">
_' __ _~
Fig. 3.26
{-: AG =~of height of triangle}
= 2.5 + .866 m = 3.366 m

(I) Total pressure force (F)
F = pgAh = 1000 x 9.81 x 3 x 3.366 = 99061.38 N. A ns.

(ii) Centre of pressure (b*). Depth of centre of pressure from free surface of water is given by
h*
where
bh 3 2 X 33 3
4
I 0 = - = - - = - = 1.5m
36
36
h*
... 3 .6
2
e +h= lc sin
Ah
= 1.5 x sin
60
+ 3.366 = 0.1114 + 3.366 = 3.477 m. Ans.
3 x3.366
CURVED SURFACE SUB-MERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a curved surfaceAB, sub-merged in a static fluid a~ shown in Fig. 3.27. Let dAis the area
of a small strip at a depth of h from water surface.
Then pressure intensityon the area dA is = pgh
and pressure force,
dF =p x Area= pgh x dA
... (3.11)
This force dF acts normal to the surface.
Hence total pressure force on the curved surface shoul9 be
F=
J pghdA
... (3.12)
scanned by Fahid
196
Fluid Mechanics
WATER
SURFACE
il:
dAcos 9
B
(b)
(a)
Fig. 3.27
But here as the direction of the forces on the small areas are not in the same direction, but varies from
point to point. Hence integration of equation (3.1 1) for curved surface is impossible. The problem can.
however, be solved by resohing the force dF in two components dF_. and dFr in the x andy directions
respectively. The total force in the x andy directions, i.e., F , and F,. are obtained by integratingdF.r and
dF_,. Then total force on the cum!d surface is
= ~F.~+ F_}
... (3.13)
and inclination of resultant with horizontal is tan$= F_,.
. .. (3.14)
F.,
Resolving the force dF gi,en by equation (3.11) inx andy directi?ns:

df',, = dF sin 9 = pghdA sin 9
and
dF_,. = dF cos 9 = pghdA cos 9
Total forces in the x and y direction are :
Fx
=J dFX; I pghdA si'n e= pg I hdA sin a
F_,. = dFY = pghdA cos e = pg
and
{ . dF
=pghdA}
...(3.15)
f hdA cos e
...(3.16)
Fig. 3.27 (b) shows the enlarged area dA . From this figure, i.e., MFG,
EF=dA
=
=
=
FG dA sin 9
EG
dA cos 9
,
Thus in equation (3. 15) dA sin 9 FG =Vertical projection of the area dA and hence the expression
pg
J hdA sin e rep.resents the total press1:1re force on the projected area of the curved surface on the
,enical_plane. Thus
F , =Total pressure force c)n the projected area of ttie curved surface on vertical plane. ... {3. 17)
Also dA cos 9 EG =horizontal projection of dA and hence hdA cos 9 is the volume of the liquid
contained in the elementary areil dA up to free surface of the liquid. Thus
hdA cos
e is the total volume
contained between the curYed surface extended upto free s urface.

Hence pg
f hdA
cos
e is the total weight supported ~y the cu~ed surface. Thus
F_, = pg lulA cos e
scanned by Fahid
, .
Hydrostatic Fo~c~s on Surfaces 97

=weight of liquid supported by the curved surface up to free
WATER SURFACE
surface of liquid.
...(3.18)
o --- - --------- --ln Fig. 3.28. the curved surface AB is not S!.!pporting any fluid . In
,
_:::~=~=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:----------:MJch cases, F, is equal to the weight of the imaginary liquid supported
-- - -- ---- -by AB upto free surface of liquid. The direction ofF,. will be taken in
A -:-: -:-:-:upward direction.
P roblem 3.22 Compllle the horizontal and vertical components
>mn
a;,"the toto/force acting on a curred s111Jace AB, which is in the form
B
cf a quadrant of a circle of radius 2 111 as shown in Fig. 3.29. Take
Fig. 3.28
;}.L width of the gate as unity.
Solutio n . Given :
1.0 m
Width of gate
j_ D FREE SURFACE OF WATER
=2.0m
Radius of the gate
1.5 m - --:-- C
-----A0=0B=2m
:. Distance
Horizontal force, Fx exerted by water on gat~ is given by
equation (3.17) as
Fx = Total pressure force on the projected area of curved
surface AB on vertical plane
~ -- -Fig.' 3.29
- =Total pressure force on OB '
{projected area of curved surface on vertical plane= OB x I}
---- ---- ----
=pgAh
=1000x9.81x~xlx(l.5+~)
{:
AreaofOB=A=BOxl=2Xl=2.
h =Depth of C. G. of 08 from free surface= 1.5 + ~ }

Fx = 9.81
2000
2.5
=49050 N. An s.
I
The point of application of Fr is given by h* = ~ + h
Ah
bd
-.:!:.ere lc= M.O.l. of OB about its C.G. = -
l X 23
= -- = - mo~
12
12
3
h* =
__i__ + 2.5 = - 12
2.5
7.5
+ 2.5 m
=0.1333 + 2.5 =2.633 m from free surface.

