IT131

Computer Networks
Week 1
Mr. Adomar L. Ilao

What is the Internet?

It is a computer network that interconnects hundreds
of millions of computing devices throughout the world.
It is commonly a collections of traditional desktop PC
and servers.
Servers stores and transmit information such as Web
pages and e-mail messages.
Nowadays, it includes non traditional Internet end
systems such TVs, laptops, gaming consoles,
cellphones, Web cams, automobiles, environmental
sensing devices, picture frames, and home electrical
and security systems.

What is the Internet?

Nowadays, it includes non traditional Internet
end systems such TVs, laptops, gaming
consoles, cellphones, Web cams, automobiles,
environmental sensing devices, picture
frames, and home electrical and security
systems.

Cool internet appliances

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Web-enabled toaster+weather forecaster

Worlds smallest web server
http://www-ccs.cs.umass.edu/~shri/iPic.html

What is the
Internet(Cont)?

These devices are called host or end systems.

End System are connected together by a network
of communication links and packet switches.
Communication links is made up of different
types of physical media such as coaxial cable,
copper wire, fiber optics and radio spectrum.

What is the
Internet(Cont)?

Communication links can transmit data at

different rates.
When one end system has data to send to
another end system, the sending end system
segments the data and add header bytes to
each segment.
The resulting packages of information known
packets.

What is the
Internet(Cont)?

Common packet switches are ROUTER and LINK-LAYER

SWITCHES.
The packet follows a sequence of communication links
and packet switches from the sending end system to the
receiving end system is known as a ROUTE or PATH.
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS (ISPs) is the access point
of any end system.

What is the
Internet(Cont)?
ISP can be RESIDENTIAL ISP (local cable or telephone
companies), corporate ISPs; university ISPs; and ISPs
that provide WiFi access in airports, hotels, coffee
shops and other public places.
Each ISP is a network of packet switches.
ISPs can be access to the end system by 56 kbps dial-up
modem access, residential broadband access such as
cable model or DSL, high-speed local area network
access and wireless access.

What is the Internet(Cont)?

ISPs must be interconnected to

international ISPs such as AT&T and
Sprint.
Each ISP runs the IP protocol and
conforms to certain naming and
address conventions.
TRANMISSION CONTROL
PROTOCOL (TCP) and the INTERNET
PROTOCOL (IP) are the most
important protocols in the internet.

What is the Internet(Cont)?

IP protocol specifies the format of the packets that are
sent and received among the routers and end systems.
Internet standards are developed by the INTERNET
ENGINEERING TASK FORCE (IETF).
The IETF's mission is "to make the Internet work better,"
but it is the Internet Engineering Task Force, so this means:
make the Internet work better from an engineering point
of view.

The IETF standards documents are called REQUESTS

FOR COMMENTS (RFC). Example : RFC 5000
It is a memorandum published by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) describing methods, behaviors, research,
or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet
and Internet-connected systems.

What is the
Internet(Cont)?

Internet provides an infrastructure that

provides services to applications.
Application includes electronic mail, Web
surfing, instant messaging, Voice-over-IP
(VOIP), Internet radio, video streaming,
distributed games, peer-to-peer (P2P) file
sharing, television over the Internet,
remote login and much more.

What is the Internet(Cont)?

Internet application are known as distributed
applications since they involve multiple end
systems that exchange data with each other.
Internet application runs on end system.
End system attached to the Internet provide an
APPLICATION PROGRAMMING INTERFACE (API)
that specifies how a software piece running on
one end system asks the internet infrastructure
to deliver data to a specific destination software
piece running on another end system.

The Network Edge

End System are also referred to as HOST since they
host application programs such as WEB BROWSER
PROGRAM, WEB SERVER PROGRAM, E-MAIL READER
PROGRAM or E-MAIL SERVER PROGRAM.
Host is divided into two categories : CLIENTS and
SERVERS.
CLIENTS : desktop, mobile pc or PDA.
SERVERs : powerful machine that store and distribute Web
pages, stream video, relay e-mail and so on.
CLIENT PROGRAM is a program running on another end
system.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks
Dial-Up
DSL
Cable
Fiber-to-Home (FTTH)
Ethernet
WiFi
Wide-Area Wireless Access

The Network
Edge(Cont)
Access Networks
Dial-Up
Started in 1990.
It uses analog telephone lines using a dial-up modem.
The term dial-up is employed because the users software
actually dials an ISPs phone number and makes a traditional
phone connection with the ISP.
Phone lines is made up of twisted-pair copper wire.
Drawbacks:
Slow based on a maximum rate of 56 kbps. Example : 3 minutes
song will took 8 minutes to download.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
DSL(Digital Subscriber Line)
It connects comes from the same company that provides it wired
local phone access (i.e., local telco)
When DSL is used, a customers telco is also its ISP.
DSL uses the existing telephone line (twisted-pair copper wire) to
exchange data with a digital subscriber line access multiplexer
(DSLAM), typically located in the telcos CO.
It carries the signal in different frequencies.
A high-speed downstream channel in the 50 kHz to 1 MHz band
A medium-speed upstream channel, in the 4 khz to 50 kHz band
An ordinary two-way telephone channel in the 0 to 4 kHz band

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
DSL Drawbacks:
No current standardization: A person moving from one area to another might find that their
DSL modem is just another paperweight. Customers may have to buy new equipment to simply
change ISPs. Expect standardization within 1-2 years. Currently in U.S. West territory the
version of DSL being implemented is RADSL or Rate Adaptive DSL.
Expensive: Most customers are not willing to spend more than $20 to $25 per month for
Internet access. Current installation costs, including the modem, can be as high as $750. Prices
should come down within 1-3 years. As with all computer technology, being first usually means
an emptier wallet.
Distance dependence: The farther you live from the DSLAM (DSL Access Multiplexer), the lower
the data rate. The longest run lengths are 18,000 feet, or a little over 3 miles.
Access: Once again, rural areas get shorted. These markets are not as profitable for the Telco.
Asymmetry. Downstream/Upstream ratios may be unacceptably high (3 or more). There is
nothing new here, as X.90 (56kbs) and cable modems also suffer in this area. Expect this to
improve within 2-3 years.
Limited availability
Very new technology

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Cable
The residence obtains cable Internet access from the same
company that provides it cable television.
It requires a special modem called CABLE MODEMS.
Cable modems divide the HFC (Hybrid fiber-coaxial) network into
two channels, a DOWNSTREAM and an UPSTREAM CHANNEL.
It shared broadcast medium.
Every packet sent by the head end travels downstream on every
link to every home; and every packet sent by a home travels on
the upstream channel to the head end.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Cable
If there are only a few active users and they are all web
surfing, then each of the users may actually receive Web
pages at the full cable downstream rate, because the users
will rarely request a Web page at exactly the same time.
Upstream channel is also shared, a Distributed multiple
access protocol is used to coordinate transmissions and
avoid collisions.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Cable
Drawbacks
Cable Internet does not always operate at the highest possible
speed; it depends on how many people in your area are
connected at the same time. If you are online during peak
hours your connection may run significantly slower
Initial connection can be expensive, as you have to install a
coaxial cable
Not all areas can access cable Internet
Cable may be a wasted expense for those who do not use the
internet regularly.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Fiber-to-the-Home(FTTH)
It is the delivery of a communications signal over optical fiber from
the operators switching equipment all the way to a home or business,
thereby replacing existing copper infrastructure such as telephone
wires and coaxial cable.
Fiber to the home is a relatively new and fast growing method of
providing vastly higher bandwidth to consumers and businesses, and
thereby enabling more robust video, internet and voice services.
Connecting homes directly to fiber optic cable enables enormous
improvements in the bandwidth that can be provided to consumers.
Current fiber optic technology can provide two-way transmission
speeds of up to 100 megabits per second.
Most FTTH ISPs provide different rate offerings, with the higher rates
naturally costing more money.
It provides download rates from 10 to 20 Mbps range.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Fiber-to-the-Home(FTTH)
Optical-Distribution Network
Architectures
Active Optical Networks
Passive Optical Networks

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Fiber-to-the-Home(FTTH)
Optical-Distribution Network Architectures
Active Optical Networks
It uses electrically powered switching
equipment, such as a router or a switch
aggregator, to manage signal distribution
and direct signals to specific customers.
This switch opens and closes in various
ways to direct the incoming and outgoing
signals to the proper place. In such a
system, a customer may have a dedicated
fiber running to his or her house.
Drawbacks :
They require at least one switch
aggregator for every 48 subscribers.
Because it requires power, an active
optical network inherently is less
reliable than a passive optical network.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Fiber-to-the-Home(FTTH)
Optical-Distribution Network Architectures
Passive Optical Networks
It does not include electrically powered
switching equipment and instead uses optical
splitters to separate and collect optical signals as
they move through the network.
It shares fiber optic strands for portions of the
network. Powered equipment is required only at
the source and receiving ends of the signal.
Drawbacks :
They have less range than an active optical
network, meaning subscribers must be
geographically closer to the central source
of the data.
PONs also make it difficult to isolate a
failure when they occur.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Ethernet
It is a common way to connect end system through LOCAL AREA
NETWORK (LAN).
It is the most prevalent access technology in corporate and
university networks.
It uses twisted-pair copper wire to connect to an Ethernet Switch
It typically offers 100 Mbps access, whereas servers may can have 1
Gbps or even 10 Gbps access.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Ethernet Drawbacks
Difficult To Change:
Reconfiguring the network will result in at least some "down
time," as the bus must be broken and a new section spliced in at
the point of the break.