Vertical force, FY, exerted by water is given by equation (3. i8)
FY = Weight of water supported by AB up to free surface
= Weight of portion DABOC
=Weight of DAOC +Weight of water AOB
pg fVolume of DAOC +Volume of AOB]
= I000x9.81
[AoxAOxl+~(A0) 2 xl]
scanned by Fahid
198
Fluid Mechanics
I +~ X 2~ X 1]
== 100.0 X
9.81 [1.5 X 2.0 X
== 1000 x
9.81 [3.0 + 1t]N = 60249.1 N. Ans.
Problem 3.23 Fig. 3.30 shows a gate having a quadrant shape of radius 2 m. Find the resultant
force due to water per metre length of the gate. Find also the angle at which the total force will act.
Solution. Given :
WATER SURFACE A
0
~~~~so~fg~~:e
Horizontal Force
7m
~~
:.:::.::::.::.::l:~~ ~--
F.. =Force on the projected area of the

curved surface on vertical plane
=Force on 80 == pgAh
.
where A
= Area of BO =2 x I =
Fx = 1000 X 9.81
This will act a.J. a depth
2X I
' 2 m-. h
=-
= 19620 N
x2
Fig. 3.30
=I m ;
of~ x 2 = ~ m from free surface of liquid,

3
Vt-rtical Force, F Y
F,. =Weight of water (imagined) supported by AB
= pg x Area of AOB x l.O
= 1000 X 9.81 X~4 (2)4 X 1.0 =30819 N

4
This will act at a distance of R. ==

..
31t
Resultant force, F is given by
20
31t
=0.848 m fr~X: OB.
F= /F2 + F 2
"
. = .Ji9620 + 30819
=J384944400 + 949810761
=36534.4 N. Ans.
The i!llgle made by the resultant with horizontal is given by
tan
F,
30819
e = - = - - = 1.5708
Fx
19620
e = tan- 1.5708 = 57 31'. Ans.

Problem 3.24 Find the magniwde and direction of the resultant force due to water acting on a
roller gate of cylindrical form of 4.0 "' diameter, when the gate is plact!d 011 the dam in such a way
that l'.'ater is just going to spill. Take the length of the gate as 8 m.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of gate
=4m
. . ~adius,
R.=2m
Length of gate,
' 1=8m
scanned by Fahid
1
991
H yqrostatic Forces on Surfaces

WATER
SURFACE
Horizontal force, F .. acting on the gate is

F~ = pgA ii a::: Force on projected area of curved surfaceACB
on vertical phtne
= Force on vertical area AOB
2
where A =Area of AOB = 4.0 x 8.0 = 32.0 m
-l
h =Depth of C.G . of AOB =4/2 = 2.0 m
Fx = 1000 X 9.81 X 31.0 X 2.0

= 627840 N.
Fig. 3.31
Vertical force, F>' is given by
F,. = Weight of water enclosed or supported (actually or imaginary) by
the curved surface A CB
= pg x Volume of portionACB
= pg X Area of A CB X I
7t
2
=1000 X 9.8 1 X -IT (R)2 X R.Q = 98 10 x -(2)
X 8.0 = 493104 N
It will be acting in the upward direction.
..
Resultan t force,
F=
J.-r:- -+F--,? = J627840 + 493104 = 798328 N. Ans.

2
t
"

b
.
D 1recuon o rcsu tant .orce IS 21ven y tan
e = -F,
493104
=--~n~
=o.7s-3
:>
e =31 " R'. Ans.

Find the horizomal and \'Prtical component o{wmer pre.1.wre acrin.fJ on the face of
a tainter gore of 90 St'ctor of radius 4 111 as shown i1 Fig. 3.32. Take 11idth o.f gare tm itY.
Problem 3.25
'
Solution. Given :
R =4m
Radius of gate.
Horizontal component. F, of force acting on the gate i'>
F, = Force on area of gate
projected on Yenical plane
=Force on area r\DB
WATER SURFACE
=pgAh
where
A = AB x Width of gate
=2xADx I
( : AB=2AD)
= 2 x 4 x sin 45 = 8 x .707 = 5.656 m~
{:AD = 4 sin 45}
h = AB =
2
Fig. 3.32
5.656 = 2.828 m
2
f'., = 1000 x 9.81 x 5P)6 x 2.8.':3 N = -156911 N . Ans.
Vertical compon ent

F, =Weight 0f water supported or enclosed b)' the curved surface
= Weight of,vat-::r in ponion ACBDA
=pg x r\n;a of ACIJOA x Width of gat~

=1000 X 9.8 1 X iArca of sector ACBOA -
Area or 6ABO]
scanned by Fahid
j100 Fluid Mechanics
= 9810 X [ ~ R!
= 9810x
- 1\0 ~ BO
[~4 2 - 4 ;
[ : !Y\OB is a right angled]
=44796 N. Ans.
Problem 3.26 Calculate the horizontal and l'ertical components of the water pressure exerted on
a taimer gate of radius 8 m as shown in Fig. 3.33. Take width of gate un_ity.
Solutio n. The horizontal component of water pressure is given by
F.r =pgA h = Force on the area projected on vertical plane

where
= Force on the vertical area of BD

A =BD x Width of gate = 4.0 x I = 4.0 m
WATER SURFACEc
--=::::;:::--
I
h= -X
-l=2m
')
F , = 1000 x 9 .8 1. ~ 4.0 x 2.0 = 78480 N. Ans.
Fig. 3.33
Vertical component of the water pressure is gi,en by
F,
Weight of water supported or enclosed (imaginary) by curved
sUiface CB
=Weight of water in the portion CBDC

= pg x [Area of portio n CBDC] x Width of gate
= pg x [Area of sector CBO - Area of the triangle BOD] x I
= 1000 x 9.81 x [2Q_ x rcR 2 -
BD x DO ]
360
=9810 x [...!...1t x 82 _ 4.0 x 8.8.cos 30]

12
2
{ : DO = BO cos 30 =8 x cos 30}
= 9810 X [16.755 - 13.856) = 28439 N. Ans.
Prob le m 3.27 A cylindrical gate of 4 m diameter 2m long has water on its both sides as shown in
Fig. 3.34. Determine the magnitude, location and direction of the resultant force exerted by the water
on the gate. Find also the least weight of the cylinder so that it may not be lifted away from the floor.
S o lution. Given :
WATER SURFACE
Dia. of gate
=4m
Radius
=2m
(i) The forces acting on the left side of the cylinder are :
The horizo ntal cnmponent, Fr,
''here Fr = Force of ,..ater on area projected on ,ertical
I
. plane
= Force on area AOC
=pgAh
=1000 x 9.81 x8x2
= 156960 N'
where
A = AC x Width= 4
=8m2
x2
Fig. 3.3-l
I
=h=-x4=2m scanned by Fahid
2
Hydrpstatic Forces on Surfaces 101 1
F,., = weight of water enclosed by ABCOA

= 1000 X 9.81
2 ] X 2.0 =9810 'x 2: X 2 2 X 2.0 = 123216 N.

[~R
2
2
.
Right Side of the Cylinder

Fx2 = pgA 2hz =Force on vertical area CO .
= I 000
9.81
X~{:
2
A, = CO X 1 = 2 X I = 2m 2 )il = ~ = 1.0}
-
= 39240 N
FYz =Weight of water enclosed by DOCD
=
pg X
%RJ Width of gate

2
= 1000 X 9.81 X~ X 22 X 2 = 61638 N

4
..
Resultant force in the direction of x,
Fx =Fx, -
=156960 -
FA!
Resultant force in the direction of y,
F>.=F,. + F>.
I
= 11771.0 N
(i) Resultant force, F is given as
39240
= 123276 + 6 1638 = 1849 14 N
2
2
F = ~r/. .2,.,_+_F_,_
12 =~( I f7720) + (1849 14 ) = 219206 N. Ans.
(ii) Direction of resultant fo r ce is given by
tan
F,
184914
_
e = ......._
= - - - = ).) 707
f'., I 17720
8 = 57 3 1'. Ans.
(iii) Location of the resultant force
2
Force, Fx, acts at a distance of

-=ts at a distance of~ x 2
~"~
= 2.67 m from the top surface of water on left side, whi le F, ,
= 1.33 m from free surface on the right side of the cylinder. The rt>sultant
Fx in the direction of x will act at a distance of y from the bottom as

Fx x y =Fx, [4- 2.67]- Fx2 [2- 1.33]
a:
117720
y = 156960 X 1.33- 39240

y
= 182466
f(lrce F, acts at a distance

1
I 17720
.67
'
= 1.5) m from the botrom.
R from AOC or at a distance
3n
=208756.8- 26290.8 :.: ! 82466

4
20
x = 0 .8488 m from AOC toward$

3n
_ftci AOC.
A ...o F, . acts at a distance -1 R 0.8-l88 m from A OC towards the right of AOC. The
3n
F. ~II act at a distanccx from AOC which is gi,en by
rc~ultant fon:c
scanned by Fahid
Fluid Mechanics
F_,. X X= F,.1 X .8-t88- F_,.2 X .8488
123276 X .8488-6 1638 X .8488 =.8488 ( 123276 - 61638) =523 18.4

5?3184
x = =0.2829 m from AOC.
184914
(iv) Least Wei~Wt 9.[ ~yli nder. The resultant force in the upward direction is
Fy= 1849 14 N
Thus the weight of cylinder should not be less than the upward force F ... Hence least weight of
cylinder should be at least.
=1849 14 N. Ans.
P roblem 3.28 Fig. 3.35 shows the cross-section of. a tank full of water under pressure. The length
of the tank is 2m. An empty cylinder lies along the length of the tank on one of its comer as shown.
Find the lwri:.omal and vertical components of the force acting 011 the cuned swface ABC of the
(A.M.l.E., May J 974)
cylinder.
Solution. Radius,
R =I m
0.2 kgf/cm2
Length of tank.
., =2 m
Pressure,
p = .0.2 kgf/cm! = 0.2 x 9.81 :-.l/cm2
= I .962 N/cm2 =1.962 x 10-t N/m2
or
184914 X
Pressure head,
X=
=..E_ = 1.962 X I 04 =2 m
pg
JQ()() X 9.81
. . Free surface of water will be at a height of 2 m from

the top of ihe tank.
. . Fig. 3.36 shows the equivalent free surface of water.
_.., __________ _
------ --- ----
(i) Horizontal C om ponent of Force
Fx pgAh
where A =Area projected on vertical plane
= 1.5 x2.0 = 3.0 m 2
h =. 2+ 1.5 =2.75
2
Fx = 1000 X 9.81 X 3.0 X 2.75
= 80932.5 N. Ans.
---------------------- -(ii) Vertical Component of Force
F,. =Weight of water enclosed or supported
Fig. 3.36
actually or imaginary by curved surface ABC
=Weight of water in the portion CODE ABC
=Weight of water in CODFBC - Weight of water in AEFB
But weight of water in CODFBC
=Weight ofw~ter in [COB+ OOFBO]
[4
nR!
,
=pg
+_BOxOD ] x2 = 1000x9.81 [ n xl-+l.Ox2.5
x2
= 64458.5 N
Weight of water in A"EFB = pg [Area of AEFBJ x 2.0
scanned by Fahid
Hyd~ostatic Forces on Surfaces 103 j
= I 000 x 9.81 [Area of (AEFG + AGBH - AHB)) x 2.0

05
sine= AH =
AO
1.0
In MHO,
= 0.5
e = 30
HO = 1.0- AO cos e = 1.0 -
BH = BO ABH Area ABO - Area AHO
Area,
=1tR2 X
30 _ AH x HO
360
2.0
I x cos 30 = 0.134
= rtR2 _
0.5 X .866
12
=0 _0453
Weight of water in AEFB
=9810 x [AExAG + AG xA H -
0.0453] x 2.0
= 98JO X [2.0 X .134 + .134 X .5- .0453) X 2.0
= 9810 X [.268 + .067 - .0453] X 2.0 = 5684 N
F>' =64458.5 - 5684 58774.5 N. Ans.
Find the magnitude and direction ofthe resultant water pressure acting on a curved
P rob lem 3.29
face of a dam which is shaped according to the relation y = .::.__ as shown in Fig. 3.37. The height of
the water retained by the dam is I 0 m. Consider the width of the dam as wtity.
Solution . Equation of c urve AB is
Y~c
A"~
-.- d~-r~-~-i-9AM
10m
&'
2~
y:J.-
Height of water,
h = I 0 111
,<'~
9 ~
Width,
b =I m
' -- ...- ~,1:1 ""',-:~.::..~),)'t:- ,._x
The horizontal component, Fx is g iven by
Fig . 3.3i
Fx = Pressure due to water on the c urved area proj"cted on ve rtical plane
= Press ure on area BC
= pgAh
\\here
A= BC x I
=10 x
Fx = 1000 X 9.81
l m2 ,
h =t
x lO
=5 m
10 X 5 = 490500 N
Vertical component, FY is given by

F1 = We ight of water supported by the curve AB
= We ig ht of wate r in the portion A BC
=pg[Area of ABC] x Width of dam

=pg [J~~ x dy] x 1.0
{ Ar<~a uf s1rip =x dy
: . Are a ABC =
J~ 3JYdy
0
= 1000 x9.8 l x
\J!
=29430 -
' [ 3/2
D~dy}
(: x=3./Y I
]Ill =29430x.::.., [""!]Ill = 19620110-'n]

.
0
3 .
= 19620 X 31.622 = 620439 N
I)
scanned by Fahid
! 104 Fluid Mechanics

Resultant water pressure on dam
F
= ~ ~2 + F/
J(490500)
+ (620439)
= 790907 N = 790.907 kN. Ans.

Direction of the resultant is given by
tan
e = -~= 620439
Fx 490500
8 =51 40'. Ans.
= 1.265
Problem 3.30 A dam has a parabolic shape y =Yo (
as shown in Fig. 3.38 below having Xo = 6 m
and y 0 = 9 m. The fluid is 1\'ater with density = 1000 kg!n/ Compute the horizontal, vertical and the
resultant thrust exerted by water pe.r metre length of the dam.
Solution. Given :
Eguation of the curve OA is
y
= Yo (
.~:
=9 ( ~ =9 X ;~ = :
x 2 = 4y
or
Yo=9m
112
x= ..{4; =2y
b = I m.
(i) Horizontal thrust exerted by water
Fx = Force exerted by water on vertical surface
OB, i.e., the surface obtained by projecting
the curved surface on vertical plane
..
Width of dam,
Fig. 3.38
= pgAii
=
1000 X 9.81
(9
9
1) X - = 397305 N. Ans.
2
(ii) Vertical thrust exerted by water

FY = Weight of water supported by curved surface OA upto free surface of
water
=Weight of water in the portion ABO
= pg x Area of OAB x Width of dam
= 1000 X 9.8 1 X [JO~ X dy JX 1.0

= JOOQ
~ 9.8 1 X
u:
112
dy]
= 19620 X
.
[(/3/2
'~)]
2y
= 19620
1.0
X~3 (9
312
=19620 X -3 X 27 =353160 N. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 105 1

(iii) Resultant thrust exerted by water
F = JF} +F/ =.J397305+353160 = 531574N.Ans.

Direction of resultant is given by
tan e =
~ =
F_.
353 160
397305
=0.888
9 =tan-1 0 .888 = 41.63. Ans.
Problem 3.31 A cylinder 3m in diameter and 4 m long retains water on one side. The cylinder is
supported as shown in Fig. 3.39. Determine the horizontal reaction at A and the vertical reaction at
B. The cylinder weighs 196.2 kN. Ignore friction.
WATER SURFACE
C
Solution . Given :
Dia. of cylinder
=3m
Length of cylinder
4m
3m
W= 196.2 kN = l96200N
Weight of cylinder,
Horizontal force exerted by water
Fx = force on vcrticai area BOC
7JJ4}}1)})})))}}))
= pgAh
where
r:ig. 3.39
2 -
A = BOC xI= 3 x 4 = J2m , h
=-
x 3 =1.~ m
..
Fx = 1000 x9.81 X l2x 1.5 = 17G58GN

The vertical force exerted by water
F_,,= Weight or .val.l r t: nclosed in BDCOB
:pg X(!!:_ /? 2 ~
X !~ 1000 X 9.81 X~ X (1.5)2 X 4 = 138684 N

2
Force F>' is acti ng in the upward direction.
For the equilibrium of cylinder

Horizontal reaction at .. A =Ex = 176580 N
Vertical reaction at
. 8 = Weight: of cylint"ler - FY
=196200 - 1386!?4 = 57516 N. Ans.
~
3.7
TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRES SURE ON LOCK GATES
Lock gates arc the devices used for ~.lt~ng l 'l?, the water !eve! in a canal or a river for navigation.
Fig. 3.40 shows plan and elevation of a j':'ll' ('J , d . gates. Let AB and BC be the two lock gates. Each
pte is supported on two hinges fixed on their.io:Jand bottom at ihe ends A and C. In the closed position,
lhegates m eet at B.
Let
F = Resu Itant force due t9 wate r on tne gate AB cr BC acting are right angles to the gate
R =Reaction at the lower and upper hinge
P = Reaction at the common contact surface of the two gates and acting perpendicular to the
contact surface.
Let the force P and F meet at 0. T hen the reaction R must pass through 0 as the gate AB is in the
eqoilibrium under the action of three forces. Let e is the incli nation of the lock gate with the normal to
t.'le side of the lock.
scanned by Fahid
1196
Fluid Mechanics
l.n LABO.
LOAB = LABO =9.
Resoh.:i.ng all force along the gate AB and putting equal to zero, we get
R cos 9 - P cos 9 =0 or R =P
:.. (3.19)
...-HINGE
DOWNSTREAM
SIDE
Fig. 3,40
Resolvingforces normal to the gate AB

R sin 6 + P sin 9 - F =0
or
F = R sin 9 + P sin 9 =2P sin 8
F
Pc: - -
(: R
= ~}
... (3.20)
2 sine
To ca~culate P and.R
In equation (3.20), P_ can be calculated if' F and a are known. The value of e is ~alculated from the
angle between the lock gates. The angle between the two lock gate is e.qual to L80 - 2a. Hence 9 can be
calculated. The value ofF is calculated as :
H 1 = Height of water on the upstre~ side
Let
H 2 =Height of water on the downstream side
F 1 =Water pressure on the-gate on upstream side
F 2 =Water pressure on the gate on downstream side of the gate
I = Width of_gate
Now
F1 =pgA 1h1
.
.. H .
=. pg X HI X:[ X - 2
.H2
=pg/ Similarly.
F , :;:; pgA,h 2
pgtHi
=pg X (H2 X I) X -H22. =-.
2
F = Fl - F, = pg/HI2 - pg!Hi_
2
2
Substituting .the value of a and Fin equation (3.20), the \'alue of P and R can be calculated.
Reactions at the top .and bottom hinges
scanned by Fahid
R, =Reaction of the top hinge
Let
Resultant force
Hydrostatic.Forces .on Surfaces
1071
Rb =Reaction of the bottom hinge

R = R, + Rb
Then
The resuhant water pressure Facts normal to the gate. Half of the value ofF is resisted by the hinges
of on.: lock gates and other half will be resisted by the hinges of other lock gate. Also F 1 act!> at a
!!.L
!!J..
from bottom while F, acts at a distance of

from bottom.
distance of
. 3
3
Taking moments about the lower runge
Fj
HI
F2
H2
x --- x 2
3
2
3
where H = Distance between two hinges
Resolving forces horizontally
... (i)
R xsmexH= 1
a+R
e
R SlD
b SlD
1
F,
= -Fi2 - -2
o ..
(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we can find R, and R 8 .

Proble m 3.32 Each gate ofa Lock is 6 rn high and is supported by two hinges placed on the top and
bottom of the gate. When the gates are closed, they make an angle of 120. The width of lock. is 5 m.
Jf the water levels are 4 m and'2 m 011 the upstream.,and downstream sides respectively, determine the
magniwdes of the forces on the hinges due to water pressure.
Solution. Given :
1-:!INGE
_
_R,r.
Height of lock
=6m
t
"
1
Width oflock
=5m
... ------------- .
6m
1
Width of each lock gate
AB
m - =_--.: =.
:.-------i ~J
4
AD
2.5
'
or
I = - - - =- -I
2m
~ \55
J
~
COS
30:
COS 30
r n Jr rrm77'7'n
-r. .,
UPSTREAM
8 = t8o - 120 = 60
=30
Height of water on upstream side

H 1 =4m
H 2 =2 m
Total water pressure on upstream side
PLAN A 30"
and
=pgA
c_
=.120'
F1
- - -"""
E'='LE
"-'V"'-'A!!.TO"IO['J !..l!i,G.__ - R_a !L_ _
= 2.887 m
Angle between gates
1 h1,
Fig. 3.41
where A 1
= 1000 X 9.81
=H
1x
4 X 2.887
l= 4.0 x 2.887 m
2.0,
HI= -=
4 2.0m }
-h1 = -
. 2
=22657 1 N
f orce F1 will be acting at a distance of
!!.L
= ~ = 1.33 m from bottom.
3
3
Similarly, total water pressure on the downstream side

F2
=pgA 2 h1, where A 2 =H 2 X I= 2 X 2.8X7 m 2

= 1000 X 9.81
2.887
1.0
h:
H,
2
=-= - = 1.0 m
2
2
scanned by Fahid
ltos
Fluid Mechanics
::: 566.0 N
F., will act at a distan~e of H 2
Or
=~ =0.67 m fro m bottom,

3
3
Resultant water pressure on each gate
F = F 1 - F 2 =2265.71 - _56643 = .169928 N.
.
Letx is height of Ffrom the bottom, then taking moments of F 1, F2 and F about the bottom, we have
F xx=F 1 x 1.33 - F 2 x0.67
169928 X X =22657 1 X 1.33 - 56643 X 0.67
X:::
226571
1.33- 56643 X 0.67 ::: 301339- 37950 ::: 1. m

55
169928
16~928
From equation (3.20).
169928
P = _F_ =
2 sine 2 sin 30
From equation (3.19),
R = P = 169928 N.
=169928 N.
=R = 169928 N.
Taking mo,ements of hinge reactions Rr, R8 and R about the bottom hinges, we hav~
Rrx 6:0 + Ra x o~ R X 1.55
l f. Rr and R8 are the reaction at the top and bottom hinges, then Rr + R8
Rr = 169928 x 1.55 = 43898 N
6.0
R8 =R -
Rr = 169928 - 43898
=126030 N. Ans.
Problem 3.33 The end gates ABC ofa lock are 9 m high and when closed include on angle of 120.
The width of the lock is 10m. Each gate is supported by MO hinges located at 1 m and 6 m above the
bottom of the lock. Tht; {iepths of water on the two sides are 8 m and 4 m respectively. Find:
(i) Resultant water force mi each gate,
(ii) Reaction between the gates AB and BC, and
(iii) Force on each hinge, considering the reaction of the gate acting in the same horizontal plane
as resultant water pressure.
Solution. Given:
Height of gate
=9m
Inclination of gate
= 120
= 180 - 12o
9
2
A. ~r~ ' ..
. L.l.'-"- ..
I .;
I "
. <
I
(b)
Fig. 3.42
ELEVATION
scanned by Fahid
Hydrostatic. Forces on Surfac.es 109 1

Width of lock
:.
Width of each lock
Depth of water on upstream side,

Depth of water on downstream side,
(i) Wa ter p r essure on upst ream side
= lOrn
5
= - - o r l = 5.773 m
cos 30
H 1 =8 m
H2 = 4 m
F1 =pgA 1h1
where A1 =l x H 1
=5.773 x 8 = 46.184 m, h1 = H, =! = 4.0 m

2 2
F 1 =1090 X 9.81 X 46.184 X 4.0 = 1812260 N = 1812.26 kN
Water pressure on downstream side,
F 2 =pgA 2 h2
4
where A 2 =l X H2 = 5.773 X 4 =, 23.092 m, hz = = 2.0
F2 = 1000 X 9.81
23.092. X ~.0 = 4530?5N = 453.065 kN
..
Resultant water pressure

= F,- F 2 = 1812.261 453."065 = 1359.195 kN
(ii) Reaction between the gates AB and AC. The reaction (P) between the gates AB and AC is
given by equation (3.20) as
F
135".1.195
F =- :: ---=1359.19:l_ kN. Ans.
2 sin 9 2 X sin 30
(iil) For ce of each hinge. If R7 and R .. arc the reactions at the top and bottom hinges then
R 7 +R8 =R
But from equation (3.19),R = P = 1359.195
..
R 7 +R8 =1359.1 95
The force F 1 is acting at
!:!J.
=! =2.67 m from bottom and F 2 at H 2 = ~ = 1.33 m from bottom. The
3
3
3
3
resultant force F will act at a distance x from bottom given by

F X x = F 1 X 2.67- F~ X 1.33
or
fl X 2.67- F2 X 1.33 1812.26 X 2.67 - 453.065 X J.33

x =~---~-F
1359.195
= 4838.734 -
602.576 = . 116 ,;, .1 m

3
3 1
1359.195
'
HenceR is also acting at a distance 3.11m from bottom.
Taking moments of R7 and R about the bottom hinge
R 7 ?< (6.0- 1.0) R x (x- 1.0)
Rr= Rx (x-1.0) = 1359.195x2.11 = 573 .58 N

~.0
RIJ
5.0
=R - Rr = 1359. 195-573.58
=785.615 .k N. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
scanned by Fahid
Hydrostatic Forces on Surfac~s

P sin 9 + m
l tt J
=0
p sin e = - ma
Resolving the forces vertically, we get
Pcos 8-mg = 0
or
P COS 9 = m X g
Dividing (1) by (ii), we get
... (i)
or
tan 9:::: -
...(ii)
~. (or~ Numerically)
...(3.20A)
The above equation, gives the slope of the free surface of the ljquid which is contruned in a tank
which is subjected to horizontal constant acceleration. The tenn (atg) is a constant a~d hence tan e will
be constant. The - ve sign shows that the free surface of liquid is sloping downwards. Hence the free
surface is a straight plane inclined down at anangle a along the direction of acceleration.
Now let usJind the expression for the pressure at any poi-ntD in the liquid mass subjected to horizontal acceleration. Let the pointD is at a depth of' h' from the free surface. Consider an elementary prism
DE of height 'h' and cross-sectional area dA as shown in Fig. 3.44.
Fig. 3.44
Consider the equilibrium of the elementary prism DE.

The forces acting on this prism DE in the vertical direction are :
(i) the atmospheric pressure force (p0 X dA) at the top end of the prism acting downwards,
( ii) the weight of the element (p X g x h x dA) at the C.G. of the element acting in the downward
direction, and
(iii) the pressure force (p x dA) at the bottom end of the prism acting upwards.
Since there is no vertical acceleration given to the tank, hence net force acting vertically should be
zero_
p X dA -Po X dA - pgh dA = 0
p -Po- pgh = 0
or p = p 0 + pgh
p - po = pgh
<>r
Gauge pressure at point Dis given by

p= pgh
or
pressure head at point D,
_E_ =h.
pg
scanned by Fahid
;
j112
Fluid Mechanics
From the abo,e equation. it is clear that pressure head at any point in a liquid subjected to a constant
horizontal acceleration is equal to the height of the liquid column above that point. Therefore the pressure
distribution in a liquid s ubjected to a constant horizontal acceleration is same as hydrostatic pressure
distribution. The planes of constant pressure are therefore, parallel to the inclined surface as shown in
Fig. 3.44. This Fig. 3.44 also s hows the vari~tion of p ressure on the rear and front of the tank.
If
h 1 =Depth of liquid at the rear end of the tank

h 2 =Depth of liquid at the front end of the tank
F 1 = Total pressure force exerted by liquid on the rear side of the tank
F2 =Total pressure force exerted by liquid on the front side of the tank,
F 1 =(Area of triangle AML) x Width
then
=<+- xLMxAMxb)= t- xpgh
xh 1 xb=
1.
pg.b.h~
2
F2 = (Area of traingle BNO) x Width
and
X BN X NO)= -} X h X pglz x b
pg .b. hi
2
2
2
where b =Width of tank perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
The values of F 1 and F1 can also be obtained as
[Refer to Fig. 3.44 (a)]
= (
F 1 = p xg xA 1 x iit , whereA 1 = h1 x band

=
F2 =
and
p X g X (lzl
b)
iit
X-= -
pg. b. hl
p x g x A 2 x iiz
. h,
where A? = h2 x band hz = _:..
. .-
=p X g X (h 2 X b) X ~
2
1.
2
= - pg. b x h 2 .
2
Fig. 3.44(a)
It can also be proved that the difference of these two forces (i.e., F 1 - Fz) is equal to the force
required to accelerate the mass of the.liquid contained in the !ank i.e.,
F 1 - F 2 =Mxa
where M =Total mass of the liquid contained in the tank
a =Horizontal con stant acceleration.

~otc :(I)
If a tank completely filled with liquid and open at the top is subjected to a constant horizontal
acceleration, then some of the liquid will spill out from the tank and new free surface with its slope given by
equation tan e = -
!!..
will be de\'eloped.
g
(ii) If a tank panty filled with liquid and open at the top is subjected to a .c.onstant horizontal acceleration.
spilling of the I iquid may take place depending upon the magnit'Ude of the acceleration.
(iii) If a tank completely filled with liquid and closed at the top is subjected to a constant horizontal acceleration, then the liquid would not spill out from the tank and also there will be no adjustment in the surface elevation
of th~ liquid. But the equation tan 9 =- !!.. is appli~able for this case also. scanned by Fahid
(iv) The example for a tank with liquid subjected to a constant horizontal acceleration. is a fuel tank 011 an
.113 1
Hydrostatic Forces_-ori Surfaces
Problem 3.34 A rectangular tank is moving horizontally in the direction of its length with a constant acceleration of2.4 mli. The length, width and depth of the rank are 6 m, 2.5 m and 2m respectively. If the depth of water in the tank is 1 m and rank is open at the top then calculate :
(i) the angle of the water su1jace to the horizontal,
(ii) the maximum and minimum pressure intensities at the bottom.
(iii) the total force due to water acting on each end of rhe rank.
s I r a
.
Free surface
..
1
~E:~[!~t~~~~:f.~;~:::~he::r:n~ ml{ :~~~;~['~:~,~::~ ~ ~

'"'
::.:.: ~::ti:~~~o~~:;:ac
tan 9
to the horizontal
_=msnmmmm~~~J-. ~
2.4
02662 m
=_!:g =- 2..4 =- 0.2446
m
Fig. 3.45
9 81
(the -ve sign shows that the free surface of water is sloping downward as shown in Fig. 3.45)
.
..
tan 9 0.2446 (slope downward)
1
..
9 = tan- 0.2446 13.7446 or 13 44.6'. Ans.
(ii) The maximum and minimum pressure intensities at the bottom of the tank
From the Fig. 3.45,
Depth of water at the front end,
hi= I - 3 tan e =I- 3 X 0.2446 0.2662 m
Depth of water at the rear end,
h2 = 1 + 3 tan 8 = J + 3 X 0.2446 = 1.7338 m
The pressure intensity will be maximum at the bottom, where depth of water is maximum.
Now the maximum pressure intensity at the bottom will be at point A and it is given by,
Pmnx
=p X g X h2
=1000 x 9.81 x 1.7338 N/m2 = L7008.5 N/m 2 . Ans.
The minimum pressure intensity at the bottom will be at point l and it is given by
Pmin
=P 8 X hi
=1000 x 9.81 x 0.2662 =2611.4 N/ni2
X
Ans.
(iit) The total force due to water acting on each end of t~e tank
.
Let
F 1 = total force acting on the front side (i.e., on face BD)
F2 = total force acting on the rear side (i.e., on faceAC)
Then
and
F 1 = pgA 1h1, where A 1 =BD x width of tank = h 1 x 2.5 =0.2662 X 2.5
ii,
= BD = !!J_ = 0.2662 = 0.1331

2
= 1000x9.81 x(0.2662x2.5)> 0. 1331

=868.95 N. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
ln4 Fluid Mechanics

F 2 = p.g.A 2 .h". where A2 = AB x width of tank = 11 2 x ~.5 = 1.7338 x 2.5
and
h2
= AB =!.!1_ = 1.7338 =0.8669 m

2
= 1000 X 9.81
Resultant force
(1.7338
2.5)
=36861.8 N. Ans.
=F 1 - F2
=36861.8 N- 868.95
0.8669
..
c
Liquid (wa ter)
= 35992.88 N
:-\ote. The difference of the forces acting on the two ends of
the tank is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the liquid
mass. This can be proved as shown below :
Consider the control volume of the liquid i.e.. control volume is ACDBA as shown in Fig. 3.46. The ne~ force acting on
the control volume in the horizontal direc ti on must be equal to
the product of mass of the liquid in control \'Oiume and acceleration of the liquid.
(F1 - F 2 ) = M x a
------- --- -- ----------------------------------------------------- -----------
~---------6m ----------~
Fig . 3A6
= (p x \'Oiume of control volume) x a
= (1000 x Area of ABDCE x width) x 2.4

=
1000 X (
AC+ BD
.
.
AB X Width
[
~
...
2.4
.
: Area of trapezmm
=(AC+BD) x AB
= 1000 X c.7338 ~0.2662) X 6 X 2.5 X 2.4

= 36000 N
( : AC = h2 = 1.7338 m, BD h 1 = 0.2662 m, and AB 6 m, width= 2.5 m)

The above force is nearly the same as the difference of the forces acting on the two ends of the tank. (i.e.,
. 35992.88 = 36000).
Prob lem 3.35 The rectangular tank of the above problem contains water to a depth of 1.5 m. Find
the horizontal acceleration which may be imparted tp the tank in the directio!..!.?i. ~t~ hmgth so that
(i) rhe spilling of }Vater from the tank is just on the verge of taking place,
( ii) the front bottom corner of rile tank is just exposed,

( iii) the bottom of the tank is exposed up to its mid-point.
Also calculate.the total force s exerted by the ll'ater on .each end of the ran k in each ca~e. Also prol'e
thar the difference between these forces is equal to the forc:e necessary to accelerate the mass ofll'ater
tank.
Solution. Given :
Dimensions of the t~k from previous problem,
scanned by Fahid
L =6 m; width (b) = 2.5 m and depth= 2m
Hydr2static Forces on Surfaces 11S j

h = 1.5 m
Depth of water in tank.
(i) Horizonta l acceleration imparted to the tank
(a) When the spilling of water from the tank is just
on the
~erge
;~:-:-:.::.-_ _
9
of taking place
~ 3m
I ;:~~~~~~:;~~h~-~-~~~~t~: ~
A
Leta= required horizontal acceleration
Original free
surface
c __ __
----;:. ------
=~~~==~~~~~~~==~~~~==~-~=~= o
11 =~==~~~~~~~~~~~~~==~~~~~
When the spilling of water from the tank is just on the

\'erge of taking place, the water would rise upto the rear
top corner of the tank as shown in Fig. 3.47 (a)
t o.sm
j_
e------ --- ---- ------ --F
tan 9 = AC =(2 -1.5)- =05 = 0.1667

AO
3
3
Fig. 3.47
a
But from equation (3.20) tan 9 =- (Numerically)
sm
(a) Spilling of water is just on
ibe 'L'erge of taking place.
a= g
x tan 9 = 9.81 x 0.1667 = 1.635 m/s 2 Ans.
(b) Tota l forces exerted by water on each end of the rank '
The force exerted by water on the end C of the tank is

F 1 = pgA 1h1. where A 1 = CE x width of the tank= 2 x 2.5
-
CE
Itt = -
2
=- = 1m
= LOOO X 9.81 X c2 x"2.5) X
=49050 N.
Ans.
The force exerted by water on the end FD of the tank is

F 2 = pgA 2 x h2 , where A2 =FD x width= l x 2.5
(: AC = BD = 0.5 m,
= 1000 X 9.81 X ( 1 X 2.5~ X 0.5
FD = BF- BD = 1.5-0.5 = 1)
..FD L O
h2= = - = .5 m
.
2
2
-
12262.5 N. Ans.
(c) Difference of the forces is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the mass of waterin the tank
Difference of the forces= F 1 - F 2
=49050 -
12262.5
=36787.5 N
Volume of water in the tank before acceleration is imparted to it= L x b x depth of water
=6 X 2.5 X \.5 =22.5 m3.

The force necessary to accelerate the mass of water in the tank
=Mas~
o f water in tank x Acceleration
= (p x volume of water) x 1.635
( : a= 1.635 mls 2)
= 1000 x 22.5 x 1.635 [There is no spilling of water and volume of

water = 22.5 m 3 ]
=
36787~5 N
scanned by Fahid

Hence the difference between the forces on the two ends of the tank is equal to the force necessary to
accelerate the mass of water in the tank.
Volume of water in the tank can also be calculated as volume= ( CE; FD) x EF x Width [Refer to
Fig. 3.47 (a))
=
e;
Free surface
Original free
after acceleration surface
I) X 6 X 2.5 = 22.5 m3.
CK-
(ii) (a) Horizontal acceleu on when the front
bottom com er of the tank is jus exposed.

Refer to Fig. 3./.7 (b). In thi:-. case the free surface of we.. ~r in t',..; tank will b J!ong < ?.
Let a = required horizontal acceleration.
CE 2 1
tan9= ~=-= ED 6 3
But from equation(3.17),
In this case,
tan 9 =!!:.
g
I ==~=~=~:r========- -.
u:
2
m,
mm~iHI~=~==,== =,
--------------- --- -- --
-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-::-:-:-:-:-=-=~=1!E
~------- 6m----~---
Fig. 3.47 (b)
(Numer~c:_ally).
- -
8---
A ---------..
-1
=g X ta n e =9.81 X. -3 =3.27 m/s2
Ans.
(h) Tour! forces exerted b) water on each end of the tank

The force exerted by water on the end CE of the tank is
F 1 =pgxA 1 xhl
where
A 1 = CE x width = 2 x 2.5 = 5 m2
CE 2
/lJ=-=-= lm
= lOQO x 9.8 1 x 5 x 1
=49050 N. Ans.
The force exerted by water C' , the end BD of the tank is zero as there is no water against the face BD
F 2 =0
Difference of forces = 49050- 0 49050 N
(c) Difference offorces is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the mass of water in the tank.
Volume of water in the tank = Area of CED x Width of tank
=(CE; ED) x 2 .S
= 2 2X 6
2.5
( :
Width of tank = 2.5 m)
=15 m3
Force necessary to accel .He the mass of water in the tank

= Mass of water in tank x Acceleration
=(1000 x Volume of water) x 3.27

= 1000 X 15 X 3.27 =49050 N
Difference of two forces is also= 49050 N
scanned by Fahid
..
Hydro;;tatic Forces on Surfaces 117 1
Hence difference between the forces on the two ends of
the tank is equal to the force necessary to accelerate the
mass of water in the tank.
(iii) (a) Horizontal acceleration when the bottom of
the tank is exposed upto its mid-pQint.
Refer to Fig. 3.47 {c). In this case the free surface of
water in the tank will be along CD*, where D* is the midpoint of ED.
Let a = required horizont~l acceleration from
Fig. 3.47 (c), it is clear that
CE 2
tan9=- = ED 3
But from equation (3.20) numerically
tan
~3m --i
~--------6m--------~
Fig. 3A1 (c)
e =E.
g
a =g
tan e = 9.8 1 X
- = 6.54 m/s . Ans.

"3
{b) Total for':es exerted by water on each end of the tank
The force exerted by water on the end CE of the tank is
where
F 1 =pxgxA 1 xii,
A 1 = CE x Width = 2 x 2.5 = 5 m2
CE 2
ht .= - = -= lm
=1000 X 9.81 X 5 X
1
Ans.
The force exerted by water on the end B.D is zero as there is no wat~! against the face BD.
..
F2 = 0
=49050 N.
..
Difference of the forces = F 1 - F2 = 49050- 0 = 49050 M

{c) Difference of the two forces is equal to the force necessary to accelerate
rmraining in the tank.
Volume of water in the tank = Area CED x Width of tank
_ CExED
._ 2x3
=
l
X 25
. X 25
..
75 m
rhe ma;~ of water
Force necessary to accelerate the mass of water in the tank

=Mass of water x Acceleration
= p x Volume of water x 6.54
= JOO() X 7.5 X 6.54
:::''49050 N
This is the same force as the difference of the two forces on the two ends of the tank.
scanned
by Fahid filled with
Problem 3.36 A rectangular tank of length 6 m, Hidth 2.5 and height
2 m is completely
PDF
created
byconstant
AAZSwapnil
lllltD" when at rest. The tank is open at the top. The tank is subjected to a ho~izontal
linear
Ius
I
Fluid Mechanics .
S olut io n. Given:
L = 6 m, b = 2.5 m and height, H =2m
a = 2.4 rnJs 2.
Horizontal acceleration,
The slope of the free surface of water after the tank is subjected to linear cons~ant acceleration is
Original free
Free surface
surface
tan 9 =-(Numerically)
g
2
.4
9.81
= 0.2446
From tjle Fig : 3.48,
_-------
..._..-------------------------------------------- --------------------- -----
===========================-:-:i ----
-
BC.
tan e =-AB
BC =ABx tan 9
-= 6 X 0.2446
:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:
---------...-----------_
..._...-----..
_-........---...-...--......r---...------::::
=:----------=:=:=:=:::=:=:=:=:=:=:--=:::l:---=:=:=::
--------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------- ------ ::::::::
: ::::::
: ::::
t - - --
- .6
m------1
Fig. 3.48 -
(': AB =Length= 6 rn ; tan 9 = 0.2446.)

= 1.4676 m
Volume of water spilled =Area of ABC x W.ldth of tank
=(t ~< ABx BC) x2.5
( :
Width = 2.5 m)
= -} X 6 X
1.4676 X 2.5
(: BC = 1.4676 m)
iL007 m 3 Ans.
3.8 .?. liq wid Container Subj~cted to (onstant Vertical Acceleration. Fig. 3.49 shows
a t~tnk containing a liquid and the tan~ is moving vertically upward with a constant acceleration. The
liquid in the tank will be subjected to the same ve1tical acceleration. To obtain the expression for the
pressure at any point in the liquid mass su~jected to vertical upward acceleration, consider a vertical
elementary prism of liquid CDFE.
=m.af
l j:T
. p(A
r--r-...~~=-=-=r==:.b-,;;,__
. .
1
'.<.
"=""
__ _::-::J
_-
llillli]
olpx~
.~~F ~
t+-pha~-.- pgh--1
~-
pgh (1+
~) -~1
l'ig . .) A 'J
Let dA =Cross-sectional are? of prism

lz = Herght of prism
Po= Atmospheric pressure acting on the face CE
p =Pressure at a depth h acting on the face DF
scanned by Fahid
Hydros.tatk Forces on Surfaces 119 1

The forces acting on the elementary prism are:
(i) Pressure force equal to p 0 x dA acting on the face C vertically downward
(ii) Pressure force equal to p 0 x dA acting on the face DF vertically upward
(iii) Weight of the prism equal to p X g x dA x h acting through C.G. of the element vertically
downward.
According to Newton 's second law of motion, the net force acting on the element must. be equal to
mass multiplied by acceleration in the same direction.
. . Net force in vertically upward direction= Mass x acceleration
( : Mass= p x dA x h)
p X dA -Po X dA - pgdA . h (p X dA ~h) X a
(Cancelling dA to both sides)
or
p- Po - pgh ph x a
or
p - Po pgh + plw
=
=
=
=pgh[l+~]
...(3.2 1)
But (p- p 0) is the gauge pre~sure. Hence gauge pressure at any point in the liquid mass subjected to
a constant vertical upward acceleration. is given by
PR =pgh
[1 +~].
... (3.22)
=pgh + pha
... (3.22A)
where p~ p- Po = gauge pressure

In the equation (3.22) p, g and a are constant. Hence variation of guage pressure is linear. Also when
II = 0, Pg = 0. This means p - p 0 = 0 or p =Po Hence\vhetl h 0, the pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure. Hence free surface of liquid subjected to constant vertical acceleration will be horizontal.
From the equation (3.22A) it is also clear that the pressure at any point in the liquid mass is greater
than the hydrostatic pressure (hydrostatic pressure is= pgh) by an amount of p x h x a.
The Fig. 3.49 shows the variation of pressure for the liquid 111ass subj ected to a constant vertical
upward acceleration.
If the tank containing liquid is moving vetically downward with a constant \!Ccelerati~n. then the
gauge pressurd at any point in the liquid at a depth of h from tbe free ~~JTface will be given by
. _ (p-po)=pgh
[~- ;] =pgh-pha
...(3.23)
The above equation shows that the pressure at any

---------point in the liquid mass is less than the hydrostatic pres----------=~~~~~~~~
sure by an amount of pha. The Fig. 3.50 shows the vari---- -----------------------ation of pressure for the liquid mass subjected to a con-------------------
...-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:
---------_________
_ .. a
stan~.vcrtical downward acq~leration.
-- --------If the tank containing liquid is moving downward with
------- -------------a constant acceleration equal tog (i.e .. when a= g). then
equation reduces top- p 0 ::: 0 or p l'u This means the
pressure at any point is the liquid is equal to surrounding
atmospheric pressure. There will be no force on the wa"lls
or on the base of the tank.
~otc. If a lank containing a liquid is ~u hjec!ed.lo a constant acceleration in 1he inclined direction. then !he
scanned
Fahid
Tht:nby
each
of these cases may
xxclera1ion may be resolved along 1hc horizontal direction and ,ertical directions.
PDF
created
by AAZSwapnil
be sep3rately analysed in accordance wilh the above procedure.
---------------------
-----------------
i
'
[120 Fluid Mechanics

Problem 3.37 A umk comaining water up to a deptIt of500 nun is moving vertically upward with a
constant acceleratiOn of 2.45 mli. Find the fo rce exerted by water on ihe side of the tank. Also
calculate the force on the side of the tank when the width of wnk is 2 m and
( i) tank is moving vertically downward with a constalll acceleration of 2.45 mil. and
(ii) the wnk is not moving at all.
Solut ion. Given :
Depth of water,
h = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Vertical accelcnition,
a= 2.45 m/s 2
a = 2.45 mls~
Width of tank,
b=2m
To find "the force exerted by water on the side of
the tank when moving vertically upward, let us first
C
D
find the pressure at the bottom of the tank.
f-P9h- -.-j
The gauge pressure at the bot rom (i.e., at point B)
. r-pgh(1+ g.J - - 1
for this case is given by equation as
p8
=pgh ( 1
_Fig. 3.51
+;)
2 5
= 1000 X ;.81 X 0.5 (1 + .4 ) = C1 13 J.25 N/m2
9.81
This pressure is represented by line BC.

Now the force on the side AB= Area of triangle ABCx Width of tank
=HX AB X BC) X b
=
(t
X 0.5 X 6131.25) X 2
=3065.6 N.
(: BC
...
=6131.25 and b = 2m)
Ans.
(i) For ce on the side of the tank, when tank is moving vertically downward.
The pressure variation is shown in Fig. 3.52. For this case, the pressure at the bottom of the tank
(i.e., at point B) is given by equation (3.23) as
Pn = pgh
(1-;)
= 1000>< 9.8 I
2 5
0.5 ( 1- .4 )
= 3678.75 N/m
9.81
'
....
,'
~
'
' '
This pressure is represented by line BC.

Now the force on the sideAB = Area oftriangleABCx Width
= (t X AB X BC)
=(t X 0.5 X 3678.75) X 2

'=
1839.37 N. An.s.
Fig. 3.52
(": BC
=3678.75, b =2)
scanned by Fahid
Hydn:>static Forces on Surfaces
121 1
{ii) For ce on the side of the tank, when tank is stationary.

The pressure nt point B is given by. ..
:
'p 8 = pgh = 1000 X 9.81 X 0 .5 = 4905 N/m 2
This pressure is represented by line BD in Fig. 3.52
= Area of triangle ABD x Width
Force on the side AB
= HX AB X BD) X b
= (t X 0.5 X 4905) X 2
= 2452.5 N. Ans.
( : BD = 4905)
For this case, the force on AB can also be obtained as

FAB =
where
A = AB X Width
h=
.
pgA.h
=0.5 X 2 =
I m2
AB = 0.5 = 0.25 m = 1000

2
2
9.81
1 X 0.25
= 2452.5 N.
Ans.
Problem 3.38 A tank contains w~ter 11pto a depth of /.5 m. The length and width of the tank are 4 m
and 2 ;n respecti\ely. The rank is moving up 011 inclined plane with a constant acceleration of 4 mil.
The i11clinatio11 of the plane with the hori:.ontal is 30 as shown in Fig. 3.53. Find,
(i) the ang7e made by the free surface of water with' the horizontal.
( ii) the pressure at the bottom of the rank at the from and rear ends.
Solution. Given:
Depth of water, .h = 1.5 m ; Length, L = 4 m and
Width,b=2 m
Constant acceleration along the if!clined plane,
a =4 mls2
lndinatio~
o.f plane, a
,.
=30
Let 9 ~_Angle made by the free surface of water after .

the accelera!iqn is imparted to the tank
.-
pA = Pressure at the bottom of the tank at the front end and

Po= Pressure at the bottom of the tank at the rear.end.
Fig. 3.53
Thi~ pro~Jem can b~ done by resolving the given acceleration along the horizontal direction and
vertical directions. Then each of these cases may be separate! y analysed according to the set procedure.
Horizontar aod vertical components of the acceleration are :
2
Px =a cos a= 4 cos 30 = 3A64 rn/s
ay =a sin a= 4 sin 30 =2 m/s 2

When the tank is stationary on the inclined plane, free surface o f liquid will be along EF as shown in
Fig. 3.53. But when the tank is moving upward along the inclined plane the free su.rface of liquid will be
alongBC. When the tank containing a liquid is moving up an inclined plan with a constant acceleration.
given by_ by' Fahid
the angle made by the free surface of the liquid with the horizontal isscanned

tan
a
e = __
x- =
3.464
a_.. +g
= 0.2933
2+9.81
9 tan- 0.2933 = 16.346 or 16 20.8'. Ans.

Now let us fi rst find the depth of liquid at the fro nt and rear end of the tank.
Depth of liquid a t front end= h 1 =AB
Depth of liquid at rear end= h 2 =CD
From the Fig. 5.21 , in triangle COE, tan 9 = CE
EO
CE = EO tan 9
or
= 2 x 0.2933
(-: EO
=0.5866 m
CD. =~ = ED + CE = 1.5 + 0.586~ =2.0866 m
Similarly
=2 m, tan 9 =0.2933)
h 1 =AB=AF- BF
= 1.5 -
0.5866
( : AF
= 1.5, BF = CE = 0.5866)
= 0.9 134 m
T he pressum althe bollorn of tank at the rear end is given by,
+ :)
Pn = pgh2 ( l
2
J= 24642.7N/m2 Ans.
9.8 1,
T he prcs;ure at the bottom of tank at the front end is given by
=i000x9.8Jx2.0866(1+ -
( a,.)
PA = pgh , 1+;
2
=1000 X 9.81 X 0.9134 (1 + -9.81
-)-:.: 10787.2 N/m 2
Ans.
HIGHLIGHTS
...
1. When ihe flui.dis at rest, the: shear stress is zero.

2. The forceexerted by a static fluid on a vertical, horizontal or an inclined plane immersed surface,
F=pgAh
where
p =Density of the liq ui9,

A =Area of the immersf!d surface, and
-
h =Depth of the centre of gravity of the immersed surface from free surface of the liquid.
3. Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the re~u lta nt pressure.
4. The depth of centre of pn:~surc of an immersed surface from free surface of the liquid.
lc
h* = --:,. + "
' .. All
2
t(;sin 9 =______,
_ + 1l
Ah
for vertically immersed surface.
scanned by Fahid
inciined by
immersed
surface.
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AAZSwapnil
Hyd;~tatic Forces on Surfaces 1231

5. The centre of pressure fo~ a plane vertical 'surface lies at a depth of tWO third the height of the immersed
surface.
6. The total force on a curved surface is given by F =
where
JF} + F/
Fz = Horizontal force on curved surface and is equal to total pressure force on the projected area
of the curved surface on the vertical plane,
and
pgAh
F1 =Vertical force on submerged curved surface and is equal to the weigh t of liquid actually or
imaginary supported by the curved surface.
7. The inclination of the resultant force on curved surface with horizontal, tan 9 =
F,. .
Fx
8. The resultant force on a sluice gate, F = F 1 - F 2

where F 1 =Pressure for<.:e on the upstream side of the sluice gate and
F 2 = Pressure force on the downstream side of theslu~ce gate.
9. For a lock gate, the reaction between the two gates is equal to the reaction at the h inge, R = P.
-
Also the reacuon between the two gates, P = - - 2sin e

where F = Resultant water pressure on the lock gate= F 1 - F 2
and
9 = Inclination of the gate with the normal to the side of the lock.
EXERCISE 3
.I
( A) T HEORETICAL PROBLEMS
1. W hat do you understand by 'Total Pressure' and 'Centre of Pressure''!
2. Derive an expression for the force exerted on a sub-merged vertical plane surface oy the static liquid and

locate.the ~osition of centre of pressure.
3. Prove that the centre of prcs~ure~f a completely sub-merged plane surface is always below the centre of
gravity of the sub-merged surface or at most coincide with the centre of gravity whe'n' the plane surface is
horizontal.
4. Prove ~~at the total pressure exened by a static liquid on an inclined-plane.sub-merg.ed surface is the same
"the ~orce exerted on a vertical plane surface as long as the depth ofthe.c~lltre of gravity of tqe surface is
unaltered.
5. Derive an expression for 1hc dcplh of centre of pressure from free surfase o( liquid of an inclined plane
surface sub -merged in lhe liquid.
6. (a) How would you determine the horizontal and vertical components ofthe resultampressurc on a submerged cur\'ed surface?
(b) :~plain the procedure of finding hydro~tatic for<.:es on cuned-surfaces.
fDelhi Uniltrsity. Dec. :l002)
7. Explai n how you W<'uld lind the resultant pressure on a cur\'ed surface immersed in a liquid.
(A. M./.., Summer IY8 1)
Why the resultant pressure on a curved sub-merged surf:ce is determined by first finding hori1ontal and
\'enieal forces on the curved surface ? Wny is the same method not adopted for a plane inclined surface ,
sub-merged in a liquid'?
scanned by Fahid

9. Describe briefly. with sketches the various methods used for measured pressure exerted by fluids.
. (A.Nf.I.E.. Summer 1980)

I 0. Prove that the vertical componen t of th'! resultant pressure on a sub-merged curved surface is equal to the
weight of the liquid supported by the curved surface.
I I. What is the difference between sluice gates and lock gates ?
12. Prove that the reaction between the gates of a lock is equal to the reaction at the hinge.
13. Derive an expression for the reaction between th~ gates asP= __
F_
2sin e
where F =Resultant water pressure on lock gate, e =incl ination of the gate with normal to the side of the lock.
14. When will centre of pressure and centre of gravity of an immersed plane surface coincide ?
(A.M.J.E., Summer 1990)
15. Find an expression for the force exerted and centre of pressure for a completely sub-merged inclined plane
surface. Can the same method be applied for finding the resultant force on a curved surface immersed i'n
the liquid? If not, why? ~.
(Delhi University, 1992)
16. What do you understand by the hydrostatic equatio~? With the help of this equation deriv{; the expressions
for th e total thrus t on a sub-merged plane area and the buoyant force acting on a sub~ merged body.
(A.M.!.., Summer 1990)
(B). NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

I.
?..
J.
-1.
Dett:rmine the total pressure and depth of centre of pressure on a plane rectangular s ur! arc l)f 1 m wide and
3 m deep when its upper edge is horiwntal and (a) coincides with water surface (b) " .., belO\" the free
wmer surface.
[A ns. (a) 44145 N, 2.0 m, (I)) l 03005 N, 3.714 m]
D e termine the total pressure on a circular plate of diameter 1.5 m which i~ plac.:d v~rtic ally in water in
~. urh a way that centre of plate is 2m below the free surface of water. Find the posit :\,11 of centre of pressure
:;:so.
rAns. 3"16GS. 5-~ l'. 2.07 m)
A rectangular sluice gate is si tuated on the vertical wall of a lock. The vertical side ol the siui.;e is 6 min
length and depth of centroid of area is 8 m below the water surface. Prove that tht: depth of centre of
pressure is given by 8.475 m.
A circular opening, 3m diameter, in a vertical side of a tank is closed by a disc of 3m diameter which can
rotate about a horizontal cliamcter. Calculate : (i) the force on the disc, and
-the tot que required to
maintain the disc in equilibrium in the vertical position when the head of \\o'ith above the horizontal
cliameter is 6 m.
[Ans. (I) 416.05 I<N (ii) 39005 Nrn)
The prcssu're at the centTe of a pipe of diameter 3m is 29.43 N/cm 2 The pipe contains oil of sp. gt. 0.87 and
is filled with a gate valve. Find the force exerted by the oil on the gate and position of eenue of pressu re.
[A ns. 2.08 MN .Of6=r:1 b<>low centn. of pipe)
D~terrnine the total pressure and centre of pressure on an isosceles triangular p1a/e of b~sr J man:! altitude
5 m when the plate is immersed vertically is an oil ofsp. gr. 0.8. The base of t!teplale is' I m below the free
[An:.. 261927 N, 3. 19 ml
s!trfaccofwater.
The opening in a dam is 3m wide and 2m high. A vertical sluice gate is used to cover tho o pening. On the
upstream of the gate, the liquid of s p. g r. 1.5, lies upto a height of 2.0 m above the top Of the_gate, whereas
on the downstream side. the water is available up1o a height
the top of the gate: Find the resultant force
acting on the g;Hc and po$ition of centre of pr~ssurc . Assum e that the gat\' i~ higher at the bouom.
(A ns. 206010 N. 0.96-lm above the hinge]
(fb
s.
~
6.
7.
or
scanned by Fahid
!
Hy<:frostatic Forces on Surfaces 125 1
8. Ae:aisson for closing the entrance to a dry dock is of trapcwidal form 16m wide at the top and 12 111 11 ide
at the bouom and& m deep. Find the total pressure and centre of pressure on the caisson if the water on the
outside is I 111 below the top level of the caisson and dock is empty.
(A.M. I... \Vi111er 1980)
[Ans. 3.164 MN, 4.56 m below water surface)
9. A sliding gate 2 m wide and 1.5 m high lies in a vertical plan and has a co-efficient of friction of 0.2
between itself and guides. If the gate weighs one tonne, find the vertical force req uired to raise the gate if
its upper edge is at a deP,th of 4 m from free surface of water.
[A ns. 37768.5 N]
I 0. A tank contains water upto a height of I m above the base: An immiscible liquid of sp. gr. 0 .8 is filled on
the top of water upto 1.5 m height. Calculate : (1) total pressure on one side of the tank, (ii) the position of
centre of pressure for one side of the tank, which is 3 m wide.
[Ans. 76518 N, 1.686 m from top]
II . A rectangular tank 4 m long, 1.5 m wide contains water upto a height of 2 m. Calculate the force due to
water pressure on the base of the tank. Find also the depth of centre of pressure from free surface.
[A ns. 117720 N. 2m from free surface]
12. A rectangular plane surface I m wide and 3 m deep lies in water in such a way that its plane makes an
angle of 3Q 0 with the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of press ure
when the upper edge of the plate is 2m below the free water ~urface.
[An s. 80932.5 N. 2.3 18 m)
13. A ci rcular plate 3.0 m diameter is immersed in water in such a way th at the plane of the plate makes an
angle of 60 with the free surface of water. Determine th'e total pressure and position of centre of pressure
when the upper edge of the plate is 2 m below the fTee water surface.
[Ans. 228.69 kN, 3.427 m from free surface)
I~. A rectangular gate 6 m x 2m is hinged at its base and inclined at 60 to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 3.54.
To keep the gate in a stable position. a counter weight of 29430 N is attached at the upper end of the gate.
Find the depth of water at which the gate begins to fall. Neglect the weight of the gate and also friction at
the hinge and pulley.
(Ans, 3.43 m]
WATER SURFACE
Fig. 3.54
Fig. 3.55
15. An inclined rectangular gate of width 5 m and depth 1.5 m is installed to control the discharge of water as
shown in Fig. 3.55. The end A is hinged. Determine the force normal to the gate applied at 8 to open it.
[Ans. 97435.8 N]
16. A gate supporting water is shown in Fig. 3.56. Find the height 11
of the water so that the gate begins to tip about the hinge. Take the
---:--width of .the gate as unity.
(Delhi Unilersiiy, 1986)
h
,
[Ans. 3 x
m]
)
I "-o/, - HINGE
J3
17. Find the total pressure and depth of'centre of pressure on a trian
gular plate of base 3m and height 3m which is imme~sed in water
.:'.i ~~
'"'"' ,,L ....

60
Fig. 3.56
in such a way that pla.ne of the plate makes an angle of 60 with the free JOurface. The base of the plate is
[A ns. 126.52 kN. :!.996 m]
parallel to water surface and at a depth of 2m from water surface.
scanned by Fahid
-,
l t 26 Fluid Mechanics
18. Find the hori zon tal and vertical components of the total force acting on a curved surface AB, which is in
I
the form of a quadrant of a circle of radius 2m as shown in Fig. 3.57. Take the width of the gate 2m.
[Ans.J=:,= 117.72kN,Fr = 140.114kNJ
WATER SURFACE
-------------
WATER SURFACE
----~-~-~----
2m
L __A
:-ss~
Figl:;3.57
Fig. 3.58
19. Fig. 3.58 shows a gate having a quadrant shape of radius of 3m. Find the resultant force pue to water per
n:tetre length of the gate. Find also the angle .at which the total force will act. fAns. 82.20 I 'k.N, 9 = 57o 3 I '3
20. A roller gate is shown in Fig. 3.59. It is cylindrical form of 6.0 m diameter. It is placed on the dam. Find the
magnitude and oircction of the resultant force due to water acting on the gate when the water is just go in:~
to spill. The length of the gate is given 10m.
[A ns. 2.245 MN, 0 =38 8')
ROLLER
GATE
v.;.:..TER !"'.U?.FACE ~
--=:~~2=>-
-- ~
(
6.0m
HINGE
Fig. 3.60
Fig. 3.59
2 1. i7ind rhc !.oriw~nal and vertical c:omponents of the water pressu re exerted on a tainter gate of radius d mas
shown in Fig. ::..60. Consider wiJth oflhe gate unity.
tAns. F:x = 19.62 kN, F,.::: 7102.44 N]
2.2. Find tl" magni1..1de and direct:on of the resultant water pressu re <tr tinP. on :l ~urved face of a dum which is shaped accord2
!ng to tilt. relark n y
=~
6
as shown in Fig. 3.61. The height
~~
"'3ter :-etaincd by the dam is 12 m. Take the width of dam

unity.
[Ans. 970.74 kN, 9 =43 19' ]
13. E;,cl", en<: of '1 lnck is :i m hi gh and is supported by two hinges
the top and bottom of the gate. When the gates are
plac.-d
a~
c.,
Fig. 3.61
closed, they make an ang le of 120. The width of the lock is 4 m. If the depths of water on the two sides of
the gates arc4m and 3m respectively. determine: (i) the magnitude of resultant pressure on each gate. and
{ii) magnitud..: of the hing..: reactions.
LAns. (i) 79.279 kN (ii) Rr = 27.924 kN. R11 = 51.)5.:) k:-.1)
24. The end gates ABC of a lock an: 8 m high ;mu where closed make an angle of I 20. The width of lock is
I 0 m. E:tch gate is supported by" two hing..:s locat..:d ;u I m and 5 m above the bottom of the lock. The depth
of water on the upstream and downstream sides of the lock :~rc 6 m scanned
and 4 m respe~tive
ly. Find :
by Fahid
(i) Resultant water force on each gate!.
Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 127 1

(ii) Reaction betwec::n the ga t..:s AI:J and BC. and
(iii) Force on eac h hinge:. con,idering the reaction of the gate acting in the same horizonta l plane as
resultant water pressure. [A ns. 566.33 kN. (ii) 566.33 kN and (iii) Rr = 173.64 kN. R8 392.69 k ' ]
25. A hollow circular plate of 2m external and I m inremal diameter is immersed vertically in water such that
the centre of plate is 4 m ueep from water surface. Find the total pressure and depth of centre of pressure.
( Punjab. 1972) [Ans. 92.508 kN, 4.078 m]
26. A rectangular opening 2m wide and I m deep in the vertical side of a tank is closed by a sluice gate of the same
size. The gate can tum about the horizontal centroidal axis. Determine: (1) the total pressure on the sluice gate
and (ii) the torque on the sluice g::tte. The head of water above the upper edge of the gate is 1.5 m.
[Ans. (i) 39.24 kN and (ii) 1635 Nm]
27. Determine the total force and location of centre of pressure on one face of FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID
the plate shown in Fig. 3.62 immersed in a liquid of specific gravity 0.9.
f --:-:-::-::-
[Ans. 62.4 kN, 3.04 m]

2m
_
28. A circular opening. 3 m diameter. in the vertical side of water tank is closed
by a disc of 3 m diame ter which can rotate about a horizon tal diameter?
Calculate : (i) the force on the disc. and (ii)th c torque required to maintain
the disc in equilibrium in the verticalposition '"hen the head of water above
the horizontal diameter is 4 m.
fA ns. (i) 270 kN, and (ii) 38 kl\' m]
29. A penstock made up by a pipe of 2 m diameter contains a circular disc of
same diameter to act as a vahc which controls the discharge l?assing through
it. It can rotate about a horizontal diameter. lf the head of water above its
Fig. 3.62
centre is 20m. fi nd the total force acting on the disc and the torque required
to maintain it in the \'ertical position.
(A.M. I.E.. Summer /990)
30. A circular drum 1.8 m diameter and 1.2 m height is submerged with its axis vertica l and its upper end at a
depth of J .8 m below water le,eJ .. Detenninc :
(i) total pressure on top. bottom and curved surfaces of the drum,
(ii) resultant pressure on the whole surface, and
(iii) depth of centre of press ure on cu rved surface.
(A.M. 1.E., Winter 199.1)
31. A circular plate of diameter 3 m is immersed in water in such a way that its le.a st and greatest depth from
the free surface of water are I m and 3 m respectively. For the front side of the plate, find (i) total force
exerted by water and (ii) the position of centre of pressure.
[Ans. (r) 138684 N ; (ii) 2.125 m]
32. A tank contains water upto a height of 10m. One of the sides of the tank is incl.ined. The angle between
free surface of water and inclined side is 60. The width of the tank is' 5 m. Find : (i) the force exerted by
water on inclined side and (ii) position of centre of pressu re.
(Delhi University, June 1996)
[Ans. (I) 283.190 1 kN (ii) 6.67 m]
33 .A circular plate of 3 m diameter is under water with its plane making
an angle of 30 wi th the water surface. If the top edge of the plate is I
a;, :3o"
m below. the water surface. find the force on o ne ~ide of the plate and
its location.
(J.N. T. U., Hyderabad S 2002)
[H.inL d = 3 m, 8
=30~, height of top edge= I m. h = I + I .5 x sin 30

;: 1.75
F= pgAh = 1000
x 9.81 x ( ~ x3 1 ) x 1.75 = 121.35
k~. Ans.
lcsi n 6 I' * =--- + 1I =

Ah
+ 1.75 = 0.08 + 1.75 = 1.83 m. Ans.l
scanned by Fig.
Fahid
3.63
4
CHAPTER
Buoyancy and Floatation

.... 4. 1
INTRODUCTION
ln this chapter, the equilibrium of the floating and sub-merged bodies will be considered. Thus the
chapter will include : I. Buoyancy, 2. Centre of buoyancy, 3. Metacentre, 4. Metacentric height,
5. Analytical method for determining metacentric heig ht, 6. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and
sub-merged body, and 7. Experimental method for metacentric height.
.,._ 4.2
BUOYANCY
Whe n a body is imme rsed in a fluid , an upward fo rce is exe rted by the fluid on the body. This
upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid d is placed by the body and is called the force of
buoyancy or simply buoyancy .
.... 4.3
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
It is defined as the point, through which tl1e force of buoyancy is supposed to act. As the force of
buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, tile centre of
buoyancy will be the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced.
Problem 4.1 Find the volume of the water displaced and position of centre of buoyancy for a
wooden block of width 2.5 111 and of depth 1.5 m, when it floats horizontally in water. The density of
wooden block is 650 kg!m 3 and its length 6.0 m.
Solution . Given :
Width
Depth
Length
Volume of the block
De ns ity of wood.
. . Weight o f block
=2.5 m
= 1.5 m
=6.0 m
WATER , - - - -SURFACE
=2.5 X 1.5 X 6.0 = 22.50 m3

p =650 kg/m 3
=p x g x Vo lume
= 650 x 9.81 x 22.50 N
= 143471
128
~--
---,
2.5m Fi g. -1. 1
scanned by Fahid
-B..:10yancy and Floatation
129 1
For equilibrium the weight of wmcr displaced= Weight of wooden block
= 143471 N
Volume of water displaced
= Weight of water displaced =
143471
= 14 _625 m 3. Ans.
Weight density of water
I 000 x 9.81
( : Weight density of water = 1000 x 9.8 1 N/m 3)
Position of Centre of Buoyancy. Volume of wooden block in water
=Volume of water displaced
2.5 x h x 6 .0 = 14.625 m3 where his depth of wooden block in water
or
= 2.514X6256.0 = 0.975 m
0.975
.
Centre of Buoyancy = - - = 0.4875 m from base. Ans.
Problem 4.2 A wooden log of 0.6 m diameter and 5 m length is .floating in ri1er warer. Find the
depth of the wooden log in water II'hen the sp. gravity of th e log is 0. 7.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of log
Length,
Sp. gr.,
..
0.6 m
L=5m
0.7
Density of log= 0.7 x 1000
Weight density of log,
s=
=700 kg/m3
w=pxg
700 X 9.81 N/m 3
Find depth of immersion or h

Weight of wooden log
Fig. 4.2
--
.~
..
=Weight density x Vo lume of log
=700 X 9.81 X ~ (D)2 X L

4
=700 X 9.81
For equilibrium,
Weight of wooden Jog
Volume of water d_isplaced
X~
4
(.6) 2
5N
=989.6 X 9.81 N
= Weight of water displaced

=Weight density of water x Volume of water displaced
= 989.6 x9.8i = 0 _9896 m 3

1000 X 9.81
(': Weight density of water= 1000 x 9 .8 1 :"Jim-')

Let h is the depth of immersion
Volume of log inside water= Area of ADCA x Length
= Area of ADCA x 5.0
3
But volume of log inside water I = Volume of water displaced = 0.9896 m
scanned by Fahid
-r .
j130 flujd Mechanics

0.9896
=Area of.ADCA x 5.0

= 0.9896 = 0.1979 m 2
.. Area of ADCA
But area of ADCA
5.0
= Area of curved s urface ADCOA +Area of MOC

20
=7r.r2 [ 360360
]
-
=nr2
0.1979 = 7r.
or
.00157
[1- _!__)
180
+ r 2 cos
2r sin 8
sin e
0.1979 = .2827 - .00157 e + 0.9 cos e sin e

e- .09 cos e sin e = .2827-.1979 =0.0848
~cos e sine=
For e 70,
For 9 = 72,
For 8
I' COS
(.3i [1- _!__]

+ (.3) 2 cos e sin e
180
0848
.00157
.00157
or
8 - 57.32 cos e sin 8 = 54.01.
or e- 57.32 cos e sin e- 54.01 =0
For 8 = 60,
60 - 57.32 X 0.5
8-
+ ..!_
2
= 71,
.866-54.01 = 60-24.81- 54.01 =- 18.82
= 70 - 18.4 - 54.0 I = - 2.41

=72- 16.84 - 54.01 =+ 1.1 4
57.32 X .325 X .9455-54.01 =71- ]7.61 - 54.01 =- 0.376
70 - 57.32
.342
72 - 57.32
.309 X .951-54.01
71 -
71.5 - 57.32
Then
0.9396 - 54.01
.3 173
.948-54.0 1 = 71.5-17.24 -54.0 1
=+ .248
h = ,. + /cos 71.5
0.3 + 0.3 x 0.3 173 = 0.395 m. Ans.

Problem 4.3 A srone weighs 392.4 N in air and 196.2 N in 11arer. Compure rhe I'Oiumc of srone
and its specific grmiry.
Solutio n. Given :
Weight of swne in air
= 392.4 N
Weight of sione in water
= 196.2 N
For c:.:qu!librium,
Weight in air- Weight of stone in water= Weight of water displaced
or
392.4 - J96.2 1.96.2 = 1000 x 9.8 1 x Volume of water displaced
Volume of water displaced .
I
1
I
c1
3
196.2
= - m = - x 10 em
IOOOx9.81
50
50
=2 x 104 em.3 Ans.
= Volume of stone
.
Volume of stone
~ 2 x 10~ cm 3 Ans.
scanned by Fahid
Buoyancy and Floatation 131]

Specific G r avity of Stone
= Weight in air = 392.4

g
Mass of stone
= 40 ko
9.81
= Mass in air = ~ = 40 X 50 = 2000 ~3

Volume
__!_ m>
m
so
Density of stone
= Density of stone = 2000 = 2 .0. Ans.

Density of water
1000
A body of dimensions 1.5 m X 1.0 111 x 2 m, weighs 1962 N in water. Find its weight
Sp. gr. of stone

Problem 4.4
in air. What will be irs specific grQ\ity ?

Solution. Given :