Fault Intolerant
If any device or cable section attached to the network fails, it will
most likely make the entire network go down.

Difficult Troubleshooting
There is no easy way to determine what node or cable section is
causing a problem, and the network must be troubleshot by a
"process of elimination." This can be very time consuming.

Specialized Cable
The RG-58A/U coaxial cable used in Ethernet networks can not be
used for any other purpose. In the event that the network is
changed to another type, then the cable will have to be replaced.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
Wi-Fi (short for wireless fidelity)
The name of a popular wireless networking technology
that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed
Internet and network connections.
The Wi-Fi Alliance, the organization that owns the Wi-Fi
(registered trademark) term specifically defines Wi-Fi as
any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that
are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards."

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
WiFi (Cont)
It works with no physical wired connection between sender
and receiver by using radio frequency (RF) technology, a
frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated
with radio wave propagation.
Two common types of wireless Internet access :
Wireless LAN.
Wide-area wireless access network.

It provides a shared transmission rate of up to 54 Mbps.

Typically if you want to access the wireless LAN Technology
you need to be within a few tens of meters of the access
point.

Wireless LAN. Wireless

users transmit/receive
packets to/from an
access point that in turn
is connected to the
wired Internet.

Wide-area wireless access network. Packets

are transmitted to a base station over the same
wireless infrastructure used for cellular
telephony.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
WiFi (Cont)
Drawbacks :

WiFi uses the unlicensed 2.4GHz spectrum, which often crowded with other
devices such as Bluetooth, microwave ovens, cordless phones, or video
sender devices, and among many others. This may cause degradation in
performance.
WiFi networks have limited range. A typical WiFi home router might have a
range of 45m (150ft) indoors and 90m (300ft) outdoors. Ranges may also vary
as WiFi is no exception to the physics of radio wave propagation with
frequency band.
The most common wireless encryption standard, wired equivalent privacy or
WEP has been shown to be breakable even when it has been correctly
configured.
Access points could be used to steal personal and confidential information
transmitted from WiFi consumers.
Intervention of a closed or encrypted access point with other open access
points on the same or a nearby channel can prevent access to the open access
points by others in the area. It poses a high problem in high-density areas
such as large apartment blocks where many residents are operating WiFi
access points.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
WiMax
It is also known as IEEE 802.16.
It operates independently of the cellular network and
promises speeds of 5 to 10 Mbps or higher over
distances of tens of kilometers.

Wireless networks
Wireless PANs (Bluetooth IEEE
802.15)
very low range
wireless connection to printers etc

Wireless LANs (WiFi IEEE 802.11)

infrastructure as well as ad-hoc
networks possible
home/office networking

Wireless MANs (WiMAX-802.16)

Multihop Ad hoc Networks

useful when infrastructure not
available, impractical, or expensive
military applications, emergencies

Sridhar Iyer

IIT Bombay

Similar to cellular networks

traditional base station
infrastructure systems

34

The Network Edge(Cont)

Access Networks(Cont)
WiMax (Cont)
Drawbacks :

Low bit rate over Long distance

Wi-max technology offering long distance data range which is 70
kilometer or 30 miles and high bit rate which is 70Mbit/s.
If distance increase the bit rate will decreased and if we want to
increase bit rate then we should reduce the distance range.
Speed of connectivity
Any user closer to the tower can get high speed which is up to
30Mbit/s but if a user exist at the cell edge from the tower can
obtain only 14Mbit/s speed.
Sharing of bandwidth
In all wireless technology the bandwidth is shared between users in
a specified radio sector. Therefore functionality could go down if
more than one user exists in a single sector.

The Network Edge(Cont)

Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)

Bit: propagates between

transmitter/receiver pairs
physical link: what lies
between transmitter &
receiver
guided media:

signals propagate in solid media:

copper, fiber, coaxial

unguided media:

signals propagate freely, e.g.,

radio

two insulated copper

wires

Category 3: traditional
phone wires, 10 Mbps
Ethernet
Category 5 TP: 100Mbps
Ethernet

Physical Media: coax, fiber

Coaxial cable:

two concentric copper

conductors
bidirectional
baseband:

single channel on cable

legacy Ethernet

broadband:

multiple channel on cable

HFC

Fiber optic cable:

glass fiber carrying light

pulses, each pulse a bit

high-speed operation:

high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 5 Gps)

low error rate: repeaters

spaced far apart ; immune to

electromagnetic noise

Physical media: radio

signal carried in
electromagnetic spectrum
no physical wire
bidirectional
propagation environment
effects:

reflection
obstruction by objects
interference

Radio link types:

terrestrial microwave
e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
LAN (e.g., WaveLAN)
2Mbps, 11Mbps
wide-area (e.g., cellular)
e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps
satellite
up to 50Mbps channel
270 msec end-end delay
geosynchronous versus lowaltitude

Physical Media

The Network Core

Two Fundamental approaches to move
data through a network or links and
switches :
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching

The Network Core (Cont)

Circuit switching was
designed in 1878 in order to
send telephone calls down
a dedicated channel. This
channel remained open
and in use throughout the
whole call and could not be
used by any other data or
phone calls.

The Network Core (Cont)

Circuit-Switched Network
The resources needed along a path (buffers, link transmission
rate) to provide for communication between the end system are
reserved for the duration of the communication session
between end-system
Example : Telephone Networks
For the information is send to another over a telephone network,
network must establish a connection between the sender and the
receiver.

When the network establishes the circuit, it also reserves a

constant transmission rate in the networks links for the
duration of the connection.
Bandwidth has been reserved for this sender-to-receiver
connection, the sender can transfer the data to the receiver at
the guaranteed constant rate.

The Network Core(Cont)

Packet Switching
In packet-based networks, the
message gets broken into small data
packets. These packets are sent out
from the computer and they travel
around the network seeking out the
most efficient route to travel as
circuits become available. This does
not necessarily mean that they seek
out the shortest route.
Each packet may go a different route
from the others.

The Network Core(Cont)

Packet Switching(Cont)
Most packet switches use store-and-forward
transmission at the inputs to the links.
Store-and-forward transmission
the switch must receive the entire packet before it can
transmit the first bit of the packet on to the outbound
link.

Packet Switching
Each packet is sent with a header address. This tells it
where its final destination is, so it knows where to go.
The header address also describes the sequence for
reassembly at the destination computer so that the
packets are put back into the correct order.
One packet also contains details of how many packets
should be arriving so that the recipient computer knows
if one packet has failed to turn up.
If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a
message back to the computer which originally sent the
data, asking for the missing packet to be resent.

Packet Switching
Difference between circuit switching and
packet switching:
Packet Switching
Message is broken up into segments (packets).
Each packet carries the identification of the intended
recipient, data used to assist in data correction and
the position of the packet in the sequence.
Each packet is treated individually by the switching
centre and may be sent to the destination by a totally
different route to all the others.

Packet Switching
Packet Switching
Advantages:

Security
Bandwidth used to full potential
Devices of different speeds can communicate
Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal)
Availability do not have to wait for a direct
connection to become available
During a crisis or disaster, when the public
telephone network might stop working, e-mails
and texts can still be sent via packet switching

Packet Switching
Disadvantages
Under heavy use there can be a delay
Data packets can get lost or become
corrupted
Protocols are needed for a reliable
transfer
Not so good for some types data streams
e.g real-time video streams can lose
frames due to the way packets arrive out
of sequence.

Circuit Switching
There are three phases in
circuit switching:
Establish
Transfer
Disconnect

The telephone message is

sent in one go, it is not
broken up. The message
arrives in the same order that
it was originally sent.

Circuit Switching
With the expanded use of the Internet for
voice and video, analysts predict a gradual
shift away from circuit-switched networks.
A circuit-switched network is excellent for
data that needs a constant link from end-toend. For example real-time video.

Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching

Advantages:
Circuit is dedicated to the call no
interference, no sharing
Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the
duration of the call
Guaranteed Quality of Service

Circuit Switching
Disadvantages:
Inefficient the equipment may be unused
for a lot of the call, if no data is being sent,
the dedicated line still remains open
Takes a relatively long time to set up the
circuit
During a crisis or disaster, the network may
become unstable or unavailable.
It was primarily developed for voice traffic
rather than data traffic.