Volume o f body
= 1.50 x 1.0 x 2.0 = 3.0 m

= 1962 N
Weight of body in water

3
Volume-of the water displaced =Volume of the body= 3.0 m
. . Weight of water displaced= 1000 X 9.81 x 3.0 =2943.0 N
For the equilibrium of the body
Weight of body .in air- Weight of water displaced =Weight in water
.
w air-
29430 = 1962
Wair =29430 + 1962 = 31392 N
= Weight in air =~ = 3200 kg

g
9.8 1
_
__ Mass __ 3200 __
1066 67
Density of the body
Volume
3.0
66 67
l0
= 1.067. Ans.
. . Sp. gravity of the body
1000
Problem 4 .5 . Find the density of a metallic body which .floats at the interface of mercury ofsp. gr.
I3.6 and watd such that 40% of its volume is sub-merged in mercury and 60% in water.
Mass of body
Solution. Let the volume of the body = V m
Then volume of body sub-merged in mercury
= ~V= 0.4 V m3
100
Volume of body sub-merged in water

60
~
::: - - x V =0.6 V m
100
=
Fig. -! ..1
For the equilibrium of the body

Total buoyan~ force (upward f<me) = Weight of the body
But total buoyant force ::: Force of buoyancy due to water + Force of buoyancy due to mercury
Force of buoyancy due to water
=Weight of water displaced by body

= Density of water x g x Volume of water displaced
= 1000 x g x Volume of body in water

scanned by Fahid
1_.1 32
Fluid Mechanics
.
= 1000 X g X 0.6 X
and Force of buoyancy due 10 mercury
VN
= Weight of mercury displaced by body
=g x Density of mercury x Volume of mercury displaced

;;;; g x 13.6 x 1000 x Volume of body in mercury
=g X 13.6 X I 000 X 0.4 V N
= Density x g x Volume of body = p x g x V
Weight of the body

where p is the density of the body
. . For equilibrium, we have
Total buoyant force
= Weight of the body
1000 X g X 0.6 X V + 13.6 X 1000 X g X .4 V = p X g X V
or
p = 600 + 13600 x .4 = 600 + 54400

. . Density of the body
6040.00 kglm 3 Ans.
= 6040.00 kg/m3
Problem 4.6 Afloat valve regulates the flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.8 into a cistern. The spherical float
is 15 em ill diameter. AOB is a weightless link carrying the floa~ at one end, and a vdtve at the other
end which closes the pipe through which oil flows into the cistern. The link is mounted in a frictionless
hinge at 0 and the angle AOB is 135. The length of OA is 20 em, and the distance between the centre
of the float aruf the hinge is 50 em. When the flow is stopped AO ~vi,ll be vertical. The valve is to be
pressed on to the seat with a force of9.81 N to completely stop the flow of oil into the cistem. It was
observed that the flow of oil is stopped when the free surface of oil in the cistern is 35 em below the
(U.P.S.C., Engg. Services, 1975)
hinge. Determine the weight of the float.
Solution. Given :
:. Density of oil,
=0.8
Po =0.8 x 1000
=800 kg/m3
Dia. of noat,
Sp. gr. of oil
= 15 em
LAOB = l35o
OA
= 20 em
p;;;; 9.81 N
Force,
fs"P:Sr.; o.s~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Fig. 4.4
08;;;; 50 em
Find the weight of the Ooat. Let it is equal to W.

When the flow of oil stopped, the centre of float is shown in Fig. 4.4 .
The level of oil is also shown. The centre of float is below the level of oil, by a depth 'h'.
From MOD,
or
= OD
;;;; OC +CD ;;;; 35 + h

OB
OB
50
50 x sin 45 = 35 + h
1
h ;;;; 50 x J2 - 35 =35.355- 35
sin 45o
=0.355 em= .00355 m.
The weight of float is acting through B, but the upward buoyant force is acting through the centre
of weight of oil displaced.
Volume of oil displaced
{ r = ~ = ; = 7.5 em }
scanned by Fahid
1
=+X 7t X (.075)3 + .00355

.. Buoyant force
X lt X
(.075l
133 1
= 0.000945 m3
= Weight of oil displaced
=Pox g x Volume of oil
=800 X
9.81 X .000945 = 7.416 N

The buoyant force and weight of the float passes through the same vertical line, passing through 8.
Let the weight of float is W. Then net vertical force on float
= Buoyant force- Weight of float= (7.4H~- W)
Taking moments about the hinge 0, we get
p X 20 = (7.416 - W) X 8D = (7.416 - W) X 50 X cos 45
or
9.81 x 20 =(7.416 - W) x 35.355
20 X 9.81
W= 7.416 = 7.416 - 5.55 = 1.866 N. Ans.
35.355
META-CENTRE
It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a small
angle. The meta-centre may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the force of
buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small angular displacement.
Consider a body floating in a liquid as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). Let the body is in equilibrium and G is
me centre of gravity and 8 the centre of buoyancy. For equilibrium, both the points lie on the normal
uis, which is vertical.
NORMAL AXIS
NORMAL AXIS
(b)
(a)
Fig. 4.5 Mefa-centre
Let the body is given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b).
The centre of buoyancy, which is the centre of gravity of the displace(! liquid or centre of gravity of
the portion of the body sub-merged in liquid, will now be shifted towards right from the normal axis.
Let it is at B 1 as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). The line of action of the force of buoyancy in this new position,
will intersect the normal axis of the body at some point say M. This poinr M is called Meta~.centre.
4.5
META-CENTRIC HEIGHT
I
The distance MG. i.e., the d.istance betw~en the meta-centre of a floating body and .the centre of
gravity of tlle body is called meta-centric height.
scanned by Fahid
jl34
._ 4 .6
Fluid Mech anics

ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR M-ETA-CENTRE HEIGHT
Fig. 4.6 (a) shows the position of a floating body in equilibrium. The location of centre of gravity
and centre of buoyancy in this position is at G and B. The floating body is given a small angular
displacement in the clockwise direction. This is shown in Fig. 4.6 (b). The new centre of buoyancy is
at 8 1 The vertical line through 8 1 cuts the normal axis atM. Hence M is the meta-centre and GM is
meta-centric height.
~
ANGULAR
DISPLACEMENT
El dF8
B'
T
I
L
(<)PlAN OF BODY AT WATER LINE
~~d-xFig. 4.6 Meta-centre height offloating body.
The angular displacement of the body in the clockwise direction causes the wedge-shaped prism
BOB' on the right of the axis to go inside the water while the identical wedge-shaped prism represented by AOA' emerges out of the water on the left of the axis. These wedges represent a gain ir.
buoyant force on the right side and a corresponding loss of buoyant force on the left side. The gain i~
represented by a vertical force dF8 acting through the C.G. of the prism _BOB' while the loss is
represented by an equal and opposite force dF8 acting vertically downward through the centroid of
AOA'. The couple due to these buoyant forces dF8 tends to rotate the ship in the counter clockwise
direction. Also the moment caused by the displacement of the centre of buoyancy from 8 to 8 1 is also
in the counter clockwise direction. Thus these two couples must be equal.
Couple Due to W edges. Consider towards the right of ~he axis a small strip of thickness dx at a
distance X from 0 as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). The height of strip X X LBOB' =X X
.
{ : LBOB' = LAOA' = BMB 1' = 9)
Area of strip
= Height X Thickness =X X a X dx
a.
If L
"is the length of the floating body, then
Volume of strip
=Area x L
=xxaxLxd:r
Weight of strip = pg x Volume= pgx OL dx

Similarly, if a small strip of t.hickness d.~: at a distance x from 0 towaids the left of the axis is
considered, the weight of strip will be pgxa L dx. The two weights are acting in the opposite direction
scanned by Fahid
and hence constitute a couple.
---~ --.
Buoysmcy and Floatatiqn

Moment of this couple
135 1
= Weight of each strip x Distance between -these two weights
= pgx SL dx [x + x]
= pgx 8L dx X 2.x =2pgx1 9L dx
Moment of the couple for the whole wedge
=J2pgx2 SL dx
Moment of couple due to
... (4.1)
~hifting
of centre of buoyancy from B to 8 1

= F8 xBB 1
= F8
X BM
{ : 138 1 = BM x 8 if 8 is very small}
x8
=Wx BMx e
L:
F8
= wj ... (4.2)
But these two couples are the same. Hence equating equations (4.1) and (4.2), we get
w x BM x e =I 2pg~ e Ldx
. Wx BM X 8=2pg8 J~Ldx
Wx BM= 2pg 1x 2ulx

Now Ldx =Elemental area on the water line shown
:.
--~_
Wx BM 2pg 1x 2dA.
in Fig. 4.6 (c) and= dA
But from Fig. 4.5 (c) it is clear that 2 I x2 dA is the second moment of area of the plan oft he body - at water surface about the axis y-y. Therefore
Wx BM= pgl
{where I= 2 Jx 2 dA}
BM= pgl
W =Weight of the body
But
= Weight of the fluid displaced by the body

= pg x Volume of the fluid displaced b'y the body
=pg x Volume of the body sub-merged in water

= pg X
't;f
BM = pgxl
=!._
pg~V
... (4.3)
I
GM= BM- BG =- - BG
Meta-centric height
=GM= -
v-
BG.
. .. (4.4)
Proble m 4.7 A rectangular pontoon is 5 m long, 3m wide and /.20m high. The depth of immersion of the pontoon is 0.80 m in sea water. If the centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the bottom of the
pontoon, determine the meta-centric height. The density for sea water= 1025 kglmJ.
Solution. Given :
Dimension of pontoon
=5 111 X 3 m X 1.20 Ill
Depth of immersion
=0.8 m
scanned by Fahid
~11_3_6___F_Iu_i_d_~
__
e_
ch_a_n_ic_s____________________________________________________Jr
AG = 0.6 m
A B = t x Depth of immersion
= t x .8 = 0.4 m
Density for sea water
= I025 kg/m3
Meta-centre height GM. given by Equation (4.4) is
.. _
Distance
Distance
GM =
where
'</ '
AB
=M .O. Inenia of the plan of the pontoon abou t y:.y axis
=AG -
-1
.!_ - BG .
vi
PLAN AT WATER SURFACE
=0.6 - 0.4 = 0.2 m

45
5.0m
I
3 4
45 4
= - x5x3m== -- m
12
4
'</ = Volume of the body sub-merged in water
= 3 X 0.8 X 5.0 = 12.0 m 3
BG
3.m -
Fig. 4 .7
45
GM = -- x - 0.2 = - - 0.2 = 0.9375 - 0.2 = 0.7375 m. Ans.

4
12.0
48
Prob lem 4.8 A uniform body of size 3m long x 2m wide x 1 m deep floats in water. What is the
weight of the body if depth of immersion is 0.8 m ? Determine the meta-centric height also.
Solution. Given :
=3 X2XJ
Dimension of .body
Depth of immersion
0.8 m
Find (i) Weight of body, W
(ii) Meta-centric height, GM
(i) Weight of Body, W
= Weight of water displa~ed
=pg x Volume of water displaced

=1000 x 9.81 x Volume of body in water
=1000 X 9.81 X .3 X 2 X 0.8 N
=47088 N. Ans.
(ii) Meta-ce":tric Height, GM
A
ELEVATION
Fig. 4.8
where
GM = - -BG
'</ .
I = M.O.I about y-y axis of the plan of the body
3
3. 3 X 2
4
3 X 2 ::: --= 2.0 m
12
12
'</ .= Volume of body in water
= 3 X 2 X 0.8 = 4.8 m3
= -I
BG=AG~AB= !:Q__ 08
2
20
GM = - 0.1
4.8
( '
=0.5 - 0.4=0.1
.2'
=0.4167 -
0.1
= 0.3167
m. Ansby
.. Fahid
scanned
Buoyancy and Floatation .1371

Problem 4.9 A block af wood of specific gravity 0. 7 floats in water. Dete1:mine the meta-centric
y
height of the block if its size is 2 m xI m x 0.8 m.
Solution. Given :
= 2 X 1 X 0.8
Dimension of block
2.0m
Let depth of immersion
=hm
Sp. gr. of wood
= 0. 7
Weight of wooden piece
=Weight density of wood* x Volume

= 0.7
1000
9.81
PLAN
1 X 0.8 N _ -- -- --. .,..-~

_
Weight of water displaced =Weight density of water
x Volume of the wood sub-merged in water

= 1000 X 9.81 X 2 X 1 ?< h N,
Fig. 4.9
For equilibrium,
Weight of wooden piece
..
700
9.81
h- 1.o - l
= Wei:ght of water displaced

X
0.8 = 1000
9.81. X 2
1X h
h= 700x9.81x2xlx0.8 =O.'lx0_ 8 .=0.S 6 .m

rooo x 9.81 x 2 x 1 -.----
..
Distance of centre of Buoyru1cy from bottom. i.e .
AB = !!_ =
AG
and
0 56
= 0.28 m
=0.8/2.0 = 0.4 m
BG = AG - AB =0.4- 0.28
The meta-centric heig,ht is given by equation (4.4) or
I
GM=- -BG
=0.12 m
where
I=
_!_
1.03 ~ _!. m4
12
6
V =Volume of wood in water
= 2 X 1 X h 2 X I X .56 = 1.12 m3
1
GM= .!_ x - --0.12 = 0.1488-0.12 = 0.0288 m. Ans.
6
1.12
Problem 4.1 0 A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 3 metres. Find the ineta-centric
height of the cylinder when it is floating in water with its axis vertical. The sp. gr. of the cylinder
0.6.
Solution. Given :
D = 4.0 m
Dia. of cylinder,
Height of cylinder,
Weight density of wood
h=
:tom
=p x g. where p =density
of wood
=0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/rn 3. Hence w for wood= 700 x 9 .8~ N/m3.
scanned by Fahid
Jt38 Fluid Mechahics

Sp. gr. of cylinder
= 0.6
Depth of immersion of cylinder
= 0.6 x 3.0 = 1.8 ..m
1.
AB=2
=0.9 m
3 .
AG =- = 1.5 m .
2
BG =AG - AB
= 1.5-0.9 = 0.6 m
Now the meta-centric height GM is given by equation (4.4)
and
GM=
But
!_ -BG
I = M.O.l. about y-y axis of the plan .of the body
= ~ D4 = ~ x
64
and
Fig. 4.10
64
(4.0) 4
V =Volume of cylinder in water

= ~ D2 x Depth of immersion
4
=~
4
(4/ x 1.8 m 3
~x(4.0) 4
GM=
64
~x(4.0) 2 xl.8
-0.6
1
4.0 2
l
.
= - x- 0.6 = - - 0.6 = 0.55 - 0.6
0.05 m. J\ns.
16
1.8
1.8.
- ve sign means that meta-centre, (M) is below the centre of gravity (G).
. Problem 4.11 A body has the cylindrical upper portion of 3m diameter and 1.8 m deep. The lower
portion is a curved one, which displaces a volume of 0.6 m 3 of lVater. The centre of buoyancy of the
cuned portion is at a distance of 1.95 m below the top of the cyJinder. The centre of gravity of the
whole body is 1.20 m below the top ofthe cylinder. The total -displacement of water is 3.9 tonnes. Find
the meta-centric height of the body.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of body
.= 3.0 m
Depth of body
1.8 m
Volume displaced by curYed portion
= 0.6 m 3 of water.
by Fahid
centre of gravity
of the whole
Let 8 1 is the centre of buoyancy of the curved surface an_.d (; is thescanned
body.
.
.
PDF. created by AAZSwapnil
=-
139j
= 1.95 m
CG= 1.20 m
CB 1
Then
Total weight of water displaced by body
=3.9 X
= 3.9 tonnes
1000 ~ 3900 kgf
= 3900 X 9.81 N = 38259 N

Find meta-centric height of the body.
Let the height of the body above the water surface x m. Total
weight of water displaced by body
= Weight density of water x [Volume of water displaced]
= 1000 x 9.81 x [Volume of the body in water]

=9810 [Volume of cylindrical part in water+ Volume
of curved portion)
=9810
A
ELEVATION
Fig. 4.11
[~ x D 2 x Depth of cylindrical part in wa~er

4
+Volume displace by curved portion]

or
38259
..
..
2:
4
=9810 [ ~ {3)2 X (1.8- X)+ 0.6]
(3) 2 x (1.8- x) + 0.6 =

n
4
X ( 1.8
- x)
1.8 -
or
38259
= 3.9
9810
=3.9 -
0.6
4
3
nx3x3
= . .3 X
=3.3
=0.4668
..
x = 1.8 - .4668 1.33 m
Let 8 1 is the centre of buoyancy of cylindrical part and 8 is the centre of b10yancy of the whole
body.
Then depth of cylindric.al part in water= 1.8 - x = 0.467 m
67
..
CB 2 =x + .4
1.33 + .2335 1.5635 m.
2
The distance of the centre of buoyancy of the whole bcdy from the top of the cylindrical part is
given as
CB =(Volume of curved portion x CB 1 +Volume of cylindrical part.in water x CB2 )
+(Total volume of water .d isplaced)

= 0.6 X 1.95 + 3.3 X 1.5635 :::: 1.1 7 + 5.159 :::: 1.
m.
623
(0.6 + 3.3)
3.9
Then
/JG = C/J- CG = I .623 - 1.20 = .423 m.
Meta-centric height. GM, is given by
GM
= ..!_ v
BG
scanned by Fahid
1140 Fluid Mecila:nics

where
I = M.O.I. of the plan of the body at water surface about y-y
=.!!:_ X D'~ = ~ X 3-l m.J
64 .
64
V = Volume of the body in water= 3.9 m 3
. 1t
3-1 .
GM= - x - - .423 = 1.019-.423
64 . 3.9
.... 4. 7
= 0.596 m.
Aos.
CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM QF A FLOATING AND SUB-MERGED

BODIES
A sub-mergep or a floating body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position after a
slight disturbance. The relative position of the centre of gravity (G) and centre of buoyancy (B 1) of a
body determines the stability of a sub-mergecfoody.
4. 7. I Stab ility of a Sub-merged Body. The position of centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy in case of a completely sub-merged body are fixed. Consider a balloon, which is completely submerged in air. Let the lower portion of the balloon contains heavier material, so that its centre of
graYity is lower than its centre of buoyancy as shown in Fig. 4.12 (a). Let the weight of the baBoon
is W. The weight W is acting through G, vertically in the dow nward direction, wbi1~ the buoyant force
Fa is acting vertic any up, through B. For the equilibrium of the balloon W =F 8 . If the balloon is g iven
an angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shOwn in Fig. 4.12 (a), then Wand F8 constitute
a cquple acting in the anti-clockwise directiol) and brings the balloon in the original position. Thus the
balloon in the position, shown by Fig. 4.12 (a~ is in ~table equilibrium.
-.....
G
(a) .
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM
Fig. 4.12
(b)
UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM
(c)
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
Stabilities ofsub-merged bodies.
.(a) Stable Equilibrium. When W = Fa and point fJ. is above G, the body is said !O be in stable
equilibrium.
.
(b) Ci<..tahleEquiiibrium. If W = Fa; but the centre Qf buoyancy (B) is below centre of gravity
(G). the body is in unstable equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4.12 (b). A slight displacement to the body,
in the clockwise directi6'n , gives the couple due toW and Fa also in the c lockwise direction. Thus the
body does riot return to itsoriginal posirionandhence the body is in uns1able equilibrium .
. _ (c) \'(utrai.Equilibrium.lf Fa= WandB and G ~re at the,same point, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (c),
the body is said to be in Neutral Equilibrium.
4. 7.2 ~tability of Floa~ing Body. The stability of a floating body

is determined
fr<?m the posiscanned
by Fahid
tion of Meta-centre (M)_ In case of floating body, tl1e weight of thePDF
bodycreated
is equal by
to-the
weight of
AAZSwapnil
Uquid displaced.
Buoy!fficy and FJoatati'?n 141 1

(a) Stable Equilibrium. If the point M is above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium as
shown in Fig. 4.13 (a). If a slight angular displacement is given to the floating body in the clockwise
direction, the centre of buoyancy shifts from B to B 1 such that the vertical line through B 1 cuts at M.
Then the buoyant force F B through B 1 and weight W through G constitute a couple acting in the anticlockwise direction and thus bringing the floating body in the original position.
w
G
B' .
Fa
{i)
(a) Stable equilibrium M is above G
Fig. 4.13
(b) Unstable equilibrium M is below G.
Stability offloating bodies.
(b) Unstable Equilibrium. If the point M is !>elow G, the floating body will be in un$taple equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4.13 (b). The disturbing couple is acting in the clockwise direction. The couple
due to buoyant force F11 and W is also acting in the clockwise direction and thus overturni ng the
floating body.
(c) '\eutral Equilihrium. If the point M is at the centre of gravity of the body, the floating body
will be in neutral equilibrium.
Probl-3m 4.12 A solid cylinder of diam eter 4.0 m has a Might of 4.0 111 . Find the meta-centric
height of the cylinder 1f the specific gravity of the material ofcylinder =0.6 and it is floating in ll'mer
with its axis vertical. State whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable.
So luti on . Given :
D = 4m
Height,
h=4 m
Sp. gr.
=0.6
Depth of cylinder in w!iter
= Sp. gr. x h
=0.6 x 4.0 = 2.4 m
;;
Distance of centre of buoyancy (B) from A
or
AB=
24
' = 1.2 m
== F1
4.0m 2.4 m
Distance of centre of gravity (G) from A

or
40
AG =!!_ =
=2.0 m
BG = AG - AB
= 2.0 -
Fig.
.l..i
4.1~
1.2 = 0.8 m
:"ow the mpta-cenlric height GM is given by

I
GM =- - BG
scanned by Fahid
l t42
where
Fluid Mechanics
I = M.O.L of the plan of the body about y-y.
=
~x
D4
..
4
=~
X (4.0)
64'
.
64
\;/=Volume of cylinder in water
4.0
D x Depth of cylinder in water =
2: x 42 x 2.4 m 3
4
~x4 4
I
- =
\;/
1t
64
X 42
1
42
I
=- x = = 0.4167 m
2.4
16 2.4 . 2.4
4
GM =
.!._- BG = 0.4167-0.8 =- 0.3833 m.

'V
Ans.
- ve sign means that the meta-centre (M) is below the centre o( gravity (G). Thus the cylinder is in
unstable equilibrium. Ans.
Problem 4.13 A solid cylinder of 10 em diameter and 40 em long, consists of two parts made of
differenr materials. The first parr at the base is 1.0 em long and of specific gravity 6.0. The other
part of the cylinder is made of the material hal"ing specific gravity 0.6. Sture, if it can float vertically
in water.
Solution. Given :
D= 10 em
Length.
Length of I st part,
Sp. gr..
Density of I st part,
Length of 2nd part,
Sp. gr.,
= 40 em
= 1.0 em
S1 =6.o
/1
1000 = 6000 kg/m3

12 = 40 - 1.0 = 39.0 em
S2 0.6
.
.
3
Density of 2nd part,
p2 = 0 .6 x 1000 = 600. kg/m
The cylinder will float vertically in water if its meta-centric height GM is
positive. To find meta-centric height, find the location of centre of gravity
(G) and centre of buoyancy (B) of the combined solid cylinder. The distance
of the centre of gravity of the solid cylinder from A is given as
AG = [(Weight of lst part x Distance of C. G. of lst part from A)
+(Weight of 2nd part of cylinder
x Distance of C.G. of 2nd part from A)}
p1 = 6
40cm
1.0cm
lt
Sp.gr = 6.0
Fig. 4.15
+ [Weight of 1st part+ weight of 2nd part]

= (
~02
1.0 X 6.0 X 0.5 )+(
~ ~2
39.0 X0.6 X (1.0 X 39/2))
( ~4 0. 1 X 1.0 X 6.0 + 4 D"

7t
39 X 0.6)
.
= 1.0 X 6.0 X 0.5 +.39.0 X .6 X (20.5)

1.0 X 6.0 + 39.0 X 0.6
Cancel -1t
4
.
dD
.
3.0 + 479:7
o, .m the Numerator
an
enommator =
6.0 X 23.4
scanned by
482.7
. Fahid
= - - 16 .42 .
29.4
1431
To frnd the centre of buoyancy of the combined two parts or of the cylinder, determine the depth
of immersion of the cylinder. Let the depth of immersion of the cylinder is h. Then
Weight of the cylinder= Weight of water displaced
'
'
.
-7t x(.l)-x
-39.0 x600 x9.81 + -1t (.1) 2 x1.0
- x6000x9.81 = -1t (. I)-x
- " x 1000x9.81
4
I00
4
I 00
4
I00
r:
his in em]
. -1t ( . l) 2 x l000x9.8l t hroug hout, we get

or canceII mg
4
100
39.0 x 0.6 + 1.0 x 6.0 =h or h = 23.4 + 6.0 = 29.4
. . The distance of the centre of the buoyancy B, of the cylinder from A is
29
AB =lzn = .4 = 14.7
BG AG- AB
Meta-centric height GM is given by
=.16.42- .14.70.=
1.72 em.
.
I
GM= - - BG
';/
where
=M.O.l. of plan of the body about y-y
= ~ D 4 = ~ (10)4 cm4
64
.64
't/ =Volume of cylinder in water
=~
4
D2 X h
= ~4 (I 0)2 X 29.4 m3
I
't/
- =-
1t
64
(10)
4/ - (10)2x 29.4 = - I x -102=- 100

- - = 0.212
7t
16
29.4
19 X 29.4
GM = 0.212 - 1.72 = - 1.508 em.

As GM- ve. It means that the Meta-centre M is below the centre of gravity (G). Thus the cylinder
is in unstable equilibrium and so it cannot float vertically in water. Ans.
Problem 4.14 A rectangular pontoon 10.0 m long, 7 m broad and 2.5 m deep weighs 686.7 kN. It
carries on its 11pper deek an empty boiler of 5.0 f!Z diameter weighing 588.6 kN. The centre of gravity
of the boiler and the pontoon are at their respective centres along a vertical line. Find the metacentric height. Weight density of sea water is 10.104 kN/m 3 .
1
T
Solution. Given : Dimension of pontoon = lO x 7 x 2.5
Weight of pontoon,
Dia. of boiler,
Weig)1t of boiler,
W1
=686.7 kN
lG
D = 5.0 m
W2
=588.6 kN
= l 0.104 kNII~ 3
II' for sea water

To find the meta-centric height, first determine the common centre or gravity G and common centre of buoyancy B of the boiler and.
pontoon. Let G 1 and G 2 arc the centre of gra,ities of pontoon and
boiler respectively. Then
5.0m
~-'-""'----,
=t ~
B tG1
--
A
1
7.0 m- - - -
:-2.5m:
I .i
Fig. -UC.
scanned by Fahid
!144 Fluid Mechanics

5
2.5
2
AG 1 = - = 1.2 m
jY
5.0
2
The distance of common centre of gravity G from A is give n as
AG, = 2.5 + - = 2.5 + 2.5 = 5.0 m
AG
= w; x AG,
+ W2 x AG2
, 1
WJ+~
686.7 X 1.25 + 588.6 X 5.0

(686.7 +588.6)
10.0 m
=2 98 m.
Let h is the depth of immersion. Then

'------+.";---Total weight of pontoon and boiler= Weight of sea water displaced
,y
'
l . -7.0m ____..)
or
(686.7 + 588.6) = w x Volume of the pontoon in water
F ig . 4.! 7 Plan ofr he/?ody
= 10.104 x L x b x Depth of immersion
at 'u:ater-line
1275.3 = 10.104 X 10 X 7 X h
..
1275.3
h = --'-- - - = 1.803 m
10x7xlO.l04 .
The distance of the common centre of buoyancy B from A is
- 9015 m
A B -- -h -- -1.803
- -.
BG = AG - AB = 2.98-.9015 = 2.0785 m
Meta-centric height is given by GM =

where
=2.078m
I.- BG
V'
I = M.O.l. of the pian of the body at the water level along y = y
= 1- xlO.Ox 7 3= 10x49x7 m4
12
12
V' = Volume of the body in water
= L X b X h = 10.0 X 7 X
1.857
I
IO x49x7
49
- =
=
= 2.198 m
'if
12 X 10 X 7 X 1.857
12 X i.857
I
- BG = 2.198- 2.078 = 0. 12 m.
V'
~ .
. . Meta-centric height of both the pontoon and boiler = 0.12 m. Ans.
Problem 4.15 A lmoden cylinder of sp. gr. = 0.6 and circular in cross-section is required to float
in oil ( sp. gr. = 0.90). Find the UD ratio for the cylinder to float with its longitudinal axis vertical in
oil. 1rhere f:: is the height of c_ylinder and D is irs diameter.
Solution . Given :
Dia. of cylinder
=D
Height of cylinder
=L
scanned by Fahid
Sp. gr: of cylinder,
=0.6
GM = -
s,
Buoy~ncyand Floatatiqn 145j
Sp. gr. of oil

S 2 0.9
Let the depth of cylinder immersed in oil
For the principle of buoyancy
Weight of cylinder=- wt. of oil displaced
=h
L
2:
4
D2
XL X
0.6
1000 X 9.81=
2:
4
D 2 X h X 0.9
1000
9.8 1
LX 0.6 = h X 0.9
or
= 0.6 X L =~ L.
0.9
J..
~o--,..1
Fig. 4.18
The distance of centre of gravity C from A , AG = L
The distance of centre of buoyancy B from A,
AB
=!:2 =_!2 .[~3 LJ = !::_3
BG
=AG -
3
2
AB = !::. -!::. = L - L
- 2 = 3
=!::.
6
The meta-centric height GM is given by

GM= -
where
I =
- BG
_!:._ D 4 and V = volume of cylinder in oil =2: D 2 x II

64
!_ = (_!:._ D4 I 2: D2h)
'V
94
= _.!_
D2_ =
16 h
3D3
D2
16 x ~ L
3
= 3D2
32 L
GM= -32L
6
For stable equilibrium, GM should be +ve or
GM> 0
or
3D2
32L
L
6
-- > -
3D2
32L
or
or
3x6 L2
-->2
32
or
18
L
D 2 < 32
L
D
{9
<fj(;
->0
6
D
9
16
or
=4
LID < 3/4. Ans.

?rvv'ern 4.16 Show that a cylindrical buoy of I m diameter and 2.0111 height weighing 7.8-18 kN .
.-ill not float vertically in sea water of density 1030 kg!nl Find the force necessary in a vertical
d cin acrached at the centre of base of the buoy that will keep it \'Utica/.
scanned by Fahid
lt46
Fluid Mechanics
Solution. Gi\'en : Dia. o f.buoy. D = 1 m

H = 2.0 m
W = 7 .848 kN
Height ,
Weight,
=7.848 X
Density,
= 7848 N
1000
= 1030 kg/m
(i) Show the cylinder will not float vertically.

I
(ii) Find the force in the chain.
Part I. The cylinder will not float if meta-centric height is - ve.
Let the depth of immersion be h
Then for equilibrium, Weight of cylinder

= Density x g x Volume of cylinder in water
7848 = 1030
9.81
2: D 2 X
F ig. 4.19
= 10104.3 X 2: ( 1) 2 X h
4
4 x 7848 = 0 _989 m.
10 1043x n
The distance of centre of buoyancy B from A ,
11
AB
=!!_2 = 0989
= 0.494 m.
2
fro~ A is AG = 20 = 1.0 m
2
BG = AG - . AB = 1.0 - .494 = .506 m.
And the distance of centre of gravity G,
1
Now meta-centric height GM is g iven by GM = - - BG
where I = ~ If=~ x
64
64
and
'(f
(1)4
m4
=Volume of cylinder in water = 2: D2 x h = 2:

4
~ xl 4
- = 1t64 .
I
-- 0 2 X h
16
- 64
~X 12
4
I
x .989
~; 1 4
= -I
I2
X-
.989
=-
.989
I
16 X .989
=0.063 m
GM .063 - .506
0.443 m. Ans.
As the. meta-centric heigtu is - ve, the point M lies below .G and hence
the by
c;ylinder
scanned
Fahidwill.pe in
unstable equilibrium and.hence cylinder will not float w:nically.
'
Part II. Let the force applied in a vertical chain attached at the centre
of the base of the buoy is T to keep the buoy verticaL
=-=-=-=--=
Now find the combined position of centre of gravity (G') and centre - ===-
of buoyancy (B'). For the combined centre of buoyancy. let
h' depth of immersion when the force T is applied. Then
Total downward force = Weight of water displaced
or (7848 + T) = Density of water x g x Volume of cylinder in water
= 1030 x 9.81 x 2:4 lY x /{ [where h1=depth of immersion]

h' =
=__7_8_48_+_ T_
7848 + T
10104.3x!!.xo 2
10104.3x!!.xl2
147 1
I
h'
G'
B'
10104.3 + T
----m
7935.9
Fig. 4.20
AB' = h' = _!_ [7848 + T] = 7848 + T m.
'
. 2 2 7935.9
15871.8
The combined centre of gravity (G') due to weight of cylinder and due to tension T in the chain
from A is
AG'
of cylinder X Distance of
of cylinder from A
= rwt.
c.o:
+ T x Distance of C.G. of T from A] + [Weight of cylinder+
7848
= (7848 X~+
T X o) + (7848 + Tl =
2
7848+ T
B'G'
=AG' _ AB' =
and
7848
_ (7848 + T )
(7848 + T)
I 587 I .R
=!_R'G'
\:;f
The meta-centric height GM is given by GM

where
TJ
~ x D4 = ~ x 14 = _2:._ m4
64
64
64
1{
1t
V'= - D xh =-X I X
. 4
4
(7848+T)
7935.9
7848+T
7935.9
1{
- x -- 4
1t
!_
64
_ 2_ X ~~-93_5_.9_
1t (7848 + T)
16 (7848 + T)
4 7935.9
\
7935.9
16 {7848 + T)
V'
GM
T)]
7848
{7848 +
[ (7848 + T) l 5871.8
For stable equilibrium GM should be positive

or
or
GM> 0
T)]
7935.9
[ 7848
(7848 +
16 (7848 + T) - (7848 + T) - 15871.8
O
>
scanned by Fahid

or
7935.9
16 (7848 + T)
7848 + T O
>
15871.8
7848
(7848 + T)
- - --:- +
or
7935.9- 16 X 7848 (7848 + T) O

- --:-------:-- +
>
16 (7848 + T)
1587 1.8
or
- 117632
(7848 + T) O
--:-----:- +
>
16 (7848 + _T)
15871.8
(7848 + T)
117632
or
--->----15871.8
16 {7848 + T)
or
(7848 + 7) 2 >
1 7632
X 15871.8
]
16.0
> 116689473.5
> (1 0802 .3) 2

7~48
+ T> 10802.3
T > 10802.3 - 7848
> 2954.3 N. Ans.

. . The force in the chain must be at least 2954.3 N so that the cylindrical buoy can be kept in
venical position. Ans.
Prob lem 4. 17 A solid cone floats in water with its apex downwards. Detennine the least apex
angle of cone for stable equilibrium. The specific gravity oj the material of the cone is given 0.8.
.Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of cone
Density of cone,
=0.8
p =0.8
1000 =800 kg/m 3

Let
D Dia. of the cone
d =Dia. of cone at water level
29 =Apex angle of cone
H =Height of cone
It =Depth of cone iQ water
G =Centre of gravity of the cone
B = Centre of buoyancy of the cone
For the cone, the distance of centre of gravity from the apex A is
X
AC = f height of cone=
also
AB
t .H
=fdepth of cone in water=

t nr X h
= t x nR2 x h
=800 x g x 1 x nR2 x H
fh
Volume of water displa.ced =

Volume of cone
:. Weight of cone
Now from 6AF.
Similarly,
EF
Fii! 4.2 1
tan e = - =A H
. R =H tan 8 , <
r =It tan
scanned by Fahid
149 1
_Buoyancy and Floatation

2
= 800 x g x 31 x n"'(Ht
"
an 9 ) x H =800 xgx n x H
3
Weight of water displaced = 1000 x g x 1 x n/ x h
:. Weight of cone
..
= 1000
For equilibrium
Weight of cone
800 X g X
or
gX
1
(J
) X 7t 1
)2
tan 9
X 11 =
tan 9
xg x n x h 3 tan2 9
-IOOO
-= - - -- 3.0

1t X
H tan 8
= 1000 X 9.81 X 1t X h3 X tan2 8
3.0
3.0
or
H3 = 1000
113
=(
h3 or H
1000)
800
h
800
For stable equilibrium, Meta-centric height GM should be positive. But GM is gi:ven by
I
GM=- - BG
'1:/
X
where I = M .O.I. of cone at water-line= ~ tf
64
'1:/ =Volume of cone in

I
'1:/
=~
water =_!_~
3 4
1t
4/l
d2
xh
1t
'
64 d 3 x 4 d- xh
2
. 1x3 d 2 3d 2
3
2 3 r
=x - ==x (2r) =- 16
"
161! 1611
4 h
3 (h tan9)
=4
(:
r = htan9}
= f h tan e
2
and
BG =A G - AB = f H- fh =f (/1 - h)
GM
= f h tan 2 9 -- t(H - h)
F"" ~!able equilibrium GM should be positive or
::
or
f htan 2 -t(H -Iz)>0

h tan 2 9 > (H - h)
or
or
htan 2 9 - (H - h) >O
h tan 2 9 +If> H
or
ll[tan 2 9 +I)> H
or
I + tan 2 9
But
h =
sec
( 1000 )
800
e > 1.077
13
'
H
h
> Hlh or sec2 e > -
= l.0?7
1
or cos 2 e > - 1.077
cos e > o.9635

e > 15 30' or 29 > 3 1
Apex angle (29) should be at least 31. Ans.
=0.9285
scanned by Fahid
Iiso
.I
:__
Fluid Mechanics
P robl~ m
4. 18
A cone of specific gra1iry S, is floating in water with its apex downwards. It has a
.
J [ v z. s/1.1
diameter D, and vertical height H. Show that for stable equilibrium of the cone H < J/J
.
2 2-S
Solution. G iven :
=D
Dia. of cone
Height of cone = H
Sp. gr. of cone = S
Let
G =Centre of gravity of cone
8 = Centre of buoyancy
29 = Apex angle and
]"1
'--- o -J
A = Apex of the cone
h = Depth of immersion
d Dia. of cone at water surface
3
AG= - H
4
Then
AB
=~4 h
Also weight of cone =Weight of water displaced.
1000 S X g
t n:R1 X H = 1000 X g X ..!.3 7t,.Z. X h

2
But
=-SR-r2H-
R r
tan9 = - = H h
R = -H tan 9, r = h tan 9
2
h = S X (H tan 9) x H
(h tan 9) 2
Sx H 2 xtan 2 9xH
h2 tan2" 9
3
h =(SH )JtJ 5 113 H
It=
SH
=-h2
or h 3
=SH 3
or
Distance,
... (D
BG =AG- AB
=~H4
~ h = "!_
4
(H
~ h) = ~ (H 4
..
1: " =s!l3 m
5 113 H)
= ~ HII - s"-'J
Also
... (2)
4
I= M.O. lnet:tia of the plan of lJody at water surface
=~~
64
scanned by Fahid
.
I 1t
2
l 1t2
113
'V =Volume of cone tn water= - x- x dPDF
x hcreated
=-- d by
[H.S
1
AAZSwapnil
3 4.
Buoyancy an~ Floatation - .u i

1t
Md
3d 2
_!_X
~dl H.SI/3 - !6.H.S 113
Now Meta-centric height GM is given as

2
3
3
d
H [I - S 113J
'II
16.f/.S 113
4
GM should be +ve for stable equilibrium or GM > 0
GM
=..!.._- BG =
3d
or
3H
16.H.S 113
or
...
Also we know R
. 3d
> 3H
I 6.H.S 113
4
H tan 9 and r = h tan 9
R
H
D
- = -= r
h
d
_ 5 ,13) > 0
0 _ s"3)
=!!_ x HS113 =DS113

H
- Substituti'ngtbe vaiueof d lnequatlon' (3)'; \ve get - d = Dh
3(os"3)2
3H
o2.si'J
--'-----;-;.
>(I - Sw) or
> H (I - S 113)
113
16.H.S
4
4. H
02 . .s 1/ ,l
D2. stt3
,
4{1 -SI/2) >H- or H2 < 4{I- S''l)
or
or
H<
2[
o-' .s 1/3 ]1 /2
I - Slt3
. A ns.
\~
1JJ>
4.8
EXPERIM,E~TAL METHOD OF DETERMINATION :oF META-CE~TRJC

HEIGHT,3
.,
' . .
:. ;
J
~
-;~~1'$-'S-~
The meta-centric h~ight of a floating vessel can be determined , brovided we 'kn'o w: the centre~~~-::
gravity of the floating vessel. Let w 1 is a known weight placed over the centre of the ve;;sel as shoVI'tl..
in Fig. 4.23 (a) and the vessel is floating . .'
~
1
(a) Floating body
...z ..,.r
..
(b) Tilted body
F ig. 4.23 Meta-centric height.
scanned by Fahid
.:
;j
11'52
Fluid Mechanics
Let
IV= Weight of vessel including w 1

G = Centre of gravity of the vessel
B Centre of buoyancy of the vessel
. _ . . .
The weight 11' 1 is moved across the vessel towards right through a distance x as shown in Fig. 4.23 (b).
The vessel will be tilted. The angle of heel 9 is measured by means of a plumbline and a protractor
attached on the vessel. The new centre of gravity of the vessel will shift to G 1 as the weight w 1 has
been moved towards the right. Also the centre of buoyancy will change to B 1 as the vessel has tilted.
Under equilibrium. the moment caused by the movement. of the Joa9 w 1 through a distance x must be
equal to the moment caused by the shift of the centre of gravity from G to G 1 Thus
G =eel X w = w X GM tan 9
The moment due to change of
The moment due to movement of 11 1 w 1 x x
11'1x = WGM tan 9
GM =
Hence
... (4.5)
Problem 4.19 .A ship 70 m long and /0 m broad has a displacement of 19620 kN. A weight of
343.35 kN is mol'ed ~cross the deck through a distance of 6 m. The ship is tilted through 6. Th e
m01nent of inertia of the ship at water-line abow its fore and aft axis is 75% Qf M.O.l. of the
circumscribing rectangle. The centre of buoyancy is 2.25 m below water-line. Find the meta-centric
height and position of centrB of grmiry of ship. Specific weight of sea water is 10104 N!m 3.
(Anna University, May, 1986)
Solution. Given :
Length of ship.
L= 70 m
Breadth of ship.
b = LO m
W= 19620 kN
Displacement,
Angle of heel,
9 =6
= 75% of M.O.I. of circumscribing rectangle
M.O. I. of ship at water-line
w for sea-water
= 10104.N/m3 = 10.104 kN/m3
Movable weight,
= 343.35 kN
Distance moved by w 1,
x=6m
Centre of buoyancy
= 2.25 m below water surface
Find (t) Meta-centric heig~t. GM
, (ii) Position of centre of gravity, G.
(i) M eta-centric height, GM is given by equation (4.5)
w,
GM
343.35 kN X 6.0
19620 kN x tan 6
11'1X
W tan 9
343.35 kN x 6.0
19620 kN X .1051
= 0.999 m. Ans.
(ii) Position of Centre 'of Gra\'ity, G
GM = !_-fie
where
I = \1.0.1. of the ship at water-line about y-y
scanned by Fahid
. Buoyancy and Floatation 153 1

,. .. ,l y... T
, /1\
I
WATER LINE
--- =~p= - .
2.25
1--10 m+J
Fig. 4.24
70 X J0 3 = 4375 m4
12
. .
Weight of ship
19620
V =Volume of ship m water = ---=---- :.......
Weight densit of _water 10.104
= 7;%
and
Fig. 4.25
of_.!_
12
70
103 = .75
X...!_ X
.!... = 4375 = 2:253 m

v 1941.74
GM = 2.253 - BG or .999 =2.253 BG = 2.253 - .999 = 1.254 m.
= 1941.74 m3
BG
From Fig. 4.25, it is clear that the distance of G from free surface of the water= distance of B
from water surface - BG
= 2.25 - 1.254 = 0.996 m. Ans.
Probiem 4.20 A pontoon of 15696 kN displacement is floating in ll'ater. A weight of245.25 kN is
moved through a distance of8 m across the deck ofpomoon, ll'hich tilts the pomoon through an migle
4. Find meta-centric height of the pontoon.
So lution. Given :
or
Weight of pontoon = Displacement

W= 15696 kN
WI = 245.25 kN
Movable weight,
Distance moved by weight w 1, x = 8 m
Angle of heel,
e = 4
The meta-centric height, GM is given by equation (4.5)
GM
or
w 1x
W tan 9
245.25 kN 8
15696 kN X tail4
= -15696
-1962
- - = 1.788 m. Ans.
X 0.0699
11J>.
4.9
OSCILLATION ( RO LLIN G) OF A FLOATIN G BODY
Consider a floating body, which is tilted through an angle by an overturning couple as shown in
Fig. 4.26. Let the over-turning couple is suddenly removed. The bodyscanned
will startby
oscillating.
Fahid Thus. the
1154 Fluid Mechanics . .

body will be in a state of oscillation as if suspended at the meta-centre M. This is similar to the case of
a pendulum. The only force acting on the body is due to the restoring couple due to the weight W of
the body force of buoyancy FiJ.
Fig.-1.26 .
= W x Distance GA
= Wx GMsin 9
This couple tries to decrease the angle
Rt'storing couple
Angular acceleration of the body,
... (i)
d 29
ex=- dt 2
- ve sign has been introduced as the restoring couple tries to decrease the angle a.
Torque due to inertia
=Moment of Inertia about Y- Y x Angular acceleration
. (.- ddr29)
=.ly.yx
2
But
where
ly.y = g K
W = Weight of body, K =Radius of gyration. about Y-Y

__ W K2 ( -
Inertia torque
d9) ___
2
dt 2
W K2 d 9
dt 2
g
.. :(ii)
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
Wx GM sin
For small angle
e.
d2
sine~
dt"
K 2 d 29
GMxe = - - g dt 2
Kl
9 = __:_ K 2 - ,
or
'
d-e GM X g X 9 = O
- , + .,
g
dr
KThe above equation is a differential equation of degree second. T he solution is
. .d. b
D lVI mg y -.we get
e = c, sm
~GM.g
~ x r+
scanned
by Fahid'
/GM.g
XI
c2 cos V
;,
... (iii)
K 2 created by AAZSwapnil
PDF
_Buoyancy and Floatation 15S j

where C 1 and C1 arc constants of integration.
T ht! ,alucs of C1 and C: are obtained from boundary conditions which are
(i) at r = e =o
o:
(ii) at
= !._. 6 = 0
2
where Tis. the time period of one complete oscillation.
Substituting the 1st boundary condition in (iii), we get
= C1 X 0 + C2 X
1. sin e = o, cos e = 1 I
C2 =0
Substituting 2nd boundary conditions in (iii); we get
. ~GM.g
T
- x -0 = C 1 stn
2
But C1 cannot be equal to zero and so the other alternatjve is

.
Stn
~GM.g
T
~ X2
{GA1.i x
V~
..
T
2
=O=Stn. 1t
=1t
{:sin
JGM.g
K
1t
= 0}
.or T= 2n
... (4.6)
Time period of oscillation is given by equation (4.6).
Problem 4.21 The least radius of gyration of a ship is 8 m and meta-centric height 70 em. Calculate the time period of oscillation of the ship.
So lution. Given :
Least radius of-gyration, K 8 m

.
Meta-centric height, GM = 70 em = 0.70 m
The time period of oscillation is given by equation (4.6).
8x8
='19.18 sec. Ans.
0.7 X 9.81
Problem 4.22 The time period of rolling of a ship of weight 29430 kN in sea water is 10 seconds.
The centre of buoyancy of the ship is 1.5 m below the centre of gravity. Find the radius of gyration of
lA~ ship if the moment of inertia of the ship at the water line about fo re and aft. axis is 1000 m4. Take
~c({ic weight of sea water as = 10100 N/m1.
Solution. Given :
Time period,
T = I0 sec
Distance between centre o f buoyancy and centre of gravity. BG
4
\toment of Inertia.
l
I0000 m
\\'eight.
\V = 29430 kN = 29430 x 1000 N
Let the radius of gyration = K
First calculate the meta-centric height GM, which is given as
= 1.5 m
GM = BM- BG
= .!_
\;/
BG
scanned by Fahid
lts6
where
and
Fluid Mechanics
I= M.O. Inertia
"i/
=Volume of water displaced

=
Weight of ship
= 29430 x 1000 =
_ m
2912 6 3
Sp. weight of sea water
I0 I04
10000
GM = - - - 1.5 = 3.433 - 1.5 = 1.933 m.
29 12.6
T=21t
[/(2"
fa!i;z;
K2
21tK
= ---;::::::~==::=::=;=.JI.933x9.81
or
I 0 = 21t
or
K = - - - ' - - - - - = 6.93 rn. Ans.
l.933x9.81
10 X J1.933 X 9.81
21t
HIGHLIGHTS
-I :-The-upward"forc~"Xetted bya 1iquid""Onabody-when-
the- bodyirl!llmersedifrtheli(jliia1S1ffi0Wil
buoyancy or force of buoyancy.

2. The point through which force of buoyancy is supposed to act is called centre of buoyancy.
3. The point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted is known meta-centre.
4. The distance( between the meta-centre and centre of gravity is known as meta-centric height.
I
S. The meta-centric height (GM) is given by GM = V - BG
where
1 =Moment of Inertia of the floating body (in plan) at water surface about the axis Y-Y
V = Volume of the body s!1b-merged in water

BG = Distance between centre of. gravity and centre of buoyancy.
6. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and submerged body are :
Equilibrium
(1) Stable Equilibrium
(il) Unstable Equilibrium
(iii) Neutral Equilibrium
Floating Body
Sub-merged Body
M is above G
Mis below G
M and G coincide
B is above G
B is below G
B and G coincide
7. The value of meta-centric height GM, experimentaliy is given as GM

where
=~
.
Wtan9
w 1 Movable weight
x = Distance through which w1 is moved
W = Weight of the sh ~ or floating body including w1
9 = Angle through the ship or floating body is tilted due to the movement of wt.
..
..
~ GMxg
K
2
8. The time period of oscillation or rolling of a floating body is given by T = 2n

where
K = Radius of gyr3tion, GM = Meta-centric height

T
=Time of one complete oscillation.
scanned by Fahid
..,.
Buoyancy and Floatation 157 j
EXERCISE 4
(A) THEORETICAL PROB LEM S
J. Define the terms 'buoyancy' and 'centre of buoyancy'.
2. Explain the terms 'meta-centre' and 'meta-centric height'.
3. Derive an expression for the meta-centric height of a floating body.
4. Show that the distance. between the meta-centre and centre of buoyancy is given by BM
where l = Moment of inertia of the plan of the floating body at water surface about longitudinal axis.
'V = Volume of the body submerged in liquid.
5. What are the conditions of equilibrium of a floating body and a submerged body ?
(A.S.M. E. , June /992 ; Delhi University, 1982)
6. How will you detepnine the meta-centric height of a floating body experimentall y ? Explain with neat
sketch.
7. Select the correct statement :
,
(a) The buoyant force for a floating body passes through the
(1) centre of gravity of the body
(ii) centroid of volume of the body
(iii) meta-centre of the body
(iv) centre of gravity of the submerged part of the body
(v) centroid of the displaced volume.
(b) A body submerged in liquid is in equilibrium v.hen :
(i) its meta-centre is above the centre of gravity
(ii) its meta-centre Is above the centre of buoyancy
(iii) its centre of gravity is . above the centre of buoyancy
(iv) ..its centre of buoyancy is above the centre of gravity
[Ans. 7 (a) (v), (b) (iv))
(v) none of these. .
8. Derive an expression for the time period of the oscillation of a floating body in terms of radius of
gyration and meta-centric height of the floating body.
9. Define the terms : meta-centre, centre of buoyancy. meta-centric height, gauge pressure and absolute
(A.S.M.E., June 1992)
pressure!
.
10. What do you understand by the hydrostatic eq1,1ation ? With the help of this equation,. derive the
expression for the buoyant force acting on a sub-merged body.
'(A.M.I.E. S 1990)
11 . With neat sketches, explain the. conditions of equilibrium for floating and sub-~erged bodies.
(Delhi University, June /996)
12. Differentiate between :
(1) Dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosci ty, (ii) Absolute and gauge pressure (iii) Simple and
differential manometers (iv) Centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy.


1. A wooden block of width 2m. depth 1.5 m and length 4 m .floats horizontally in water. Find th c.volume
of water displaced and position of centre buoyancy. The speCific gravity of the wooden block is' 0.7.
[Ans. 8.4 m3 ; 0.525 m from the base]
scanned by Fahid
ltss
......~
Fluid Mechanics
2. A wooden log of 0.8 m diameter and 6 m length is floating in river water. Find the depth of wooden
(Ans.0.54 m)
log in water wh<!n the sp. gr. of the wooden log is 0.7.
3. A stone weighs 490.5 N in air and 196.2 N in water. Determine the volume of stone and its specific
4
gravity.
[Ans. 0 03 m3 or 3 x I 0 cm 3, 1.67)
4. A body of dimensions 2.0 m x 1.0 m x 3.0 m weighs 3924 N in water. Find its weight in air. What will be
[Ans. 62784 N, 1.0667]
its specific gravity ?
5. A metallic body floats at the interface of mercury of sp. gr. 'IJ.6 and .water in such a way that 30% of
. its volume is submerged in mercury and 70% in water. Find the density of the metallic body.
[Ans. 4780kg/m3]
6. A body of dimensions 0.5 m x 0.5 m x 1.0 m and of sp. gr. 3.0 is immersed in water. Determine the least
force required to lift the body.
[Ans. 4905 Nj
7. A rectangular pontoon is 4 m long, 3m wide and 1.40 m high. The depth of immersion of tbe pontoon
is I .0 m in .sea-water. If tbe centre <if ~ravity is 0.70 m above the bottom of the pontoon, determine the
[Ans.0.45 m]
meta-centric height. Take the density of sea-wate.r as 1030 kg/m3
8. A uniform body of size 4 m long x 2 m wide x 1 m deep floats in water. What is tbe weight of the body
if depth of immersion is 0.6 m ? Determine ~be meta-centric height also.
[A ns. 47b88 N, 0.355 m]
9. A block of wood of specific gravity 0.8 floats in water. Determine the meta-centric height of the block
ifitssizeis3mx2mx I m.
[A ns.0.316m)
1 0. A solid cylinder of diameter 3.0 m bas a height of 2m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder when
- fAns. 0.1017 m]
it is floating in water with its axis "vertical. The sp. gr. of the cylinder is 0.7.
11. A body has the cylindrical upper portion of 4 m diameter and 2 m deep. The lower portion is a curved
one, which displaces a volume of 0 .9 m3 of water. The centre of buoyancy of the curved portion is at a
di stance of 2.10 m below the top of the cylinder. The centre of gravi ty of the whole body is 1.50 m below
the top of the cylinder. The total displacement of water is 4.5 tonnes. Find the meta-centric height of
the body.
[Ans. 2.387 m]
12. A solid cylinder of diameter 5.0 m has a height of 5.0 m. Find the meta-centric height of the cylinder if
the specific gravity of the material of cylinder is 0. 1 and it is floating in water with its axis vertical. State
,fAns.- 0.304 m, Unstable Equilibrium]
whether the equilibrium is stable 9(unstable.
l 3. A solid cylinder of 15 em diamet~ and 60 em long, consists of two parts made of different materials.
The fi~st pan at the base is 1.20 ~~ long and of specific gra:vity = 5.0. The other pans of the cylinder is
made pf the material having s~ific gravity 0.6. State, if it can float vertically in water.
,
[Ans. GM =- 5.26, Unstable, Equilibrium]
1,1 A rectangular pontoon 8.0 m long, 7 m broad and 3.0 m deep weighs 588.6 kN. It carries on its upper
deck an empty boiler of 4.0 m diameter weighing 392.4 kN. The centre of gravity of the boiler and the
pontoon are at their respective centres along a vertical line. Find the meta-centric heighj. Weight
[A0S:0.325 m]
density of sea-water is 10104 N/m 3.
IS. A wt.odcn cylinder of sp. gr. 0.6 and circular in cross-section is required to float in oil (sp. gr. 0.8). Find
the JJL) ratio for the cylinder to float with its longitudinal axis vertical in oil where L is the height of
cylinder and Dis its diameter. !
fAns. (UD) <0.8164]
J 6. Show that a cylindrical buoy of 1:5 m diameter and 3 :n long weighing 2.5 tonnes will not float v~rtically
in sea-water of density 1030 kgim3 . Find the force necessary in a vertical chain attached at the centre
of the base of the buoy that will keep it vertical.
[Ans. 10609.5 N]
17. A solid cone noats in water its apex downwards. Determine the least apex angle of cone for stable
[Ans. 39 7']
equi lihrium. The specific gravity of the material of the cone is given 0.7.
18. A ship 60 m long and 12m bi;_oad has a displacement of 19620 kN. A weight of 294.3 kN is moved acros~
th e d..:ck through a distance of 6.5 111. The ship is tilted through 5. The moment of in..:rtia of the ship at
scanned by Fahid
- ..... Buoyancy and Floatation 159 1.

watet l.ine about its force and aft. axis is 75% of moment of inenia the circumscribing rectangle. The
cemre,J<of buoyancy is 2.75 m below water line. Find the meta-centric height and position of centre of
.
.
grav~'Y of ship. Take specific weight of sea water~ 10104. N/m3 . .
"':
[An,s . 1.1145 m, 0.53 m beiow water surface]

19. A pontoon of 1500 tonnes displacement is floating in water. A weight of 20 tonnes is moved through
a diStance of 6 m across the deck of pontoon, which tilts the pontoon through an angle of 5. Find
(Ans. 0.9145 m)
me_ta-centric height of the pontoon.
20. FiNf'the time period of rolling of a solid circular cylinder of radius 2.5 m and 5.0 m long. The specific
[Ans. 0.35 sec)
grivity of the cylinder is 0.9 and is floating in water with its axis venical.
..
scanned by Fahid
6
GHAPTER
Dynamics of Fluid Flow

... 6. 1
INTRO DUCTI ON
In the pre\'iOUS chapter. we studied the velocity and acceleration at a point in a fluid flow. without
taking into con. ideration the forces causing the flow . This chapter includes the study of forces causing
fluid flow . Thus dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with the forces causing flow. The
dynamic behaviour of the fluid flow is analysed by the Newton s second law of motion, which relates
the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous .
.,; 6.2
EQUATIONS OF M OTION
According to Newton's second law of motion, the net forceFx acting on a fluid element in the direction of xis equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied by the acceleration ax in thex-direction. Thus
mathematically.
Fx = m.ax
...(6.1)
In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:
( t) F8 , gra,ity force.
(it) FP' the pressure force.
{iii) F,, force due to viscosity.
L,
(i~) F,, force due to turbulence.
(v) Fr. force due to compressibility.
Thus in equation (6.1 ), the net force
F,
=( F1) , + (Fp)x + (F,.).r + (F,).r + (Fc)x-
compressibility. Fe is negligible. the resulting net force

F, = (F~), + (FJ'>.r + (F..)_,+ lF,),
and equation of motions are called Reynold 's equations of motion.
(ii) f:or flo,, . where (F,l is negligible. the resulting equations of motion are known as Na,ier Stokes E quation.
(iii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal. \'iscous force (F,.) is zero and equation of motions are
known as Euler's equation of motion.
(i) If the force due
tO
256
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I
r
Dyna~ics of Fluid Flow

.... 6.3
2sil
EULE R'S EQUATION OF MOTION
This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into consideration. This is deriv!!d by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream-line as:
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place ins-direction as shown in Fig. 6.1. Consider a
cylindrical element of cross-sectiondA and length dS. The forces acting on the cylindrical element are:
I . Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.
2. Pressure force (p +
~ ds) dA opposite to the direction of flow.
3. Weight of element pgdAds.

Let 9 is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to the mass of fluid.
element x acc.eleration in the directions.
pdA - ( p +
~ ds) dA- pgdAds cos 9
= pdAds X as
where as is the acceleration in the direction of s.
as
Now
,_...(6.2) _
= d v, where vis a function of sand t.

dt
dl' I'd\' dV
= - -+-=-+dS d1 df
dS Of
dV dS
If the flow is steady.
acdv =
{ ~~=} /'
.......
0
vdv
a.- =Ts
..
Substituting the value of a 5 in equation (6.2) and simplifying

the equation, we get
dp
vdv
- os dsdA - pg dAds cos 9 = pdAds X ~
Fig. 6.1
.
dp
pdsdA - - g cos 9
Dividing by
or
' pds
dp
VdV
:;- + g cos a + v -;pus
us
'
pgd Ads
(a)
(b)
Forces on a filiid element.
VdV
= -os
=o
But from Fig. 6 .1 (b), we have cos 9 '.: dz

ds
..!_ op + g dz + vov
p ()p
ds ds
or
dp
+ gdz + vdv
=0
or
dp + gdz + rdv = 0
.. ...
=0
Equation (6.3) is known as. Euler's equation of motion.
... (6.3)
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1258 Fluid Mechanics

.,. 6.4
BERNO ULLI 'S EQ UATIO N FRO M EULE R' S EQUATIO N
Bernoulli's equation is obtai ned by integrating the Euler's equation of motion (6.3) as
Jdpp + Jgdz + Jvdv = constant

If flow is incompressible. p is consta!'lt and
p
v2
- + g;_ + - = constant
p
2
v-
or
- + :. +- =constant
pg
2g
or
pg
v-
+-
2g
+ z = constant
... (6.4)
Equatio n (6.4) is a Bernoulli s equatio n in which
...!!.... =pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head.
pg
v~/2g =kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head.
z = potential energy per unit weight or potential head .
.,. 6.5 ASSUMPTIONS

The following are the assumptions made in the derivation ofBemoulli 's equation:
(t) The fluid is ideal, i.e., viscosity is zero (ii) The flow is steady
(iii) The flow is incompressible
(iv) The flow is irrotarjonal.
Problem 6.1 Water is jlolving through a pipe of 5 em diameter under a pressure of 29.43 N!cm 2
(gauge) and with mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Find the total head or total energy per unit weight of the
water at a cross-section, which is 5 m above the datum line.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of pipe
Pressure,
Velocity,
Datup1 head,
Total head
Pressure head
Kinetic head
= 5 em = 0.5 m
p = 29.43 N/cm 2 = 29.43 x 104 N/m 2
v 2.0 m/s
z=5m
=pressure head + kinetic head + datum head

=...!!.... =
pg
v
29 3 104
.4 x
=30m
1000 x9.8 1
=-
2g
{ p for water= 1000
~}
mJ
2X 2
= - - - =0.~04 m
2x9.81
1' -
= - + - +:. 30 + 0 . ~04 + 5 = 35.204 m . Ans.

pg 2g
Problem 6.2 A pipe. through which water is flowing, is hming diameters, 20 em and 10 em at the
cross-sections I and 2 respectilely. The velocity of water at section 1scanned
is given 4.0
Find t!1e
by m/s.
Fahid
velocity head at sections I and 2 and also rate of discharge.
Total head
I.
Dynamics of Fluid Flow 2~9 ~

Solution. Given :
Area,
V1
D 2 = 10 em
=4.0 m/s
D2 = 0:1 m
A2
=2: (.1)2 = .00785 m2

4
Fig. 6.2
(i) Velocity head at section I

2
=-; = 4.0 X 4.0 =0.815 m. Ans.

2g
2x9.81
(ii) Velocity head at ~ction 2 V/12g

To find V2 , app!y continuity equation at 1 and 2
A 1V1 =A2 V2
or
V2
A1;
.0314
=-= - - x4.0= 16.0m/s
A
.00785
2
.. _- Velo; ity.head at section 2
=Y = lG.O xl 60 = 83.047 m. Ans.

22
2g
2x9.81
(iii) Rate o~ discharge
A 1V1 or A 2 V2
= 0.0314 x 4.0 = 0.1256 m3/s
125.6 litres/s. Ans.
{ : 1 m3 =1000 litres}
Problem 6.3 State Br.rnou!li's theorem for steady flow of an incompressible )luid. Derive an
expression for Bernoulli 's equation from first principle and stare the assumptions made for such a
(A.M.I.E., May 1974)
derivation.
.
Solution . Statement of BeroouUi's Theorem. It stat~s thai in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure
energy, kineticenergy and potential energy or datum energy. These energies per unitweight of the fluid
are:
Pressure energy = ..!!__
pg
. .
K met1c energy
= -v
2g
Datum energy z
Thus mathematically, Bernoulli's theorem is written as
\12
.E.. + - +z =CQnstant.
IV
2g
Derivation of Bernoulli's theorem. For deriv-ation of Bernoulli's theorem, the Articles 6.3 and 6.4
s hould be written.
Assumptions are givel1 in Arlicle 6.5-
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j 260 Fluid Mechanics

Problem 6.4 The water is flowing through a pipe
lwl"ing diameters 20 em and 10 em at sec1ions I and
2 respectively. The rate of flow 1/rrouglz pipe is
35 litres!s. The section I is 6 m above datum and
section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at sec2
tion I is 39.24 Nlcm , find the imensity of pressure
al section 2.
Solution. Given :
At section I ,
D 1 = 20 em = 0.2 m
A1 =
~
4
(.2) = .0314
Fig. 6.3
m2
p 1 = 39.24 N/cm 2
= 39.24 x I 04 N/m 2
;:: 1 =6.0m
D,=O.IOm
At section 2,
1t
A ,=- (0.1) = .00785 m
.::~
p~
= .t 111
=?
~ = .035 m 3/s
Rate of flow,
Q = 35 litis=
Now
Q=A 1V1 = A 2 V2
and
1000
035
= l.ll4 m/s
.0314
V1 =
R=
V2 =
_Q_ = ~= 4.456 m/s
AI
A2
.00785
Applying Bernoulli 's equation at sections 1 and 2, we get
\1,2
.!2. + _I_ + zl
pg
or
or
or
2g
\1.2
= P2 + _2_ + z,
pg
2g
(4.456) 2
39.24xl0 4 (1.1 14) 2
p2
+
+ 60
. =
+
+ 40
.
1000x9.81 2x9.81
l000x9.81 2x9.81
p,
40 + 0.063 + 6.0 = - - - + '1.012 + 4.0
9810
p,
46.063 = - -- + 5.012
98 10
~ = 46.063-5.0 12 = 41.051
9810
p , = 41.05 I X 98 10 N/m~
I
scanned by Fahid
41.051 X 98 10
=
N/cm~ ~ 40.27 N/cm 2 Ans.
10 4
Problem 6.5 Water-isflowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at th~ bottom
and upper end respectively. The illlensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525 Nlcm 2 and the
pressure at the upper end is 9.81 Nlcnl Determine the difference in da_tum head if the rate of flo w
@
through pipe is 40 litis.
Solution. Given:
. 0 2 = 2oo mm 2
Section 1,
D 1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
T
P2 =9.81 N/cm
p 1 = 24.525 N/cm
Section 2,
Rate of flow
or
Now
D2
p2
= 24.525 x104 N/m1
= 200 mm = 0.2 m
=9.81 N/cm2 =9.81 x

=40 litis
40
oo 3'
Q = 1000 = . 4 m s
I 0 4 N( m2
z2
l ______
=~=
~Dt.
z1
=300 mm
p 1 = 24.525 N/cm . .
~
.......t...__ __
DATUM LINE
A 1VI = A2 v2 = rate of flow = 0.04
V1 = .O~
AI
(]
01
0.04
F ig. 6.4
= 0.5658 m/s
~(0.3)2
::: 0.566 m/s
v2 = :04 =
~04- ,: - 0.04--~~ :274 m/s

~(D2 )2 .. : (0.2)2
A2
Applying Bernoulli's equation at ( I ) and (2), we get
or
24.525 X IQ 4 .566 X .566

9.81 X 10 4
(1.274)
+
+ zl =
+
+ :;,
IOOOx9.81
2x9.81
1000x9.81 2x9.81
-
25 + .32 + z1 = 10 + 1.623 + z2
25.32 + z1 = ll.623 + z2
. ..
z2 - z1 = 25.32 - 11.623 = 13.~97 13.70 m
. . Difference in datum head = z2 - z1 = 13.70 m. Ans.
Problem 6.6 The -water is flowing through a taper pipe oflength 100m having diameters 600 mm
aJ the upper end and 300 mm mthe lower end, at the rate of5o-titres/s. The pipe has a slope of 1 in 30.
Find the pressure at the low~r end if the pressure at the higher level is 19.62 N!cnt
1
Solution. Given :
.
Length of pipe,
L = 100 m
Dia. at the upper end,
D 1 = 600 mm 0.6 m
or
or
Area,
7t
7t
AI=-. Dl =-X (.6)

4 .
4
= 0.2827 rri 2
{(\{(\
p.1 =pressure at upper end ot~o~.
= 19.62 N/cm 2
Fig. 6.5
scanned by Fahid
=19.62 X
104 N/m 2
D 2 = 300 mm =0.3 m
Dia. at lower end,
A2 =~ D22 = ~ (.3) 2 =0.07068 m

4
4
:. Area,
=rate. of flow =50 litres/s = _2Q_

=0.05 m3/s
1000
Let the datum line is passing through the centre of the lower end.
z2=0
Then
I
.
10
As slope is I in 30 means
z1 = - x 100 = - m
30
. 3
Q =AI v. =A2V2
Q
0.05
Also we know
V1 = -
= - - = 0.1768 rnlsec =0.177 m/s

.2827
v2 = _Q_ =~ =0.7074 m/sec =0.707 m/s
and
A,
.07068
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1 ) and (2), we get

PI
v;->
pg
2g
t/2
- +- + ~~
p,
y2
=-pg
- + -2g
+ z2
or
19.62xl0 4
.177 2
10
p2
.707 2
+
+-=-+
+0
1000 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
3
pg 2 X 9.81
or
20 + 0.001596 + 3.334 =EJ.. + 0.0254
or
pg
1000 x9.81
2
p 2 = 23.3 x 98 10 N/m 2 =228573 N/m 2 = 22.857 N/cm A ns.
or
.._ 6.6
p2
23.335 - 0.0254 =
BERN OULLI 'S EQUATION FOR REAL FLUID
The Bernoulli's equation was derived on the assumption that fluid is inviscid (non-viscous) and
therefore frictionless. But all the real fluids are viscous and hence offer resistance to flow . Thus there
are always some losses in fluid flows and hence in the application of Bernoulli's equation. these losses
have to be taken into consideration. Thus the Bernoulli's equation for real fluids between points I and 2
is given as
,.-'
p,
\'.;'
P
_I+_!_+-=
--"- +-=--+- +hL
'I
pg 2g
pg 2g
,~
...(6.5)
where IlL is loss of energy between poin~ I and 2 .
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..
Dynamicsof Fluid Flow
263.1
Problem 6.7 A pipe of diameter 400 mm carries water at a veloiityof25 mls. The pressures at the
poinrs A and Bare given as 29.43 Nlcm 2 GJ!'d 22.563 N!cm 2 respectively while the dattlm lzead at A
and B are 28 m and 30 m. Find the loss of head between A and B.
Solution. Given :
=400 mm =0.4 m
Dia. of pipe;
Velocity,
V= 25 m/s
At point A,
ZA =28m
VA= V =25 m/s

Total eri~rgy at A,
. p
ze
v2
EA=~+~+zA
. pg 2g
--::i,
DATUMlLINE
I"
~ 19.43 X 10 + '25
4
'l.QOO X 9.8.1
2 X 9.81
Fig. 6.6
+' 28
= 30 + 31.85 + 28 = 89.85 m
- At pointB,
'4
-- - p 8 = 22:563 N/cm-= 22.563 X 10 N/m
z8
=30m
v 8 =v=vA=25mls
Total energy at B,
Ps v~
En= - + - + zs
pg 2g
22.563 X 10 4
25 2
1000x9.8l
'
2x9.81
+ 30 = 23 + 31.85 + 30 = 84.85 m
. . Loss of energy
= EA -:: 8 = 89.85-84.85 =5.0 m. Ans.
Problem 6.8 A conical tube of len~fl 2.Q m is fixed vertically 1rith its smaller end upwards. T/Je
,elocity offlow at the smaller end is 5 m/s while .at the lower end it is 2 mls. The pressure head at the
.
.-
,.
- .
0.35(II smaller end is 2.5 m of liquid. The loss of head in the tube is
;g
V2 )
where v1 is the velocity
at the smaller end.and V2 al the lower end respectively. Determine tlui pressure head at the louer end.
.
Flow takes place in the downward direction.
Solution. Let the smaller end is represented by (I) and lower end by (2)
Given:
Length of tube,
L 2.0 m
v 1 =5mls
p/pg = 2.5 m of liquid
v 2 2 m/s
=
=
Loss of he.ad
=h L =_0.35( v, -
v2 )
___!..._:.____.:~
2g
Fig. 6.7
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j 264
Fluid Mechanics
_ 0.35[5 -2f _ 0.35 x9 _
- 0 . 16 rn
2g
2 x9.81.
P2 = ?
pg
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections ( I) and (2), we get
Pressure head.
Pt
vl
P2
pg
2g
pg
- + - + z1 = -
1
~'2
+ - + z, +hL
2g
Let the datum line passes through section (2). Then z2

2.5+
=0, z1 =2.0
p
22
+2.0 = - 2 +
+0+0.16
2x9.81
pg
2x9.81
52
2.5 + 1.27 + 2.0 = p 2 + 0.203 + .16

pg
p 2 = (2.5 + 1.27 + 2.0) - (.203 + .16)
or
pg
5. 77 - .363 5.407 m of fluid. Ans.

Problem 6.9 A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.87, changes in diameter from 200 mm
diameter ar a position A to 500111111 diameter at a position B which is 4 metres at a higher le~el. If the
pressures at A and Bare 9.81 Nlcm 2 and 5.886 N!cn/ respectively and the discharge is 200 lirresls
determine the loss of head and direction offlo\\'.
(A.MJ.E., Summer 1976)
3
Solution . Dis~harge,
Q = 200 litis= 0.2 rn /s
~ -.
p for oil
Given: At section A,
Area,
~() ~ ~"~
= 0.87
Sp. gr. of oil
.
1000
~;,;rotoro
. kg
.87 X
870 - 3
m
DA = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Qq.,~':>
&l~
~~- -
_j_
AA = ~ (DA)2 = ~ (.2)2
T
4m
DATUM LINE
=0.0314 m2
PA =9 .81 N/cm 2
=9:81 x 104 N/m2
If datum line is passing through A . then
Fig. 6.8
z,., = 0
V~
= _Q_ = _Q2_ =6.369 m/s
At section B,
DiJ
= 500 mm =0.50 rn
Area.
A8
=4lt D81=l4t (.5) 2 =0.1963 m2
A~
om i-t
...
p8 = 5.886 N/crn- = 5.886 x 10 N/rn-
_-
..__
scanned by Fahid
26Sj
Z 0 =4.0m
8
V o= - Q- = 0.2
- - = 1.01 mls
Area
.1963
vi
PA
=EA.= - + - +ZA
Total energy at 1),
pg
'2g
9.81xl0
{6.369)
=870
+
X 9.81
2 X 9.81
+ 0 = 11.49 + 2.067
=13.557 m
p
y2
=Eo=_.}!_+___!!__+ Za
Total energy at B
pg
2g
2
5 886 104
=
x
+ (1.01 8) + 4.0 = 6.896 + 0.052 + 4.0 = 10.948 m
870 X 9.81
2 X 9.8 )
(i) Direction of flow. As EA. is more than E8 and hence flow is taking place.from A to B. Ans.
(ii) Loss of head = hL E,.- 0 13.557 - 10.948 = 2.609 m. A ns
... 6. 7
__ --
PRACTICAl APPli CATIONS OF B'ERNOULi.I

'S EQUATION
,
Bernoulli's equation is ap plied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy considerations are involved. But we shall consider its application to the following measuring devices :
I. Venturimeter.