Packet Vs Circuit Switching

It is easier to double the capacity of a
packet switched network than a circuit
network a circuit network is heavily
dependent on the number of channel
available.

Packet Vs Circuit Switching

It is cheaper to expand a packet switching system.
Circuit-switched technologies, which take four
times as long to double their performance/cost,
force ISPs to buy that many more boxes to keep
up. This is why everyone is looking for ways to get
Internet traffic off the telephone network. The
alternative of building up the telephone network
to satisfy the demand growth is economically out
of the question.

Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched
Networks
It implements either FREQUENCY-DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING or TIME-DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING.

Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched
Networks(Cont)
Frequency-Divison Multiplexing
The frequency spectrum of a link is divided up among the
connections established across the link.
The link dedicates a frequency band to each connection for
the duration of the connection.

Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched
Networks(Cont)
Time Division Multiplexing
Time is divided into frames or fixed duration, and each frame is
divided into fixed number of time slots.
When network establishes a connection across a link, the
network dedicates one time slot in every frame to this
connection.
These slots are dedicated for the sole use of that connection,
with one time slot available for use (in every frame) to transmit
the connections data.

Packet Switching : Statistical

Multiplexing
A statistical multiplexor transmits the data
from active workstations only
If a workstation is not active, no space is
wasted in the multiplexed stream

Packet Switching : Statistical

Multiplexing(continued)

How do packets make their way through PacketSwitched Networks?

Routing Packets

The computers that decide how best to forward each packet in a

packet-switched network are called routers.

The programs on these routers use routing algorithms that call upon
their routing tables to determine the best path to send each packet.

When packets leave a network to travel on the Internet, they are

translated into a standard format by the router.
These routers and the telecommunication lines connecting them are
referred to as the Internet backbone.

Routing Packets

AGIS
ANS
ATMnet
BBNplanet
Compuserve
CRL
CWIX
DataXchange
DIGEX

Epoch
GetNet
GlobalCenter
GoodNet
GridNet
IBM
Interconnect
InternetMCI

Internet Backbone Maps

iSTAR
MCIWorldcom 2000
(current pdf)
NapNet
Netrail
NFS
PsiNet
Savvis
Sprint
UUNET

Example :
Nbtstat s = to list the current NetBIOS sessions and their
status, including statistics.
Tracert www.facebook.com = determine the number of
hops.

Delay and Loss in Packet-Switched

Networks
Packet starts in a host (the source), passes
through a series of routers, and ends its journey
in another host (the destination). As a packet
travels from one node (host or router) to the
subsequent node (host or router) along this path,
the packet suffers from several different types of
delays at each node along the path.
The most important of these delays are the nodal
processing delay, queuing delay, transmission
delay, and propagation delay.

Types of Delay

Types of Delay(Cont)
Processing delay
The time required to examine the packet's header and
determine where to direct the packet is part of the
processing delay.
The processing delay can also include other factors,
such as the time needed to check for bit-level errors in
the packet that occurred in transmitting the packet's
bits from the upstream router to router A.
Processing delays in high-speed routers are typically
on the order of microseconds or less.
After this nodal processing, the router directs the
packet to the queue that precedes the link to router B.

Types of Delay(Cont)
Queuing delay
The packet experiences a queuing delay as it waits to be
transmitted onto the link.
The queuing delay of a specific packet will depend on the
number of other, earlier-arriving packets that are queued
and waiting for transmission across the link.
The delay of a given packet can vary significantly from
packet to packet. If the queue is empty and no other
packet is currently being transmitted, then our packet's
queuing delay is zero. On the other hand, if the traffic is
heavy and many other packets are also waiting to be
transmitted, the queuing delay will be long.
It can be on the order of milliseconds to microseconds in
practice.

Types of Delay(Cont)
Transmission delay
Assuming that packets are transmitted in first-come- first-serve
manner, as is common in the Internet, our packet can be transmitted
once all the packets that have arrived before it have been transmitted.
Denote the length of the packet by L bits, and denote the transmission
rate of the link from router A to router B by R bits/sec.
The rate R is determined by transmission rate of the link to router B.
For example, for a 10-Mbps Ethernet link, the rate is R = 10 Mbps; for
a 100-Mbps Ethernet link, the rate is R = 100 Mbps. The transmission
delay is also known as the store-and-forward delay. This is the amount
of time required to transmit all of the packet's bits into the link.
Transmission delays are typically on the order of microseconds or less.

Types of Delay(Cont)
Propagation delay
Once a bit is pushed onto the link, it needs to
propagate to router B.
The time required to propagate from the
beginning of the link to router B is the propagation
delay.
The bit propagates at the propagation speed of
the link. The propagation speed depends on the
physical medium of the link.

Protocol Layering
OSI Model

Network Architectures:

A reference model that describes the layers of

hardware and software necessary to transmit data
between two points or for multiple
devices/applications to interoperate
Reference models are necessary to increase the likelihood
that different components from different manufacturers will
converse
Two architectures are required learning:
The OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference Model
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol )
Protocol Suite

OSI Model
The OSI Model is a layered
framework for the design of
network systems that allows
communication between all
types of computer systems.
It consists of seven separate
but related layers, each of
which defines a part of the
process of moving information
across a network.

Application

Seventh Layer

Presentation

Sixth Layer

Session

Fifth Layer

Transport

Fourth Layer

Network

Third Layer

Data Link

Second Layer

Physical

First Layer

Internet protocol stack

application: supporting network
applications
FTP, SMTP, HTTP

transport: process-process data transfer

TCP, UDP

network: routing of datagrams from

source to destination
IP, routing protocols

link: data transfer between neighboring

network elements
PPP, Ethernet

physical: bits on the wire

application
transport
network
Data link
physical

source
message
segment

Ht

datagram Hn Ht

frame Hl Hn Ht

Encapsulation

application
transport
network
link
physical

link
physical
switch

destination
M
Ht

Hn Ht
Hl H n H t

M
M

application
transport
network
link
physical

Hn H t
Hl Hn Ht

M
M

network
link
physical

Hn Ht

router

How to get the IP Address?

Google Data Center in Asia

History of Computer Networking and the

Internet
the U. S. Department of Defense
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
began ~1962 in reaction to the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik in 1957
DARPA was told to find ways to utilize the nations investment in computers

funding for projects that might provide dramatic advances for military
timeframe of research could be 5 years or longer
formed with an emphasis towards basic computing research
was not oriented only to military products

eventually, DARPA settled on computer networking as a main goal

History of Computer Networking and

the Internet

1969
ARPANET commissioned by DoD for research into networking

1971
15 nodes (23 hosts) networked for the first time
used NCP (network control protocol) to allow computers to communicate
UCLA, SRI, UCSB, Univ of Utah, BBN, MIT, RAND, SDC, Harvard, Lincoln Lab, Stanford, UIU(C),
CWRU, CMU, NASA/Ames

1972
the first e-mail program was created by Ray Tomlinson of BBN

1973
first international connections to the ARPANET

University College of London (England) via NORSAR (Norway)

development began on the protocol later to be called TCP/IP

(collaboration between Stanford and DARPA)

1974
first use of term internet in a paper on Transmission Control Protocol

1976
Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom, sends her first email

1.9 Internet History

1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles

1961: Kleinrock - queueing

theory shows effectiveness of
packet-switching
1964: Baran - packet-switching
in military nets
1967: ARPAnet conceived by
Advanced Research Projects
Agency
1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

1972:
ARPAnet demonstrated
publicly
NCP (Network Control
Protocol) first host-host
protocol
first e-mail program
ARPAnet has 15 nodes

Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets

1970: ALOHAnet satellite network

in Hawaii
1973: Metcalfes PhD thesis
proposes Ethernet
1974: Cerf and Kahn - architecture
for interconnecting networks
late70s: proprietary architectures:
DECnet, SNA, XNA
late 70s: switching fixed length
packets (ATM precursor)
1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Chapter 1: Introduction

Cerf and Kahns internetworking

principles:
minimalism, autonomy - no
internal changes required
to interconnect networks
best effort service model
stateless routers
decentralized control
define todays Internet
architecture

86

Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

1983: deployment of
TCP/IP
1982: smtp e-mail
protocol defined
1983: DNS defined for
name-to-IP-address
translation
1985: ftp protocol defined
1988: TCP congestion
control

new national networks:

Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet,
Minitel
100,000 hosts connected
to confederation of
networks

Internet History
1990s: commercialization, the WWW

Early 1990s: ARPAnet

decommissioned
1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
early 1990s: WWW
hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson
1960s]
HTML, http: Berners-Lee
1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
late 1990s: commercialization
of the WWW

Late 1990s & 2000s:

est. 50 million computers
on Internet
est. 100 million+ users
backbone links running at 1
Gbps