2. Orifice meter.
3. Pitot-tube.
6. 7. I Ve nturim e t er.
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts :
(r) A short converging part, (ii) Throat, and (iii) Diverging part. It Is based on the Principle of
Bernoulli's equation.
.
Expression for Rate of Fl ow Through Venturimeter
Consider a venturi meter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a flu.id is flowing (say water), as
s.'lown,in Fig. 6.9.
Let d 1 =diameter at inlet or at section (1),

1
h.
p 1 =pressure at section ( I)
v 1 =velocity of fluid at section (1),
_T
_ d,
a =area at section (I) =.!: d 12
.!:.
4
2Dd
d2 , p 2 , v2 , a2 are corresponding values at section (2). '
Applying BernouW 's equation at sections ( 1) and (2), we get
INLET
Fig. 6.9
Vcnwrimeter.
Pt
v~
P2 1i
- + - +Zt = - + - +zz
pg
2g
pg
v? = -1'2 + -1i
Pt
- +pg
2g
z1 =::2
A s pipe is horizontal, hence
2g
pg
2g
or
v;
= _..:..,. _ _v~
2g
2g
scanned by Fahid

But p, - Pl is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and it is equal to h or p , - p 2 = h
~
. . t h.IS va Iue o f p1 - p,- m

. lh c a bove equation,
.
we get
Subsututmg
pg
,2
h = 21_-~
2g 2g
.:.(6.6)
Now applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2
Substituting this value of \ 1 in equation (6.6)
_\~ a-~~~. . :.)_' = l ( a~ J= vi [af -:, ai]
= _ _,(_
2g
2g
2g
1-
2g
aj
aj
or
Discharge,
1
'=a, -;:::::::
I 2:::=.~'5_J2gh
2
va, - a2
0102
I 2
va,
- ~22
...(6.7)
x J2gh
.
Equation (6.7) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called, theoretical disc?arge. Actual
discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.
Qact =
Cd X ~
a 1a 2
a2
I
where
-a22
X -.j2gh
...(6.8)
Cd =Co-efficient of. venturi meter and its value is less than l.
Value of ' h' given by differential U-tube manomete r

Case I. Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the liquid flowing
through the pipe. Let
Sir= Sp. gravity of the heavier liquid
50 Sp. gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe
x =Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube
Then
lz
=X [
~: -J]
...(6.9)
Ca~(' II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing
throu,gh the pipe, the value of his given by
scanned by Fahid
~.:r.
Jr
=X
267 1
...(6.10)
[ 1- ;:]
S 1 =Sp. gr. of lighter liquid in U-tub~

.So= Sp. gr. of fluid flowing through pipe
x =Difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.
ca~e I ll. Inclined \ ' cntu r imcter with Different ial U-tubc manometer. The above two cases are
given for a horizontal venturi meter. This case is related to inclined venturi meter having differential Utube manometer. Let the differential manometer contains heavier liquid then his given as
where:
.:.(6.11)
Case IY. Similarly, for inclined venturimeter in which differential manometer contains a liquid
which is ligbt~r than the liquid flowing through the pipe, the value of h is given as
=(!!J... + z1) -
[1 -__]
lP
...
2 + z ) =X
(6.12)
2
pg
~pg
s"
Prot!Iem 6. 1 0 A horizontal ventllrimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 em and 15 em reJpectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential pwrwmeter connected to the
inlet and the throat is 20 em of mercury. Determine the rate offlo\\'. Take Cd = 0.98.
Sol~tion. Given:
d 1 =30cm
D!a. at inlet,
1t
"l
lr
...
a 1 =- d 1- =- (30)" = 706.85 em
Area at inlet,
d 2 =15cm
Dia. at throat,
1t
a2 =x
ts- = 176.7 em2

?
eli= 0 .98
Reading of differential manometer =x =20 em ofmercury.
. . Differen~e of pressure head is given by (6.9)
h
or
= X
rs.. -1]
1-LS"
\\here Sh = Sp. gravity of mercury= 13.6, S0 = Sp. gravity of water= l

= 20 [
1 6
- 1 = 20 x 12.6 em =252.0 em of water.
The discharge through venturi meter is given by eqn. (6.8)
-- _ X
0 98
'
706.85 X 176.7
/") 9.SJ x 25..,_
x,.._x
~(706.85) 2 - (176.7) 2
scanned by Fahid
J268 Fluid Mechanics

=
86067593.36
86067593 .36
= - - - -.J-+99636.9 - 31222.9
684.4
125756
litis = 125.756 litis. 'Ans.
1000
Pro b lem 6.11 An oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is flowing through a venturimeter having inlet diameter 20 em
and throat diameter 10 em. The oil-mercury differential manometer shows a reading of25 em. Calculate the discharge of oil through the horizontal venturimerer. Take Cd = 0.98.
Solution. Gi ven :
\
S0 = 0.8
Sp. gr. of oil ,
Sp. gr. of mercury,
Sh = 13.6
Reading of differential manometer, x = 25 em
= 125756 cm3/s =
. . Difference of pressure head, h = x [
i~ -1]
= 25 [
Oia. at inlet,
116
- 1] em of oil= 25 [17- l] = 400 em of oil.
0.8
d 1 =20cm
7t27t
a 1 = - d 1 = - x20 =314.l6cm
4
d 2 = IOcm
7t
a 2 = - x 10 = 78.54 em
4
Cd= 0.98
The discharge Q is given by equation (6.8)
or
=0.98x
314.16x78.54
~(314.16) 2 - (78.54) 2
x.j2x98 I x400
.
21421375.68 = 2142 1375.68 cm3/s

../98696 - 6168
304
= 70465 cm3/s = 70.465 1itres/s. Ans.

Problem 6.12 A hori~ontal l'enrurimeter with inlet diameter 20 em and throat diameter 10 em is
used to measure the floll' of oil of sp. gr. 0.8. The discharge of oil through venturimeter is 60 litresls.
Find the reading of the oil-mermry differential manometer. Take Cd = 0.98.
Solution. Given :
d 1 = 20 em
7t
2
a 1 =420
=314.16cm'
d2 = 10 em
scanned by Fahid
. '
269 1
a2 = -n x I 0 2 = 78.54 em2
4
cd = o.98
Q = 60 litrcs/s = 60 x 1000 em 3/s
Using the equation (6.8),
Q :: Cd
ala2
~a~ - ai
60x l000=9.81x
or
.J2gh
314.16x78.54
x.J2x981xh = 1071068.78-Jh
2
- (78.54)
304
~(314.16) 2
.Jh ,;, 304 X 60000
= 17 .029
1071068.7o8
h = (17.029) 2 = 289.98 em of oil
or
But
where
S11
=Sp. gr. of mercury= 13.6
S0 = Sp. gr. of oil= 0.8

x =Reading of manometer
289.98 = x [
116
0.8
-1]
= 16x
289 98
= 18.12 em.
16
. . Reading of oil-mercury differential manometer= 18.12 em . Ans.
Problem 6.13 A horizontal \'enturimeter with inlet diameter 20 em and throat diameter 10 em is
used to measure the flow of wmer. The pressure at inlet is 17.658 N!cnl and the mcuum pressure at
the throat is 30 em of mercury. Find the discharg_e of water through venturimerer. Take Cd = 0.98.
Soluti o n. Given :
Dia. at inlet,
d 1 =20cm
x=
a 1 = 2: x (20)2 = 314.16 cm 2
4
Dia. at throat,
d2 =1 0em
a2 =
p1
102 78.74 em 2
4
17.658 N/cm 2 = 17.658 x 104 N/m 2
2: x
= IOOO ~3 and
p for water
:.
EJ... = 17.658 x I0 =18m of water

pg
9.81 x 1000
-P2 =- 30 em of mercury
pg
= - 0.30 m of mercury = - 0.30 x 13.6 =- 4.08 m of water
scanned by Fahid

= h = f!.J_ - p 1 = 18 - (- 4.08)
pg
pg
= 18 + 4.08 = 22.08 m of water = 2208 em of water
The discharge Q is given by equation (6.8)
Differential head
=0.98x
314 6 78 54
.1 x
x.J2x98lx2208
J{3 14.16)l. -(78.74) 2
50328837 2 1
x 165555 cm3/s = 165.555 litis. Ans.
304
Problem 6.14 Tire inlet and throat diameters of a horizontal venturimeter are 30 em and
/0 em respectilely. Tire liquid flowing through the meter is water. The pressure intensity at inlet is
/3.734 N!cm 2 ll'lrile tire vacuum pressure head at the throat is 37 em of mercury. Find the rate offlow.
Assume that 4'7c of the differential head is lost between the inlet and throat. Find also the value of Cd
for the venwrimeter.
Solution. Given :
Dia. at inlet.
d 1 =30 em
~
2-
a 1 = - (30) = 706.85 em
Dia. at throat,
4
d 2 =10cm
Pressure,
=- (10) = 78.54 em
4
p 1 = 13.734 N/cm2 = 13.734 x 104 N/m2
1t
a2
Pressure head,
Pt
13.734 X 104
- =
=14m of water
1000 X 9.81
pg
p2 =- 37 em of mercury
pg
=
Differential head,
- 37x 13.6
m of water= - 5.032 m of water

100
=P/Pg -
PiPg
= 14.0- (- 5.032) = 14.0 + 5.032

= 19.032 m of water = 1903.2 em
Head lost,
h1
=4% of h =
100
x 19.032 = 0.76 1-3 m
19.032 - .7613 = 0.98

19.032
scanned by Fahid
Dynamics of Fluid,Flow
2711
Discharge
_ '0.98 X 'JD6.85 X 78.54 X .}2 X 981 X 1903.2

J(7o6.85) 2
105132247 8
.}499636.9- 6168
(78.54)
= 149692.8 cm3/s = 0.14969 m3/s. Ans.
IPROBLEMS Or-,! INCLINED VENTURIMETER I

Problem 6.15 A 30 em x 15 em venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing
in the upwa;d direction. A differential mercury manometer connected to the inlet and throat gives a
reading of20 em: Find the discharge. Take Cd 0.98.
Solution. Given:
Dia. at inlet,
d 1 30 em
a1
Dia. at throat,
=42: (30)2 ~ -706.85.cm

- --
d2=15em
1t
a 2 =(15)-'
[ sos
= 176.7 cm?
h = x ...J....- I = 20 [13.6
- 1.0 = 20 x 12.6 = 252.0 em of water
1.0
cd =o.98
Discharge,
= .}499636.3- 31222.9 =
684.4
= 125756 cm /s = 125.756 litls. Ans.

Problem. 6.16 A 20 em x 10 em venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying oil of sp. gr.
0.8, the flows ofoil is in upward direction. The difference oflevels between the throat and inlet section
is 50 em. The oil mercwy differential manonieter gives a reading of 30 em of mercury. Find rhe
discharge of oil. Neglect losses.
Solution. Dia. at inlet,
d 1 = 20 em
Dia. at throat,
a 1 = -1t (20t' = 314.16 cm-'

4
d 2 = !Ocm
scanned by Fahid
1272
Fluid Mechanics
1t
'" =- (lOt= 78.54 t:m- 4
so= 0.8
sg = 13.6
D ifferem i~l nmnm'1e: r H"ding, x =30 em
Sp. gr. of oil.

Sp. gr. of rnerru ry.
fl ::;(l!pg.L+z,)-(Ppg +z )=x[Sgs" -1]

2
= 30 [ -13.6 -
I]
0.8
=30 [ 17 -
=30 x 16 =480 e m of oil
I)
The discharg~.
1.0 X 3 14.16 X 78.54

(3 14.16)
(78.54)
J2 x 98 1 x 480 em 3/s
= 23932630.7
=78725 .7)- em3Is = 78.725 htres/s.
Ans.
304
Problem 6 .17 in n ,errical pipe comeying oil of specific gravity 0.8, two pressw :e gauges have
been installed at.-\ and 8 ll"here the diametres are /6 em and 8 em respectively. A is 2 metres above
8 . The pressure gauge readings h01e shown that the pressure at B is greater than or A by 0.981 Nl
en? Neglecring all losses. calculate the flow rate. If the gauges at A and B are replaced by tubes
filled with'rhe same liquid and connected to a U-tube conraining mercury, calculate the difference of
level of mercury in rile tll"o limbs of the U-tube.
(A.MJ .E., Summer 1985)
Solution. G i\"en :
Sp. gr. of oil.
so= 0.8
kg
Density.
p =0.~ x 1000 =800 m 3
= 16 em =0.16 m
A 1 = ~ (.16) 2 = 0.020 1 m 2
Dia. at A,
DA
A:rea at A.
=8 em =0.08 m
A, =- (.08)- =0.005026 m
4
Oia. a t 8,
D8
1(
Area at B.
(i)
Difference of pressures. p 8
2m
'
1'..1 = 0.981 N/cm 2
=0.98 i x
104 N/m2 =
Difference of pressure head
981
?N
F ig. 6.9 (a)
~p& - PA
pg
=_
9_8_10_ = 1.25
800 X 9.8 1
...
scanned by Fahid
Dynamics ofFiuid Flow
273 j
Applying Bernoulli's theorem at A and 8 and taking the reference line p~ssing through section B. we
get
PA
..
vi v}
Ps
- + - +ZA-Zs=-- pg p 8
2g
2g
or
or
p,.,-ps)+2.0-0.0 = vi- v}
pg
2g
2g
- 1.25 + 2.0 =
or
v2 v2
____-_d._
2g
2g
0.75 =vi2g
v}
2g
Now applying continuity equation at A and 8, we get
VAxA 1 =V8 xA 2
1t
VA x -{.16)
or
.?:.(.08)1
4
Substituting the value of V8 in equation (i), we get
0. 75
= 16V}
_ V] = l5V}
2g
2g
2g
0.75 X 2 X 9.81
15
:.
=0 .99 m/s
Fig. 6.9 (b)
Q = VAxA 1
Rate of flow,
= 0.99 x 0.0201 =0.01989 m 3/s. Ans.

(ii) Difference of level of mercury in the U-tube.
Let lz =Difference of mercury level.
h=x(
Then
where
~: - 1)
h=(p,., +Z,~,)-(p 8 +Z8 )= p~-pB +ZA-28

pg
pg
pg
'
=- 1.25 + 2.0 - 0
=0.75
Ps - p,.,
pg
=1.25)
13.6- 1] =xx l6
0.75 = x [ 0.8 .
scanned by Fahid

x
= 0 75 =0.04687 m = 4.687 em. Ans.
16
Problem 6.18 Find the discharge of water flowing through a pipe 30 em diam eter placed in an
inclined position where a W!llturime;er is inserted, having a throat diameter of 15 em. The differe, <.<
of pressure between the main and rhroat is measured by a liquid of sp. gr. 0.6 in an inverted U tub e
,,!Jich gi1rs a reading o{ JO c ~~- The loss ofhead betweenthe main and throat is 0.2 times the kineti.~
!read of the pipe
/;
Solution.
Di::~ at u!et
c1 1
=30cm
30 em
a1
= ~ (30)
....
"-'2
=706.85 cm
30;X
Dia. at throat.
d 2 = I~ em
..
a, =- (15) = 176.7 em
n:
Reading of differ.:ntial
n.dnom:ter_,~\' =30 em
2
1r
(~~
o.s .~~
~," /' I
"':::
/r;/
"'
sur~ head. lr )is given by
Differenc(e of pres)
:~ +z1 - l~; +~~ .
N~
=lr
; ,'
l~,/,/
1
/)
~/ //
Also
I \.._,_,/
where S1 =0.6 and S0
= I.0
Fig. 6. 10
=30 [ 1- -06]
- =30 x .4 = 12.0 em of water
1.0
2
Loss of head, hi.= 0.2 x kinetic head of pipe= 0.2 x ~
2g
Now applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) aJ;J.d (2), we get

P
_J
pg
+z.
v2
+-~
2g
=-2 +z2
pg
v2
+-2-+ht.
2g
(:~ ~z 1 )-(:; + z2) + ;~ - ;~ = hL
or
But
(;~ + z (~; + z~) =lr =12.0 em of water

1) -
and
hL
=0.2 X v 12/2g
'
2
2' -.
0 2 xVI12.0 + -\'j - \.'-
2g
2g
vf
~;
2g
2g
12.0+ 0.8 - - - - =0
2g
scanned by Fahid ...( I)

" ' Dynamics of Fluid Flow
275 1
Applying continuity equation at ( I ) and (2), we get

a 1v 1 = a 2v2
2
41t (15) Vz- . --"v.,

v 1 = -=- v2 =
a,
~(30)2
a1
:~
Substituting this value of v 1 in equation (1), we get
[0..r
09( ) - v,~=0 orl2.0+ 2i16
2
.
v2
2
"2
12.0 +28''4
vi [.05 -I]= - 12.0 or
or
2g
0 95
2g
vi = 12.0
2 X 981 X 12.0
,
=157.4cm/s
0.95
~2= ,,
I
Discharge.
0 2 1'2
= 176.7 x 157.4 cm3/s = 27800 cm3is = 27.8 IHres/s. Ans.

Problem 6.19 A 30 em x 15 em \'enturimeter is provided in a verticol pipe line carrying oil of
specific gr01ity 0.9, the flow being upwards. The difference in elel,::ion of the throat section and
entrance section of the venturimeter is 30 em. The differemial Utuix mer:ury manometer shows a
gauge deflection of 25 em. Calculate :
(i) the discharge of oil, and
(ii) the pressure difference befll'een the entrance section and the throat section. Take the co-efficient of meter as 0.98 and specific gravity of mercury as 13.6.
(A.M.I.E. , Summer, 1978)
Sol ution. Given :
Dia. at inlet,
d 1 = 30 em
Area,
Dia. at throat,
Area,
a 1 = ~ (30) 2 = 706.85 cm 2
4
d2 = 15 em
a 2 =~ (15) 2 =176.7 cm 2
4
Let section (I) represents inlet and section (2) represents throat. Then z2 Sp. gr. of oil,
S0 =0.9
Sp.gr.ofmercury,
Sg = 13.6
Reading of diff. manometer. x =25 em
The differential head. h is given by
h= (
z1 =30 em
:~ + z,)-(~; + :2)
=x [Sg
so
-1] = 25
by Fahid
[13.0.96 - 1] =352.7;scanned
em of oil
I
(i) The discharge, Q of oil
= 0.98 X 706.85 X 176.7 _ ..J2 ~ 981 X 352 .77

~(706.85) 2 -
(176.7)
= 101832219.9 = 1487905 cm3/s
684.4
=148.79 litres/s. Ans.

(ii) Pressure difference between entrance and throat section
.-.h=(:~ +z1 )-(~;+z2 )=352.77

(J!J..
pg
or
p2 ) + z1 - z2 = 352.77
pg
But
ttt
- .!!.1_) - 30 = 352.77
( J!J..
pg pg
Fig. 6.11
1!J..- .!!.1_
pg
or
But density of oil
pg
=352.77 + 30 =382.77 em of oil =3.8277 m of oil. Ans.
{p, - P1) = 3.8277 X pg

Sp. gr. of oil x I 000 kg!m 3
3
0.9
, x 1000 =900 kg/cm
=
=
{p 1 - p 2)
=3.8277 X 900 X 9.81
33795
=-- N/cm2 = 3.3795 N/cm2. Ans.
10 4 .
Problem 6.20 Crude oil of specific gravity 0.85 }lows upwards at a volume rate offlow of 60 litre
per second through a vertical venwrimeter with an inlet diam eter of200 mm and a throat diameter of
100 mm. The co-efficient of discharge of the venturimeter is 0.98. The vertical distance between the
pressure tappings is 300 mm.
(i) lftwo pressure gauges are conne cted at the tappings such that they are positioned at the levels
of their corresponding tapping poin~s. deterrnine the difference of readings in N/cnl of the two pressure gauges.
(ii) Jf a mercwy differential man'o meter is connected, in place ofpressure gauges, to the tappings
such that the connecting tube up to mercury are filled with oil, determine the difference in the level of
the mercury column.
(A.M.I.E. Summer 1986)
Solution. Given:
Specific gravity of oil,
s,..= 0.85
scanned by Fahid
. . Density;
Discharge.
=0.85 X
I000
60 litre/s
p
Q
=850 kg/m3
'
=-60- =0.06 m-'/s
Inlet dia,
1000
d 1 = 200 mm
:.
a1 = -
Area,
7t
=0.2 m
2
2
(.2) =0.0314 m
Throat dia.,
4
d 2 = I 00 mm =0.1 m
:.
a2 =
Area,
~ (0.1 ) 2 =0.00785 m2
4
0.98
Value of Cd
Let section (I) represents inlet and section C2)
represents throat. Then
z2 - z1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
(i) Difference of readings in N/cm 2 of the rwo pressure gau,ges
The discharge Q is given by,
Fig. 6."11 (t7}
or
0.06
= 0.98 X 0.0314 X 0.00785 X -J2 X 9.8 l X It

~0.0314~ -0.00785 2
= 0.98 X 0.00024649 X 4 .429 .Jh

0.0304
.Jh =
0.06 X 0.0304
0.98 X 0.00024649 X 4.429
=1.7 0S
h = 1.7052 =2.908 m
=( =~ + z1) - ( ~~ + z2 )
But for a vertical venturi meter, h
(
2.908
Pr- P2
pg
.!....!...___..!....:_
=(.E.!.
+z )-(P +z =(.E.!.- P1.) + z
pg
pg
pg pg
2
2)
z2
1-
=2.908 + ::2- ~. =2.908 + 0.3
(":
::2- ::1
=0.3 m)
= 3.208 m of oil
p 1 - p2
=pg X 3.208
= 850 X 9.81
.
= 2.615 N/cm
3.208 N/m~
=850 X 9.8 ~X 3.208

10
N/cm2
. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
1278 Flu id Mechanics

(ii) Difference in the levels of mercary colt;mns (i.e., x)
The ':alue of his given by,
2.908:x[
116 -1]
0.8.5 .
: x[ t6- l ]: 15x
.
2 908
: 0.1938 m = 19.38 em of oil. Ans.
15
Problem 6.2 1 In a 100 mm diameter horizontal pipe a v'enturimeter of 0.5 contractiort ratio has
been fixed. The head of water on the metre when there is no flow is 3m (gauge). Find the rate offlow
for which the throat pressure will be 2 metres of water absolute. The co-efficient ofmeter is 0.97. Take
atmospheric pressure-head: 10.3-m of water.
fA.M.l.E., Winter 1976)

Solu t ion . Given :
d 1 : 100 mm = 10 em
Dia. of pipe,
x:
Area,
Dia. at throat,
Area,
a1
=-1 td21 :
4
1t
(1 0)
=78.54 em2
d 2 : 0.5 x d 1= 0.5 x 10 = 5 em
1t
a 2 : - (5)
4
= 19.635 em2
.El. =3m (gauge)= 3 + 10.3 = 13.3 m (abs.)
Head of water for no flow
Throat pressur~ head
: f!J_ : 2 m of water absolute.
pg
pg
'
Difference of pressure head, h =l!J...- E1..
pg
Rate of flow, Q is given by Q =cd
pg
: 13.3-2.0 = J 1.3 m = 1130 em
01 2
~a~
: 0.97'x
- ai
7854
~(78.54)
fiih
19 635
- (19.635)2
~2 X 98 1 X 1130
22273 18.17
. 3
.
: 29 306.8 em Is : 29.306 htres/s. Ans.
76
.
6. 7.2 Orifice Meter or Or i fi c~ Pl a t e. It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same
principle as that uf venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole
called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the
diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
A differential manometer is conflected at section ( I). which is at a distance of about I .5 to 2.0 times
the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at section (2), which is at a distance of about half
scanned by Fahid
the diameter of the orifice on the down stream side. from the orifice plate.

' /
_pynamics of Fluid Flow 279j

Let p 1 = pressure at section ( I).
v 1 =velocity at section (1),
a 1 =area of pipe at section ( I ), and
--
DIRECTION OF FLOW
-DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
Fig. 6.12. Orifice meter.

p 2 v2 , a 2 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (I) and
(2), we get
vl2
P
_I+
- + zl
pg
2g
Pt
) ( P2
)
( pg + z, - pg + z2
or
But
f!J_ +
( pg
v; +Z2
= -f'J2 +--pg
= 2v;~
2g
v~
28
z,) -(Ppg2 ~+ ztol~ = h =Differential- ..head

2
h -- 21._ - _v,
2g
2g
or
v2
.or 2gh = v 2 - v 2
2
1
=~2gh + v~
...(i)
Now section (2) is at the vena contracta and a2 represents the area at the vena contracta. If a0 is the
area of orifice then, we have
cc =~
ao
where C, =Co-efficient of contraction
a2
=a0 x c,
... (ii)
By continuity equation. we have

... (iii)
Substituting the value of v1 in equation (i), we get
scanned by Fahid
The discharge Q == v2 x a 2 = v2 ~ a0 Cc
aoCc:fiih
...(iv)
1-(=~r c;
The above expression is simplified by using
Substitut!ng this value of Cc in equa~ion (iv), we get
.I -(:~
'
c;
Q_=:= ao x Cd --'--J;=l-=(aa=~=)=2.- x
: ..(6.13)
where Cd =Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a venturi meter.
Problem 6.22 An arifice meter with ori}ice diameter I 0 em is inserted in a pipe of20 em diameter.
The presswe
gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter gives readings of
2
2
19.62 N!cm and 9.81 N/cm respf!Ctively. Co-efficient ofdischarge for the meter is given as 0.6. Find
the discharge of water through pipe.
scanned by Fahid
Solution . Given :
Dia. of orifice,
:.
= 10 em
ao = ~ (10) 2 = 78.54 cm 2
4
d 1 =20cm
Area,
Dia. of pipe,
:.
d0
281 1_
a 1 = ~ (20i = 314.16 cm 2
4
p 1 = 19.62N/cm2 = 19.62x 104.N/m2
Area,
p1
-pg
= 19.62xl0
1000 X 9.81
p2
Similarly
pg
h
9.in x 104
lOOOx 9.81
= 20 mo water
= 10 m of water
= li - E1.. =20.0 pg
pg
10.0 .::_10m of water= 1000 em of water
Cd= 0.6
The discharge, Q is given by equation (6.13)
= 0.6 x
78.54x314.l6
x.J2x98 I xl000
.
. J(314.16) 2 -(78.54) 2 _
. 3
.
= 20736838.09 =68213.28 em
/s =68.21 btres!s. Ans.
304
Problem 6.23 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 em Js inse'r1ed in a pipe of 30 em diameter.
The pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of the
orifice meter gives a reading of 50 em of mercury. Find the rate offlow of oil of sp. gr. {).9 when the
co-efficient of discharge of the meter = 0.64.
Solution . Given :
Dia. of orifice,
d 0 15 em
:.
Area.
7t
Dia. of pipe,
d1
=30cm
:.
a1
= -7t
Area,
S0
Sp. gr. of oit
Reading of diff. manometer, x
..
I
Differential head,
ao = 4 ( 15) = 176.7 em
(30) 2 706.85 em'

4
0.9
50 em of mercury
=
=
h=x [Stso -I]= 50 [ 130.96 -1] em of scanned

oil
by Fahid
J282 Fluid Mechanics

=50 x 14.11 =705.5 em of oil
CJ = 0.64
The rate of the flow. Q is given equation (6.13)
aoal
Q=Cd. I 2
va1 -
= 0.64 ~
M:l.
xv2gh
2
0o
176.7 X 706.85
2
- (176.7)
~(706.85) 2
~2 X 981 X 705.5
94046317 78
= 137414.25 cm 3/s = 137.4141itres/s:Ans.
684.4
6 . 7.3 Pitot-tube. It is a device used for measuring the

velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel. It is based on
the principle that if the velocity or flow at a point becomes zero, the
pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy into pressure energy. In its simplesl"form, the pitot-lube
consists of a glass tube, beut at right angles as shown in Fjg . 6: 1}.
The lower end, which is bent through 90 is directed in the. up:..
stream direction as shown in Fig. 6.13. The liquid rises up in the
tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy.
T
h
--=-=-=-=---= --= ----=-=:-:-: =-=-F:-:..-.

H
~-.1
..l....,.
j_
---:::;:::::::-::::::-__~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :. ._
- - - - - -- - - --- -----
The velocity is detefmined by measuring the rise ofliquid in the tube.

Fig. 6.13 Pitot-tube.
Cons.ider two points ( 1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just as-the inlet of the
pitot-tube and point (I) is far away from the tube.
p 1 intensity of pressure at point ( l)
Let
v 1 = velocity of flow at (1)
p 2 = pressure at point (2)
v2 velocity at point (2), which i~ zero
H = depth of tube in the liquid
h rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface.
Applying Bernoulli's equations at points (1) and (2). we get
=
=
=
v2
p
vz2
P1 + ....L
+ z1 = - 2 + - -+
z2
pg .2g
pg 2g
But z 1
=z2 as points (1 ) and (2) are on the same line and v2 = 0 .

.f!J_ = pressure head at (l) = H
pg
P2 =pressure head at (2)
pg .
=(h +H)
Substituting these values, we get
v21
H+-
2g
=(II + H)
vz
h= -2g
or
1 1
=.j2gh
This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by
scanned by Fahid
_ ?ynamics of Fluid Flow

(vl)a,t
283 j
= C,, .J2gh
where Cv =Co-efficient of pitot-tube

.. Vclocityatanypoint
v=:Cv.J2gh
.
...(6.14)
Velocity of flow in a pipe by pitot-tube. For finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by pilot
tube, the following arrangements are adopted :
I. Pitot-tube along with a vertical piezometer tube as shown in Fig. 6.14.
2. Pitot-tube connected with piezometer tube as shown in Fig. 6.15.
3. Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube connected with a differential U-tube manometer as shown
in Fig. 6.16.
PIEZOMETER
TUBE
/ PITOT-TUBE
----- -- - - ---
Fig. 6.15
Fig. 6.14
----------Fig. 6.16
Fig. 6.17
4. Pitot-static tube, which consists of two circular concentric tubes one inside the other with some
annular space in between as shown in Fig. 6.17. The outlet of these two tubes are connected to the
differential manometer where the difference of pressure head h' is measured by knowing the difference
of the levels
o~ the manomet~r liquid sa~ x. Then h = x [ ~: - 1].
Problem 6.24 A pitot-static tube placed in the centre ofa 300 mm pipe line has on.e orifice pointing upstream and other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the central
velocity. Find the discharge through the pipe if the pressure differen ce between the nvo orifices is
60 mm of -.mter. Take the co-efficient of pitnt tube as Cv =0.98.
Solution . Given :
Dia. of pipe.
d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Diff. of pre!;sure head,
h =60 mm of water= .06 m of water
C,. = 0.98
Mean velocity,
V 0.80 x Central velocity
Central velocity is given by equation ( 6. 14)
=C,. .j2g/r =0.913 X .j2 X 9.8) X .06 =J.063 m/s

"'
scanned by Fahid
1284
Fluid Mechanics
V =0.8.0 x
Discharge,
1.063
=0.8504 m/s
Q =Area of pipe x V
1t 2
1t
=-d
x V =4
4
(.30) x 0.8504
=0.06 m 3Is. Ans.
Problem 6.25 Find the velocity ofthe flow ofan oil throt<gh a pipe, when the differe;,ce of mercury
level in a differential U-tube manometer connected to the two tappings of the pitot-tube is /00 mm.
Take co-efficient of pitot-tube 0.98 and sp. gr. of oil =0.8.
Solution. Given :
x= JOOmm=O.I m
Diff. o.f mercury level,
Sp. gr. 6f oil,
so= 0.8
Sp. gr. of mercury,
sg = 13.6
Cv =0.98
Diff. of pressure head,
sg
[13.6- 1 = l.6mof01l
h=x [ so- 1 =.1 0.8
Velocity of flow _
=Sv .J2iii = 0.~ .J2 x 9.81 x 1.6 = 5.49 m/s. Ans.
Problem 6.26 A pilot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of water ~n a pipe. The stagnation
pressure head is 6 m and static pressure head is 5 m. Calculate the velocity of.flow assuming the coefficient of tube equal to 0.98.
(A.M.I.E., Winter, J979)
Solution. Given:
Stagnation pressure head,
lz, =6 m
Static pressure head,
h1 =5 m
h=6-5=Im
Velocity of flow,
V =C,. .j2ih =0.98 .J2 X 9.81 X l =4.34 m/s. Ans.
Problem 6.27 A sub-marine moves horizontally in sea and has its axis 15m below the surface of
water. A pitot-tube properly placed just in front of the sub-marine and along its axis is connected to
the nvo limbs of aU-tube containing mercury. The difference of mercury level is found to be 170 mm.
Find the speed of the sub-marine knowing thm the sp. gr. of mercury is 13.6 and that of sea-water is
1.026 with respect offresh water.
.: (A.M.I.E., Winter, 1975)
Solution. Given:
Diff. of mercury level,
x = 170 mm = 0.17 m
Sp. gr. of mercury,
s8 = 13.6
Sp. gr. of sea-water,
so= 1.026
h= . [Sgso .x
I] = 0.17 [
V = '.J2gh = .J2 X 9.81
116
1.026
-1]
= 2.0834 m
2.0834 = 6.393 m/s
X 60 X 60
= 6.393 1000
kmlhr: = 23.01 kmlbr. Ans.
Problem 6.28 A pirot-tube is i'!.serted in a pipe of 300111111 diameter. The static pressure in pipe is
/00 mm of mercury (mcuum). The stagnation pressure attlte centre of the pipe, recorded by the pitotscanned by Fahid
2851
tube is 0.981 N!cm 2 Calculate the rate offlow ofwaJer through pipe, if the me~n velocity offlow is
0.85 times the central velocity. Take C,. = 0.98. (Converted to S.l. .Units, A.M.I.E.. Summer, 1987)
Solution. Given :
-
Dia. of pipe,
d 300 mm = 0.30 m
Area,
~ d 2 = ~ (.3) 2 = 0.07068 .m2
a=
= 100 mm of mercury (vacuum)

100
=- - - x 13.6 = - 1.36 m of water
1000
.
= .981 N/cm2 = .981 x 104 N/m 2
Static pressure head
Stagnation pressure
Stagnation pressure head
.981 X 104
.98l xl0
pg
1000 x9.81
= lm
h = Stagnation pre.ssure head- Static pressure head

= 1.0- (- 1.36) =1.0 + 1.36 = 2.36 m of water
= c,. .J2gh
Velocity at centre
= 0.98 X .J2 X 9.81 X 2.36 = 6.668 m/s

Mean velocity,
Rate of flow of water
... 6.8
V = 0.85 x 6.668 = 5.6678 rn/s

= V x area of. pipe
=5.6678 x 0.07068 m3/s =0.4006 m 3/s. Ans.
THE MOMENTUM EQUATION
It is b.ased on the law of cons~rvatiol! ?f momentum or on the momentum principle, which states that
the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in momentum of flow per unit time in that
direction. The force acting on a fluid mass 'm' is given by the Newton's second law of motion, '
F=mXa
where a is the ~cceleration acting in the same direction as force F.
dv
But
a=dt
dv
F=mdt
d(mv)
=--
I m is constant and can be taken inside the differential}
= d(mv)
... (6.)5)
dt
dt
Equation (6.15) is known as the m<?mentum principle.

..".(6.16)
Equation (6.15) ~;n.be written asF~dt = d(mv)
which is known as the impulse-momentum equation and states that the impulse of a force F acting on a
fluid of mass min a short interval of time dt is equal to the change of momentum d(mv) in the direction
of force.
scanned by Fahid
I
I
'

Fo rce exerted by. a fl owing flu id on a Pipe- Be nd
_
The impulse-momentum equation (6.16) is'used to determine the resultant force exerted by a flowing
fluid ona pipe bend.
Consider two sections (I) and (2), as shown in Fig. 6.18.
v 1 =velocity of flow at section (1),
Let
p 1 =pressure intensity at section (1),
A 1 =area of cross-section of pipe at section (l) and
v2, p 2, A 2 =corresponding values of velocity. pressure and area at section (2).
Let Fx and Fy be the components of the forces exerted by the flowing fluid on the bend in x-and ydirections respec.tively. Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the directions ofx andy will be
equal to Fx and FY but in the opposite directions. Hence component of the force exerted by bend on the
fluid in thex-direction = - Fx and in the direction ofy =-FY. The other external forces acting on tlie fluid
-are p 1A 1 and p~2 on the sectioll._ ( 1) and (2) respectively. Then momentum equation in x-direciion is
f
given by
V 2 sine
v2
(b)
(a)
Fig. 6.18
Forces on bend.
Net force acting on fluid in the direcLion of x = Rate of change of momentum in x-dircction
..
p 1A 1 - P-0 2 cos e- Fx =(Mass per sec) (change of velocity)
'
= pQ (Final velo.fity in the direction of x
-Initial velocity in the_direction of x)
= pQ (V2 cos e- V 1)
(6.17)
Fx = pQ (V,- V2 cos e)+ p 1A,- p0 2 cos e
...(6. 18)
..
Similarly the momentum equation in y-direction gives
0- p0 2 sin 9- Fy = pQ (V2 sin 9 - 0)
...(6.19)
... (6.20)
..
Fy =pQ (- V2 sin 9) - P0 2 sine
Now the resultant force (FR) acting on the bend
=)F} +F}
...(6.21)
And the angle made by the resultant force with horizontal direction is giyen by
FY
tane = -
r::.
... (6.22)
Proble m 6.29 A 45 reducing bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the i11let and outlet
of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Fi;td th e force exemd by water 011 the bend if the
intensity of pressure at inlet to bend is 8.829 N!cn1 2 and rate ofjlo11 of ll'ater is 600 litresis.
scanned by Fahid
Dynamics of Fluid Flow 287 1

Solution . Given:
Angle of bend,
Dia. at inlet,
:.
e = 45
D 1 =600mm=0.6m
A 1 = _:: D, 2 = _:: (.6/
4
4
= 0.2827 m2
D2 =300 mm =0.30 m
Area,
Dia. at outlet,
<D
Fig. 6.19
=2:4 (3) =0.07068 m

4
2
p 1 =8.829 N/cm~ =8.829 X 10 N/m
3
Q =600 litis= 0.6 m /s
V1 =JL = ~ = 2.122 m/s
:. Area,
A2
Pressure at inlet,
AI
.2827
0.6
,
= - - = 8.488 m/s.
A2
.07068
v2= -
Applying Bernoulli's eq~ation at section (I) and (2), we get

2
P1
2
+\'r- + z1 =P2- +V+z2
pg 2g
pg 2g
z1 =z2
But
P1+ \'r = P2 +Y.z- or

-
pg . 2g
9 + .2295
p2
pg
pg
2g
8.829 X 104
2.122 2
P2
8.488 2
+
= - + --1000x9.81 2x9.8l .pg
2x9.81
=p 2/pg + 3.672
=9.2295- 3.672 =5.5575 m of water
1000 X 9.81 N/m2 =5.45-x 104 N/~2

Forces on the bend in x- andy-directions are given by equations (6. 18) and (6.20) as
p2
=5.5575 X
Fx = pQ [v 1 - v2 cos 9] + p 1A 1 - p0 2 cos 9
= 1000 X 0.6 (2.122- 8.488 COS 45]
+ 8.829 X 104 X .2827- 5.45 X )(t X .07068 X COS 45
=- 2327.9 + 24959.6-2720.3 = 24959.6-5048.2
= 199 11 .4 N
and
f,.=pQ [- V2 sin 9] - p2A 2 sin 9
. = I 000 X 0.6 l- 8AS8 sin 45[- 5.45 X 104 X .07068 X sin .45
=- 360 1.1 - 2721.1 = - 6322.2 N
-ve sign means FYis acting in the downward direction
..
~esultant force.
FR =~ F} + F;2
scanned by Fahid
=~(19911.4)2 +{ -6322.2) 2
= 20890.9 N. Ans.
The angle made by resultant force with x-axis is given by
equation (6.22) or
tan
e=
6322 2
F1 =
= 0.3175
Fx
19911.4
a= tan~
Fx=19911.4N
~-CSJ
Fig. 6.20
.3175 = 17 36'. Ans.

Problem 6.30 250 litresis of water is flowing in a pipe having a diameter of 300 mm. If the pipe is
bent by 135 (that is change from initial to final direction is 135), find the marlitude and direction
of the resultant force on the bend. The pressure of water flowing is 39.24 N/cm.
.
.
Solution . Given :
Pressure,
p 1 = p 2 = 39.24 N/cm2 = 39.24 x 104 N/m2
Discharge,
Q =250 litres/s = 0.25 m3/s
Dia. of bend at inlet and outlet, D 1 = D 2 = 300 ~. =: _0.3 m_
1
A 1 = A2 = -n D 1-2 = -t. x- -.32 = 0.07068 m2
Area,
Velocity of water at ( 1) and (2), V = V 1 = V2 =
_g_
= ~ = 3.537 m/s.
Area .07068
v
Fig. 6,21
Force along x-axis
P2x
= Fx = pQ[Vlx- V2x] + PtxAt + Pu.A2

= initial velocity in the direction of X= 3.537 rn/s
=final yelocity in the direction of X=- Y2 COS 45 =- 3.537 X .7071
=pressure at (1) in x-tlirection
= 39.24 N/cm 2 = 39.i4 x 104 N/m2
= pressure at (2) in x-direction
= P2 cos 45 = 39.24 X 104 X .7071
Fx = 1000 X .253.537 - (- 3.537 X .7071 )] + 39.24 X I0~ X .07068 + 39.24
4
X 10 X .07068 X .7071
4
= 1000 X .25[3.537 + 3.537 X .7071) + 39.24scanned
X 10 X .07068
[1 + .707l )
by Fahid
_pynamics of Fluid ~ow 289 j

= 1509.4 + 47346 = 48855.4 N
Force along y-axis
= =
F_,. pQ[Vly- V2y] + (p,A ,)." + (p02)y

v,y = initial velocity in y-direction = 0
V2y = final velocity in y-direction =- v 2 sin 45:: 3.537 X .7071
(p 1A 1)y = pressure force iny-direction = 0
(p0 2)y = pressure force at (2) in y-direction
=- p 2A 2 sin 45 =- 39.24 X 104 X .07068 X .7071
Fy 1000 X .25[0 - 3.537 X .7071] + 0 + (- 39.24 X 104
=- 625.2 - 19611.1 =- 20236.3 N
- ve sign means F,- is acting in the downward direction
where
..
Resultant force,
FR =
.07068
.7071)
~ F} + ~2
~ [SI
= ~48855.4 2 + 20236.3z
= 52880.6 N
~
The direction of the resultant force FR with the x-axis is given as NN
tanS= FY =
20236
F...
II
= 0 .4142
"'fi
- - - - - ----- -- -- -- -
48855.4
Fig. 6.22
8 =22 30'. Ans.
Problem 6.31 A 300 mm diameter pipe carries ll'ater under a head of20 metres with a velocity of
3.5 mls. If the axis of the pipe rums through 45, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force at the bend.
Solution. Given :
D = D 1 = D 2 = 300 mm =0.30 m
Dia. of bend,
:.
Area,
1t21t
A= A 1 = A2 = - D =- X .3 = 0 .07068 m
Velocity,
v = v, = v2 =3.5 mJs
Discharge,
Q =A XV= 0.07068 X 3.5
Pressure head
=20 m of water
8= 45
. . Pressure intensity.
Now
Force along x-axis,
or
=0.2475 m 3/s
..!!__
pg
=20 m of water
p =20 X pg =20 X 1000 X 9.81 N/m 2 = 196200 N/m 2

p =p 1 =p 2 = 196200 N/m 2
Vl.r :: 3.5 m/s. V 2x = V2 COS 45 3. 5 X .7071

V1." = o. v~,. = V2 sin 45 = 3.5 x .7071
(p,A,), = p,A, = 196200 X .07068. (p,A,),. = 0

(p 2A 2).r =- p 2A 2 cos 4 5. (p:0 2)-' = - p0 1 sin 45"
F.r =pQ[ Vl.r - V2.rJ + (p 1A 1)_.. + (p2A2).t
= IOOOx .2475[3.5 - 3.5 X .7071] + 196200x .07068 - p;0 2 X cos 45
scanned by Fahid
Fluid
'
~echaillcs
/
= 253.68 + f96200 X .07068- 196200 X .07068 X 0.7071

= 253.68 + 13871.34.- 9808.04 4316.98 N
Force along y-a.xis.
F~.
=pQ [v1y- V2,}'] ~_ (p 1 A 1 )y + (p;02)y

= 1000 X .2475[0- 3.5 X .7071) + 0 + [- p~ 2 sin 45)
= - 612.44- 196200 X .07068 X .7071
= - 612.44-9808 =- 10420.44 N
Resultant force
'
{2
I
2
2
.
FR=vf'x
+f;.2 =-v(4316.98)
+(10420.44) =11279N.:Ans.
-tFy .... .. .
L.__ ' Fx
Fig. 6.23
The angle made by FR withx-axi_s
F.,. 10420.44
tan e = - =
.
F,
43!6.98
=2 .411
..
9 =tan- 1 2.411 =67 28'. Ans.
Problem 6.32 In a 45 bend a rectangular air dud of 1 m 2 cross-sectional area is gradually
reduced to 0.5 m 2 area. Find the magnitude and dt'rection of the force required to hold the duct in
position if the velocity offlow at the 1m2 section is 10 m/s, and pressure is 2.943 N/cm2-. Take density
_of air as 1.16 kg!m3 .
(A.M. I.E., Winter, 1980)
Solution. Given :
Area at section (I),
Area at section (2),
Velocity at section (1),
Pressure at section (1),
Density of air,
A 1 =1m
A2
V1
=0.5 m2
=10 m/s
.p 1 = 2:943 N/cm2 = 2.943 x I 0 4. N/m2 = 29430 N/m2
p =-1.16 kg/m 3
Applying continuity equation at sections ( 1) and (2)

AIVI=A2V2
V,=
A1V1
A2
1
0.5
= - - x 10=20rn/s
scanned by Fahid
291 1
Discharge
Fig.
6.2~
Applying Bernoulli's eq~ation at (I) and (2)
v.,?
Pt
pg
_ P2
2g
pg
V2
{: Z,=Zz)
- +---+2g
2.943 X 10
10 2
fh
20 2
+
= -- + - - 1.16 X 9.81
2 X 9.81
pg
2 X 9.81
4
or
p,
2.943 X 10 4
pg
1.16x9.81
--
F
10 2
2x9.81
=2586.2 + 5.0968 P2 = 2570.90
Force along x-axis~
l. I 6
Fx = pQ [V 1x- V~]
20 2
+--20.387
2x9.81
=2570.90 m
9.81 = 29255.8 N
+ (p 1A 1).. + (p;02).r
where
=10 m/s, v2.t = v2 cos 45 = 20 X :7071 ,

(p,A ,)X= p,A, = 29430 X 1 =29430 N
and
(p2-42)x 7'- P02 cos 45o =- P2A2 cos 45 =- 29255.8 X 0.5 X .7071
A l.t
Fx = 1.16 X 10(10- 20 X .7071) + 29430 X 1 -29255.8 X .5

=- 48.04 + 29430 - I0343.37 =0 - 19038.59 N
Similarly force alongy-axis, F_,. =pQ[V1y- V2y] + (p 1A 1)y + (p;0.Jy
where
V 1.v
=0, V2y =
V2
sin 45
.7071
=~0 X .7071 =14.142
(p,A,),
. = 0, (p;0 2),. =- p 2A 2 sin 45 = - 29255.8 X .5 X .7071 =- 10343.37

F., = 1.1 6x 10[0 - 14.142]+0 - 10343.37
=- 164.05- 10343.37 =- 10507.42 N

..
Resultant force.
FR = J F,2 +F.}
= )( 19038.6)~ + (10507.42) 2 =21746.6 N. Ans.
The direction of FR with x-axis is given as

tan 9
= F, = I 0507.4 2
F,
= 0.5519
19038.6
9 =tan- .5519 =28 53'. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
'I
. .
FR is the force exer.ted on bend. Hence the force required to hold the duct in position is equal to
21746.6 N but it is acting in the o'pposite direction of FR. Ans.
Problem 6.33 A pipe of300 mm diameter conveying 0.30 m 3!s of water has a right angled bend in
a horizontal plane. Find the resultant force exf!rred 011 the be11d if the pressure at inlet and outlet of
the bend are 24.525 N!cm 1 and 23.544 N!cn?
Solution . Given :
Dia. of bend,
D = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Discharge,
A =A 1 = A 2 = _.!: (.3) 2 = 0.07068 m2

4
Q = 0.30 m 3/s
Velocity.
v:: VI =
Area,
030
v2 = -
= - - = 4.244 m/s
.07068
Fig. 6.25
Angle of bend,
104 N/m 2 = 245250 N/m 2
4
p 2 = 23.544 N/cm = 23.544 x .10 N/m 2 =235440 N/m 2
Force of bend along x-axis F. = pQ [V1,..- V2, ] + (p 1A 1),, + (pzA 2)..
where
p = 1000. vlx = VI = 4.244 m/s, v2. =.0
{piA l)x = p 1A 1 = 245250 X .07068
p 1 = 24.525 N/cm
= 24.525 x
{pzA2)x = 0
Fx = IOOO x 0.30 [4.244 - 0] + 245250 x .07068 + 0

= 1273.2 + 17334.3 = 18607.5 N
Force on bend along y-axis, Fy = pQ [ vly- v2..J' + (piA I))'+ (pzA2)y
where
vly = 0, v2y = v2 = 4.244 m/s
{piAI)y = 0, (pzA2)y =- PzA2 =- 235440 X .07068 =- 16640.9
..
Fy .= .1000 X 0.30[0 - 4.244) + 0- 16640.9
=,- 1273.2- 16640.9= - 17914.1 N
Resultant force,
and
/2
I
2
2
FR=vFx
+F,.2 =v(18607.5)
+(17914.1) =-25829.3N
..
17914 1
tan e = F, =
'
Fx. 18607.5
9
= 43 54'. Ans.
=0.9627
scanned by Fahid
_ pynamics of Fluid Flow 293 j

Problem 6.34 A nozde of diameter 20 111111 is fiued to a pipe of diameter 40 mm. Find the force
exerted by the nozzle on the water which is flowing through the pipe at the rate of 12 m3!minute.
Solution. Given :
D 1 = 40 mm = 40 x 10-3 m = .04 m
Dia. of pipe,
Area,
A1=
Dia. of nozzle,
~ D 12 = ~ (.04) 2 =0.00 12.$6 m2

4
D 2 = 20 mm = 0.02 m
Area,
A2 =
~ (.02)2 = .0003 14 m2
2
Q = 1.2 m3/minute = 1. m3/s = 0.02 m3/s
60
Discharge,
G)
<D
Fig. 6.26
Applying continuity equation at ( I) and (2),

AI VI = A2 Vz = Q
R
AI
v2 = lL =
and
A2
02
= 15.92 m/s
.001256
02
.000314
=63.69 mls
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2), we get
.Now
r
z 1 = z2, P2 =atmospheric pressure= 0

pg
P!
V(2
\'22
pg
2g
2g
- + -= -
2
61692
= (
) - (ls.n ) = 206.749- 12.917
2g 2g
2x9.81
2x9.81
pg
= 193.83 m of water
PJ...
p1
V/ - \'.
= 193.83 X 1000 X 9.81
'
N
scanned
by Fahid
- N2 =
1901472.PDF
m
m2 created by AAZSwapnil
. -------.- -
-~--
------- .... ------:---
by
Let the force exerted the nozzle on water =F_<

Net ~orce i n the direction of x::: rate of change of momentum in the direction of x
P1A1- P:02 + Fx = pQ(V2- VI)

where p 2 = atmospheric pressure = 0 and p = 1000
:. 1901472 X .001256-0 + Fx = 1000 X 0.02(63.69- 15.92) or 2388.24 + Fx =916.15
.
Fx =- 2388.24 + 916.15 = - 1472.09. Ans.
- ve sign indicates that the force exerted bY the nozzle on water is acting from right to left.
Problem 6.35 The diameter of a pipe gradually reduces from 1 m to 0. 7 mas shown in Fig. 6.27.
The pressure intensity at the centre-line of 1 m section 7.848 kN!m 2 and rate offlow of water through
the pipe is 600 litresls. Find the intensity of pressure at the centre-line of 0. 7 m section. Also deter
mine the force exerted by flowing water on transition of the pipe.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe at sectio~ I,
-D 1 =I m
1t
A 1 = -4 (1) 2
Area,
=0.7854 .m2
<D
1
<D
Fig. 6.27
Dia. of pipe at section 2,

Area,
D 2 =0.7 m
A2 =
41t (0.7)2 = 0.3848 m2

2
Pressure at section I ,
p 1 = 7.848 kN/m = 7848 N/m2
Discharge,
Q = 600 litres/s
600
= 1000
=0.6 m.3/s
Applying continuity equation,

AIVI=A2V2=Q
0.6
6
V 1 =Q
- = - - =0.7 4m/s
A2
0.7854
V2 =Q- = - 0.6- = 1.55 mIs

A2
.3854
Applying aemoulli's equation at:sections (I) and (2),
2
P1 +V.- =P2
- +Vlpg
or
2g.
pg
2g
7848
(.764) 2
p
(1.55) 2
- -- - +
= - 2 + __,_____..:.._
I 0()() X 9.8 1 2 X 9.8\
pg
2 X 9.81
{ :
pipe is horizontal,
..
z1 = z2 }
scanned by Fahid
.'
~
...
_: Dynamics of ;hiid Flow

2
l!.l. =0.8 + (.764/
(1.55)
pg
2x9.8l
2x9.81
295 1
= 0.8 + 0.0297 - 0.122 = 0.7077 m of water

P2 = 0.7077 X 9.81 X 1000
= 6942._54 N/m2 or 6.942 kN/m 2 Ans.
Let F, =the force exerted by pipe transition on the flowing water in the direction of flow
Then net force in the direction of flow =rate of change of momentum in the direction of flow
or
..
or
111>
6.9
PtAt-P2A2+Fx=p(V2-Vl)
7848 X .7854 -6942.54 X .3848 + F_T = 1000 X 0.6(1.55- .764)
6163.8-2671.5 + Fx = 471.56
Fx = 471.56- 61_63.8 + 267J .5 = - 3020.74 N
'
The force exerted by. water on pipe transition
=- Fx = - (- 3020.74) = 3020.74 N. Ans.
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION .. . -
...
- __ _,...._
. ___,--r
Moment of momentum equation is derived from moment of momentum principle which states that the
.. resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change of moment of momttntum.
V 1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
Let
r1 = radius of curvature at section 1,
Q =rate of flow of fluid,
p = density of fluid,
V2 and r 2 =velocity and radius of curvature at secti~n 2
and
MomenlUm of fluid at section I =mass x velocity = pQ x V/s
Moment of r:nomentum per second at section I ,
=pQx \11 x r 1
Similarly moment of momentum per second of fluid at sectioq2
=pQ X V2 X r 2
Rate of change of moment of momentum
=pQV2 r 2 - pQV1r 1 = pQ[V2 r 2 - V 1rd
According to moment of moll_1entum principle
\
Resultant torque= rate of change of moment of momentum ,
... (6.23)
T= pQ[V2r2 - V1rJ1
or
Equation (6.23) is known as moment of momentum equation. This equation is applied:
1. For analysis flow problems in turbines and centrifugal pumps.
2. For finding torque exerted by water on sprinkler.
Problem 6.36 A lawn sprinkler with t11o ho::.zles ofdiameter 4 mm each is connected across a top
of water as shown in Fig. 6.28. The no::.zle.s are at a distance. of30 cm and 20 cmji'Oin the centre of the
rap. The rare offlow of water through wp is 120 cm1Is.' Tire nozzl-es discjrarge water in the downward
direction. Determine the angular speed at which the sprinkler will rotate free.
scanned by Fahid
a
~20cm-.~--- 30cm~
Solution. Given :.
Dia. of nozzles A and 8,
D
= D A =D8 =4 mm = .004 m
2
00 115
' 6 m2
A == 1t
- (.004)
.00
4
Fig. 6.28
Q = l20 cm 3/s
Discharge
Assuming the discharge to be equally divide(! between the two nozzles, we have
Area.
QA
..
=Q 8 = Q = li:Q =6~ cm3/s =60 x 10-6 m3/s

2
Velocity of water ~~ the outlet of each nozzle,
QA
VA = V8 = -
60 X JQ-6
=- -= 4.777 rnls.
.0000 1256
,
A
The jet of water comi-ng out from nozzles A and B is having velocity 4. 777 rnls. These jets of water
will exert force in the opposite direction, i.e., force exerted by the jets will be in the upw<lid direction.
The torque exerted will also be in the opposite direction. Hence torque atB will be in the anti-clockwise
direction and at A in the clockwise direction. But torque at B is more than the torque at A and hence
sprinkle, if free, will rotate in the anti-clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 6.28.
Let co= angular velocity of the sprinkler.
Then absolute velocity of water at A,
\( 1
where r A
=VA.+(t)XrA
=distance of nozzle A fn~m

... the centre of top
~
{ro x rA =tangential velocity due to rotation}
V1 =(4.777 +cox 0.2) m/s
Here cox rA is added to VA .as VA and tangential velocity due to rotation (ro x rA) are in the same
direction as shown in Fig. 6.28.
Similarly absolute velocity of water atB,
= 20 em = 0.2 m
v2
.
= V8 - tangential velocity due to rotation
=4.777- ro x r8
= (4.777 -
Now
~pplying
(I) X
{where r8
=30 em= 0.3 m}
0.3)
equation (6.23), we get
T = pQ[V2r2- v,rd
I Here ,.2 ='s ,, ='A
=,pQA[V2r8.- VlrA]
Q =QA =QB
= 1000 X 60 X 10-6 [(4.777 X 0.3 ro) X .3 - (4.777 + 0.2 ro) X .2)
The moment of momentum of the fluid entering sprinkler is given zero and also there is no external
torque applied on the sprinkler. Hence resultant ext,!!rnal torque is zero, i.e., T = 0
..
1000 X 60'x 10-6 [(4.777- 0.3 ro) X .3- (4.777 + 0.1 CO) X .2) =0
or
(4.777 - 0.3 w) x 0.3- (4.777 + 0.2 ro) x .2 =0
or
4.777 x .3 - .09 ro- 4.777 x .2- .04 ro =0
or
0.1 x4.777 =..(.09+ .04)ro= .13 ro
.47'77
ro =- 0.13
=3.6746 rad/s. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
.
.
P ro b lem 6.37 A lawn sprinkler shown in Fig. 6.29 has 0.8 em diameter nozzle at .Jhe end of a
rotating arm and discharges water at the rate of 10 m/s velocity. Determine the torque required to
hold the rotating arm stationary. Also determine the constant speed of rotation of the arm, iffree ro
rotate.
.
10
Solu tion. Dia. of each nozzle =0.8 em= .008 m
J 20 em
25
.
m/see
..
em
=rA X p X Q X VA = 0.25 X 1000 X .0005026 X 10 clockwise

Torque exerted by water coming through nozzle;: Bon the sprinkler
= r8 X p X Q x_V!! = ~.20 X lOOO_x .0005026 X 10 clockwise
. . T~tal torque exerted by water on sprinkler
=.25 X 1000 X- .0005026 X 10 + .20 X 1000 X .0005026x 10 - - -=1.2565 + 1.0052 =2.26 Nm .
Torque required to hold the rotating ann stationary= Torque exerted by water on sprinkler
= 2.26 Nm. Ans.
Speed of rotation of arm; if fre e to rotate
Let
ro =speed of rotation of the sprinkler
The absolute velocity of flow of water at the nozzles A and B are
V 1 = 10.0 - 0.25 x ro and V2 = 10.0 - 0.20 x ro
Torque exerted by water corning out at A. on sprinkler
= rA X p X Q X V 1 = 0.25 X 1000 X .0005026 X (I 0 - 0.25 ro)
= 0.12565 (I 0 - 0.25 (.0)
Torque exerted by water corning out at B, on sprinkler
=r8 X p X Q X V2 = 0.20 X 1000 X .0005026 X (10.0- 0.2 W)
=0.10052 ( 10.0 - 0.2 ro)
. . Total torque exerted by water =0.12565 ( 10.0 - 0.25 ro) + 0.10052 (1 0.0- 0.2 ro)
Since moment of momentum of the flow entering is zero arld\ no external
.. torque is applied on sprinkler, so the resultant torque on the sprinkler must be zer~.
. . 0.12565 (I 0.0 - 0.25 ro) + 0.1 0052( I 0.0- 0.2 ro) = 0
1.2565 - 0.0314 ro + 1.0052 - 0.020 I ro =0
1.2565 + 1.0052 =(I) (0.0314 + 0.0201)
2.2617 = 0.05 1s (I)
2.26 17
0.0515
ro =- -
=43.9 r ad/s. Ans.
...
".
scanned by Fahid
Fluid Mechanics
60 X CO
21t
N = - -- =
and
~
6. 10
60 X 43.9
= 4 19.2 r.p. m. Ans.
21t
FREE LIQUID jETS
'
Free liquid jet is defined as the jet of water coming out from tbe noi'::Jc in atmosphere. The path
travelled by the free jet is parabolic.
Consider a jet coming from the nozzle as shown in Fig. 6.30. Let the jdt 'at A, makes an angle ewith
the horizontal direction. If U is the velocity of jet of water. then the horizontal component and vertical
component of this velocity at A are U cos 9 and U sin
Consider another pointP(x.y) on the centre line of the jet. The co-ordinates ofP from A arex andy. Let
lhe velocity of jet at Pin thex- andy-directions are u and v. Let a liquid particle takes time t' to reach from
AtoP. Then the horizontal and vertical distances travelled by the liquid particle in time 't' are:
e.
___,__
TRAJECTORY
PATH
"' 'lf
I
::l
U cos9
x-1
Fig. 6.30
Free liquid jet.
x =velocity component in x-direction x t

= U COS 9 X I
and
y =(vertical component in y-direction x
. e x 1- -I
= U sm
{ :
...(i)
time - ~ gt
... c~
u,
g1 2
Horizontal component of velocity is constant while the vertical distance is affected by gravity}
From equation (i), the value of 1 is given as t =
x
u cos
e
Substituting this value in equation (ii)

.
x
I
,=Ustn9x-- - - - xgx
(
cos
2
.
x
sm
= x -- cos e)
cos e
g..c
,
cos-
zu-
e} ...
1
(6.24)
cos
Equation (6.24) gives the variation ofy with the square of x. Hence this is the ~quat ion of a parabola.
scanned by Fahid
Thus the path travelled by the free jet in atmosphere is parabolic.
=X
tan 9 - gx 2 sec 9
2u
{: - -2 - = sec 2
Dynamics of Fiuid Flow
2991
(i) Maximu m height attained by the jet. Using the relation V2 2 - V12 = - 2gS, we get in this
c~e V 1 =
0 at the highest point
V1
=Initial venical component

= u sine
- ve sign on right hand side is taken asg is acting in the downward direction but p<plicles is moving up_
..
0- ( U sin 9)1 =- 2g x S
where Sis the maxi.mum vertical height attained by the particle. '
or
- U 2 sin 29 =- 2gS
V 2 sin 2 e
S=---
'
.<.(6.25)
2g
(ii) T ime of flight. It is the time taken by tbe fluid particle in reaching from
Fig.-,6.30. Let Tis the time of flight.
.
1 .
Using equation-(iz), we have y = u sin eXt- - gt2
2
when the particle reaches at B, y =0 and t =T
A to B as shown in
u sine X T- .!.g X fl
:. Above equation becomes as 0 =

.
-
O=Vsine-.!.8 r
2
T= 2Usin9
or
or
{Cancelling T}
... (6.26)
(iii) Time to reach highest point. The time to reach.highest point is half the time of flight. LetT* is
the time to reach highest point, then
T* =
!...= 2Usin9 = Usin9
... (6.27)
2
8 x2
8
(iv) Horizon tal range of the jet. The total horizontal distance travelled by the fluid particle is called
horizontal range of the jet, i.e. , the horizontal distance AB in Fig. 6.30 is called horizontal range of the
jet. Let this range is denoted by x*.
Then
x* =velocity component inx-direction
x time taken by the panicle to reach from A to B
=U cos 0 "><Time of flight
=U cos e x2Usin9
--g
u2
u2 .
2 cos e sin e = -sin 29

...(6.28)
8
8 .
( l) \ 'alue ore for maximum range. The rangex* will be maximum for a given velocity of projection {U), when sin 29 is maximum
or whe!l
sin 29 = I or sin 29 =sin 90 = 1
.
29 = 90 ore= 45
=-
Then maximum range.
X1113,
u2 . 2 9 =u2-
- - S IO
( :
sin 90
= I}
...(6.29)
scanned by Fahid

Problem 6.38 A \'ertical wall is of 8 111 in height. A jet of water is coming out from a nozzle with a
relocity of20 m/v. The no::;)e is .\ itumed at a distance of20 m fro mthe vertical wall. Find the angle of
projection of 1he nozzle to the hori::.onwl so that the jet of water just clears the top of the wall.
Solution. Gi ven :
Height o f wall
=8m
t+ rrr .
Velocity 1.'!
U 20 m/s
Distancl' ot j"!t "m waH,
.x 20 .m
Let the t: qu . .:H "ngk
I"
.
where _.- ::-; ,
_Q m, U
=X tan 9 -
gx
2U 2
Sec 2
Fig. 6.31
=20 m/s
8
or
or
=
=
=~0 tan 9 -
9 8 1 202
X 2 sec 2 9
2 x 20
=20 tan e- 4.905 sec2 e

= 20 tan e- 4.905 [ l + tan 2 9]
=20 tan e- 4.905 - 4.905 tan 2 e
+.905 tan 2 e- 20 tan e + 8 + 4.905 = 0
+.905 tan 2 a- 20 tan e + 12.905 =0
tan
20 ~20
- 4 X 12.905 X 4.905_
. :. __________
e =__
2x4.905
20 ../400- 253,19
9.81
20 .Ji46.8T
2012.116 32.116 7.889
=
= - - or-9.81
9.81
9.81
9.81
= 3.273 or 0.8036
e =73 0.8' or 38 37'. Ans.

Problem 6 .39 Afire-brigade man is holding afire stream nozzle .of 50 mm diameter as shown in
Fig. 6.32. The jet issues out with a velocity of 13 mls and strikes the window. Find the angle or angles
of inclinqtion with which the jet issues from the .nozzle. What will be the amount of water falling on the

window ?
Solution. Given :
. ..
Dia. of nozzle,
d 50 mm .05 m
Area.
=
A= -(.05t =0.001963 m
4
U. = 13 m/s.
1t
'
Velocity of jet,
The jet is coming out from nozzle at A. It strikes the window
and let the angle made by the jet at A with horizontal is equal to
The co-ordinates of window, with respect to origin at A.
x 5 m, y 7.5- 1.5 6.0 m
The equation of the jet .is given by (6.24) as
'
7.5 m
e.
WALL
1--5m- l
Fig.
scanned
by6.32
Fahid
x2
)' =x tan
g
2
e- -2 sec 8
6.0 = 5 X tan
or
2U
e - 9.81 x5
[I + tan 8]
2 X J3
6.0 = 5 tan e- .7256 (1 + tan2 B)

= 5 tan e- .7256- .7256 tar? e
0.7256 tan 2 e- 5 tan e + 6 + .7256 = 0
or
. 0.7256 tan~ e- 5 tan e + 6.7256 = 0
or
Thls is a quadratic equation in tan 8. Hence solution is
or
tan
...'
l
I
[.
flo
r . :1
2 4 X .7;56 X 6.7256
e.= _5 ~5 -2x
.7256
..._
'
___..!.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
'
= 5 .J25 - 19.~2 = 5 + 2.341 = S.058 or-1.8322 .

1.4512
1.4512
1
9 =tan:-Ls.OS~ or tan~ 1.832? = 78.8 or 61.37. Ans. ___ _
Amount of water falling on window = Discharge from nozzle - :_ _ __ ~- --- - = Area of nozzle x Velocity of jet at nozzle .
= 0.001963 xU= 0.001963 x 13.0 = 0.0255 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 6..40 A no::.:d e is situated at a distance of I m above the ground level and is inclined at an
angle of45 to the hori:onral. The diameter ofthe nozzle is 50 mm and the jet of water from the nozzle
strikes the ground ar a hori:,ontal distance of 4 .m. Find the rare offlow of water.
Solution. Given :
Distance of nozzle above ground =l m
ET
Angle of inclination.
8 = 45
Dia. of nozzle,
d = 50 mm = .05 m
2
=2:(.05)
=.00l!J63 m 2
4
x =4 m
Area,
The horizontal distance

Fig. 6)3.
The co-ordinates of the point B, which is on the centre-line of the jet of water and is sifuated on the
ground, with respect to A (origin) are
x =4 m andy=- 1.0 m {From A, point B is vertically down by 1 m}

.
The equation o(the jet is given by (6.24) as y =X tan e- f~2 sec
2e
Substituting the known values as

4
~ 4 tan 45 ~ -9-8-1.....,x,.....
1
- 1.0
2U
=4- 7~~8 x (nY
x sec2 45
1
sec 45 ___.
=I- =
cos 45
1 .
J2 )
.fi
scanned by Fahid

_ I.Q
=4 _
u2 =
78.48' X 2
u-
78.48 X 2
,
= + 4.0 + 1.0 = 5.0
or
u-
78.48 x 2.0 = 31 _39

5.0
u = J31.39 ~= 5.60 rn!s

Now the rate of flow of fluid
=Area x
V~locity
of jet
=Ax U, 001963 x 5.6 n 3ts~ c:
=0.01099 ~ .011 m 3/s. Ans.

Problem 6.41 A window, in a vertical wall, is at a distana of 30 m above the ground level. A jet of
water, issuing from a nozzle ofdiameter 50 mm is to strike the windo~. The rate off/ow of water through
the no:.:.le is 3.5 m3/minute and no:.z/e is siwated at a distat1ce of 1 m above ground level. Find the
greatest lrori:.ontal distance from the wall of the nozzle s ' that jet of wmer strikes the window.
Solution. Given :
:/WINDOW
Distance of window from ground level = 30m
Dia. of nozzle,
d = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Area
~ (.05) 1 = 0.001963 m2
A=
30cm
Q =3.5 m3/minute
= 35 =0.0583 m3/s
60
Fig. 6.34
Distance of nozzle from ground = l m.
Let the greatest horizontal distance of the nozzle from the wall= X and let angle of inclination= e. If
the jet reaches the window, then the point 8 on the window is on the centre-line of the jet. The coordinates of B with respect to A are.
X= X, y =30 - l.Q =29 m
The velocity of jet,
U = Discharge = Q = 0583 = 29.69 m/sec
Area
A
.001963
Using the equation (6.34), which 'is the equation of jet,
The discharge,
gx2
tan 9 - - Sec2 9
2U 2
29.0 =X tan 9-
or
9.8lx 2
Sec2 9
2 -(29.69)2
= X tan 9 - 0.0055 sec 2 9

2
=xtan
x
- .e- -.0055
cos2 e
tan 9 - .00)5 ~/COS2 9 - 29 = Q

... (t)
The maximum value ofx with respect toe is obtained, by differentiating the above equation w.r.t. e
X
and substituting the value of

[xsec
9+~nex
:J
d:r
de
= 0. Hence differentiating the equation (i) w.r.t.
e.
we have
scanned by Fahid
Dynamics of Fluid Flow 303j
[ , ((-2))
- 0.0055 x- x - -3 cos 9
dx]
sin9) +--,- x 2xcos- 9

d9
(-
.! ._(4)e .!!.._(= x2
Sin 9) =X SeC 2 8 +tan adx and

{ .: !!_(X
da
d9
de cos
!.
SCC2 8 - tan
:.
'h
For maximum value of x, w.r.t. 1:1,
dx]
dx - .00;>5
_ [2x
ada
1
1
- - )+ - -2- !!._(x 3 )}
d9 cos 2
cos
de
sina :ix
- ..,...--;;-- = 0
cos 3 e
cos- 9 d9
, .l' ,. .r ....
.
dx
.
we have- = 0
I'
~-
dfJ
Substituting this value in the above equation, we have

\
x sec2 e ~ . 0055 [2x2 sin9]

=0
cos 3 a
X
-2-
or
or
x ~.O llx tan9=0 or I -.Ollxtan9 =0

X
tan 9 = _I_ = 90.9

.011
...(ii)
90.9
tan9
Substituting ihis value of x in equation (i), we get
...(iii)
x=-~
90.9
tan9
-- X
90.9-
tan
a -.0055 X (90.9i
1
-- X-- -
~5 445
2
sin e
tan 2 9
- 29 = 0 or 61.9-
cos 2 9
45
_
29 - 0
~5 =0
sin e
61 9- 45.445
. ze- 45.445 -0 734 1
. - sin2 9 or SID - 61.90 - .
or
Substituting t~e
'
.0055 X 2x 2 sin 8 _ O
2 Sin a _ 0
or x-. 011 .xx- - - cos3 e
-- . _ _ cos e
or
or
cos
_
-
sine= .Jo.7341 = 0.8568

e = tan- .8568 = 58 57.W I
value of e in equation (iii), we get
x = _90_.9 =
90.9
= 90.9 = 90.9 = 54 _759 m
1.66
tan a tan 58 57.8' tan 58.95
54.76 m. Ans.
scanned by Fahid

HIGHLIGHTS
1. The study of fluid motion with the forces causing flow is called dynamics of fluid flow, which is analysed
by the Newton's second law of motion.
"
2. Bernoulli's equarion is obtained by integrating the Euler's equation of m'otion. Bernoulli's equation states
"For a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy which consists of pressure energy,
kinetic energy and datum energy, at any point of the fluid is constant" . Mathematically;
i
v1
o . v2
.E!_ +_L .f. Z1 = ..'...1.\t-l.. + Z2
pg 2g
pg 2g
where
= prcssun.: energy per unit weight = pressure head
.,
..:i.
'-=
pg
2g
kinetic ~nergy per unit weight = kinetic head
:: 1 =datum ~nergy per unit weight= datum head.

3. Bernoulli's cqu<lr;bn !'or real fluids
vi
Pt - 'f +z = --"-+P?
-+
+ z2 +hL
1
pg 2g
pg 2g
1
where IlL= Joss of energy hetween sections I and 2.

4. The discharge, Q, through a vcr.turimeter or an orifice meter is given by
where a 1 =area at the inlet of venturimeter,

a., = area at the throat of venturimeter,
Cd = CO.:-.f!.fficie_nj of, venturi meter,
'
_
h- =-diffe-rerrce ofJ)ressure bead irrte~of fluid head flowing through-ventorimeter. - - -- ---
;:::=:::;=::::::
5. The value of 1! is given by
when differenrial
wlJen
~ilierco~al U-tube man~meter h =~ [ ~: -1]
manometer'cont~lns heavier li~uid := x[1- ::]
~
>
differen~al manomete~ contain: lighter liquid

= (.a+;,) -(P
;+z }~ x [Shso -1].
pg
. pg 2
~
for inclined venrurimeter and differential manometer;_ contains heavier liquid
for inclined venturi meter and manometer contains lighter liquid.

where x = difference in the readings of differential-manometer,
sh = sp. gr. of heavier li~uid
S0 = sp. gr. of fluid flowJng through venturimeter
S1 = sp. gr. of lighter liquid.
scanned by Fahid
~:
'
" - - - r ? - ..
./''-
.._<f'"1
6. Pitot-tube is used to find the velocity ofp,_ flp'!Yin~ ijyid~a_t any point in a pipe or a channel. The velocity is
r 1 : ,~-: --~'.:.--:r, --
_- . ~
.
given by the relation
v = cv
..
I',: f .-
r:;-::;: . - .:.,--.,' . :, .~:.
~Lgn
c. =co-efficient of Pitottube
...
1 '
~r.
.,. -
..
h = ri.se of liquid in the tube above free ~-~rface of liquid -; for _c hannels
:.)':.
s .J .
x. [...!.
- I :-for pipes.
so . " .. - .
.. ~ ';
,j
l!c - ...
y.
,.:....
t":. . . .
\l ..
7.
and the direction of the resultant with horizontal is tan e = ...L.

F,
9.
The force e~erted by the nozzle on the water is given by Fx = pQ[V2_, -V 1x]
and force exerted by the water' on the nozzle is= -Fx =pQ[Vl<- V2x].
10. Moment of momentum equation stales tha_t the resultant torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the
rate of change of moment of momentum. Mathematically, it is given by T= pQ[V2r2 - V1rJ1.
11. Free liquid jet is the jet of water issuing from a nozzle in atmosphere. The path travelled by tbe free jet is
parabolic. The equation of the jet.is given by

'
r.
2
)'=X tanS - gxl sec 8
2U
where x, y =-are co-ordinates of any point on je! _w.r.t. to the nozzle

U = yel9dty ofjet of-water issui!lg from D<?~~~~- . : _
8 inclination of jet issuipg f!OJ? OC?:z'z1e_with ho.rizootaJ.
::
12.
'.
2
(iv) Horizontal range of the jet,;*= U
(\') Value of e for maximum range, 8
~in 'ze
= 45
(vi) Maximum range, m* max= U 2/g.
scanned by Fahid

EXERCISE 6
force~ present in a fluid flow. For the Euler's equation of motion. which forces are taken
into consideratiot~.
.
What is Euler's equation of motion ?'How will you ob.tain Bernoulli's equation from it?
Derive Bernoulli's equ.,tion for the flow of an incompressible frictionless fluid from consideration of
momentum.
(A.M./.., Summer, 1988)
State Bernoulli's theorem for S!eady flow of an incompressible fluid. Derive an expression for Bernoulli's
theorem from tirst principle and stmc the assumptions made for such a derivation.
(Delhi Uni1ersiry, 1987)
What s a ,enturimeter ? Derive an expression for the discharge through a venturi meter.
(A.S. M.E., June 1992: A.M./.., Winier, 1980)
Explain the pru~dplc of v<..mt!rimeter with a neat sketch. Derive the expression for the rate of flow of fluid
through iL
Discuss the reiati '- c me: lit> ;mJ de1~1.:rits of venturi meter with respect to orifice-meter.
Dcfine an orifice-meter Provc thatthc discharge through an orifice-mcter is given by the relation
l. Name the different
2.
3.
-'
5.
6.
i.
8.
aoal
r;:;::;:
Q = C,1 ~X...;2gh
-va,~
'.
-a0
a 1 =area of pijX' in which orifice-meter is fitted

a 0 =area of oritice
(Technical Uni1ersity of M.P., S 2002)
What is a pitot-tube ? How will you determine the velocity at any point with the help of pi tot-tube?
What is tjl;-differcnce betw.e en pitot-tube and pilot-static tube?
State the n'iomentum equation. How will you apply momentum equation for deterrninin.g the force exerted
by a flowing liquid on a pipe bend ?
What is the di~ference between momentum equation an~ impulse momentum equation ?
Define moment of momentum equation. Where this equation is used ?
What is a free jet of liquid ? De.r ive an expression for the path travelled by free jet issuing from a nozzle.
Prove that the equati on of the free jet of liquid is given by the expression,
where
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
y=
tan
gx2
e- -~ec e
2U 2
2
where x, y =co-ordinates of a point on the jet U =velocity of issuing jet

= inclination of the jet with horizontal.
Which of the following statement is correct in case of pipe flow:
(a) flow takes place from higher pressure to lower pressure ;
(b) flow takes place from higher velocity to lower velocity;
(c) now takes place from higher elevation to lower elevation :
(d) fl9w t:l.kes place from higher energy to lower energy.
.
Derive Euler's equation of motion along a stream line for an ideal fluid stating clearly the assumptions.
Explain how this is integrated to get Bernoulli's equati on along a stream-line. (A.M. I.E., Summer, 1984)
State Bernoulli's theorem. Mention the assumptions made. How is it modified while applying in practice?
(A.M. I.E.. Winter, 1987)
List out its engineering application.
Define continuity equation and Bernoulli's equation.
16.
17.
18.
19.
scanned by Fahid
. 4
1 - - - -- - - - -
----~------~--
~----~----------------~--~--~
- ---7
~~~-.:~
- -~
:~
~~---.~-.-:~Dy~nun
.~
, 1~.~~-~r~f-F-l7~i-d-F~
-lo_w
__-.-.3-0-711
20. What arc the different fonns of,encrgy .in a nowing fluid? Represent schtmaiically the Bernoulli's equation for flow through a tapering 'pipe ~nd show the position of t~tal energy iine and the datum line.
-.
'
(Osmania Unin!rsity, /990}
21. Write Euler's equ:uion of motion long a streamline nnd inicgrate it to obtain Bernoulli's equation. St~tc all
'
:.t
!A.M./... \VinfLr. 1990)
assumptions mad.:.
2Z. Describe with the help l)f sketch the con$truction. operation and use of Pi.tot-stntic tube.
(A.M./... ll'i11ter. 19liSl

23. Starting with Euler's equation of motion along a Mream line. obtain Bernoulli's equation by it~ integration.
List all the assumption~ made.
(A.M./... Summer. /Y9/)
24. State the different devices that one can use to measure the disch~~e through a pipe and also through an
open channel. Describe one of such devices with a neat sketch and explain how one can obtain the actual
discharge" ith its help'?
(A. 1\tf.f... Summer. /99())
25. Derive Bernoulli's equatieo from fundamentals.
(J.N.T.U. H~derabad. S 2002)

2
I
-~
I
;
- (
"
1. Wnter is flowing through a pipe of 100 mm diameter under a pressure of 19.62 N/cin (gauge) and with
mean velocity of 3.0 rn/s. Find the total he~d of the water at a cross-section, which is 8 m above the datum
line.
[Ans. 28.45 R m]
2. A pipe, thwugh which water is flo\\ ing is !:J,ing di ameters 40 em and 20 em at_the cros~-~ections I and 2
respectively. The velocity of water at $ection I is given 5.0 rnls. Find the velocity head a: the sections I and
2 and also r:~te of discharge.
[Ans. 1.274 m: 20.~:<7 m : 0 .628 m 't;]
3. The \Vater is flowing through a pipe ha,ing diameters 20 em and 15 em :11 sections I a:1d i re~pccti' el~ .
The rate of fil)w through pipe is -10 li tr.~;.',. The se.:tion I is 6 m ab,wc d:ttt:i!: l iP~~~~ ~ctil"'n 2 i :: m
al:\oVc the dntum. H the pre~~ure at section I is 29.43 N/cm 2 tinct the inten;i:y of pre~,:~:re ;u section 2 .
[Ans. 3::. i C) Xlcm' J
4. \\'ater is flo" ing through a pipe having dilm.:tef$ 30 em and I 5 em at t!te i:>l'lt"m an<! "i'i'er end re-r;.>.:-ti,dy. The intensity of pres~ure ::u th:: !h-.aom end is 29.43 Ktcm' and the pre;~ure :.t !he uppe r end i<
1~ .715 !'/em'. Determine the differen.:c in datum head if the rate (I( tlow through pir~ i, 50 lit/;.
[.-\n,. 1-1.(\ JS m]
5. The water is flowing through a taper pipe of lenj!th 50 m having diarnet~r.< -10 em at the upper cn J ;md
20 em :11 the lower end. at the rate of 60 litr<"$/s. The pipe has a slop.: of I in -10. Find the pressure at the
low;:r end if the-pressure at the higher lc'd is 24.5 25 :-ilcm 2
[Ans. :?5.58 :\/em~}
6. A pipe of diameter 30 em carries water at a velociry of 20 rn/sec. The pcessurts :11 the point~ A and 8 a.re
given as 3-1.335 N/cm 2 and 29.43 N/cm; r~spectively, whil~ the datum head :u A and R are 25 m and ~!' m.
Find the lo~s of head between A and B.
.
[An~. 2m)
7. A conical tube of length 3.0 m is fixed venkaUy with its smaller end upwards. The vdociiy of fl ow :u th~
smaller end is 4 rn/s while at the lower end it is 2 rn/s. The pressure head at the srnJIIer end is 2.0 m of
liquid. The loss of head in the tube i~ 0.95 (1 1 - v 2 )~12g. where ,., i~ the velocity at th~ smaller end and 1 2
at the lower end respectively. Detennine the pressure head at itae lower end. Flow take~ place in downward
direction.
[..\ns. 5.56 m of fluid]
8. A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.8. changes in diameter from 300 mm at a position A to 500 mm
diameter to a position B which is 5 m :11 a higher level. If the pressures at .-l and B a:-~ 19.62 N/cm' and
14.'ll N/c m 2 respectively. and the discharge is 150 litres/s. determine tho: lo~s of h,ad and direction of
flow.
(Ans. 1.45 m. Flow take> place from A tn B(
'J. A h,rit.t>IH.d ..:nturim..:t~r with inkt .tnd t::mat.diam..:r.:r' 30 em and I:' tm rc,p.:.-ti' ,::. i< lh<'tl II> m:.1-un:
the 11'"' of wa,ter. The r.:adin_\: nf dilfcr.:mialmanomcter connected to inkt ami thmatt- I 0 nn of m..:r.:ury.
Determine the rate of flow. Take C,1 = ll.')S.
. (.\ns. SS.92 l o:rc,f~(
scanned by Fahid

Ill. An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 i,; tlu" ing through a v.:nturim.:tcr ha,ing inlet diameter 20 em and throat diameter
10 em. The oil-mercury differential manomc:ter shows a re~c.ling of20- cm ..Calculaie the discharge of oil
through the horizonlal ,enturirr.-:tcr. Take CJ 0.98.
(Dtdili University, /987) [Ans. 59.15 litres/s)
11. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 30cm and throat diameter 15 em is used to measure lhe flow
of oil of sp. gr. 0.8. The discharge of ~il through venturi meter is 50 litres/s, find the reading of the oilmercury differentia! manometer. Take C4 0.98.
[Ans. 2.489 em)
12. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20 em and throat diameter 10 em is used to measure the flow
of water. The pressure at tnlet is 14.71'5 f'itcm ~and vacuum prc:~sure at the throal is 40 e m of mercury. Find
the discharge of \\aler through venturim~ter.
[Ans. 162.539 lit./s]
13. A 30 em x 15 em venrurimeter is inscrred in a vet1ical pipe carrying water, flowing in rhe upward direction.
A differenrial mcrcury-m:tnorncrer connected to the inter :tn<l throat gives a reading of 30 em. Find rhe
discharge. Take C,; = 0.98 : .
.
[Ans. !54.D2 litis)
14. . If in the problem 13. iristead of water. oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is flowing through the venturimeter,,determine ihe
rate of flow of oil in litre sis.
[Ans. 173.56 litis)
13. The water is tlowing through a pipe of diam.:tc::r 30 em. The pipe is inclined and a venturi meier is inserted
in the pipe. The diameter of venturi meier at throat is .15 .:m. The difference of pressure between lhe inter
and rhroal of th\! venturilneter is measured by a liquid of sp. gr. 0.8 in an inverted c.:-tube which gives a
reading of -lO em. Tho: lo:-s of head betwe~n tlH! inlet and throat is 0.3 times !he kine tic head of the pipe.
Find the discharge.
'
[Ans. 22.64 lit.ls)
16. A 20 x 10 em ,enturim.:t.:r is pro,ided in a ,enical pip.: line carrying oil of sp. gr. 0.8, the flow being
upwards. The difference in elevation of the throat section and entrance section of the venturimeter is 50 em.
The differential U-tube mercury manometer shows a gauge deflection of ~0 em. C:~lculate : (i} the dis
.::har!!e of oil. a~d lii) the pres ure differencc bet\\een the l!otrance section and the throat section. Take C,;
o.98 and sp. gr. of mercury as 13.6.
[Ans. (I) 89.132 litis. (ii) 5.415 N/cm1J
17. In a 200 mm diameter horizontal pipe a ,emurimeter of 0.5 contraction r:uio has been fixed. The head of
water on the venmrimeter when there is no flow is 4 m (gauge) Find lhe rate of flow for which the throat
pressure will be 4 metres of water absolute. Take C4 = 0.97 and atmospheric pressure head = 10.3 m of
water.
[Ans. 111.92 litis]
18. An orifice-meter with orifice diameter IS em is inserted in a pipe of30 em diameter. The pressure gauges
fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter give readings of 14.715 t:Vcm2 and 9.81 N/cm2
respectively. Find the rate of flow of water through the pipe in litres/s. Take C4 0.6.[Ans. 108.4341itls]
19. If in problem 18, instead of water, oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is flowing through the orifice meter"in which the
pressure difference is measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of lhe orifice
meter, find the rate of flow of oil when lh~ reading of manometer is .4 0 ern.
[Ans. i 22.68 litis]
20. The pressure difference measured by the two tappings of a pitotstatic tube, one tapping pointing upstream
and other perpendicular to the flow, placed in the centre of a pipe line of diameter 40 em is 10 em of water.
Th~ mean velocity in the pipe is 0.75 times the central velocity. Find the discharge through the pipe. Take
co-efficient of pi tot-tube as 0.98.
[Ans. 0.1293 m3/s)
2 1. Find the ,eJocity of flow of an oil through a pipe, when the. difference of mercury level in a different ial
U-tube manometer connected to the two tappings of the pi tot-tube is 15 em. Take sp. gr. of oil = 0.8 and
ccr,efficient of pi tot-tube as 0.98.
[Ans. 6.72 m/s]
A sub-marin.: mo,es hori zon tully in sea and has its axis .:!0 rn b<:.low the surface of w:~ter. A pi tot-static
tube placed in front of :out> marine and along its axis. is connected to the two limbs of aU-tube conraining
mercury. The difference of m.:rcury level is found to be 20 ern. Find the speed of sub-mari ne. Take sp. gr.
of mercury 13.6 and of sea" :lt~r 1.026.
( Ans. 2-l.958 km/hr.J
~.'. A 45 reducing bend is connected i.n 3 pipe line. the diameters 31 the inlet and outlet of the bend being
40 em and 20 em respect i,cly. Find the force exened by water on the bend if the int.:nsity of pressure at
inletor b<:.nd is 21.5S.~/cm1 . The rate of now of water is 500 liJres/s.
[:\ns. :!2{'96.5 !"\; :!O J .5'J
..-.. .
....... "
;
..
--
-.
scanned by Fahid
2~.
The discharge af water through a pipe of diameter40 em is 400 litres/s. If the pipe is bend by 135. find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the bend. The pressure of flowing water is 29A3 Nlcm 2
[Ans. 7063.2 N. 9 22 29.9' with .t-axis clockwise]
A 30 cn1 diameter pipe carries water under a head of 15 metres wiLh a \*elocity of 4 rnls. If the ::1xis of the
pipe turns through 45. find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force at the bend.
fAns. 8717.5 N, 9 = 67" 30'1
A pipe of 20 em diameter conveying 0.20 m 3/sec of water ha~ a right angled bend in a horizontal plane.
Find the resu lta nt force exerted on the bend if the pressure at inlet and outlet of the bend are 22.563 N/cm 2
and 21.582 N/cm 2 respectively.
[A ns. 11604.7 N, 9 = 43 54.2')
A nozzle of diameter 30 mm is fitted to a pipe of 60 mm diameter. Find the force exerted by the nozzle on
the water which is flowing through the pipe at the rate of 4.0 m3/minute.
[A ns. 7057.7 N)
A lawn sprinkler with two nozzles of diameters 3 ffim each is connected across a tap of water. The'nozzles
are at a distance of 40 em and 30 em from the centre of the tap. The rate of water through tap is
I()() cm3/s. The nozzle discharges water in the downward directions. Determine the angular speed at which
the sprinkler will rotate free.
[Ans. 2.83 rad/s]
A lawn sp~er has two nozzles of diameters 8 mm each at the end of a rotating arm and the velocity of
flow of water from each nozzle is 12 m/s. One nozzle discharges water in the downward direction, while
the other nozzle discharges water vertically up. The nozzles are at a distance of 40 em fiom the centre of the
rotating arm. Determine the torque required to hold the rotating arm stationary. Also determine the constant speed of rotation of arm, .i f it is free to rotate. _
[Ans. 5. 78 Nm, 30 rad/s)
A vertical w~ll is 9( 10 m in height. A jet of water is issuing from a nozzle with a velocity of 25 m/s. The
nozzle is situated at a horizontal distance of 26m from thevertical wall. Find the angle of projection of the
nozzle to the horizontal so that the jet of water just clears the tap of the wall.
[Ans. 79c 55' or 36 41 ']
A fire-brigade man is holding a fire stream nozzle of 50 mm diameter at a distance of I m above the ground
and 6 m from a venical wall. The jet is coming out with a velocity of 15 rnls. This jet is to strike a window.
situated at a distance of I 0 m above ground in the \ertical wall. Find the angle or angles of inclination with
the horizontal made by the jet, coming out from the nozzle. What will be the amount of water falling on the
window?
[Ans. 79 16.7' or 67' 3.7': 0.0294 m3/s]
A window, in a vertical wall, is at a distance of 12 m above the ground len:!. A jet of water. issuing from
a nozzle of diameter 50 mm. is to strike the window. The rate of flow of water through the nozzle is
40 litres/sec. The nozzle is situated at a distance of I m above ground level. Find the greatest horizontal
distance from the wall of the nozzle so that jet of water strikes the window.
[Ans. 29.38 m)
Explain in brief the working of a pitot-tube. Calculate the velocity of now of water in a pipe of diameter
300 mm at a point. where the stagnation pressure head is 5 m and static pressure head is 4 m. Given the coefficient of pitot-tube 0.97.
(Delhi University. Nov. 1982) [A ns. 4.3 rn/sec]
Find the rate of flow of water through a venturimeter fitted in a pipeline of diameter 30 em. The ratio of
diameter of throat and inlet of the venturimeter is *. The pressure at the inlet of the venturimeter is
13.734 N/ca 2 (gauge) and vacuum in the throat is 37.5 em of mercury. The co-efficient of venturimeter is
given as 0.98.
(Delhi University, April, 1982) [Ans. 0.15 m3/s]
A 30 em x 15 em venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying an oil of sp. gr. 0.8. flowing in the
upward direction. A differential mercury manometer connected to the inlet and throat gives a reading of
30 em. The difference in the elevation of the throat section and' inlet section is 50 em. Find the rate of tlow
of oil.
A venturimeter is used for measurement of discharge of water in hori zontal pipe line. Jf the ratio of upstream pipe diameter to that of throat is 2 : I. upstream diameter is 300 mm, the difference in pressure
between the throat and upstream is equal to 3 m head of WiSter and loss of head through meter is one-eighth
of the throat v.elocity head. calculme the discharge in the pipe.
(A. M ./... Wimer, 1987)
[.-\ns. 0. 107 m-'lsl
1
A liquid of specific gravity 0.8 is !lowing upwards at the rate of0.08 rn /s. through a vertilal vcnturimetcr
with an inlet diameter of 200 mm and throat diameter of I00 mm. The Cd = 0.98 and the vertical distance
between pressure tappings is 300 mm. Find :
25.
16.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
-''
34.
35.
J6.
.17.
scanned by Fahid

(i) the difference in readings of the two pressure gauges. which are connected to the two pressure tap-
pings. and
(ii) the difference in the level of the mercury columns of the differential manometer which is connected to
the tappings, in place of pressure gauges.
[Ans. (i) 42.928 kN/m2, (ii) 32.3 em]
[Hint. Q = 0.08 m3/s, d 1 200 mm 0.2 rn, d 2 I 00 mm = 0.1 m,
cd =
0.98, '2- z, = 300 mm = 0.3 rn, a, = ~(.22 ) = 0.0314 m2

'
a2
1t
4
2
= - (.I ) = 0.007854 m. Ustng Q = cd
Find '/r'. This value of
h = 5.17 m.
Now use
= (.f!J_p2 )
pg pg
=xU;
Now use the formula
l a1 x a2
~~ - ~
r::;::;:
-v2gh
+ (z 1 - z2), where p =800 kg/m 3 Find (p 1 - p 2).
-ll
s,
where lr =5.17 m, = 13.6 and 51 =0.8. Find the value of x which will be 32.3 em.)
38'. A ,enturimeter is installed in a 300 mm diameter horizontal pipe line. The throat pipe rates is 1/3. Water
flows through the installation. The pressure in the pipe line is 13.783 N/crn1 (gauge) and vacuum in the
throat is 37.5 em of mercury. Neglecting head loss in the venturimeter. determine the rate of flow in the
pipe line.
(Osma11ia Unhersity. /990) [A ns. 0.153 m3/sec)
.
[Hint. d 1 = 300 rnm
=0.3 m, d2 =-3I x 300 = 100 mm = 0.1

P.tP
Hence
m. p 1
= 13.783 N/cm2 .:: 13.783 x
g = 13.783 X 10 /1000
X 9.8 1
= 14.05 m, pzlpg =- 37.5 em of Hg =- 0.375 x 13.6 m of water
=- 5. 1 m of water. Hence h = 14.05- (- 5.1) = 19.15 m of water.
Cd = 1.0. Now use the formula Q = Cd
Value of
10 N/m.
Ja,az
a~ -a~
X J2gh)
39. The maximum flow through a 300 mm diameter horizontal main pipe line is 18200 litre/minute. A
venturi meter is introduced at a point of the pipe line where the pressure head is 4.6 m of water. Find the
smallest dia. of throat so that the pressure at the throat is never negative. Assume co-efficient of meter as
(A.M./... Winter. 1989). [An s. d 2 = 192.4 mm]
unity.
[Hint. d 1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m, Q = 18200 litres/minute = 18200/60 = 303.33 litres/s = 0.3033 m3/s, p 1/pg
=4.6 m.p2/pg =0. Hence h =4.6 m, Cd= I. d2 = dia. at throat. Use formula Q =Cd
J'
02
2
x J2glr and
at - a2
1t
find the value of a 2 Then a 2 =
4 di and find d2.)
~0. The following are the data given of a change in diameter effected in laying a water supply pipe. The change
in diameter is gradual from 20 em at A to 50 em at B. Pressures at A and B are 7.848 N/cm1 and 5.886 Nlcm2
1espectively with the end B being 3 m higher than A. If the flow in the pipe line is 200 litrels. find :
(I) direction of flow. (ii) the head lost in friction between A and B.
.
(Osmania Uni1ersity. 1990) [Ans. (1) From A to B. (ii) 1.015 m)
2
[Hint. D,., 20 em= 0.2 m, D8 =50 em= 0.5 m, p,., = 7.848 N/cm~ = 7.848scanned
x 10~ N/mby
Fahid
p 8 = 5.886 N/cm 2 = 5.886 x I 04 N/m 2,
=PDF
0, Z8created
= 3 m, Q by
= 0.2AAZSwapnil
m 3/s
z,.,
V11
lt2
lt2
=0.2/-(.2
) =6.369 m/s, V 8 =0.2/-(.5 ) = 1.0 I 8 m/s
v2
=(i.848 X
I 04/1000
9.8 I)+ (6.369~/2
9.81) + 0 = I 0.067 m
=(pofp X g)+_.!!... + Z 8 = (S.886 X
I 04/1000
9.8 I)+ ( 1.0182/2
9.8 1) + 3 =9.0S2
11 = (pA/p X g)+
_!L
2g
+ z.-~
,,2
2g
Ill)
41. A venturimeter of inlet diameter 300 mm and throat diameter ISO mm is lixed in a vertical pipe line. A
liquid of sp. gr. 0.8 isflowing upward through the pipe line. A differential manometer containing mercury
gives a reading of 100 mm when connected at inlet and throat. The vertical difference between inlet and
throat is SOO mm. If Cd = 0.98, then find : (i) rate of flow of liquid in litre per second and (ii) difference qf
pressure between inlet and throat in N/m 2
(Ans. (i) I 00 litre/s, (ii) IS989 N/m 2)
42. A venturimeter with a throat diameter of 7.5 em is installed in a lS em diameter pipe. The pressure at the
entrance to th.e meter is 70 kPa (gauge) and it is desired that the pressure at any point should not fall below
2.S m of water absolute. Determine the maximum flow rate of water through the meter. Take Cd= 0.97 and
(J.N.T.U., ilyderabad S 2002)
atmospheric pressure as 100 kPa.
[Hint. The pressureat the throat will be minimum. Hence p 2 =2.S m (abs.)
lt
pg
2
Given:
_ dt = IS em :. At= "4(15 ) = 1_76.7 cm2
d2
2
2
) =44.175 cm
=7.5 em:. A 2 = .!:..(7.5
4
p 1 = 70 kPa = 70 X I 0 3 Nlm 2 (gauge). Pmm = I 00 kPa = I 00 x 103 N/m 2

p 1 (abs.) = 70 x 103 + 100 x 10 3 = 170 x 103 N/m 2 (abs.)
.
p
p~
170 X 103
= JOOOx 9 _81 = 17.33mofwater (abs.)
h=
Now
Q=
..!!l.. pg
Pl = 17.33-2.5 = 14.83 m of wate r= 1483 em of water
pg
CdAtAl
JA; -Ai
!fih
= 0.97 X I76.7 X 44.175 X ~2 X 981 X 1483

2
J n6.7 -44 175
= 75488 cm}/S
= 75.488 litre/s. Ans.)

43. Find the discharge of water flowing through a pipe 20 em diame ter placed in an inclined position, where a
venturi meter is inserted, having a throat diameter of I0 em. The difference of pressure between the main
and throat is measured by a liquid of specific gravity 0.4 in an inverted U-tube, which gives a reading of
30 em. The loS$ of head between the main and throat is 0.2 times the kinetic head of pipe.
(Delhi University. Dec. 2002)
'
[Hint. Given: d 1 = 20 em :. a 1 = !:..(202) = 100 n cm2 ; d 2 = 10 em :. ai = 2:(102) = 25 n cm2

4
4
04
x-=30cm.h=x(l-~)
=30(J- )
S
1.0
= J8c.m =0. 18m
But II is also
= (.!.!J... + :1) - (J!l. + Z2) :. (..!!J... + ;:1)-(fll + ;:~) =

pg
P.C:
pg
lPg
18
Clll =0.18
11\
scanned by Fahid

v,2
hL =0.2x -
1
-
2g
2
From Bernoulli's equation, .!2_ + ~ + z1 = p2 + V2 + z2 + hL

pg
2g
pg 2g
2
or
or
or
P2
"'
\1. = hL
-PI +z,) - ( -+z2
+ -~..:2.
)
pg
pg
0.18
+~ _.Yl_
2g
2g
0.18+
2g
2g
02 2
= "'
2g
V.2-
vl_
2g
2g
0.2 \'12 =Oor0.18 + 0.8\'12- v22 =0

2g
2g
2g
aV. 2:(2o2)V.
From continuity equation, a 1V 1 = a 2V2 or V2 = - 1- 1 = 4
= 4 V1
~{102)
a2
~ow
or
'
0.18 + 0 8 \'t"
2g
v'
- _j_ = 0
2g
0.18 + 0.8 \'12 - 16\'12

2g
2g
=0
or 0.18
= 16\'12 2g
V1 =
2
or 0. 18 + 0 8 \'t
2g
0.18 x 2 x9.81
15.2
2
- (4V.) = 0
2g
0.8 \'12
2g
= 15.2\'12
2g
=0.48 rn/s =48 crn/s
=A1V 1 = ~(20 2) x 48 = 15140 cm3/s =15.1~ Iitre/s. Ans.]
1\-.
-.v.
, .. .
scanned by Fahid
7
CHAPTER
Orifices and Mouthpieces

.... 7.1
INTRODUCTION
Orifice .is a small opening of any cross-section (such as circular, triangular, rectangular etc.) on the
side or at the bottom of a tank, through which a fluid is flowing. A mouthpiece is a short length of a pipe
which iH~o to three_times its diameter in length, fitted in a tank or vessel containing the fluid. Orifices
as well as mouthpieces are used for ~easuri~g the.rate of flow of fluid~ -. - . . .
-
.... 7.2
CLASSI FICATIONS OF ORIFICES
The orifices are Ci'assified on the basis of their size, shape, nature of discharge and shape of the
upstream edge. The following are the important classifications :
1. The orifices are classified as small orifice or large orifice depending upon the size of orifice and
head of liquid from the centre of the orifice. lftbe .bead of liquid from the centre of orifice is more than.
five times the depth of orifice, the orifice is called small orifice. And if the head of liquids is less than
five times the depth of orifice, it is known as large orifice.
2. The orifices are classified as (i) Circular orifice, (ii) Tiiangular orifice, (iii) Rectangular orifice
and (iv) Square orifice depending upon their cross-sectional areas.
3. The orifices are classified as (i) Sharp-edged orifice and (ii) Bell-mouthed orifice depending upon
the shape of upstream edge of the orifices.
4. The orifices are classified as (i) Free discharging orifices and (ii) Drowned or sub-merged orifices depending upon the nature of discharge.
The sub-merged orifices are furtherclassified as (a) Fully sub-merged orifices and (b) Partially
sub-merged orifices.
.... 7.3
FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE
Consider a tank fitted with a circular orifice in one of its sides as shown in Fig. 7 .l. Let H be the head
of the liquid above the centre of the orifice. The liquid flowing through the orifice forms a jet of liquid
whose area of cross-section is less than that of orifice. The area of jet of fluid goes on decreasing and at
a section CC, the area is minimum. This section is approximately at a dis tance of half of diameter of the
orifice. At this section, the streamlines are straight and parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
313
scanned by Fahid
1314 Fluid Mechanks

plane of the orifice. This section is called Ven a-contracta. Beyond this section, the jet diverges and is attracted in the downward
direction by the gravity.
Consider two points I and 2 as shown in Fig. 7.1. Point I is inside
the tank and point 2 at the vena-contracta. Let the flow is steady and at
a constant head H. Applying Bernoulli's equation at points 1 and 2.
\12
p
vz
.f!J_ +_I + Zt = _2 + _1_ + z,
pg 2g
pg 2g
-
z1 =z2
But
0-=r -=-=-=-=-=-='
-7
':'i ' - :o)~~g'
..L.;..._-=~::,...-......
-~ &.VENA
Ibazzzaaz~ C CONTRACTA
Fig. 7.1
Tank with an orifice.
Pt
v, P2 Vz
-+-=-+pg 2g
pg 2g
Now
.!!J..
=H
!!.1.
=0
pg
pg
(atmospheric pressure)
v1 is very small in comparison to v2 as area of tank is very large as compared to the area of the jet of
liquid.
. .. (7 .1)
This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity will be less than this value.
~ 7.4
HYDRAULIC CO-EFFICIENTS
The hydraulic co-efficients are

I. Co-efficient of velocity, Cv
2. Co-efficient of contraction, Cc
3. Co-efficient of discharge, Cd.
7.4. 1 Co -efficie nt of Velocity (CJ. It is defined as the ratio between th~ actual velocity of a
jet of liquid at vena-contracta and the theoretical velocity of jet. Jt is denoted by Cv and mathematically,
C,. is given as
C = Actual velocity of jet at vena- contracta

,.
Theoretical velocity
= ~.where V =actual velocity, J2gH = Theoretical velocity
-y2gH
...(7.2)
The value of C,. varies from 0.95 to 0.99 for different orifices, depending on the shape, size of the
orifice and on the head under which flow takes place. Generally the value of C,. = 0.98 is taken for sharpedged oriftces.
scanned by Fahid
., .Qrifices and Mouthpieces 3 1Sj

7 .4.2 Co-eff iden t o f Co n traction (Cc). II is defined as the ratio of the area of the jet at
\'ena-contracta to the area of the orifice. It is denoted by c...
Let
a ==area of orifice and
ac == area of jet at vena-contracta..
C == area of jet at vena-contracta
c
area of orifice
Then
... (7 .3)
The value of Cc valies from 0.61 to 0.69 depending on shape and size of the orifice and head of liquid
under which flow takes place. In general, the value of Cc may be taken 0.64.
7 .4.3 Co -effici e n t of Di scha rge (Cd). It is defined as the ratio of the actual discharge from an
orifice to the theoretical discharge from the orifice. It is denoted by Cd. If Q is actual discharge and Q,h
is the theoretical discharge then mathematically' cd is given as
Cd::
j?_ ::
Q,1,
::
..
Actual velocit)! X Actual area

Theoretical velocity x Theoretical area
Actual velocity
Theoretical Yelocity
Actual area
Theoretical area
=- -- -- -
Cd=C., xCc
...(7.-t)
The value of Cd varies from 0.61 to 0.65. For general purpose the value of Cd is taken as 0.62.
P ro blem 7.1 The head of water over an orifice of diameter 40 mm is 10m. Find the actual discharge and actual velocity of the jet at vena-contracta. Take Cd = 0.6 and c. Q.98.
S o lution. Given:
= 10 em
Head,
Dia. of orifica,
d = 40 mm = 0.04 m
:. Area,
a= 2:(.04)2
=.001256 "m2
Cd= 0.6
c,,:: 0.98
(i)
Actual discharge
Theoretical discharge
But Theoretical dischargl!
=0.6
= v,,. x Area of orifice
v,,. =Theoretical velocity. where- v,, = .J2ii!- = ..j2X9.81 x I0 =I 4 m/s

,
Theoretical discharge= 14 x .001256 = 0.01758 ~
s
Actual discharge = 0.6 x Theoretical discharge

=0.6 x .01758 =0.01054 m 3/s. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
Fluid Mech.anics
Actual velocity
= C,. ::: 0.98
.
Actual velocity= 0.98 x Theoretical velocity
0.98 x 14 ::: 13.72 m/s. Ans.
Problem 7.2 The head of water over the centre of an orifice ofdiameter 20 mm is I m. The acwal
discharge through the orifice is 0.85 /iue/s. Find the co-efficient of discharge.
Solution. Given :
d = 20 mm = .02 m
Dia. of orifice,
(ii)
:. Area,
a=
!:(.02l =.000314 m2
4
H= 1m
Head,
Actual discharge,
Q =o.8s litre/s =.00085 m 3/s
Theoretical velocity,
V,~,= .j2gH
:. Theoretical discharge,
Q,h = V,h X Area of orifice
= .j2 X 9.81 X 1= 4.429 m/s
=4.429 x .000314 = 0.00139 m3/s

.
.
.. Actual discharge
Co-effic1eot of dtscharge =
..
... 7.5
= 0.00085
0.00139
= 0.61. Ans.
EXPER IMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CO -EFFICIENTS
7.5.1 Determination of Cd. The water is allowed to flow through an orifice fitted to a tank
under a constant head, Has shown in Fig. 7 .2. The water is collected in a measuring tank for a known
time, t. The height of water in the measuring tank is noted down. Then actual discharge througb orifice,
---~
SUPPLY
WATER
/
----r ---- --- --- -- -...... H
j_ - -
~x-1
--
I
y
- -I.
c~t
-=-::-: :,:..
MEASURING
TANK
Fig . 7.2
Value of Cd.
Q = Area of measuring tank x Height of water in measuring tank

Time (t)
and
theoretical discharg~ =area of orifice x .J2gH
scanned by Fahid ... (7.5)

Orifices and Mouthpieces 317 1

7.5.2 Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity (C,.). Let C-C represents the venacontracta of a jet of water coming out from an orifice under constant head Has shown in Fig. 7.2.
Consider a liquid particle which is at vena-contracta at any time and takes the.position at P along the jet
in time 't'.
Let x =horizontal distance travelled by the particle in time 't'
y =vertical distance between P and C-C
V = actual velocity of jet at vena-contracta.
x =V x t
Then horizontal distance,
:<i)
and vertical distance,
From equation (i),
y=
21 gt2
... (ii)
t=-
Substituting this value of 't' in (ii), we.get

1
y==-g
x-
y2
Buttheoretical velocity,
:. Co-efficie.pt of velocity, Cv =
~
=~ gx
V,h
2y
X
- .J4yH.
vA:u =~4yH
x
-y2gH
2
... (7.6)
7.5.3 Determination of Co-efficient of Contraction (Cc) The co-efficient of contraction

is determined from the equation (7.4) as
Cd= Cvx Cc
c = cd
(' c,.
... (7.7)
Problem 7.3 A jet of water, issuing from a sharp-edged re11ical orifice under a constant head of
/0.0 em, at a certain point, has the horizomal and l'ertical co-ordinates measured from the vena-contracta
as 20.0 em and I 0.5 em respectilely. Find the vaiue of C,.. Also find the value of Cc if Cd =0.60.
Solution. Given :
Head.
H = 10.0 em
Horizontal distance,
x =20.0cm
J .
scanned by Fahid
Vertical distance,
y = 10.5 em
C 1 =0.6
J318
Fluid Mechanics
The value o~ C,. is given by eq'uarlon (7.6) as
c,. =
r!-::u = J4
v4yH
20 0
= ~ = 0.9759 = 0.976. Ans.

10.5 X 10.0 20.493
-
The value of Cr is given by equation (7.7) as

C,. =
-cd =-o.6- = 0.6147 = 0.615. Ans.

c,. 0.976
Problem 7.4 The head of water over an orifice of diameter 100 mm is 10m. The water coming 0111
from orifice is collected in a circular tank of diameter 1.5 m. The rise of water level in this tank is
1.0 m in 25.-seconds. Also the co-ordinates ofa point on the jet, measured from vena-contracta are 4.3
m horizontal and 0.5 m verticaL' Find the co-efficients, Cd, Cv and Cc.
Solution. Given :
Head,
H= 10m
cl.= 100mm=O.l m
Dia. of orifice,
:. Area of orifice,
Dia. of measuring tank,
:. Area,
Rise of water,
in time,
Horizontal distance,
Vertical distance,
No \\I. theoretical velocity,
..
a= 2':.(.1) 2 = 0.007853 m 2
4
D ,. 1.5 m
A = 2:(1 .5)2 1.767 m 2

4
h=lm
t
25 seconds
x =4.3 m
y=0.5 m
V,h = .J2gH
= .J2 x 9.81 x 10 = 14.0 m/s
Theoretical discharge, Q111 = V,,;x Area of orifice= 14.0 x .007854 = 0.1099 m3/s
Actual discharge,
Q= A
h = 1.767 X 1.0 = 0.0 7068

25
Q :o7068
= - - = 0.643. Ans.
Q,,
.1099
Cd = -
The value of Cv 1~ given by equation (7 .6) as

X
C= v
.j4yH
43
J4 X 0.5 X 10
~ =0.96. Ans.
4.472
C~ = Cd =0 643
= 0.669. Ans .
0.96
Problem 7.5 Water discharge at the rate of 98.2 litres/s through a 120 mm diameter vertical
sharp-edged orifice placed under a constant head of 10 metres. 1\ poi111, on the jet, m easured from th~
l'l'I/G-contracra of the jet lws co-ordinates 4.5 metre:; flori"-011/(/1 and 0.5-1 metres vertical. Find til~
co-efficient C,.. C" and Ctl of the or!Jice.
(A.M.!. E., Winter, 1983)
Cc is given by equation (7.7) as
. cv
scanned by Fahid
- .Orifices and Mouthpieces

Solution. Given :
Discharge,
Dia. of orifice,
3t9 j
Q = 98.2 litis =0.0982 m%

d = 120mm=0.12m
a:::: !E.(.I2)2 =0.01131 m2

4
Head,
H =10m
Horizontal distance of a point on the jet from vena-contracta, x = 4.5 m
and vertical distance, y =0.54 m
:. Area of orifice,
J2
Now theoretical velocity, V,h = .J2g x H = x9.8 Lx 10 = 14.0 m/s

Theoretical discharge,
Q,h = v,/, X Area of orifice
= 14.0 x .011 31 =0.1583 m 3/s
. .
Actual discharge
Q
0 0982
The value of cd IS given by Cd=
= _.- - = 0.62. Ans.
The oretical discharge Q,h
0.1 583
The value of C< is giyen by equation (7.6),
.
'
45
0 968
C.= J4yH= .J4x0.54 x l0 = . . Ans.
The value of Cc is given by equation (7. 7) as
cd o.62
C = - = - - =0.64. Ans.
c
c. 0.968
Proble m 7.6 A 25 mm diameter nozzle discharges 0.76 m 3 of water per minute when the head is
60 m. The diameter of the jet is 22.5 mm. Detennine : (i) the values of co-efficients Cc> c. and Cd and
{ii) the loss of head due to fluid resistance.
(A.M.I.E., Summer 1988)
S o lution. Given :
Dia. of nozzle,
D =25 n:uit = 0.025 m
0 76
Actual discharge,
Qact = 0.76 m3/mjnute =
= 0.01267 m3/s
60
Head,
H=60m
Dia. of jet,
d =22.5 nun =0.0225 m.
(i) Values of co-efficients :
Co-efficient of contraction (Cc) is given by,
C =
c
Area of jet
Area of nozzle
1t
F ig. 7.3
4d
d 2 0.0225 2
= - - = -,=
= 0.81. Ans.
~ 02
4
o-
o.025 2
Co-efficient of discharge (Cd) is gi ven by.

C _
J -
Actual discharge
scanned by Fahid

0.01267
Theoretical velocity x Area of nozzle
0.01267
0.01267
= --------= ~~==~]!~~
2
2
.J2iH X~4 0
~2 X 9.81 X 60 X ~ (0.025)
4
=0.752. Ans.
Co-efficient of velocity (C) is given by,
=
v
cd =
c,
0 752
= 0.928. Ans.
0.81
(ii) Loss of head due to fluid resistance :

Applying Bernoulli's equation at the outlet of nozzle and to the jet of water, we get
v. 2
V-2
.E.!. + - 1- + z, = p 2 + - 2- + z2 + Loss of head

pg
But
pg
2g
.!!J..
pg
2g
= p 2 = Atmospheric pressure head
pg
z, = Z2 v, =~2gH' v2; Actual velocity qf jet= Cv ~2gH
(c,. ~2cH/
-"-----_.:.._ + Loss of head

2g .
or
:. Loss of head
H = C.~ x H + Loss of head

= H - C,2 x H = H( 1 - c;)
= 60(1 - 0.9282) 60 x 0.1388 = 8.328 m. Ans.
Problem 7.7 A pipe, 100 mm in diameter. has a no:.zle attached to it at the discharge end, the
diameter of the nozzle is 50 mm. The rare ofdischarge of water through the nozzle is 20 litres/s and the
pressure at the base of the nozzle of 5.886 N!cm2. Calculate the co-efficient of discharge. Assume that
the base of the nozzle and outlet of the no:.:;le are at the same elevation.
(A.M. I.E., Winter, 1977)
Solution. Given :
D=IOOmm=O.lm
Dia. of pipe,
Dia. of nozzle,
A 1 = 2:(.1) 2 = .007854 m 2
4
d =50 mm =0.05 m
A2 =
41t (.OSt' = .001963 m?
BASE OF NOZZLE
Actual discharge,
Q = 20 litis= 0.02 m3/s
Pressure at the base.
p1
=5.886 N/cm 2 =5.886 X
From continuity equation, A 1\(1 = A 2 V 2

or
.007854 V1 = .001963 \12
104 - 2
m
p 1 =5.886 N/cm
F ig. 7.4
scanned by Fahid
-- :::-:-- j
__
r---------------------------~---------------~--ili-.-ce_s_an d-~~--o-u_ili_p_i-ec_e_s-~_3_2_
1~1
V _ .001963V2
.007854
I-
!
I
v,
=~
- --:-----:---~--
.I
j.
where V 1 and V2 are theoretical velocity at ( I ) and (2).

Applying Bernoulli's equation at ( I) and (2), we get
Pt
Vi~
pg
2;;
P2
pg
V/
--+-+z1 = -- +-+z2
2g
But
2
Pt V.
-+
- -pg
or
5.886xl0~
1000 X 9.81
P2 V2
=--+pg 2g
2g
+ (;
2g
=O+
V/
, {
2g
'
: Pz =
pg .
Atmosp~eric pressure =0}
6.0+~==~
2gxl6
2g
2
y2[
~ 1- 1] =6.0 or y
::!~ [15]
l6 = 6.0
2
or
16
V, == /6.0x2x9.8tx
- 'J
16
15
= V2 X A2 == 11.205
:. T heoretical discharge
C =
4
=11.205m/sec
.
3
.001963 = 0.022 !ll /s
Actual discharge
0.02 = _ _ Ans.
0 909
0.022
Problem 7.8 A rank has two identical orifices in one of irs vertical sides. The upper orifice is 3m
belo11 the water suiface and lower one is 5 m below the water surface. If the value of C,.for each
orifice is 0.96, find the point of intersection of the two jets.
Solution. Given :
~
Height of water from orit1ce (1), H 1 =3m
From orifice (2).
H2 = 5 m
e,.for both = 0.96
m---- rTr_:iif
i ~ ~ -: "- 1 - ----~~-----:1-.
,
Let P is the point of intersection of the two jets coming

from orifices (I) :md (2). such t~at
x =horizontal distance of P
y 1 =vertical distance of P from orifice (I).
y 2 =vertical distance of P from orifice(~)
Then
y 1 = y 2 + C5- 3) = ~2 +2m
The value of C,. is given by equation (7.6) as
1/
---
--i..
~ -~ Y2 ~ 1
~l
FiJ,:. i
. t
.5
scanned
by Fahid
''T' -~f:n~~~~\r~~~:~~;FG
:~ ~:~~=f~t;;*': ~~-:~;t: ~~:s:.z~
----- -----
......
C--
y.- J4y H
For orifice (I),
. c' _
For orifice (2),
_ .
-
.J4y1 x3.0
. z - ~4y! H 2 - .J4 X y2 X 5.0
As both the o~ifices are identical
..
x
-;===:=7
.J4)'1 X 3.0
or
But
..
..
3{y2
~4y~
X 5.0
or 3y 1
=5y2
Yt =Yz + 2.0
+ 2.~) = 5y2
2y2
=6.0
:. Y:=
From (ii),
.
0 96 - r=======~
x 3.0x 5.0
or
- .J4
..
X= 0.96 X .j4 X 3.0 X 5.0 = 7.436 m. Ans .
Problem 7.9 A closed vessel comaitzs water upto a height of 1.5 m and Ol'er the ll'ater s .. -;
there is air h01ing pressure 7.848 Nlcmz (0.8 kgf!cm1 ) abo1e atmospheric pressure. At the botU~C
the vessel there is 011 orifice of diameter 100 mm. Find the rare of jloll' of ~rater rom orifice. T:
cd =o.6.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of orifice,
AIR
2
p = 7.848 N/cm \
d=1QOmm=O.lm
cd = o.6 .
He~ght of water,
H 1.5 m
4
Air press~re,
p =7.848 N/cm2 7.848 x 10 N/m2
Applying Bernoulli's equation at (l).(water surface) and (2), we get
v.'l
El. + - - + z,
pg
2g
v. 2
=lpgi + _2_
+ z,
2g
-
Taking datum line passing through (2) which is vecy close to the
bottom surface of the tank. TbeQ z2 = 0, z1 = 1.5 m
Also
and
~---~1~
Fig. 7.6
li = 0 (atmospheric pressure)
pg
!!J.. 7.848 X 104
-~--
pg
8 + 0 + 1.5
lo0ox9.8 1
=8 m of water
v,~
=0 + ~
+0
2g
IJ.5
{ 1' 1 i~ ncghg
\1,2
= _,;_.,'.
2g
scanned by Fahid
-~--~ ""k~ :...a....-~--~!:~Y...".:..t'_~....-~:t..-~"i-5-:~.o;.::~ .~-- -:--_.. ... ~- -...-
- ~.
rTt .
-'~7fi1li'M::~Jt.s0;::~r,:-;n.~f:~;.;~~~....ft,~.
O?ifices and
Mouthpi~ces
323 1
V2 = .J2x9.8 J x9.5 =l3.652m/s

Rate of flow of water =cd X 02 X v2
= 0.6 x -~ (.1 )2 x 13.652 m3/s = 0.06~}.} m3/s . Ans.
Problem 7.10 A closed rank partially filled with water upto a heigi1< c/:. ') n having an orifice of
diameter 15 mm at the bottom of the tank. The air is pumped into the , . r..~ ,art of the tank. Determine the pressure required for a discharge of 1.5 litres/s thrOU:Jh 1/1!! or';,~~. Take cd = 0.62.
Solution. Given :
Height of water above orifice, H = 0.9 m
d = 15 mm = 0.015 m
Dia. of orifice,
:. Area,
Q = 1.5 litres/s = .0015 m 3/s

Cd = 0.62
Discharge.
Let p is intensity of pressure required above water surface in N/<:111 2

.
Then pressure head of a1r= - =
pg
px 10
JOOQ X
lOp
= - - m of water.
9.81 9.81
If V2 i~ the velocity at outlet of orifice, then

V2 =
Discharge
2g(H+L)
pg
= , 2x9.81 ( 0.9+
lOp)
9.81
Q=Cd xax ~2g(H ,f-p/pg)

.0015 =0.6 X .0001767 X ~2 X 9.81 (0.9 +pI pg)
0015
2x9.81(0.9+ lOp) =
= 14.148
9.81
0.6 X .0001767
or
9.81 (0.9 +lOp) = 14.148

9.81
14.148
14 48 14 48
10
P =
.1 X .1
9.81
2x9.8 l
p
.,. 7. 6
0.9 = 10.202-0.9 = 9.302
= 9.302 X 9.81 = 9.125 N/cm 2 Ans.

10
FLOW THROUGH LARGE ORIFICES
If the head of liquid is less than 5 times the depth of the orifice, the orifice is called large orifice. In
case of small orifice, the velocity in the entire cross-section of the jet is considered to be constant and
= Cd x a x .J2gh. But in case of a large orifice, the velocity is not

scanned by Fahid
- j constant over the entire cross-section of the jet and hence Q cannot be calculated
by Q =Cd
ax .J2gh.
PDF created
byxAAZSwapnil
discharge can be calculated by Q
.,
--

7 .6. 1 Discharge Through ' Large Rectangular Orifice. Consider a large rectangular orifice
in one side of the tank discharging freely into atmosphere under a constant head, H a.s shown in Fig. 7.7.
H 1 =height of liquid above top edge of orifice
Let .
Hz= height of liquid above bottom edge of orifice
b = breadth of orifice .
d = d~pth of orifice= Hz- H 1
' 1:
t
' I
cd =co-efficienrof discharge.
Consider an ele~entary Horizontal strip of depth 'dh' at a depth of 'h' below the free surface of the
liquid in the tank as shown in Fig. 7.T(b).
h~b-+-1
-d
.EJidh
d
f
(b)
. - - - - ' \a)_ __ -
Fig. 7. 7
Large rectangular orifice.
Area of strip = b x dh
. and theoretical velocity of water through strip = ..J2gh.
..
Discharge through elementary strip is given

dQ =cd X Area of strip X Velocity
.J2ih
=Cd X b X dh X .J2gh = Ct1 b X

dh
By integrating the above equation between the limits H 1 and H2 , the total discharge thro.ugh the
whole orifice is obtained
... (7.8)
Problem 7 .11 Find the discharge through a rectangular orifice 2.0 m wide and 1.5 m deep fitted to
a water tank. The water level in the tank is 3.0 m above the top edge of the orifice. Take Cd 0.62.
Solution. Given :
b = 2.0 m
Width of orifice,
d = 1.5 m
Depth of orifice,
Height of water above top the orifice, Hl =3m
Height of water above bottom edge of the orifice,
or
scanned by Fahid
Orifices and Mouthpieces 325 \

H2
=H 1 + d = 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 m
Cd= 0 .62
Discharge Q is given by equation (7 .8) as
2
Q = Cd X b X
/fi
[Hf
12
12
H? J
3
= ~ x 0.62 x 2.0- [f+if31 [4:5 1.5 - 3 1.5) m.s/s
3
=3.66(9.545- 5.196) m',s == 15.917 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 7.12
A rectangular orifice, 1.5 m wide and 1.0 .11 deep is di5cha rging water from a tank.
If the water level in the tank is 3.0 m above the top edge of the onftce, [111d lite discharge through th e
orifice. Take the co-efficient of discharging for the orifice
= 0.6.
Solution. Given :
Width of orifice,
Depth of orifice,
b= 1.5 m
d= I.Om
H 1 =3.0m
H 2 H 1 + d 3.0 + 1.0
cd o.6
Discharge, Q is given by the equation (7 .8) as
=
=
jfi
=4.0 m
112
i 11 -
Cd X b
0.6 X l.S X .j2 + 9.81 (4.01.
[H
Hj
3 01.
1m
/s
3
=2.657 [8.0- 5.196) m3/s = 7.45 m:~/s. Ans.
Problem 7.13
A rectangular orifice 0.9 m wide and 1.2 m deep is discharging water from a vessel.
The top edge of the orifice is 0.6 m below the water surface in the vessel. Calculate the discharge
through the orifice if Cd 0.6 and percentage error if the orifice is treated as a small orifice.
Solution. Given:
Width of orifice,
Depth of orifice,
b =0.9 m
d=. 1.2m
H 2 =0.6m
H 2 =H 1 + d =0.6 + 1.2 =1.8 m
Cd= 0.6
Q =~X Cd X b X
3
Discharge Q is given as
jii
[H
r- H?' J
2
=~ X 0.6 X 2.9 X .J2 X 9.81

3
= 1.5946 [2.4149 -
.4647]
[ 1.8
312
0.6
312
3
] m /s
= 3.1097 m 3/s. Ans.
Discharging for a small orifice

Ql
~here h =H 1 + ~
2
= Cd X a X .J2gh
=0.6 + .!2 = 1.2 m and a = b x d =0.9 x

2
1.2
scanned by Fahid
1326 Fluid Mech~cs

Q 1 = 0.6
x.9
I .2 X
.J2 X 9.8 I X 1.2 = 3.}442 m3/s.
,..,
Q,-Q 3.1 442 - 11097 = '001109
-to error=--=
.
or 1.109/Jf
7o . A ns.
Q
3.1097
.,.. 7.7 DISCHARGE THROUGH FULLY SUB-M.ERGED ORIFICE .
'.
Fully sub-merged orifice is one which has its whole of the outlet side
sub-merged under liquid so that it discharges a jet of liquid into the
liquid of the same kind. It is also called totally drowned orifice. Fig. 7.8
shows the .fully sub-merged orifice. Consider two points (I) and (2),:
point 1 being in the reservoir on the upstream side of the orifice and
point 2 being at the vena-contracta as shown in Fig. 7 .8.
Let H 1 =Height of water ab_qve the top of the orifice on the
p1g. 7.8 F1111y sttb -merged on;r:.ce.
1
upstream side.
I
H 2 = Height of water above the bottom of the orifice
., '
H Difference in water level
b = Width of orifice
Cd =Co-efficient of discharge.
Height of water above the centre of orifice on upstream side
- H
H 2 - H, - HI+ H2
2
2
I+
...(1)
Height of water above the centre of orifice on downstream side
= HI +Hz - H
2
... (2)
Applying Bernoulli's equation at (l) and (2), we get
-P1
pg
Now
2g
pg
2g
+V. -_- P2
- +Vi-
p, -- H, +H2 -P2 = H, +H2 -Hand V is negligible

1
pg
'p~
!i_ =H
2g
V2
= -.j2gH
=b x (H2 -
Area of orifice
Discharge through orifice =
H 1)
ctf X Area X Velocity
. = Cdx b (H2 - H 1) x .J2gH
Q = Cd X b (H2 - H 1)
.j2gH.
...(7.9)
scanned by Fahid
Qrifices and Mou thpieces 327 1

Problem 7. 14 Find the discharging through a fully sub-merged orifice of width 2 m if the difference of water levels on both sides of the orifice be 50 em. The height of 11ater from top and bottom of
the orifice are 2.5 m and 2.75 m respecti\ely. Take Cd = 0.6.
Solutio n . Given :
b=2m
W1dth of oriftce,
H 50 em 0.5 m
Difference c f wa'te,.level ,
fl 1 = 2.5 m
Height of water from top of orifice,
He1ght of water from bottom of orifice, H2 =2.5 m
Cd= 0.6
Discharge through fuBy sub-merged orifice is given by equation (7.9)
or
Q =Cd X b X (H2 - H 1)
.J2gH
=0.6 X 2.0 X (2.75- 2.5), X .J2 X 9.81 X 0.5
m /s
=0.9396 m 3/s. Ans.

Problem 7.15 Find the discharge through a totally drown ed -orifice 2.0111 wide and I
difference of water levels Oil both the sides of the orifice be 3 m. Take cd 0.62.
Solution. Given .
Width of orifice.
b =2.0 m
Depth of ori tice.
d I m.
Difference o: water le\'el on both the sides
H=3m
Cd = 0.62
111
deep, if rh:
Discharge through orifice is Q
=cd X Area X .J2gH

=0.62 X b X d. X .J2gH
=0.62 x 2.0 x 1.0 x .J2 x 9.81 x 3
m3/s =9.513 nbs. Ans .
.... 7.8 DISCHARGE TH ROUGH PARTIALLY SUB-MERGED ORIFICE

Partially sub-merged orifice is one which has its outlet side
partially sub-merged under liquid as shown in Fig. 7.9. It is also
known as partially drowned orifice. Thus the partially sub-merged
orifice has two portions. The upper portion behaves an orifice
dischargi ng free while the lower portion behaves as a sub-merged
orifice. Only a large orifice can behave as a partially sub-J!lerged
orifiCe. The total discharge Q through partially sub-merged orifice
lS equal to the d ischarges through free and the sub-merged
ponions.
Fig. -:.9
Discharge through the sub-merged portion is given by equatipn (7 .9)
P,lrtial!r
nri(ic~.
mfJI/1'/'f:t\ !
Q1 = Cd X b X (H 2 - H) X .J2gH
Discharge through the free portion is given by equation (7.8) as
scanned by Fahid
1328 Fluid Mechanics ...

Q2 =
..
:rota! discharge
~ Cd
3
Q =Ql + Q2
bX
.j2i
= Cd X b X (H2 - H)
[H3n- H?nJ
..j2gH
+ ~ Cd X b X
.J2i [HJn- H n] . ... (7.1 0)

3
Problem 7.16 A rectangular orifice of 2m width and 1.2 m deep is fitted in one side of a large
tank. The water level on one side of the orifice is 3 m above the top edge of the orifice, while on the
other side of the orifice, the water level is 0.5 m below its top edge. Calculate the discharge through
the orifice if cd = 0.64. .
Solution. Given : Width of orifice, b =2m
Depth of orifice, d = 1.2 m
Height of water from top edg~ of orifice, H 1 =3m
Difference of water level on both sides, H = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 m
Height of water from the bottom edge of orifice, H 2 = H 1 + d = 3 + 1.2 = 4.2 m
The orifice is partially sub-merged. The di~ch.arge thr~ugh sub-merged portion,
--
Q1 =cd x b .xJH2 - H)~ .J'].gH_ __
__,...
= 0.64 X 2.0 X (4.2- 3.5) X .J2 X 9.81 X 3.5

The discharge through free portion is
2
Q2 =- Cd
3
bX
r;;-:Jn
..; 2g
[H
Jn
- H1
=~3 X 0.64. X 2.0 X .J2 X 9.81

..
=7.4249 m3/s
-- ..
-:----
[3.5 312 - 3.03n)
= 3.779 [6.5479- 5.1961] = 5.108 m3/s

Total discharge through the orifice is
Q = Q1 + Q2 = 7.4249 + 5.108 = 12.5329 m 3/s. Ans.
\.M:9 TIME OF EMPTYI~G A TANK THROUGH AN ORIFICE AT ITS BO

Consider. a tank containing some liquid ~pt~ a height of H 1 Let an orifice is fitted at the bottom ofth~
tank. ft is required to find the time for the liquid surface to fall from the height H 1 to a height H 2 .
Let A = Area of the tank
a = Area of the orifice
H 1 =Initial height of the l!quid
H 2 =Final height of the liquid
T= Time in seconds for the liquid to fall from H 1 to H2
h
t
Let at any time, the height of liquid from orifice ish and let the
Hz
liquid surface fall by a small height dh in time dT. Then
~= \:=:rl:l _l _
Volume of liquid leaving the tank in time,dT=A x dh
.I
Also the theoretical velocity through orifice, V = .J2gh

Discharge through orifice(scc,
ORIFICE
Fig. 7.9. (a)
scanned by Fahid
-Qrifices and Mouthpieces 3291
dQ 0 x Area of orifice x Theoretical velocity = CJ . a . , /2gh

~
Discharge through orifice in time interval
. dT r.d . a . J2:?h . dT
As the volume of liquid leaving the tank. ts equal :r ~:1 c 'l')lum'! c.,; liquid ilcwing ihr0lJ~11
time dT, we have
o~ifi cc 10
.J2iii.
A(- dh) = Cd. a .

u'f
- ve sign is inserted because v:ith the increase of ;;f c. h,.~ Ol' orilice dccre<ues.
,
-Ad,;
.
=cd. a . vM::i2gh . cf;
._
Ot' ( ! !
~.:
A! dl
J,dr=J-'
z""_;--=~-:;'"' J
Cd . a . .fii '-d .
j:g
T
H1
l.l
-A(Itf 1' 2
r
?
d.';
-v2gh
-d. a . .J-g
rh:! total time, Tis obtained as
L-,1 a.
By integrating the above equa!ion betv.een the (;,:,its ."~-.' 1 r:.. H~.
112
-A dh
.
Vi":I ::
1-'
: h _,,2dh
111
or
[~ _ Ft] = 2A.(~ -~]

C-'d . a . fii
For em~tying the tank completely, H 2 becomes =0 and hence
=
T=
-2A
cd . a . ffi
2A~
...(7.11)
... (7. 12)
r;::;-;:
cd .a.-v2g
Problem 7 .17, A circular tank of diametet 4 m contains water up to a height of 5 m. The tank is
provided with an orifice ofdiameter 0.5 m at the bottom. Find the time taken by water (i) to fall from
5 m to 2m (ii)for completely emptying to tank. Take Cd =0.6.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of tank,
D=4m
:. Area,
A=~ (4i = 12.566 m2
OiL of orifice,
:. Area,
a=~ (.5) 2 =0. 1963 m 2
=0.5 m
4
..
H 1 =5 m
..
H2 =2m (ii) H 2 =0
Fmt Case. When
H2 =2m
2
Csing equation (7.1 1), we have T =
A.fii [ jii; CJ .a. 2g
I.oitial height of water,
final height of water, (i)
JH;""]
scanned by Fahid

2 X 12.566
[ ~ r;:;n]
= 0.6 X .1963
J
"5 - v2.0 seconds
X 2 X 9.81
20 6 3
~ . = 39 .58 second s. A ns.
=-
0.52 1
Second
C~se.
When Hi= 0
T. =
,J'H; =
2A
. cd.a. fii
2 X 12.566 X J5
0.6x.1963xJ2 x 9.81
= 107.7 seconds. Ans.
Problem 7.18 A circular tanfspfdiameter 1.25 m contains water upto a height of5 m. An orifice of
50 mm diameter is provided at its bottom. If cd = 0.62, find the height of water above t~e orifice after
1.5 minutes.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of tank,
= 1.25 m
:. Area,
=2:(1.25Y
= 1.227 m 2
4
Dia. of orifice,
=50 mm =.05 m
:. Area,
a = 2: (.05)2
4
= .001963 m2
Cd= 0.62
Initial height of water,
Time in seconds,
H 1 = 5m
T
= 1.5 x 60 = 90 seconds
.
Let the height of water after 90 seconds = H2
.
Using equation (7. I I), we have T =
or
2A[,J'H; - ~
r:;::
cd .a v 2g
2 X 1.227
90 =
.
0.62
[JS - JH;]
0.001963 X
.[ii; =2.236-
.j2 X 9.8 J
=455.215 [2.236 - .[if;]

2
90
= 236 - 0. 1977
455.215
=2.0383
H 2 == 2.0383 x 2.0383 = 4.154 m . Ans.
scanned by Fahid
Ofifices and Mouthpieces 3311

~
7. 10
TIME OF EMPTYING A HE M ISPH ERICAL TANK
Consider a hemispherical tank of Radius R fitted with an orifice

of area 'a ' at its bottom as shown in Fig. 7.1 0. The tank contains
some liquid whose initial height isH! :md in timeT, the height of
liquid falls to H 2 It is required to find the timeT.
Let at any instant of time, the head of liquid over the orifice is 1,
and atthts instant let x be the radius of the liquid surface. Th ~n
Area of liquid surface, A = ~
and theoretical ~elocity of liquid= .J2gh .
Let the liquid level falls down by an amount of dh in time dT.
. . Volume of liquid leaving tank in time dT =A x dlz
ru2 x dh
Also volume of liquid flowing through orifice
F ig. 7 10 H emispberica/ t.wk.
..
...(i)
= Cd X area of orifice X velocjtY = Cd.a . .J2gh second

Volume of liquid flowing through orifice in time dT
x dT
= cd.a . .J2gh
... (ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we get

2
TCx (-
dh)
=Cd.a . .j2gfz
. dT
- ve sign is introduced, because with the increase of r. fz will decrease
- 7tX dh
= Cd.a . .j2gfz
=R
But from Fig. 7 .I 0, for D.OCD, we have OC

DO=R-h
..
..
CD =x=
...(iii)
. dT
~OC 2 -OD2 =~R 2 -(R-h) 2
x2 = R2 - (R- hi=~ - (R2 + h 2 - 2Rh) =2Rit- !?
Substituting~ in equation (iii), we get

- 1C(2Rh - h2 )dh
=Cd.a. .J2gh
dT =
. dT
-tt(2Rh-h~)dh
cd.a . .J2gh
1C
cd .a.
J2i
-1t
cd.a .
.J28
2Rh - h 2 h
_ 112
dh
(2 Rh 112 - h312)dh
The total timeT required to bring the liquid level from H 1 to H 2 is obtained by integrating the above
ov:wion between the limits H 1 to H 2.
..
r
H:
-1C
Cd .a.
-1[
Cd .a .
Jfi
.J28
(2Rh 112 -
h312)dh
r~ (2Rhl/2- ,3,2)dh
H1
scanned by Fahid
-7t
Cd
.j2i
XaX
+ 1]Hl
~ +1
hl/2+1
/z3/2
2R----~--
..!_ + l
,.
' H~
........ . ...
1t
Cd
.j2i
r~ R (H312 _ H312)-:
~ (H s12 _ Hs12)]
2
2
3
I.
...(7. 13)
For completely emptying the rank, H 2 =0 and hence
T=
1t
cd . a . .J2i
[~RH~t2 -~Ht2].
5
... (7.14)
Problem 7.19 A hemispherical tank of diameter 4 m contains water upto a height of 1.5 m. An
orifice of diameter 50 mm is provided at the bottom. F{ndilie time required by water (i) to fa1l from
1.5 m to 1.0 m (il)for completely emptying the tank. Tank Cd = 0.6.
Solution. Given:
Dia. of hemispherical tank, D =4 m
R =2.0 m
:. Radius,
d 50 mm 0.05 m
Dia. of orifice,
:. Area,
a=
~(.05) 2 =0.001963 m2
4
H 1 = 1.5'm
Cd= 0.6
First case. H 2 = 1.0

_Time Tis given by equation (7.13)
T= .
Cd
1t
X
aX
.J2i
12 -Hi12 )-~(H~12 - ~~~2 )]

[~R(~{
3
5
1t
X[~ X2.0 (1.5312 0.6x.OOI963xJ2x9.81
3
= 602.189 [2.2323- 0.7022] = 921.4 second
=15 min 21.4 sec. Ans.
Second case. H2 =0 and hence time Tis given by equation (7 .14)
1t
CJ .a.
fii
1.0312)- ~ (1.5512 -1.0512 )]

5 .
[~ RH(12 - ~ H: 12 ]
1t
[~X 2.0 X1.5 312 _;.X 1.5 512 ]
0.6x.OOI963J2x9.81 3
5
scanned
by Fahid
333 1
Qrifices and Mouthpieces
=602.189 14.8989- 1.1022] sec= 2286.33 sec

=38 min 6.33 sec. Ans.
Problem 7.20 A hemispherical cistem of 6 m radius is full of water. It is fitted with a 75 mm
diameter sharp edged orifice at the bottom. Calculate the time required to lower the level i ; ; the
ci.it<!m by 2 me ires. Ass,lm<~ cc efficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.6: (Delhi University, J 176)
Solution. G1ven:
Radius of hcmisphetical cistern, R =6 m
Initial height of water,.
H 1 =6 m
Dia. of orifice,
d =75 mm =0.075 m
:. Area,
a=
~(.075) 2 = .004418 m2
4
=2m
Fall of heigh of water
Final he1ght of water, H 2 6-2
cd = o.6
The time Tis given by equation (7.31)
=4 m
1t
=7o.-=-6-x-:.o:-:o:-:-44-:-:I:-::8~x-Jr.:2=x=::9=::.8;=:ol
x[~ x6 (6.0
312
4.0
312
( 6.0
)- :
512
-
4.0
512
)]
=267.56 [8(14.6969 - 8.0)- 0.4 (88.18- 32.0)]

=267.56 [53.575- 22.472] sec
=8321.9 sec= 2brs 18 min 42 sec. Ans.
Problem 7.21
A cylindrical tank is having a hemispherical base. The height of cylindrical portion
T_
is 5 m and diameter is 4 m. At the bottom of this tank an orifice of diameter 200 mm is fitted. Find the
~~~~~/~~~ ~i~::~letely emptying the tank. Take Cd =0.6.

Be:ighfof cylindri~al portion (II)= 5 m
DC2.. of tank
4.0 m
-- ~ ~ ~ :--
--- Area.
Dia.. of orifice,
...
:_:::/:~::~::~(::~:~:~:::_:
Sm
= 12.566 m2
4
d = 200 mm =0.2 m
II
A= -1t (4t'
1t
Area, a=- (.2t = 0.03 14 m

4
cd = 0.6
2.0m
j_
- by
scanned
7.11
Fig.Fahid
----.-~~~.~~~~~~--~~~~~--~~--~-. ----------- - . _ _ ---- -------:.

The tank is splitted in two portions. First portion is a hemispherical tank and second portion is cylindrical tank.
Let T 1 =time for emptying hemispherical portion I.
T2 =time for emptying cylindrical portion II.
Then total timeT= T1 + T2
For Portion I. H 1 =2.0 m, H1 =0. Then T 1 is given by equation (7. 14) as
T1 =
=.
[i
1t
Cd xaxfii 3
RH?12
1t
0.6 X .0314 X ~2 X9.8J
~
H~12 J
5
[i
3
X 2.0 X 2.0 312 -
~ X 2.0512 ]
5
- -= 37.646 [7.5424- 2.262] sec= 198.78 sec.

For Portion II. H 1 = 2.0 + 5.0 = 7.0 m, H2 =2.0. Then T 2 is given by equation (7. J i) as
T2 =
:. Total time,
11>-
I.I I
2A.[.fi/: -:- ~
Cdxaxfii
2 X 12.566 [J7-
.J2.0)
0.6x.0314x~2x9.81
sec= 370.92 sec
= 198.78 + 370.92 = 569.7 sec

=9 min 29 sec. Ans.
T = T1 + T2
TIME OF EMPTYING A CIRCULAR HORIZONTAl TANK
Consider a circular horizontal tank of lengthL and radiusR, containing liquid upto a height of H 1 Let
an orifice of area 'a' is fitted at the bottom of the tank. Then the time required to bring the liquid level
from H 1 to H 2 is obtained as:
Let at any time,1he height of liquid over orifice is 'lz ' and in time dT, let the height falls by an height
of 'dlz'. Let at this time, the width of liquid surface =AC as shown in Fig. 7.12.
~-- L
- - --+1
Fig. 7.12
Surface area ofliquid = L x AC

But
AC = 2 xAB
=2[~A02 - p8 2 ] = 2[~R 2 -
(R- lz)
=2JR 2 -(R 2 +h 2 - 2Rh) = 2j2Rh - h 2
scanned by Fahid
Orifice~ arid Mouthpiece_s 335 j

Surface area,
Volume of liquid leaving tank in time dT
=A X dh =2L ~2Rh- h 2 X dh
Also the volume of liquid flowing through orifice in time dT
... (i)
=cd X Aiea of orifice X Velocity X dT

But the velocity of liquid at the time considered = .J2iii
..
Volume of liquid flowing through orifice in time dT
=Cdxa x .fiih xdT
...(ii)
Equating (i) and (ir), we get
2L ~2Rh - h
X(-
=Cd X a X .j2gh X dT
dh)
- ve sign is introduced as with the increase ofT, the height h decreases,
dT=
-2L~ 2Rh-h2 dh
Cd
cd xax ,fii
[Taking .fiicommon]
= J":- 2L ( 2R- h) c
1/2
Total time, T
111
- 2L .J (2R- h) dh
ax.J2gh
Cd
dh
aXvg
= Cd X-a X ,fii
I ' [2R-h]
2g H,
2L
112
dh [2R-h] 112 dh
11
112 1
[(2R - h)
= Cd X- a2L
X .fii
_!. + 1
2L
Cd Xax.fii
'
x(-1)
x~x[(2R - h)3'2 JN,

3
111
4L
[( 2 R _ H )'3t2 _ (2 R _ H )312]
2
1
3Cd xax.fii
... (7.15)
For completely emptying the tank, H 20 and hence

4L
[(2R)3t2 - (2R - H, )3'2].
...(7. 16)
3Cd xaxfii
Proble m 7.22 An orifice ofdiameter 100111111 isfiued at the bouom of a boiler drum of length 5 m
atd ofdiameter 2 m. The drum is horizontal and lwlffull of water. Find the time required to empty the
boilu. gien the value of cd = 0.6.
T=
scanned by Fahid

Solution. Given :
Dia. of orifice,
Area,
d = 100 rnm = 0.1 m

a
=!:4 (. 1)2 =.007854 m 2
Length,
L=5m
Dia. of drum,
D=2m .
R=lm
..
Radius,
=I m
H1
Final height of water,
H2 = 0
Cd= 0.6
For completely emptying the tank, Tis given by equation (7 .16)
T=
4L
[(2R)3/2- (2R- Ht)3t2]
3 X Cc1 X a X .J2g
4x5.0
3 X .06 X .007854 X
J2 X 9.8 1 [(2 X I )
312 - (2 X 1 - I ) 312]
= 319.39 [2.8284- 1.0] = 583.98 sec= 9 min 44 sec. Ans.

Problem 7.23 An orifice of diameter !50 mm is fitted at the bouom of a boiler drum of length 8 m
and of diameter 3 metres. The drum is horizoma/ and contains water upto a height of2.4 m. Find the
rime required to empty the boiler. Take Cd =0.6.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of orifice,
d = 150 mm =0.15 m
Area, a= !:(. 15)2 = 0.01767 m2
4
Length,
L=8.0 m
Dia. of boiler,
D =3.0 m
R= 1.5 m
:. Radius,
H 1 =2.4m
Find height of water,
H2 =0
Cd= 0.6.
For complete ly emptying the tank. Tis given by equation (7.16) as

~ .
T=
4L
3C" xa x
.Jii
4
[(2R)312_(2R- H t)3'2J
80
3 X .6 X .01767 X
J2 X.9.81
= 227.14 [5.196 - 0.4647]

=17 min 54.66 sec. Ans.
((2 X 1.5)312 - (2 X 1.5 - 2.4)312)
= 1074.66 sec
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7. 12
CLASSIFICATION OF
MOUTHPI~CES
I. The mouthpieces are classified as (i) External mouthpiece or (ii) Internal mouthpiece depending
upon their position with respect to the tank or vessel to which they are fitted.
2. The mouthpiece are classified as (i) Cylindrical mouthpiece or (ii) Convergent mouthpiece or (iii)
Convergent-divergent mouthpiece depending upon their shapes.
3. The mouthpieces are classified as (1) Mouthpieces running full or (ii) Mouthpieces running free,
depending upon the nature of discharge at the outlet of the mouthpiece. This classification is only for
internal mouthpieces which are known Borda's or Re-entrant mouthpieces. A mouthpiece is said to be
running free if the jet of liquid after contraction does not touch the sides of the mouthpiece. But if the jet
after contraction expands and fill s the whole mouthpiece it is known as running full.
7.13
FLOW THROUGH AN EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL MOUTHPIECE
A mouthpiece is .a short length of a pipe which is two or th,ree times

its diameter in length. If this pipe is fitted extemaJJy to the orifice, the
----- .. . . ....
mouthpiece is called external cylindrical .mouthpiece and the discharge through orifice increases.
Consider a tank having ali external cylindric11 mouthpiece of
cross-sectional area a 1, attached to one of its sides as shown in
Fig. 7 .13. The jet of liquid entering the mouthpiece contracts to form
a veoa-contracta at a section C-C. Beyond this section, the jet again
expands and fill the mouthpiece complete! y.
Let
H = Height of liquid above the centre of mouthpiece Fig. 7.13 Extemal cylindrical
vc =Velocity of liquid at C-C section
mouthpieces.
ac = Area of flow at vena-contracta
v 1 =Velocity of liquid at outlet
a 1 =Area of mouthpiece at outlet
Cc =Co-efficient of contraction.
Applying continuity equation at C-C and (1)-(1), we get
---
---- ------ -
acxvc=a 1v1
a v
_v_ _
1 1
1
v-c=-=
a1
acla.
!!E..
But
al
Taking Cd= 0.62, we get ac
a,
=Cc =Co-efficient pf contraction
=0.62
v=~
..
0.62
The jet of liquid from section C-C suddenly enlarges at section (1)-(1). Due to sudden enlargement,
there will be a loss of head, hL*which is given as hL =
(v - v1)2
c
2g
Please refer Art. 11.4.1 for loss of head due to sudden enlargement.
scanned by Fahid
17
(i.J2-
111
= -- =
~
0.62
But
\1
11
1
2g
]2 = 0.375 v2
= 2'i_
?
[ _ I_ _
1
2g 0.62
2g
Applying Bernoulli's equation to pointA and (1)-(1)

P
_L +
pg
where
v2
....:1.. + ZA
2g
p.
v2
=-pg1'.+\ -2g1 + Z1 + hL
z,.. = z 1 vA is negligible,
!!J.. = atmospheric pressure = 0
pg
v2
H + 0 = 0 + - 1 + .375
2g
~
2g
H = 1.375 ~
2g
Theoretical velocity of liquid at outlet is v,h = .j2gH

. . Co-efficient of velocity for mouthpiece
C =
v
.J2iii = 0.855 .
Actual velocity = 0.855

.j2gH
Cc for mouthpiece= I as the area of jet of liquid at outlet is equal to the area of mouthpiec~ at outlet.
cd =cc X Cv = 1.0 X .855 =0.855
Thus
Thus the value Cd for mouthpiece is more than the value of Cd for orifice, and so discharge through
mouthpiece will be more.
'
Problem 7.24 Find the discharge from a 100 mm diameter external mouthpiece, fitted to a side of
a large vessel if the head over the mouthpiece is 4 metres.
Solution. Given :
of
Dia. of mouthpiece = I 00 m= 0.1 m
2: (0. 1)2 = 0.007854 m2
:. Area,
a=
Head,
H =4.0 m
cd for mouthpiece
:. Discharge
=0.855
=cd X Area X Velocity =0.855 X a x.J2g H
=.855 X .007854 X .j2 X 9.81 X 4.0 =.05948 m3/s. Ans.
Problem 7.25 An external cylindrical mouthpiece ofdiameter 150 mm is discharging water under a
constant head of6 m. Determine the dischar~e and absolute pressure head of water at vena-contracta.
scanned by Fahid
Take Cd =0.855 and Ccfor vena-contracta 0.62. Atm_ospheric pressure head= 10.3 m of water.
Orifice?. ana Mouthpieces 339.1

Solution. Given :
Oia. of mouthpiece,
:. Area,
a = 2:(.15) 2 = 0.01767 m
= 150 mm =0. 15 ern

2
H =6.0 m
Head,
ctl =0,855
Cc at vcna-~~mtracta =0.62
Atmospheric pressure head, H 0
= IQ.3 m
:. Discharge
= cd X a X .j2gH
= 0.855
.01767
.j2 X 9.81 X 6.0
=0.1639 m3/s. Ans.
Pressure head at vena-contracta

Applying B'ernoulli's equation at A and C-C, we get
But
ZA
..
Ha + H + 0
=Zc
p
1.1
v2
pg
2g
2g
=...!.. + _r_ =He + _c_
jC
(!)
-~I
' - -- -- ----'
Fig. 7.1-t
..
But
('
:l
0.62
..
But
..
1
v
I
H = H0 +H ( - v 1 ) x-=H
0 +H -...l. x - c
.62
2g
2g (.62) 2
=1.375
~
2g
if_ = _!!_= 0.7272 H

2g
1.375
.
..
H.,= H 0 + H - .7272 H X - (.62) 2
=H
+ H- 1.89 H = H 0
- .89 H
..
{ : H0
4.96 m (Absolute). Ans.
= 10.3-.89 X 6 .0
= 10.3-5.34 =
= 10.3 and H =6.0}
scanned by Fahid
1
.... 7. 14
FLOW THROUGH A CONVERGENT-DIVERG ENT MOUTHPIECE
If a mouthpiece converges upto vena-contracta and then diverges as shown in Fig. 7.15 that type of
mouthpiece is called Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece. As in this mouthpiece there is no sudden enlargement of the jet, the Joss of energy due to sudden enlargement is eliminated. The co-efficient of
discharge for this mouthpiece is unity. Let His the head of liquid over the mouthpiece.
Applying Bcrnoull! 's equation to the free surface of water in tank and section C-C, we have
p
v2
v2
-P + - + 'z = _ c +.,..!-+zc
pg 2g
pg 2g
Taking datum passing through the centre of orifice; we get
p
p
------- --pg
=H0 , V =0, Z =H, _c
=He, Zc =0 ------ -- -----pg
... (z)
v2
_c_ =Ha +H - Hc
28
...(ii)
Cowverge11t
di-z_ergem moutbpiece.
Fig. 7.15
vc = J 2g(H0 + H - He)
or
Now applying Bernoulli's equation at sections C-C and(!)-(!)

p
v2
v2
_Pc +-c- +z = _ 1 +-' +z,

pg 2g
c pg 2g
zc =z1 and .!!l

pg =Ha
But
v2
v2
He+ _c_ =H0 + _1_

2g
2g
Also from (i),
He+ v/12g = H + H0
H0 + v1212g = H + Ha'
v 1 = .j2gH
...(iii)
Now by continuity equation, ac vc = v1 x a 1
!!.!.
=~= ~2g(Ha+H-Hc) = /Ha + I -
ac
..}2gH
v1
/ 1 + H 0 -Hr
.H
The discharge, Q is given as Q = ac x ..}2gH

where ac.= area at
vena-co~tracta.
I
VH
He
H
...(7.17)
... (7.1 8)
scanned by Fahid
P ro b le m 7 .26 A convergent-divergent mouthpiece having throat diameter of 4.0 em is discharging

water under a constant head of 2.0 m determine the ma.\'imum outer diameter for ma.rinmm discharge.
Find maximum discharge also.. Take H;, = 10.3 m of water and Hup = 2.5111 of water (absolme).
Solutio n. Given:
Dia. of throat,
de =4.0cm
:. Area,
ac = -7t (4) 2 = 12.566 em'
Constant head,
Find max. dia. at outlet, d 1 and

H0
=2.0 rn
Qmax
= 10.3 m
Hup = 2.5 m (absolute)

The discharge, Q in convergent-divergent mouthpiece depends on the area at throat.
..
Qmax
= ac X .j2gH = 12.566 x .j2 X 9.81
200 = 7871.5 cm 3/s. Ans.
Now ratio of areas at outlet and throat is given by equation (7 .17) as
!!J_ = 11 + _H..::.. a~--H-"-e = . 11 + 10.3 - 2.5 -ac V

H
V 2.0 -
{ : He;; H~tp =2.5}
= 2.2135
!!.d~j!!.
d; =2.2135 or (5..)
=2.2135
4
4
de
2
..
5_ = .J2.2 135 =
1.4877
de
r-
..
d 1 = l .4877 x de = 1.4877 X 4.0 5.95 em. Ans .

Pro ble m 7 .27 The throat and exit diameters of Conve1'gent-Divergellf mouthpiece arc 5 em and
10 em respectively. It is fitted to the vertical side of a tank, containing water. Find the maximum head
of a water for steady flow. The maximum vacuum pressure is 8 m of water and take atmospheric
pressure= 10.3 m water.
Solution. Given :
Dia. at throat,
de= 5 em
Dia. at exit,
d 1 = 10 em
Atmospheric pressure head, H0 = 10.3 m
The maximum vacuum pressure will be at a throat only
..
or
Pressure head at throat = 8 m (vacuum)
He= H0 - 8.0 (absolute)

I0.3 - 8.0 =2.3 m (abs.)
Let maximum head of water over mouthpiece =H m of water.
The ratio of areas at outlet and throat of a convergent-divergent mouthpiece is given by equation (7 .17).
scanned by Fahid
102
or
5s
8
=4=~1+
.
H
or 16=1+_! or 15=_!
H
H
8 '
H = - = 0.5333 m of water
15
Maximum head of water= 0.533 m . Ans.
P roblem 7.28 A convergent-divergem mduthpiece. is fitted to the side of a tank. The discharge
through mouthpiece under a constant head of 1.5 m is 5 /itres/s. The head loss in the divergent portion
is 0. 10 times the kinetic head at outlet. Find the throat and exit diameters, if separation pressure is
2.5 m and atmospheric pressure head= 10.3 m of water.
Solution. Given :
H = 1.5 m
Constant head,
Discharge,
Q = 5 Jitres = .005 m3/s
hL or Head loss in divergent= 0.1 x kinetic head at outlet
He or Hup =2.5 (abs.)
H0 = 10.3 m of water
Find (i) Dia. at throat, de
(ii) Dia. at outlet, d 1
(I) Dia. at Throat (de). Applying Bernoulli's equation to the free water surface and throat section,
we get (See Fig. 7.15).
v2
v2
-P+ - +z = _c +-.+z
pg 2g
pg 2g c
Taking the centre line of mouthpiece as datum, we get
v2
H0 + 0 + H =He+ _c_
2g
v2
...!_
2g
Vc
Now
=H0 +H-Hc= 10.3+ 1.5 -2.5=9.3mofwater

= .j2 X 9.81 X 9.3 = 13.508 m/s
1t
Q = ac X vc or .005 =-de- X 13.508

4
dc =
.005x4
1 - - -1t X 13.508
= v.00047 = .02 17 m = 2. 17 em . Ans.
(ii) Dia. a t outlet (d 1). Applying Bernoulli's equation to the free water surface and outlet of mouthpiece (See Fig. 7.15), we get
scanned by Fahid
Orifices and Mouthpieces

2
H,1 + 0 +,H
vl
=Hn + -2g
,,2
+ 0 + 0.1 .X
2
vl
3431
{: .f?J_=Ha}
2g
II'
,.2
"2
1
H=+.lx _!_= J.I ..J....
2g
2g
2g
v =
I
~2gH
1.1
2 X 9.8 1X 1.5 = 5. I 724

1.1
Now
4
.005
1---1t X 5.1724
_,. 7.15
rf
= 0.035 m =3.5 em .. Ans.
FLOW THROUGH INTERNAL OR RE-ENTRANT ON BORDA'S MOUTHPIECE
A short cylindrical tube attached to an orifice in such a way that the tube projects inwardly to a tank,
is called an internal mouthpie.c e. It is also called Re-entrant or Borda's mouthpiece. If the length of the
tube is equal to its diameter, the j et of liquid comes out from mouthpiece without touching the sides of
the tube as shown in Fig. 7 .16. The mouthpiece is known as running.free. But if the length of the tube is
about 3 times its diameter, the jet comes out wit11 its diameter equal to the diameter of mouthpiece at
outlet as shown in Fig. 7.17. The mouthpiece is said to be nmning full.
(I) Borda's l\Jouthpiere Running Free. Fig. 7.16 shows the Borda's mouthpiece r~nning free.
Let
H =.height of liquid above the.mouthpiece,
a = area of mouthpiece,
ac = area of contracted jet in the mouthpiece,
vc = velocity th rough mouthpiece.
' lc
t _ , __ _ ___J
RUNNING FREE
Fig. 7.16
(D
RUNN ING FULL
'; Fig. 7.17
The flow of fluid through mouthpiece is taking place due to the pressure force exerted by the fluid on
the entrance s~ction of the mouthpiece. As the area of the niout11piece is 'a' hence total pressure force on
entrance
=pg. a. h
where h = distance of C. G. of area 'a' from free surface= H.
... (i)
= pg. o. H
According to Newton's second law of motion, the net force is equal to the Fate of change of momentum.
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~ow mass of liquid flow:n g/scc = p x a,. x vc
The liquid is initially at rest and hence initial velocity is zero but final velocity of fluid is vc.
. . Rate of change of momenrum = mass of liquid flowing/sec x [final velocity- initial velocity]
= pac X v~ [vc- 0] = pac v2
. (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
pg .a.H. = pai. v/
... (iii)
Applyi ng Bernoulli's equation ro free surface of liquid and section (I )-(1) of (Fig. 7. 16)
p
v2
- P + - + z=-1 +-1-+zJ
pg 2g
pg 2g
Taking the centre line of mouthpiece as datum, we have
Z = H, Z1 = 0, _!!_ = .!!J...= Patmosp. = 0,
pg
l'l
= "c
pg
v =0
v2
v2
0 + 0 + H =0 + _ c_ + 0 or H =_c_
2g
2g
vc
= .J2gH
Substituting the value of vc in (iii), we get
pg . a . H.
= p . ac. 2g , H
a
a
a =2ac or ___
or
:. Co-efficient of contraction, Cc =
~
a
=-21 = 0.5
= 0.5
Since there is no loss of head, co-efficient velocity, Cv

..
..
Co-efficient of discharge = Cc
Q = Cd a.J2gH
Discharge
=1.0
Cv =0.5 x 1.0 = 0.5

... (7.19)
0.5 X a.J2gH
(ii) Borda's Mouthpiece Running Full. Fig. 7.17 shows Borda's mouthpiece running full.
Let
H = height of liquid above the mouthpiece,
v 1 velocity at outlet or at (I)-( I) of mouthpiece,
a = area of mouthpiece,
ac = area of the flow at C-C,
.
vc = veloc'ity of liquid at vena-contracta or at C-C.
The jet of liquid after passing through C-C, suddenly enlarges at section (I)-( I). Thus there will be a
loss of head due to sudden enlargement.
.. .( i)
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Orifices and Mouthpieces 3451

Now from continuitY,. we have ac x vc
a
vc=-1
ac
or
\'c
=a 1 X v1
v1
v
v1
X \ 1 = - = - 1 =-
ac I a 1
Cc
0.5
=2vl
Substituting this value of vc in (i), we get h1.
(2v 1 - v1)
>
Vj
= 2g
. 2g
Applying Bernoulli's equation to free surface of water in tank and section (1)-(1), we get
2
_!!_ + ~ +. z
pg 2g
=EL + ~ + Zt + hL
pg
2g
Taking datum line passing through the centre line of mouthpiece

v2
v2
2g
2g
0+0+H=0+ - 1- +0+ - 1-
VI :
.JiH
Here v 1 is actual velocity as losses have been taken into consideration,
=.J2gH
..
.
v, = fiii
:. Co-efftc1ent of veloc1ty, C,. = M::Li =
But theoretical velocity, v111
0. 707
v,h
-v2gH "2
As the area of the jet at outlet is equal to the area of the mouthpiece, hence co-e~cient of contraction
=1
~ Cd = Cc XC,. = J .0 X .707 = 0.707
... (7.20)
Discharge,
Q Cd X a X .J2gH 0.707 X a X .j2gH
r;::; =
Problem 7 .29 An inTema/mowhpiece of 80 mm diameTer is discharging waTer under a consTanT

head of 8 meTres. Find The discharge Through mouthpiece, when
(i) The mouthpiece is running free, and (ii) The mourhpiece is nmving full ... .
Solution. Given :
.,
Dia. of mouthpiece, d = 80 mm = 0.08 m
:. Area,
a = ~(.08) 2
4
=.005026 m2
Constant head,
H=4m.
(r) Mouthpiece running free. The discharge, Q is given by equation (7.19) as
Q
=0.5 X a X .J2gH
=0.5 X .005026 X .J2 X 9.81 X 4.0
= 0.02226 m 3/s =22.26 1itr es/s. Ans.
(ii) M ou thpiece run ning full. The discharge, Q is given by equation (7.20) as
',
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Q
=0.707 X a X .j2gH
=0. 707 X .005026 X .j2 X 9.81 X 4.0
=0.03147 m3/s =31.471itre/s. Ans.
HIGHLIGHTS
\
1. Orifice is a small opening on the side or at the bottom of a tank while mouthpiece is a short length of pipe
which is two or three times its diame\.er in length.
2. Orifices as well as mouthpieces are used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid.
3. Theoretical velocity of jet of water from orifice is given by
V = J2gH , where H = Height of water from the centre of orifice.

4. There are three hydraulic co-efficients namely:
C = Actual velocity at vena- contracta = _x_
v
J4yH
(a) Co-efficient of velocity,
(b)
Co-efficient of contraction, C
(c ) Co-efficient of discharge,
__ Area of jet at vena- contracta

Area of ori !icc
_
Cd-
Actual discharge
.x
C
c
where x andy are the co-ordinates of any point of jet of water from vena-contracta.
S. A large orifice is one, where the head of liquid above the centre of orifice is less than 5 times the depth of
orifice. The discharge through a large rectangular orifice is
Q
= ~ Cdx b x jig[Hln- H 13n]

3
- -w here- -b-=width- of orificc,

,
- - - - -- -._ _,____._
.:: -c;;= t::o-efflciento f discharge foro rifice . ' -=-==-~-==-=--- .-::.--=::-~-.,..,...~~_::
H 1 = H eight of liquid above top edge of orifice; and
H 2 = Height of liquid above bottom edge of orifice.
6. The discharg~ through fully sub-merged orifice, Q = cd X b X (H]- H ,) X .j2gH
where b = Width. of orifice,
.
C.t =Co-efficient of discharge for orifice,

H2 = Height of liquid above bottom edge of orifice on upstream side,
H 1 =Height of liquid above top edge orifice of upstream side,
H = Difference of liquid levels on both sides of the orifice.
7. Discharge through partially sub-merged orifice,
Q =Q, +Q1
= Cdb (H2 - H)
.j2gH + 2/3 CjJ x
Jfi
[H3n- H 13n)
where b = Width of orifice

Cd. H 1, H2 and H are having their usual meaning.
8. Time _of emptying a tank through an orifice at its bottom is given by,
= 2.4 [F.- JH;]
_.>..;..._~~
Cd.a . ..[2i
where H 1 =Initial height of liquid in tank,

H 2 =Final hc!ighi of Liquid in tank,
A = Area or"tank,
..
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Orifices and Mouthpieces 3471

a .Area of orifice,
Cd = Co-efticient of discharge.
If the tank is to be completely emptied, then time T,
T2A.JH
- cd .a.,fii'
9. Time of emptying a hemispherical tank by an orifice fitted at its bottom,
[i
7t
R(Ht 12 - nf2) - ~6 ( H~.12 - Hf2)]
.T = c,1 .a.,fii
3
' .
[i
~ H~12 ]
.. and for co~pletely emptying the tank, T= , . ~ M:

RH[ .
cd.a."2g 3
2
where R = Radius of the hemispherical tank,
H 1 = Initial height of liquid,
"H2 =.Fi.nal height of liquid,
a = Area of orifice, and
C tl =Co-efficient of discharge . .
10. Time of emptying a circular 1\orizontal tank by an orifice at the bottom of the tank,
12
=======
------ ---------.. 4z:----=-=--=-=-=-312..=::..:.:------ 112 . :... ...::_

------,...----T. 3Cd .a . .y2g
r;;:-f(2.R..:..Hz) - (2R=Iil) ],_ ___:...:....:._...::::.;:...__ _
4
L r.:;-;: L(2R) 312 - (2R - H 1)312 )
and for completely emptying the tank, T =
.
3Cd .a . .y2g
where L =Length of horizontal tank.
11. Co-efficient of discharge for,
(i) External mouthpiec~,
Ctl =0.855
(ii) Internal mouthpiece; running full,
Cd = 0.707
(iii) Internal mouthpiece running free,
Cd = 0.50
(iv) Convergent or convergent-divergent, Cd = 1.0.
12. For an external mouthpiece, absolute pressure head at vcna-eontracta
He = Ha - 0.89 H
where H. =atmospheric pressure head= 10.3 m of water .
H head of liquid above the mouthpiece.
13. Fera convergent-divergent mouthpiece, the ratio of area's at outlet and at vena-cont.racta is
al -~I
Ho - He
- +-
ac
\\here a 1 =Area of mouthpiece at outlet

ac = Area of mouthpiece at vena-cont.racta .
Ha = Atmospheric pressure head
H,. = Absolute pressure head at vena-contracta
'-'
H =Height of liquid above mouthpiece.
14. In case of internal mouthpieces, if the jet of liquid comes out from mouthpiece wilhout touching its sides
it is known as running free. But if the jet touches the sides of the mouthpiece, it is known as running full . .
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:zzz:nsr

EXERCISE 7

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Define an orifice and a mouthpiece. What is the difference between the two?
Explain the classification of orifices and mout hpieces based on their shape, size and sharpness?
What are hydrauHc co-efficients ? Name them.
Define the following co-efficients : ~i) Co-efficient of velocity, (ii) Co-efficient of contraction and (iii)
Co-efficient of discharge.
Derive the expression cd = c. X c,.
Define vena-contracta.
Differentiate between a large and a small orifice. Obtain an expression for discharge through a large rectangular orifice.
What do you understand by the terms wholly sub-merged orifice and partially sub-merged orifice?
Prove that the expression for discharge through an external mouthpiece is given by
Q = .855 X a XV
where a = Area of mouthpiece at outlet and
v =Velocity of jet of water at outlet.
Distinguish between: (i) External mouthpiece and internal mouthpiece, (ii) Mouthpiece running free and
mouthpiece running full.
Obtain an expression for absolute pressure head at ''ena-contracta for an external mouthpiece.
What is a convergent-diYergent mouthpiece ? Obtain an expression for the ratio of diameters at outlet and
at vena-comracta for a convergent-divergent moULhpiece in terms of absolute pressure head at venacontracta, head of liquid above mouthpiece and atmospheric pressure head.
The length of the divergent outlet part in a venturi meter is usually made longer compared with that of the
converging inlet part. Why ?
Justify the statement, "In a convergent-divergent mouthpiece the loss of head is practically eliminated".

1. The bead of water over an orifice of diameter 50 mm is 12m. Find the actual discharge.and actual velocity
of jet at vena-contracta. Take Cd = 0.6 and Cv = 0.98.
[Aos. .018 m 3/s; 15.04 mls]
2. The head of water over the centre of an orifice of diameter 30 mm is 1.5 m. The actual discharge through
the orifice is 2.35 litres/sec. Find the co-efficient of discharge.
[Ans. 0.613]
3. A jet of water, issuing from a sharp edged vertical orifice under a constant head of 60 em, has the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates measured from the vena-contracta at a certain point as 10.0 em and 0.45 em
[Ans. 0.962, 0.623]
respectively. Find the value of Cv. Also find the value of C,. if Cd = 0.60.
4. The head of water over an orifice of diameter I00 mm is 5 m. The water coming out from orifice is collected
in a circular tank of diameter 2 m. The rise of water level in circular tank is .45 m in 30 seconds. Also the
co-ordinates of a certain point on the jet, measured from vena-contracta are I 00 em horizontal and 5.2 em
[Ans. 0.605, 0.98. 0.6 17 J
vertical. Find the hydraulic co-efficients Cd, C,. and C,.
5. A tank has two identical orifices in one of its vertical sides. The upper orifice is 4 m below the water
surface and lower one 6 m below the water surface. If the value of C, for each orifice is 0 .98, find the point
of inter-section of the two jets.
[Ans. At a horizontal distance of 9.60 em]
6. A closed vessel contains water upto a height of 2.0 m and over the water surface there is air having
2
pressure 8.829 N/cm above atmospheric pressure. At the bottom of the vessel there is an orifice of diam[Ans. 0.15575 m3/s]
eter_15 em. Find the rate of now of water from orifice. Take Cd = 0.6.
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Orifices and _M outhpieces . 349
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
2 2.
2J_
'I
A closed tank partially filled with water upto a height of I m, hav ing an orifice of diameter 20 mm at the
bottom of the tank. Detcm1ine the pressure required for a discharge of3.0 litres/s through the orifice. Take
CJ = 0.62.
[Ans. I 0.88 l\/cm 2]
Find the discharge through a rectangular orifice 3.0 m wide and 2m deep fitted to a water tank. The water'
level in the tank is 4 m above the top edge of the orifice. Take CJ = 0.62
[Ans: 36.77 m 3ts)
A rectangular orifice, 2.0 m wide and 1.5 m deep is discharging water from a tank. If the water level in the
tank is 3.0 m above th e top edge of the orifice, find the discharge through the orifice. Take Cd = 0.6.
[Ans. 15.40 m 3/sj
A rectangular orifice, 1.0 m wide and 1.5 m deep is discharging water from a vessel. The top edge of the
orifice is 0.8 m below the water surface in the vessel. Calculate the discharge through the orifice if
Cd = 0.6. Also calculate the percentage error if the orifice is treated as a small orifice. [Ans.} .058%]
Find the discharge through a fully sub-merged orifice of width 2m if the difference of water levels on both
the sides of the orifice be 800 mm. The height of water from top and bottom of the orifice are 2.5 m and
3m respectively. Take CJ =0.6.
[Ans. 2.377 m 3/s)
Find the discharge through a totally drowned orifice 1.5 m wide and I m deep, if the difference of water
levels on both the sides of the orifice be 2.5 m. Take Cd =0.62.
[A ns. 6.51 ~ m 3/s]
A rectangular orifice of I .5 m wide and I .2 m deep is filled in one side of a large tan~. The water level on
one side of the orifice is 2 m above the top edge of the orifice, whi le on the other side of the orifice, the
water level is 0.4 m below its top edge. Calculate the djscharge through the orifice if Cd = 0.62.
(Ans. 7.549 m 3/s)

A circular tank of diameter 3 m contai ns water ilpto a height of 4 m. The
is provided with an orifice of
diameter 0.4 m at the bouom. Find the time taken by water : (i) to fall from 4 m to 2 m and (ii) for
completely emptying the tank. Take cd = 0.6.
[Ans. (i) 24.8 S, (ii) 84.7 s]
A circular tank of diameter I .5 m contains water upto a height of 4 m. An orifice of 40 mm diameter is
provided at its bottom. If Cd = 0.62, find the height of water above the orifice after 10 minutes. [Ans. 2m)
A hemispherical tank of diameter 4 m contains water upto a height of 2.0 m. An orifice of diameter 50 mm
is provided at the bottom. Find the time required by water (i) to fall from 2.0 m to J .0 m (ii) for completely
[Ans. (i) 30 min 14.34 S, (ii) 52 min 59 s)
emptying the tank. Take cd = 0.6
A hemispherical cistern of 4 m radius is fu ll of water. It is fitted with a 60 mm diameter sharp edged orifice
at the bottom. Calculate the ti me req uired to lower the level in the cistern by 2 metres. Take Cd = 0.6.
[Ans. I hr 58 min 45.9 s]
A cylindrical tank is having a hemispherical base. The height of cylindrical portion is 4 m and diameter is
3m. At the bottom of this tank an orifice of diameter 300 mm is fitted. Find the time requrred to completely
emptying the tank. Take C4 = 0.6.
[Ans. 2 min 7.37 s]
An orifice of diameter 200 mm is fitted at the bottom of a boiler drum of length 6 m and of diameter 2m.
The drum is horizontal and half full of water. F_ind the time required to empty the boiler, given the value of
Cd = 0.6
[Ans. 2 min 55.20 s]
An orifice of diameter 150 mm is fitted at the bottom of a boiler drum of length 6 m and of diameter 2m.
The drum is horizontal and contains water upto a height of 1.8 m. Find the time required to empty the
boiler. Take Cd = 0.6.
.
[Aos. 7 min 46.64 s]
Find the discharge from a 80 mm diameter external mouthpiece, fitted to a side of a large vessel if the head
over the mouthpiece is 6 m.
[Ans. 0.0466 m 3/s]
An ex ternal cylindrical mouthpiece of diameter 100 mm is discharging water under a constant head of 8 m.
Determine the discharge and absol ute pressure bead of water at vcna-conlrac ta. Take C4 = 0.855 and C, for
[Ans. 0.084 m 3/s ; 3.18 m]
vena-contracta = 0.62. Take atmospheric pressure head = I0.3 m of water.
A convergent-divergent mouthpi ece having throat diameter of 60 mm is discharging water under a constant head of 3.0 m. Determine the maximum outlet diameter for maximum discharge. Find maximum
discharge also. Take atmospheric pressure head= I0.3 m of water and separation pressure head= 2.5 m of
water absolute.
[Ans. 6.88 em, Qnu., = 0.01506 m 3/s]
tank
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FLuid Mechanics
::!~.
The throat and exit diameter or a convergent-divergent mouthpiece arc 40 mm and 80 mm respectively. It
is fitted to the vertical side of a tank, containing water. Find the maximum head or water for steady flow.
The maximum vacuum pressure is 8 m of water. Take atmospheric pressure head= 10.3 m of water.
[Ans. 0.533 m)
25. The discharge through a convergent-divergent mouthpiece fitted to the side of a tank under a constant head
of 2 m is 7 litres/s. The head loss in the divergent portion is 0.10 times the kinetic head at outlet. Find the
throat and exit diameters, if separation pressu re head = 2.5 m and atmospheric pressure head = I 0.3 m of
water.
[Ans. 25.3 mm ; 38.6 mm)
26. An internal mouthpiece of 100 rum diameter is discharging water under a constant head of 5 m. Find the
discharge through mouthpiece, when
(1) the mouthpiece is running free, and (ii) the mouthpiece is running full.
[Ans. (i) 38.8 litres/s, (ii) 54.86 litres/s)
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'
CHAPTER
Notches "and Weirs

IJii.
8. 1 INTRODUCTION
A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel or a tank.
It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in such a way that the liquid
surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.
A weir is a concrete or masonary structure, placed in an open channel over which the flow occurs. It
is generally in the form of vertical wall, with a sharp~ge at the top, running all the way across the open
channel. The notch is of small size while the weir is of a bigger size. The notch is _generally made of
metallic plate while weir is made of concrete or masonary structure.
1. Nappe or Vein. The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is called Nappe or Vein.
2. Crest ur Sill. The bottom edge of a notch or a top of a weir over which the water flows, is known
as the sill or crest.
IJii.
8.2
CLASSIFICATION Of NOTCHES AND WEIRS
The notches are classified as :

I. According to the shape of the opening :
(a) Rectangular notch,
(b) Triangular notch,
(c) Trapezoidal notch, and
(d) Stepped notch.
2. According to the effect of the sides on the nappe :
(a) Notch with end contraction.
(b) Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch.
Weirs are classified according to the shape of the opening the' ~hape of the crest, the effect of the sides
on die nappe and nature of discharge. The following are important classifications.
(a) According to the shape of the opening :
(t) Rectangular weir,
(ii) Triangular weir, and
(iit) Trapezoidal weir (Cippoletti weir)
(b) According to the shape of the crest:
(i) Sharp-crested weir,
(ii) Broad-crested weir.
(iii) Narrow-crested weir, and
(iv) Ogee-shaped weir.
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=-

(c) According to the effect of sides on the emerging nappe:
(i) Weir with end contraction, and
(ii) Weir without end contraction .
.... 8.3 DISCHARGE OV ER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH OR W EIR

The expression for discharge over a rectangular notch or weir is the same.
(a) RECTANGULAR NOTCH
(b) RECTANGULAR WEIR
Fig. 8.1 Rectangular 110tcb and 'Weir.
Consider a rectangular notch or weir provided in a channel carrying water as shown in Fig: 8.1.
Let
H = Head of water over the crest
L = Length of the notch or weir
For finding the discharge of water flowing over the weir or notch, consider an elementary horizontal
strip of water of thickness dh and length L at a depth h form the free surface of water as shown in
Fig. 8.l(c).
= L x dh
The area of strip
and theoretical velocity of water flowing through strip = J2gh
The discharge dQ, through strip is
dQ =Cdx Area of strip X Theoretical velocity
= Cd X L Xdh X .J2gh
... (1)
where Cd =Co-efficient of discharge.

The total discharge, Q , for the whole notch or weir is determined by integrating equation ( i) between
the limits 0 and H.
... (8.1)
Problem 8.1 Find the discharge of ll'ater flowing over a rectangular notch of 2m length when the
head orer the notch is 300 mm. Take cd = 0.60.
Solution. Given :
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L=2.0m
Length of the notch, .
COI!Stallt
Head over notch,
Discharge,
H =300 m =0.30 m
Cd= 0.60
Q=%
CdxLxfii [H
311
= -2 X 0.6 X 2.0 X .j2 X 9.81 X [.30f'5 m3/s

3
=3.5435 x 0.1643 = 0.582 m3/s. Ans.
Problem 8.2 Determine the height of a rectangular weir of length 6 m to be built across a rectangular channel. The maximum depth of water 011 the upstream side of the weir is 1.8 m and discharge
is 2000 Litres/s. Take Cd = 0.6 and neglect end contractions.

Solution. Given :
Length of weir,_
L =6 m
Depth of water,
Discharge,
H1
Q
=1.8 m
=2000 litis= 2 m 3/s
.
Cd = 0.6
.
.
Le t H i~h~igiiCo[.water above the c rest of weir, and H 2 = height of \veir (Fig. 8.2)
The discharge over the weir is give n by the equation (8. 1) as
2
312
Q = - Cd X L.xfii H
3
2.0
or
?
=.:.x
0.6 X 6.0 X .j2 X 9.81
312
= I 0.623 H 312
if312
=.2Q_
Fig. 8.2
10.623
20
H = (-
10.623
)213 =0.328m
-
H2 = HI - H
=Depth of water on upstream side - H
= 1.8- .328 = 1.472 m. Ans.
Problem 8.3 The head of water over a rectangular notch is 900 mm. The discharge is 300 litresls.
Frnd the length of the notch, when Cd 0.62.
Solution. Given :
H = 90 em 0.9 m
Head over notch,
Q =300 litis= 0.3 m 3/s
Discharge,
Height of weir,
Cd= 0.62
=L.
Let length of notc h

Using equation (8.1 ), we have
Q
= -23
X cd
XL xfii
312
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Fluid Mechanics
0.3
or
= -2
0.62 XL
.J2
9.81
(0.9) 312
= 1.83 XL X 0.8538
L=
03
=.192m= 192 mm. Ans.
1.83 X .8538
I
.... 8.4 DISCHARGE OVER A TRIANGULAR NOTCH OR WEIR

The expression for the discharge over a triangular notch or weir is the same. It is derived as:
Let H = head of water above the V- notch
9 = angle of notch
Consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness 'dh' at a depth of h from the free surface of water as
shown in Fig. 8.3.
From Fig. 8.3 (b), we have
9 AC
AC
tan = -=---~
2
OC (H -h)
=-
AC
=(H -
~_
h) tan 2
e
h) tan -
Width of strip
= AB = 2AC = 2 (H -
:. Area of strip
=2 (H- h) tan-9 x dh
(b)
Fig. 8.3
Tbe triangular notch.
The theoretical velocity of water through strip = .J2gh

. . Discharge, dQ, through the strip is
dQ = Cd X Area of strip X Velocity (theoretical)
=Cd X 2 (H =2Cd (H :. Total discharge, Q is
h) tan~
2
dh
e X .J2gh
h) tan 2
Q = f H 2Cd (H - h) tan
Jo
.J2gh
x gh
~X .J2gh
2
X dh
112
=2Cd X tan -92X ..j2i J.H
(H- h)h dh
0
=2 X Cd X tan ~X ..fii f. H (Hh 11~- /1 31~) dlz

2
t> ]H
Hh''/'- "J
=2 X Cd X tan -eX .J2i [ - - - scanned
by Fahid
3/2
5/20
~..._
== 2
X cd X
== 2
== 2
X cd X
tan
e .J2i [2
-3 H.H312 2
[2
e .J2i - H 512 3
.
25
512
tan -X
e .J2i [-4
2
15
tan ~X
rz;:g
2 ...;<-g
512
355 1
25 J
- X
Cd X tan - X
== ~
15 C d
Notches 'and Weirs
512
H 512
...(8.2)
For a right-angled V-notch, if Cd =0.6
=90,
..
tan
~ =I
2
512
... (8.3)
I X ~2 X 9.8 1 >s H
15
512
= 1.417 H
Problem 8.4 Find the discharge over a triangular notch of angle 60 when the head over the
V-notch is 0.3 m . .Assume Cd =0.6.
Solution. Given:
Angle ofV-notch,
e = 60
H ;, 0.3 m
Head over notch,
cd = o.6
Discharge, Q over a V-notch is given by equation (8.2)
Discharge
Q =~X 0.6 X
= .!_'
X C X tan ~ X lzi X H512 .
15
d
2 ...JklS
=~X 0.6 tan 60 X .J2 X 9.81
15
X -(0.3)
512
=0.8182 x 0.0493 =0.040 m 3/s. Ans.

Problem 8.5 Water flows over a rectangular weir 1 m wide at a depth of 150 mm and afterwards
passes through a triangular right-angled weir. Taking Cdfor the rectangular and triangular weir as
0.62 and 0.59 respectively, find the depth over the triangular weir.
(Osmania University, 1990 ; A.M.I.E., Winter, 1975)
Solution. Given :
For rectangular weir. length, L =I m
Depth of water,
H = !50 mm =0.1 5 m
c" = o.62
For triangular weir.
8 = 90
= o.59
cd
Let depth over triangular weir

The discharge over the rectangular weir JS given by equation (8.1 ) scanned
as
by Fahid
Q = -2
3
Cd X f. X vf.>:
2}1
H312
J2
311
X 0.62 X 1.0 X
X 9.81 X (.15)
m 3/s = 0.10635 m 3/s
3
The same discharge passes through the triangular right-angled weir. But discharge, Q, is given by
equation (8.2) for a triangular weir as
=
Q
0.10635
8
8
512
=: lS X Cd X tan 2 X J2i X H
.59 X tan
=,!X
15
go X .J2i X H 1512
2
.59 X 1 X 4.429
=-X
15
fl1512
{: 8 =90 and H =Hd
H 1512 = 1.3936 H 1512
= 0.10635 =0.07631
13936
0.4
- .H1 =_(.0763L) . ::.0.3572 m! _Af!S...

Problem 8.5A Water flows through a triangular right-angled weir first and then over a rectangular weir of 1 m width. The discharge co-efficients of the triaJTgular and rectangular weirs are 0.6 and
0.7 respectively. if the depth of water over the triangular weir is 360 mm, find the depth of water over
the rectangular weir.
Solution. Given:
For triangular weir
8 = 90, C" = 0.6, H = 360 mm = 0.36 m
For rectangular weir
L 1 m, Cd = 0. 7, H ?
The discharge for a triangular weir is given by equation (8.2) as
~X .J2i X H 512
Q = .!
Cd X tan
0.6 X tan (
15
..
15
90
)
2
J2 X 9.8 1 X (0.36)512 = 0.1l02 m 3/s
The same discharge is passing through the rectangular weir. But discharge for a rectangular weir is
Q=
or
or
~ X Cd XL X
3
0.1102 = 3
H 312
0.7
.J2i X H312
J2 X 9.81
H312 = 2.067 H 312
= 0.1102 =0.0533
2.067
H..= (0.0533) 213 = 0.1415 m = 141.5 mm. Ans.

scanned by Fahid
-,
Notches and Weirs
357 1
Problem 8.6 A rectangular channel 2.0 m wide has a discharge of 250 !it res per second, which is
measured by a right-angled V-notch weir. Find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed of
the channel if maximum depth of water is not to exceed 1.3 m. Take Cd = 0.62.
Solution. Given :
Width of rectangular channel, L = 2.0 m
Q = 250 litis= 0.25 m3/s
Discharge,
Depth of water in channel = 1.3 m
Let the height of water over V-notch = H
The rate of flow through V-notch is given by equation (8.2) as
Q =_!_X Cd X .j2i X tan~ X H 512

15
2
where cd
= 0.62,
a = 90
90
Q =_!_X .62 X .J2 X 9.81 X tan

X H511
15
2
8
512'
0.25 = - X .62 X 4.429 X l X H
15
or
H S/2=
or
.25xl5
=0.1707
8 X .62 X 4.429
H = (.1707) 215 = (.1707)0'4 0.493 m

Position of apex of the notch from the bed of channel
=depth of water in channel-height of water over V-notch
=1.3 .,.. 8.5
.493 =0.807 m. Ans
ADVANTAGES OF TRIANGULAR NOTCH OR WEIR OVER RECTANGULAR

NOTCH OR WEIR
A triangular notch or weir is preferred to a rectangular weir or notch. due to following reasons :
1. The expression for discharge for a right-angled V-notch or weir is very simple.
2. For measuring low discharge, a triangular notch gives more accurate results than a rectangular
notch.
.
3. In case of triangular notch, only one reading, i.e., (H) is required for the computation of discharge.
4. Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary .
.... 8.6
DISCHARGE OVER A TRAP EZOIDAL NOTCH OR WEIR
As shown in Fig. 8.4, a trapezoidal notch or weir is a combination of a rectangular and triangular notch or weir. Thus
the total discharge will be equal to the sum of discharge
through a rectangular weir or notch and discharge through a
triangular notch or weir.
Let H = Height of water over the notch
=Length of the crest of the notch
scanned by Fahid
Fig. SA The trapezoidal notch.

Cd I =Co-efficient
or discharge. for rectangular portion ABCD of Fig. 8.4.
.
Cd2 = Co-efficient of discharge for triangular portion [FAD and BCE]
The-discharge through rectangular portion ABCD is given by (8. 1)
Q1 =~
or
Cd 1 XL X
jfi
311
The discharge through two triangular notches FDA and BCE is equal to the discharge through a
single triangular notch of apgle e and it is given by equation (8.2) as
Q2 =
..
Discharge through
e X .y2g
r;:;::
s12
XH
- X c,l2 X tan 15
2
trapezo~da~ ~otch
2
=
-3
cd
.I
or weir FDCEF = Q 1 + Q 2
.J2i
312
+-
}5
tan en X
c d X
2
fii X H 512.
...(8.4)
Problem 8. 7 Find the discharge through a trapezoidal notch which is 1m wide at the top and 0.40
m at the bottom and is 30 em in height. The head of water on the notch is 20 em. Assume Cd for
rectangular portion as = 0.62 while f or triangular portion = 0.60.
Solution. Given :
Top width,
A= 1m
Base width,
CD= L=0.4m
H
H =0.20m
Head of water,
For rectangular portion, cdl =o.62
c
For triangular portion,
cd = o.6o
2
From 6.ABC, we have
T
1
-L-
tan -8
2
Fig. 8.5
(AECD)/2
=-AB = _,__
_ _ _..:...._
BC
(1.0- 0.4) /2 0.6 I 2 0.3

=-=-= 1
0.3
0.3
0.3
Discharge through trapezoidal notch is given by equation (8.4)
=
Q= ~
3
Cd X LX
I
.J2i
H312 + .!_
15
= ~X 0.62 X 0.4 X .)2 X 9.81

3
Cd X
2
tan
~X
fii
2
H512
(0.2) 312 +.!_X .60 X J X .)2 X 9.81

15
(0.2)512
= 0.06549 + 0.02535 = 0.09084 m3/s = 90.84 litres/s. Ans .

.... 8. 7
DISCHARGE OVER A
STE~PED
NOTCH
A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notches. The discharge through 'stepped notch is
equal to the sum of the dischargesthrough the different rectangular notches.
scanned by Fahid
--......
Consider a stepped notch as shown in Fig. 8.6.
Let H 1 = Height of water above the crest of notch ( I ),
L 1 = Length of notch I ,
H 2 , ~and H 3 , ~ are corresponding values for notches 2
and 3 respectively.
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for aJI notches
. . Total discharge Q:: Q 1+ Q2 + Q3
Q = ~XCdxL 1 xj2g
I
or
12
[H 1312 -H/' ]
Notches and
We~s 359 1
---:.-:. -:. "'--:-:-}0}:-:.-:.-:.-:. - TT

H H,
~-
ij__
1-L, --1
1 - L, - -....,
+----- L, -----~
Fig. 8.6
The stepped notch.

... (8.5)
Prof>lem 8.8 Fig. 8. 7 shows a stepped notch. Find rhe discharge rhrough the notch
section =0.62.
Solution. Given :
if Cd for all
=40 em, L 2 =80 em,

L3 = 120 em
L1
H 1 =50+30+ 15 = 95cm,
H2
=80 em, H 3 = 50 em.
Cd= 0.62
- s o em-...
- - - - - 1 2 0 em
Total discharge, Q = Q 1 + Q2 + Q3
~here
Q1 =
Cd
X L1 X
o-i
Fig. 8.7
r::;-;:
3/2
v2g [H1
~ X 0.62 X 40 X ..)2 X 981

3
" 3f2
H2
[95 312 - 80312)
= 732.26[925.94 - 715.54) = 154067 cm3/s = 154.067 litis

2
r::;-;:
Q2 = J
Cd X
=~
0.62 X 80 X
L.z X
v2g
[H2
.j2 X 981
312
312
H3 ]
(80312 ~ 50312)
= 1464.52[715.54- 353.551 cm3/s =53014 1 cm3/s = 530. 144 litis

and
Q3
="32 xcdxL3 x
= .3_
3
r:c
.l/2
-v21( x HJ
0.62 X 120 X
.J2 X 98 1 X 50312 = 77677 1 c mJ/s =776.771 litiS

.
=Ql + Q~+ Q3 = 154.067 + 530.144 + 776.771

= 1460.98 litis. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
..

.,_ 8.8
EFFECT ON DISCHARGE OVER A NOTCH OR WE IR DUE TO ERROR IN

THE MEASUREMENT OF HEAD
For an accurate value of the discharge ove~ a weir or notch, an accurate measurement of head O\'er the
weir or notch is very essential as the discharge over a triangular notch is proportionai to H 512 and in case
of rectangular notch it is proportional to H 312 A small error in the measurement of head, will affect the
discharge considerably. The following cases of error in the measurement of head will be considered:
(i) For Rectangular Weir or Notch.
(ii) For Triangular Weir or Notch.
8.8. 1
For Rectangular Weir or Notch. T he discharge for a rectangular weir or notch is given
by equation (8.1) as
...(!)
where K
= ~ Cdx L x -fii
3
Differentiating the above equation, we get

dQ=KX
K
2 H 1ndH
... (il)
x~x H 112 dH
3 dH
2
-dQ = ---"'---~-=-... (8.6)
Q
KH312
2 H
Equation (8.6) shows that an error of I % in measuring H will produce 1.5% error in discharge over
Dividing (ii) by (i),
a rectangular weir or notch.
8 .8 .2
For Triangular Weir or No,tch.
The discharge over a triangular weir or notch is .given by
equation (8.2) as
r;c:
s12
Q=- Cd.tan - -v2g xH

15
2
= KHSt2
where K = -15
... (iii)
e '2i
Cd. tan -2 vLl;
Differentiating equation (iii), we get

dQ
=K ~ H 3n x dH
... (iv)
. K~ H 312 d};
d.
('
)
b
("')
dQ
.
2K- H--:-:,..- = 5 -H
dH
D ..
IVI mg IV
y 111, we get -Q
- =-=51 2
'2
... (8.7)
Equation (8.7) shows that an error of I% in measuring H will produce 2.5% error in discharge over
a triangular weir or notch.
scanned by Fahid
Notches and Weirs 361 1
Problem 8.9 A rectangular notch 40 em long is used for measuring a discharge of 30 lit res per
second. An error of 1.5 mm wars made, ll'hile measuring the head over the notch. Calculate the
percentage error in the discharge. Take Crt= 0.60.
Solution. Given :
L= 40cm
Q = 30 litis= 30,000 cm3/s
Length of notch,
Discharge,
Error in head,
dH = 1.5 mm = 0.15 em
Cd = 0.60
Let the height of water over rectangular notch H
The discharge through a rectangular notch is g iven by (8. 1)
2
Q = - X Cd XL X ..j2i X H 312
or
3
2
30,000 =-X 0.60
or
H312 =
or
..}2 X 981
3 X 30000
= 42 .33
2 X .60 X 40 X
X 98 J
J2
H = (42.33)
..
40
213
= 12.16 em
dQ = l_dH =l_ x O.lS =0.0185=1.85 % .Ans.

Q
2 H
2 1216
Problem 8.10 A right-angled V-notch is used for measuring a discharge of 30 litresls. An error of
1.5 mm was made while measuring the head over the notch. Calculate the percentage error in the
discharge. Take Cd 0.62.
Solution. Given :
Angle of V~notch,
e = 90
Q =30 litis= 30000 cm3/s
Discharge,
Error in head;,
dH = 1.5 mm =0.15 em
cd = o.62
Let the head over the V-notch =H
The discharge Q through a triangular notch is given by equation (8.2)
Q= -
15
or
30000 =
cd .
tan
e J2i X H 512
2
-X
i_ X 0.62 X tan ( 90") X .j2 X 981

15
XH
512
i_ X .62 X I X 44 .29 X H 512

15
H512
30000 X 15
8 X .62 X 44.29
H = (2048.44)
:;: 2048 .44
=21.1 I em
scanned by Fahid
.
j 362 . Fluid Mechanics
Using ~quation (8.7)., we get
5
= 2.5 x 0.1
0.01776 = 1.77 % . Ans.
2 H
21.11
Problem 8. 11 The head of water over a triangular notch of angle 60 is 50 em and co-efficiem of
discharge is 0.62. The flow measured by it i.r to be within an accuracy of 1.5% up or down. Find the
lilniting values of the head.
Solution. Given :
Angle of V-notcb
= 60
Head of water,
H = 50cm
Cd= 0.62
dQ =
2. dH
dQ = 1.5% = 0.0 15
Q
The discharge Q over a triang':llar notch is
Q= ~
C f.Fg tan ~ Ji 12
15 d --Jk~
2 .
~ x0.62 x .J2 x 981
xtan- ~
x (50) 512
15 . 2 - . - - - -- -----. --.
= 14.64 x 0.5773 x 17677.67 = 149405.86 cm3 /s
Now applying equation (8.7), we get
=
dQ = 1 dH or .015 = 2.5 dH or d H
Q
2 H .
H
H
015
2.5
dH =
x H=~
= .015
2.5
015
x50= 0.3
2.5
The limiting values of the head

= H dH =50 0.3 = 50.3 em, 49.7 em
= 50.3 em a nd 49.7 cm.'A ns .
..,._ 8.9. (a)
TIME REQUIRED TO EMPTY A RESERVOIR OR A TANK WITH A

RECTANGULAR WEIR OR NOTCH
Consider a reservoir or tank of uniform cross-sectional area A. A rectangular weir or notch is provided in one of its sides.
L = Length of crest of the weir or notch
Let
Cd =Co-efficient of disch arge
1/1 :::; Initial height of liquid above the crest of notch
H 2 = Final height of liquid above the crest of notch
T =Time required in seconds to lower the height of liquid from H 1 to H 2
Let at any instant, the height of liquid surface above the crest of weir or notch be hand in a !'mall time
. dT, let the liquid surface fall s by ' dh' . T hen,
- Adlt <-= Q X dT
- ve sign is taken as with the increase ofT. h d<!creases.
scanned by Fahid
-,
2
.
Q == - Cd X LX ..Jfi
But
363 1
Notches and Weirs
312
2
n;; 31'
- Adh
- Adh ==- Cdx Lx "2g . h - xdT or dT == ..,- - - -- - 2
312
3
Cd X LX J2g X h
The total timeT is obtained by integrating the above equation between the limits H 1 to H 2
T
Jo
Jl:
dT- n, -2 C
-
d X
-Adh
f2: X I1312
v'"g
Hl
or
T==
-A
~ C, xL x ;f2iL,
/r-312
dh
2C, xL x;f2i [
'
3A
3A
, -.1/2+ 1
-'--
-%+1
] H,
.... (S.8)
= Cd X LX .,j2g jFi; - ..jH; .
(b) . TIME REQUI RED TO E~PTY A RES~RVOIR OR A TANK WITH A TRIANGULAR

WEIR OR NOTCH
Consider a ~servoir or tank of uniform cross-sectional area A, having a triangular weir or notch in
one of its sides.
Let 9 = Angle of the notch
Cd =Co-efficient of discharge
H 1 = Initial height of liquid above the apex of notch
H2 =Final height of liquid above the apex of notch
T =Time required in seconds, to lower the height from H 1 to H"!. above the apex of the notch.
Let at any instant, the height of liquid surface above the apex of weir or notch be h and in a small time
dT, let the liquid surface falls by 'dh ' . Then
- Adh = Q X dT
-ve sign is taken. as with the increase ofT, h decreases.
And Q for a triangular notch is
Q=
!_
xcdxtan
- Adh =
!_
Cd X tan
15
15
~fii
2
~ X J2i
2
xh
512
51
X h ZX
dT
scanned by Fahid
,.
1364 -Fluid Mechanics ~.
'
dT -
Adh
8
-
15
Cd
tan
-X
.J2i X h
512
The total timeT is obtained by integrating the above equation between.the limits H 1 to H2.
..
J~
lo dT=
.
T
H,
-Ah
e
C tan - f2: h 512
15 d
2 v"g
8
JHl h-512 dh
. -A e
T= 8
or
-Cd xtan-x..fii
15
2
H,
[h-312 ]H
-.15A
=
e
8 x C'd X tan- X
2
-15Ae
8 X Cd x tan - X
(-~)[--k-]Hl
.ffi_
3_ h
-----5A e
[H 1312 -
=
4 X Cd
- 3-
..J2i --2
tan - X
..J2i
H1
H13t2 ]
...(8.9)
Problem 8.12 Find the time required to lower the water level from 3 m to 2 m in a reservoir of
dimension 80 m.x 80 m, by a rectangular notch of length 1.5 m. Take Cd =0.62.
Solution. Given :
Dimension of reservoir= 80 m x 80 m
or Area,
A = 80 x 80 = 6400 m 2
Length of notch,
L = 1.5 m, Cd 0 .62
Using the'relation giyeri by fue equation (8.8)
T=
C1
3A [-1
__1]
[if; .jii;
LX ..j2i
3 X 6400
[ 1
::::
~.62 X 1.5 X ,/2 X 9.8'1 J2 - -./3
4661.3~
[0.7071- 0.5773] seconds
=605.04 seconds= 10 min 5 sec. Ans.

Problem 8.13 If in problem 8. 12, instead of a rectangular notch, a right-angled V-notch is used,
find the time required. Tlike all o{her data same.
scanned by Fahid
Notches and Weirs 365 1

Solution. Given :
Angle of notch,
Area of reservoir,
e = 90
H 1 =3m
H,=2m
A= 80 x 80 =6400 m 2
cd o.62
Using the relation given by equation (8.9)
T=
4x
J2i
[--k---k-]
tan -
.62 X
5x6400
[ I
1
90
2IT- -31
.5
tan - X ,/2 X 9.81
=
4
5A
cd x
= 29 13.34
H2
H,
X[-~-~]
2.8284 5.1961
= 29 13.34 [0.3535 - 0.1924] seconds

= 469.33 seconds= 7 min 49.33 sec. Ans.
Problem 8.14 A right-angled V-notch is inserted in the side of a rank of length 4 m and width 2.5 m.
Initial height of water above the apex of the notch is 30 em. Find the height of water above the apex if
the rime required to lower the head in tank from 30 em to final height is 3 minutes. Take Cd = 0.60.
Solution. Given:
Angle of notch,
=90
Area of tank,
A= Length x width = 4 x 2.5 = 10.0 m2
InitiaJ height of water,
H 1 30 em= 0.3 m
Time,
T= 3 min= 3 x 60 180 seconds
Cd= 0.60
Let the finaJ :height of water above the apex of notch =H2
Using the relation given by equation (8.9)
SA
T=
4 X Cd
180
tan 2
.fii
I
I ]
---rn--m
H2
5 X 10
= 4x.60xtan (90)
2" x.J2x9.81
H,
-mH2
1
(0.3)
]
3/2
~ .60 :~X 4.429 [ H m - (0.~)312 ]

1
= 4
or
_ I _ _ _I_
H/5 0.3 15
= 180 X 4 X 0.60 X 4.429 = 38 .266.

50
scanned by Fahid
,.

I
or
Hl.S - 6.0858:: 38.266

2
-
H 215
H2
.... 8. I 0
.
15
I
=36.266 + 6.0858
= 42.35 or H 2 = - - - =0.0236
42.3:>
..
= (.0236) 1115 = (0.0236). 6667 = 0.0822 m = 8.22 em. An_s.
VELOCITY OF APPROACH
Velocity of approach is defined as the velocity with which the water approaches or reaches the weir
or notch b~fore it flows over it. Thus if v. is the velocity of approach, then an additional head h. equal
.
.
to vaz due to velocity of approach, is acting on the water. flowing over the notch. Then initial heighrof
2g
water over the notch becomes (H+ h 0 ) and final height becomes equal to h". Then all tt}e formulae are
1
changed taking into consideration of velocity of approach.
The velocity of approach, Va is determined by finding the discharge over'tbe notch or weir neglecting
velocity of approach. Then dividing the discharge-by .the cross-sectional area of the channel .on the
upstream side of the weir or notch, the<:..v:e!o~i!Y. of appJQ~C:.h.~ 0.~1aine<b M~th~m~tically~
va-
Q
Area of channel
This velocity of approach is used to find an additional head
(~z. = ;; } .Again the discharge is
calculated and above process i$ repeated for more accurate discharge.

Discharge over a rectangular weir, with velocity of approach
=~
Cd XL X .,j2i [(H1 + h
312
0)
h112]
... (8.10)
Probl.e m 8.15 Water is flowing in a rectangular channel of 1 m wide and 0. 75 m deep. Find the
discharge over a rectangular weir ofcrest length 60 em if the head of water over the crest of weir is
20 em and water from channel flows over the weir. Take Cd = 0.62. Neglect end contractions. Take
velocity of approach into consideration.
Solution. Given :
A = Width x depth = 1.0 x 0. 75 = 0.75 m 2
Area of channel,
L = 60 em = 0.6 m
Length of weir,
Head of water,
H 1 = 20cm=0.2m
Cd= Q.62
Discharge over a rectangular weir; without velocity of approach is given by
. 2
Q = - cd x L x
x H 13' 2
3
.J2i
= ~- X 0.62 X 0.6 X .J2 X. 9.81
. . 3
(0.2) 312 m 3/s
scanned by Fahid
Notches and Weirs
36!]
= 1.098 x 0.0894 = 0.0982 m 3/s

0982
=
Q =
=0.1309 m/s
a
A
0.75
Velocity of approach,
:. Additional head,
ha =_a = (.1309) 2/2

2g
y2
9.81
=.0008733 ffi
Then discharge with velodty of approach is given by equation (8.10)
Q =~X Cd XL X
= 3_
..J2i [(HI+ 1ta)312 -
0.62 X 0.6 X
,}2 X 9.81
h/'2]
((0.2 + .00087)312 - (.00087) 312)
= 1.098 [0.09002- .00002566]
= 1.098 x 0.09017 =.09881 m 3/s. Ans.

Problem 8. 16 Find the discharge over a rectangular weir of length 100m. The head of water over
the weir is 1.5 m. The velocity of approach is given as 0.5 mh. Take Cd = 0.60.
Solution. Given :
Length of weir,
L= 100m
Head of water,
H 1 = 1.5m
Va 0 .5 mls
c" = o.6o
:. Additional head,
ha
= Vn 2 =0.5 X 0.5 =0.0127 m

2g
2x9.81
The discharge, Q over a rectangular weir due to velocity of approach is given by ~quation (8.10)
Q =3_
3
Cd XL X
3_
0.6 X 100 X
.=
..j2i [(H1 + ft
,}2 X 9.81
= 177.16 [ 1.5127312 -
=177.16 (1.8605 -
.0127
.00143)
0)
312
h 0 312]
((1.5+ .0127)312 - .0127312)
312
=329.35 m 3/s. Ans.
Proble m 8 .17 A rectangular weir ofcrest length 50 em is used to measure the rate offlow of water
in a rectangular channel of80 em wide and 70 em deep. Determine the discharge in the channel if the
water level is 80 mm above the crest of weir. Take velocity of approach into consideration and value
ofCd = 0.62.
Solution. Given:
Length of weir.
L =50 em =0.5 m
2
Area of channel,
A= Width x depth= 80 em x 70 em= 0.80 x 0.70 =0.56 m
Head over weir,
H =80 mm =0 .08 m
c" =o.62
The discharge over a rectangular weir without velocity of approach is given by equation (8. 1)
scanned by Fahid
.,
1368 Fluid Mechanics <

2
Q =- x
3
= ~3
cd
xLx
ffi
0.62 X 0.5
x H 312
.j2 X 9.8 1 X (0.08)312 m 3/s.
= 0. 9153 x .0226 = .0207 m 3/s

= AQ = 0207
=.0369 m/s
056
2
h = V'j2g =
a
(.0369)
= .0000697 m
2 X 9.81
Discharge with velocity of approach is

2
.
Q'= 3X Cd XL X
=.% 0.62
((H 1 + ~ 0 )
jfi
0.5
312
- h/
12
.j2 X 9.8] ((.08 + .00006~72
= 0.9153 X (.08006971.5 .:..-:0000697 15)
'~ =-~0QQ6~7 3~~]
- ---- - -- -
= .9153 [.02265 - .000000582] =0.2073 m /s. Ans.

Problem 8.18 A suppressed rectangular ll'eir is constructed across a channel. of 0. 77 m width with
a head of 0.39 m and the crest 0.6 m above the bed of the channel. Estimate the discharge over it.
Consider velocity of approach and assume Cd = 0.623.
Solution. Given :
Width of channel,
b = 0. 77 m
H = 0.39 m
Head over weir,
Height of crest from bed of channel =0.6 m
= 0.6 '+ 0.39 =0.99
:. Depth of channel
Cd = 0.623
Value of
Suppressed weir means that the width of channel is equal to width of ~eir i.e., there is no end
contraction.
Width of channel= Width of weir= 0.77 m
A = Width of channel x Depth of channel
Now area of channel,
= 0.77 X 0.99
The discharge over a rectangular weir without velocity of approach is given by equation (8.1 ).
Q
=-2
Cd X b X
jfi
=-:- X 0.623 X 0.77 X
Now velocity of approach, V" =
Area of channel
H 312
.Jz X 9.81
_(:
X
0.39 312
Here b = L)
=0.345 m 3/s
0345
= 0.4526 m/s
0.77 X _0.99
Hea.d due to velocity of approach ~
scanned by Fahid
Notches and Weirs
369 j
va2 = 0.45262 = 0.0104 m

2g 2 X 9.81
Now the discharge with velocity of approach is given by,
h =
0
Q =3-
Cd X b
.f2i
=JX 0.623 X 0. 77 X
((H + h~) 312 - h/12]
~2 X 9.81 ((0.39 + 0.0 I04 ) 312 - (0.0 l 04 ) 312]
= J X 0.623 X 0.77 X 4.43 (0.2533- 0.00106)

=0.3573 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 8.19 . A sharp crested rectangular v;eir of 1 m height extends across a rectangular
channel of 3m width. If the head of water over the weir is 0.45 m, calculate the discharge. Consider
velocity of approach and assume Cd = 0.623.
Solution . Given :
Width of channel,
Height of weir
Head of water over weir,
. . Depth of channel
b=3m
=1 m
=0.45 m
=Height of weir+ Head of water over weir

= l + 0.45 = I .45 m
Value of
Cd 0.623
The discharge over a rec tangular weir without velocity of approach is given by equation (8.1) as
2
Q = - X Cd X b X .fii X H 312
= -
0.623
3 X .J2 X 9.81
= 1.665 m3/s
0.45 312
Now velocit~ of approach is given by
va -
Q
Area of channel
1.665
= I .665 = _
m/s
0 382
Width of channel x Depth of channel 3 x I .45
Head due to velocity of approach is given by,

h,1
= ~/ =
2g
03822
2 X 9.8 1
= 0.0074 m
Now the ~ischarge with velocity of approach is gi,en by.

Q
= ~ X Cd X b X .Jfi [(H + h )"lfl- (/r
= ~ X 0.623 X 3 X V/2 X 9.81

=1.703 m3/s. Ans.
scanned by Fahid
312 ]
[(0.45 + 0.0074) 312 - (0.0074) 312)
r :y-~--
--r-
- .-.-. ;:j'/.
'
.:..:
.,
. t
1370 FJuid Mechanics

1Jo>
8. 1 1 EMPIRICAl FORMULAE FOR DISCHARGE OVER RECTANGU LAR WE IR:

The discharge over a rectangular weir is given by
=~ cd fii .x LX [H312 ] '!\'ithout veloci~y of approach
=:!..ctJ fii
3
... (i)
x L ~ [(H + h ) 31 ~ - h/12 ] with velocity of approach
... (ii)
Equation (i) and (ii) are applicable to the weir of notch for which the crest length is equal to the width
of the cha11nel. This type of weir is called Suppressed weir. But if the weir is not suppressed, the effect
of end contraction will be taken into account.
(a) F rancis's Formula. Francis on the basis of his experiments established that end contraction decreases the effl!ctive length of the crest of
weir and hence decreases the discharge. Each end contraction reduces the
crest length by 0.1 x H, where His the head over the weir. For a rectangular weir there are two end contractions only and hence effective length
.L = (L - 0.2 H)
0.1H
- - 0 .1H -
2
. . Q = - X Cd X [L- 0.2 X H] X fii H 312
and
Fig. 8.8
cd =0.623, g =9.81 m/s 2, then .
lf
=:!._X
.623'x ..}2 X 9.81
= 1.84 [L -
[L- 0.2
0.2 x H]H312
HJ X H 3n
... (8.11)
If end contractions are suppressed, then

312
H = 1.84 LH
If velocity of approach is considered, then
... (8.12)
Q = 1.84 L [(H + ha) 312 - h 0 312]
(8.13)
(b) Bazin 's Formula. On the basis of results of a series of experiments, Bazin's proposed the follow-
ing formula for the discharge over a rectangular weir as

Q
where m
=-3
Cd
=m XL jii X H312
(8. 14)
.003
=0.405 + -H-
H height of water over the weir

If velocity of approach is considered, then
=,;1 1 XL X fii
[(H + ha) 312]
... (8. 15)

003
)
where m 1 0.405 + (
H+h,
Problem 8.20 The head of wmer Ow!r n recwngular weir is 40 em. The length of the crest nf the
ll'eir with end contraction suppressed is I .5 m. Find the dischar8e using the following formulae :
(i) Francis's Formula and (ii) Btl::.in 's Formula.
scanned by Fahid
Notches and Weirs
371 1.
Solution. Given:
Head of water,
H =40 em = 0.40 m
Length of weir,
L = l.5m
(i) Fr;ancis s Formula for end contraction suppressed is given l;>y equation (8.12).
Q = 1.84 L x H 312 = 1.84 x 1.5 x(.40) 312
= 0.6982 m3/s
(ii) Bazin's Formu.la is given by equation (8.14)
Q = m XL
wherem
= 0.405 +
003
H
.Jfi X H312
= 0.405 + 003 = 0.4125

.40
=.4125 X 1.5 X .j2 X 9.81
(.4) 312
=0.6932 m 3/s. Ans.

Problem 8.21 A weir 36 metres long is divided into 12 equal bays hv vertical posts, each 60 em
wide. Determine the discharge ov:!r the weir if the head over the crest is 1.20 m and velocity of
approach is 2 metres per second.

Solutio11. Given :
Length of weir,
Number of bays,
For 12 bays, no. of vertical post = 11
Width of each post
=60 em =0.6 m
L =L 1 - 11 x 0.6 =36 - 6.6 =29.4 m
. . Effective length,
Head on weir,
H = 1.20 m
Va =2 m/s
h = v}=
a
2g
Number of end contraction, n = 2 X 12
22
=0.2038m
2x9.81
{Each bay has two e~d contractidns}
=24
Discharge by Francis Formula with end contraction and velocity of approach is
Q = 1.84
rL- 0.1 X n(H + ha)][(H + ha)312 -
h;-"2]
= J.84(2Q.4:- 0.1 X 24(i.20 + .2038)] X [( 1.2 + .2038)1.5 - .20381.5]
= 1.84[29.4 ._ 3.369]l1.663 - .092]
= 75.246 m 3/s. Ans.
Problem 8.22 A discharge (If 2000 n/!s is tO pass Mer a rectangular weir. The weir is dilided into
a number of" openings each of spmr 10m. If the velocity of approach is 4 mls. find the number of
openings needed in order the head of water mer the aest is nor to exceed 2 111.
Solution. Given:
Total discharge,
Q = :2000 m-'Js
Length of each opening.
L= 10
scanned by Fahid
va =4 m/s
1372
I
I
Fluia Mechanics
Head over weir,

H =2m
Let number of openings = N
Head.due to velocity of approach,
v;
4 x4
h =- =
= 0.8155m
'' 2g 2x9.81
For each opening, number of end contractions are two. Hence discharge for each opening considering
velocity of approach is given by Francis Formula
312
12
i.e.,
Q = 1.84(L - 0. 1 X 2 X (H + h 0 )][(H + h0 ) }
5
= 1.84(10.0 - 0.2 X (2 + .8155)][2.8 1551.5 - .81551. }
h/
= 17.363[4.7242 -0.7364] = 69.24 m /s

:. Number of opening
_
Total discharge
2000
=-- Discharg for one opening 69.24
=28.88 (say 29) = 29. Ans .

.... 8. 12
CIPOLLETTJ WEIR OR N OTCH
Cipolletti weir is a trapezoidal weir, which h as sideslopes of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical as shOwn in Fig. 8.9. Thus in ~ABC,
e AB H 14 1
tan - = - = -- = 2
BC
H
4
H
=tan _!_ = 14 2'.

2
4
By giving this slopes to the sides, an increase in discharge through the
triangular portions ABC and DEF of the,weir is obtained. If this slope is
not provided the ~eir would be a rectangular one, and due to end contraction, the discharge would decrease. Thus in case of cipolletti weir,
the factor of end contraction is not required which is shown below.
T he discharge through a rectangular weir with two end contractions is
Q= ~
3
Cd X (L - 0.2 H)
.fii
1
Fig. 8.9
Tbe cipolletti -...:eir.
312
512
=~3 X Cd XL~ .fii H312 - ~
Cd X Jfi X H
15
~ischarge decreases by 2.
cd X Jfi X H n . This decrease in

15
.
discharge can be compensated by giving such a slope to the sides that the discharge through two triangu-
Thus due to end contraction, the
lar portions is equal to
2. cd X Jfi
15
V-notch of angle e is given by
H 512 Let the slope is given by 812. The discharge through a
=-158 x Cd x ~fiig x tan -e2 H512
scanned by Fahid
Notches and Weirs 3 73J
-,
_!
Thus
15
Cd
.j2i X tan ~
2
tan~ = 2_ x ~ = .!_
2
15
8
Thus discharge through cipolletti weir is
Q =3_
3
or
N 512
= 2_ X CJ X
15
9/2 = tan- 1 .!_

4
Cd X LX
.j2i
/fg
H 512
= 14 2'.
H312
... (8.16)
If velocity of approach, Va is tO be taken into consideration,

2
Q= 3
Cd X LX
J2i [(H + ha)312 -
11;
12
...(8.17)
Problem 8.23 Find the discharge over a cipolletti weir of length 2.0 m when the head over the
weir is /m. Take Cd =0.62.
Solution. Given :
length of weir,
L =20 m
Head over weir,
H = 1.0 m
cd =0.62
Using equation (8. 16), the discharge is given as
2
Q= - xCdxLx.fii x H 312
3
312
X 0.62 X 2.0 X .j2 X 9.8 1 X (I )
= 3.661 m 3/s. Ans.
3
Problem 8.24 A cipolletti weir of crest length 60 em discharges water. The head of water over the
weir is 360 mm. Find the discharge over the weir if the channel is 80 em wide and 50 em deep. Take
= 3_
cd = o.6o.
Solution . Given :
I
Cd= 0.60
L 60 em 0.60 m
H.= 360 mm = 0.36 m
80 em = 0.80 m
= 50 em = 0.50 m
A =cross-sectional area of channel = 0.8 x 0.5
To find velocity of approach, first determine discharge over the weir as
Length ofwiir,
Head of water,
Channel width
Channel depth
Q =3_ Cd X LX
3
The \elocity of approach.
=0.4 m2
jii X H 312
va = Q
A
Q =.:.
3
V
a
0.60 X 0.60 X .j2 X 9.8 1
2296
= 0.40
=0.574 m/s
(0.36) 31~ m3/s = 0.2296 m3/s
scanned by Fahid

Head due to velocity of approach,
2
h0
= v 2n = (0.574 ) =0.0168 m
0
2 X 9.81
Thus rhe discharge is given by equation (8.17) as
Q=
X Cd XL X
.j2i
[(H
+ h0 )1..5- it/ 5]
= ~ X 0.60 X .6 X ~2 X 9.81
3
((.36 + .0168)1.5 - (.0168)1. 5)
:
= 1.06296 x [.2313 - .002 177] = 0.2435 m3/s. Ans .
._ 8.13
DISCHARGE OVER A BROAD-CRESTED WEIR
A weir having a wide crest is known as broad-cresred weir.

Let H =height of water, above the crest
L =length of the crest
---------,.-----~
~L
____...
Fig. 8.10 Broad-crested weir.

,
If 2L > H, the weir is called broad crested weir
If 2L < H, the weir is called a narrow crested weir
Fig. 8.10 shows a broad-crested weir.
Let h head of water at the middle of weir which. isconstant
v =velocity of flow over the weir
Applying Bernoulli's equation to the'still water surface on the upstream side and running water at the
end of weir,
v2
0+0 +H =0+--+h
2g
v2
-=H - h
2g
v = ~2g(H-h)
. . The discharge over weir Q
= Cd x Area of flow X Velocity

= Cd XL X h X ~2g (H - h)
= Cdx L x
~2g (Hh 2 -
11 3 )
...(8. 18 1
scanned by Fahid
', '
NotChes and
The discharge will be maximum, if (Hh
!!.._ (HI?- h3)
or
dh
Weir~
375 1
is maximum
= 0 or 2h x H - 3h
=0 or 2H =3h
2
h=-H
3
Qmax will be obtained by substituting this \'3.lue of h in equation (8. 18) as
Q- = c,xLx
J2g[ Hx(H' -(H']
.
r::::-~
4
2
8 3
= Cdx L x , t2g Hx-x H - - H
'/4
=Cd XL X ,/2g 1Jgfi
27
8
H~
27
= Cd XL X .{ii
=c, xLx -.jlg-Ji~-H' =c,x L x J2i

= .3849 x , 2 x 9.81
x 0.)849 x H"'
x cd x L x H 312 = 1.7047 x cd x L x H 312
= 1.705 x Cdx L >< H
..... 8.14
(12-8)H 3
27
312
...(8.19)
DISCHARGE OV ER A NARROW-CRESTED W EI R
For a narrow-crested weir, 2L <H. It is sim ilar to a rectangular weir or notch hence, Q is g.iYen by
Q
..... 8. 15
311
=~3 X Cd
X L X jfi X H
DISCHARGE OVER AN OGEE W EIR
Fig. 8.15 shows an Ogee weir, in which the crest of the weir rises
up to maximum height of 0.1 15 x H (where His the height of water
above inlet of the weir) and then fal ls as shown in Fig. 8.1 1. The
discharge for an Ogee weir is the same as that of a rectangular weir,
and it is given by
2
... (8.21)
Q = - Cd X L X .j2i X H312
3
.... 8. ! 6
... (8.20)
SHARP
CREST
Fig. 8.11
An Ogee weir .
DISCHARGE OVER SUBMERG ED OR DROW NED WEIR
\Vhen the water level on the downstream s ide of a weir is above the crest of the weir, then the weir is
called to be a submerged or drowned weir. Fig. 8.12 shows a submerged weir. The total discharge, over
the weir is obtained by dividing the weir into two parts. The portion between ups tream and downstream
water surface may be treated as free weir and portion between downstream water surface and crest of
weir a<; a drowned weir.
scanned by Fahid
Submerged weir.
Fig. 8.12
Let H = height of water on the upstream of the weir

h = height of water on the downstream side of the \Veir
Then
Q1 =discharge over upper portion
= ~3 X
Cd XL X
I
.j2i
[H- 1!]312
Q2 =discharge through drowned portion
:. Total discharge,
= Cd~
= Cd,
XL
Area of fl ow X Velocity of flow

X
~2g(H - h)
Q =Q, + Ql
2
= J Cd,
XL X
.fii [H - h] 312 + Cd~ XL X h X ~2g(H- h) ....(8.22)
Pro b lem 8 .25 (a) A broad crested weir of 50 m length, has 50 em height of water above its crest.
Find the maximum discharge. Take Cd 0.60. Neglect velocity of approach. (b) lf the velocity of
approach is to be taken into consideration, find the maximum discharge when the channel has a
cross-sectional area of 50 m 2 on the !JPStream side.
Solution. Given :
Length of weir,
L=50m
Head of water,
H =50 em 0.5 m
Cd= 0.60
(i) Neglecting v~locity of approach. Maximum discharge is given by equation (8.19) as
Qmax
=1.705 X cd XL X H312
= 1.705 X 0.60 X 50 X (.5) 312 = 18.084 m3/s. Ans.

(ii) Taking velocity of approach into consideration
Area of channel,
A =50 m2
v = Q = 18.084 =0.36 mls
:. Head "due to V0 ,
ha
50
= V} = 0.36 X .36 =.0066 m

2g
Maximum discharge, Qmax is given by

Qmax = I 705
= 1. 705
2x9.8 1
X
X
Cd X L x ((H + ha )3/2 _ ha3/2]

5 - (.0066)1.
by5Fahid
0.6 X 50 X ((.50+ .0066)1.scanned
]
NotChes and Weir$
3771
= 51.15f0.3605 - .000536] = 18.412 m 3/s. Ans.

Problem 8.26 An Ogee weir 5 metres long has a head of 40 C/11 of water.
discharge over the weir.
, .
Solution. Given :
L=5m
Length of weir,
H =40 em =0.40 m
Head of water,
Cd= 0.6
Discharge over Ogee weir is given by equation (8.21) as
Q=
3 X Cd XL X j2g X f/
If cd = 0.6, find the
312
2
=-
312
X 0.60 X 5.0 X .J2 X 9.81 X (0.4)
= 2.2409 m 3/s. Ans.
3
Problem 8.27 The heights of water on the upstream and downstream side of a submerged weir of
3m length are 20 em and 10 em respectively. If Cdfor free and drowned portion'S are 0.6 and 0.8
respectively, find the discharge over the weir.
Solution. Given :.
Height of water on upstream side, H =20 em = 0.20 m
Height of water on downstream side, h =10 em = 0.10 m
L =3m
Length of weir,
cd, = 0.6
C~, = 0.8
Total discharge Q is the sum of discharge through free portion and discharge through the drowned
portion. This is given by equation (8.22) as
Q=:!:.cd I
xLx VL~
'2g[H-h] 312 +Cd2 xLxhx,/2g(H
- h)
\
0.6 X 3 X .J2 X9.81 (.20- . 10)1.5 + 0.8 X 3

3
= 0.168 + 0.336 = 0.504 m3/s. Ans.
= :!:.X
I , \ .~
'
,. ..
t .J
.10 X
~2 X 9.81 (.2- .1)
J '(,
1. A notch is a device used for measuring the rate ~f flow of a liquid t.hiough a small chann~l. A weir is a
concrete or masonary structure placed in the open channel over which the flow occurs.
2. The discharge through a rectangular notch 6r weir is given by( : .
..
.; J ,;,.. ,. ... ~, ...._., ~... .-<~.,
.. ..."~.'\ ,..tt-. ....
3n.
.
...
..
.
2
~-
, __ QF3 CdxL><,H ,.,
<
1:
t'- ...
"~.
i~.r: J ,~-
where Cd =Co-efficient of djsc~argc,

.. . :: . .' \ ' . .,_ ,.
L =Length of notch or weir,
H =Head of water over the notch or weir.

3. The discharge over a triangular notch or weir is given by
8
Q = 15 Cd tan
2e X
M::
v2~
!f
'
Jn
where 9 =total angle of triangular notch.
scanned by Fahid
l378 Fluid Mechanics

4. The discharge through a trapezoidal notch or weir is equal to the sum of discharge through a rectangular
notch and the discharge through a triangular notch. It is given as
Q=
where
~
3
Cd XLXH312 + _!_Cd
15
tan
~x,fig
2
xHsn
cd, =co-efficient of discharge for rectangular notch,

cdl
= co-efficient of discharge for triangular notch,
912 = slope of the side of trapezoidal notch.

S. The error in discharge due to the error in the measurement of head over a rectangular and triangular notch
or weir is given by
3 dH
-dQ = -...... For a rectangular wetr. or notch
2 H
5 dH
.
.
= - ...... For a trtanguJar weu or notch
2 H
where
Q = discharge through rectangular or triangular notch or weir

H =head over the notch or weir.
6. The Lime required to empty a reservoir or a tank by a rectangular or a triangular notch is given by
... By a rectangular notch
... By a triangular notch

where A = cross-sectional area of a tank or a reservoir
_ _ _ H 1 - initial heig~l of liquid above the crest.s>r apex of notch
--- - -H.z= final height ofliquidabove"1be-cresrorapex ofnotch. .
7. The velqcity with which the water approaches the weir or notch is called the vel~ity of"approach. It is
.
denoted by v9 and is given by
_
V = Discharge over .the notch or weir

"
Cross- section
a area
of channel
.....
,,
\
\
...
y2
8. The head due. to velocity of approach is given by h11 =....!!....
~
2g
9. Disch_arge over a rectangul~ weir, with velocity_of approach,

Q
=~3 C0L J2i [(HI + h,J312 -
h0 312}.
10. Francis's Formula for a rectangular weir is given by
=1.84[L - 0.2 H} H312

= 1.84 L H 312
b 1.84 L [ (H + h0 ) 312 - h0 312}
where
=length of weir, -/
... For two end contractions

... If end contractions are suppressed
... If velocity of approach is consider~
H =height of water above the crest of the weir,
q.
ha = head due to velocity of approach.

Bazin's Formula for discharge over a rectangular weir,
scanned by Fahid
'
Notehes
Q = m L J2gH 312
... with velocity of approach
2
.003
m =- Cd= 0.405 + - 3
= 0.405 + (
..
... without velocity of approach
=m L J2i [(H + h,i12J

where
anCI Werrs 379 j
.003
... with velocity of approach.
)
H+hn
12. A trapezoidal weir, with side slope or I horizontal to 4 vertical. is called Cipolletti weir. The discharge
thro'ugh Cipolletti'weir is given by
I
'
2
Q = - cd XL X
H3n
J2i
~ cd XL 'x ..J2i [(H + h.,)Y(-- ""312)
...
with velocity of approach.
13. The discharge over a Broad-crested weir is given by,
Q = CdL
- .
~2g (~h 2 - h3 )
where- H:;'JieighTof water,..abqve 111e crest-'- ~- :.=::_ ~:::_:;---===:~-:::-..:.:::.==:-::-
' h..;,..headof..water-at the-middle-of-the-weir-which is constant _ _ _ _ ____;._ _ _ _ __

L = length of the weir.
14. The condition for maximum discharge over a Board-crested weir is h =

and maximum discharge is given by
Qma.< =
1.705 Cd L H
312
3:.3 H
J2i
3
15. The discharge over an Ogee weir is given by Q = 3:. CdL x
x H n.
3
16. The discharge over sub-merged or drowned weir is given by
Q =discharge over upper portion + discharge through downed portion
2
r.::312
t
=JCJ1 LhX.,J2g
(H-h) + Cd2 U1x v2g(H-h)
where
H = height of water on the upstream side of the weir,

h = height of water on thedownstream side of the weir.
EXERCISE 8

1. Define the tcnns : notch, weir, nappe and crest.
2. Ho:.v are the weirs and notches classified?
3. Find an expression for the discharge over a rectangular weir in terms of head of water over the crest of
the weir.
4. Prove that the discharge through a triangular notch or weir is given by
Q= -
15
r;;-::
'JJ'
C,1 x tan-xv2g H2
where fl = head of water over the notch or weir

e = an gle of notch or weir.
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5. What are the advantages of triangular n01ch or weir over rectangular notch ?
6. Prove that the error in discharge due to the error in the measurement of head over a rectangular notch is
gi,en by
dQ
3 dH
-=-Q
2 H
7.
8.
9.
10.
where Q = discharge through rectangular notch

and
H =head over the rectangular notch.
Find an expression for the time required to empty a tank of area of cross-section A, with a rectangular
notch.
What do you understand by 'Velocity of Approach'? Find an expression for the discharge over a rectangular weir with velocity of approach.
Define 'end contraction' of a weir. What is the effect of end contraction on the discharge through a weir?
What is a Cipolletti Weir? Prove that the discharge through Cipo\letti weir is given by
11.
12.
13.
1~.
15.
16.
= .::.
J2i
CdL
H3t2
3
where L = length of weir. and H = head of water over weir.
Differentiate bet,veen Broad-crested weir and Narrow-crested weir. Find the condition for maximum discharge over a Broad-crested weir and hence derive an expression for maximum discharge over a broad
crested weir.
What do you mean by a drowned weir? How will you determine the discharge for the downed weir ?
(A.M. I.E., Summer, 1987)
Discuss 'end contraction' of a weir.
State the different devices that can be used to measure the discharge through a pipe also through an open
channel. Describe one of such devices with a neat sketch and explain how one can obtain the actual dis(A.M.l.E., Summer, 1992)
charge with its help.
What is the difference between a notch and a weir?
Define velocity of approach. How does the velocity of approach affect the discharge over a wl!ir?
Q
(B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS.
1. Find the discharge of water flowing over rectangular notch of 3 m length when the constant head of water
[Ans. 1.344 m3/s]
over the notcb is 40 em. Take Cd = 0.6.
2. Determine the height of a rectangular weir of length 5 m to l>e built across a rectangular, channel. The
maximum depth of water on the upstream side of the weir is 1.5 m and discharge is 1.5 m 3 per second.
Take C4 = 0.6 and neglect end contractions.
[Ans. 1.194 m]
3. Find the discharge over a triangular notch of angle 60 when the head over the triangular notch is 0.20 m.
[Ans. 0.0164 m3/s]
Take C4 = 0.6.
4. Aiectangular channel 1.5 m wide has a discharge of 200 litres per second, which is measured by a rightangled V-notch weir. Find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed of the channel if maximum
[Ans. .549 m]
depth of water is not be exceed I m. Take Cd =0 .62.
5. Find the discharge through a trapezoidal notch which is 1.2 m wide at the top and 0.50 mat the bottom and
is 40 em in height. The head of water on the notch is 30 em. Assume Cd for rectangular portion as 0.62
while for triangular portion= 0.60.
[A ns. 0.22 m3/s]
fi. A rectangular notch 50 em long is used for measuring a discharge of 40 li trcs per second. An error of 2 mm
was made in measuring the head owr the notch. Calculate the percentage error in the discharge. Take
Cd = 0.6.
[Ans. 2.37%]
7. A right-angled V-notch is used for measuring a discharge of 30 litrcs/s. An error of 2 mm was made in
measuring the head over the notch. Calculate the percentage error in the discharge. Take Cd = 0.62.
[Ans. 2.37%]
..- .
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Notches 'and Weirs 381J

8. Find the time required to lower the water level from 3m to 1.5 m in a reservoir of dimension 70 m x 70 m.
by a rectangular notch of length 2.0 m. Take C4 =0:60.
[Ans. II min I s]
9. If in the problem 8, instead of a rectangular notch, a right angled V-notch is used, find the timercqui.r.::d.
Take all other data same.
[Ans. 13 min 31 s)
I 0. \\'ater is flowing ih a rectangular channel of 1.2 m wide and 0.8 m deep. Find the discharge over a rectangular weir of crest length 70 em if the head of water over the crest of weir is 25 em and water from channel
flows over the weir. Take C,1 = 0.60. Neglect end contractions but consider velocity of approach.
[Ans. 0.1557 rn 3/s]
11. Find the discharge over a rectangular weir oflength 80 m. The head of water over the weir is 1.2 m. The
velocity of approach is given as 1.5 m/s. Take Cd = 3.6.
[Ans. 208.11 rn 3/s]
12. The head of water over a rectangular weir is 50 em. The length of the crest of the weir with end contraction
suppressed is 1.4 m. Find the discharge using following formulae : (i) Francis's Formula and (ii)13azin's
Formula.
[Ans. (i) 0.91 m3/s, (ii) .901 m3/s]
13. A discharge of 1500 m3/s is to pass over a rectangular weir. The weir is divided into a number of openings
each of span 7.5 m. If the velocity of approach is 3 m/s, find the number of openings needed in order the
[Ans. 37.5 say 38]
head of .wate~ over the crest is not to exceed 1.8.
1 ~. Find the discharge over a cipolletti weir of length 1.8 m when the head over the weir is 1.2 m. Take
C4 = 0.62
.
. [Ans. 4.33 I m3/s]
15. (a) A broad-crested weir of length 40 m, has 400 mrn height of water above its crest. Find the maximum
discharge. :rake Cd = 0.6. Neglect velocity of approach.
[Ans. 10.352 m 3/s)
(b) If the velocity of approach is to be taken into consideration, find the maximum discharge when -the
channel has a cross-sectional area of 40m 2 o~ th~ ~p;trea~ 'side. ---- --- [Ani. 16:475 m3/s]
16. An Ogee weir 4 m long has a head of 500 mm of water. If Cd = 0.6, find the discharge over the weir.
[Ans. 2.505 m3/s]
17. The heights of water on the_upstream and downstream side qf a submerged weir of length 3.5 m are
300 mm and 150 mm respectively. lfC4 for free and drowned portion are 0.6 and 0.8 respectively, find the
[Ans. I .0807 m 3/s]
discharge over the weir.
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A TextBook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines

<click on the names to jump to the chapter directly>

01. Properties of Fluids

PROP ERTIES OF FLUIDS

Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a tluid is the

Weight density (density) of liquid

Weight density (density) of gas

Thus weight density of a liquid = S x Weight density of water

(ii) Density (p)

(iii) Specific gravity

= - = - - kg/m = 713.5 kg/m . Ans.

Density of water= I 000 kg/m~ }

Volume= l litre= I x 1000 cm3 =

Using equation ( l . I.A),

Using equation ( I. I),

1000 kg/m 3 = 0.7_ x 1000 = 700 kg!m 3 Ans.

= p x g = 700 X 9.81 Nlrn 3 =6867 N/m3 Ans.

Velocity variation near a solid bonud.lr)'.

From e.quat1on ( J . _ ). we have )..l =

The units of viscosity

11htaincd by putting the

MKS unit of viscosity

CGS unit of viscosity

But one Newton= one kg (mass) x one ( m 2 ) (acceleration)

= lOOOx 100 gm-cm

one kgf-sec = 9.81 x 100000 dyne-sec- ;-9.81 X 100000

= 98. 1 dyne-sec = 98.1 poise

Alternate Method. One potse =

..:::__ One poise

_ :-.-otc. (I) In SI units second is represented by s' and not by 'sec' .

he viscosity o f water at 20C is 0.01 poise or 1.0 cen1ipoise.

The units of kinematic viscosity is obtaine as

Force x 1'tmr- ._,

Force = Mass x A~c. )

Thus, one stoke

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperatur affects the viscosity.~ vi.scosit.J

where Jl =Viscosity ofliquid at tC, in poise

(ii) Fo.r ~gas,

If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by ;: = !.. y - / in which u is~

Prop erties of Fluids

Value of 1.1 = 8.63 poise=

= - - 2x.l5 =.667-.30= 0.367

SI units= 0.863 N s/m

= 0.863 x 0.667 = 0.5756 N/m

(ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 misgiven by

(t)y =O.IS = J.L

=0.863 X 0.367 = 0.3167 N/m2 Ans.

Velocity of upper plate,

Force on upper plate,

This is the value of shear stress i.e. , t

=Force per unit area = 2.0 -.;

.02~:~0-3 . . ~l = 2.0 X .025 X lQ -: = 8.33 X 10-~ N~

F = 't x area= 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans.

= FX u = 400x0.4 = 160 W. Ans.

u= nDN = n x 0.1xl50 =0. 785 rn/s

=0.8 x 0.8 =0.64 m

* Power = Fx 11 N rnls = F xu W (: Nrnls =Watt)

Properties C?f Fluids

Thickness Of Oil film,

and shear stress,

dy = 1.25 em= 0.0 125 m