Chemistry

All hell broke loose now

Property of the Half Blood Dumblejosh

Chemical Monitoring and Management

Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants and products of
reactions and managing reaction conditions
Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise, identifying the
branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a chemical principle that
the chemist uses
Luke (not his real name) is a plant chemist at a major Australian chemical
manufacturing company that makes ethylene from ethane, then polymerises it to
polyethylene. This company is part of the chemicals and plastics manufacturing
industry.
Luke has to monitor the quality of the ethylene produced (any impurities), monitor
wastewater from the plant to ensure that it meets environmental requirements, monitor
gaseous emissions to the atmosphere to ensure that they do not contain particulates,
and collaborate with process engineers at the cracking furnace to adjust operating
conditions in order to optimise product yields.
Luke mainly works in analytical chemistry, the part of chemistry concerned with
determining what substances, and how much of each, are present in materials. Many of
Lukes analyses use gas chromatography. This is a technique in which a liquid or
gaseous mixture is vaporized into a stream of helium that flows over a stationary phase
which can be a solid. The chemical principles involved include adsorption (for gas-solid
chromatography). The components of the mixture injected adsorb to differing extents
and desorb back into the gas phase at different rates, which means that they pass
through the column at different rates and so are separated. A device at the end of the
column detects each substance as it passes out of the column and measures it
quantitatively.

Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data.
gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the work of
practising scientists identifying: the variety of chemical occupations a specific
chemical occupation for a more detailed study
There are many different branches of chemistry such as
Analytical chemistry - The determination of what substances are present in samples
(qualitative analysis) and how much of each is present (quantitative analysis)
Organic chemistry - The study of compounds of carbon, compounds that are usually but
not exclusively associated with living matter, such as hydrocarbons, alcohols, carboxylic
acids, fats, carbohydrates (sugars), amino acids and proteins.
Nuclear chemistry - The study of production and uses of radioisotopes in medicine and
industry as well as studying the fundamental nature of nuclear reactions
Environmental chemistry - concerned with determining how substances interact in the
environment and with monitoring concentrations of substances, particularly pollutants, in
air, water and soil.

Many chemical problems in the real world require expertise from more than just one
branch of chemistry. Of equal importance is collaboration between chemists and other
scientists. For example in industry the production of a particular product requires
knowledge of organic chemistry (how the reaction occurs and how to optimise yield),
analytical chemistry (to monitor quality of raw materials and the product), chemical
engineering (to be able to scale up a laboratory experiment to industrial production
quantities) and environmental chemistry (to appreciate the significance of possible
wastes and how to manage them). Interdisciplinary: Microbiologists (who monitor
organisms), ecologists (who oversee the interrelationships between organists)
geologists (who can determine the effects of constructions), and engineers.

Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants form

different products under different conditions and thus would need monitoring

An example is the reaction of ethylene with oxygen. In a plentiful supply of oxygen at a

high temperature ethylene reacts to form carbon dioxide (normal combustion):

However at a lower temperature (250 degrees celsius) with lesser amounts of oxygen
and with a silver catalyst a quite different product is formed, namely ethylene oxide:

hence it is very important to monitor both temperature and concentration of oxygen to

maximise the desired product.

Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and management to maximise

production

Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia

Ammonia is used in fertilisers, for example the fertiliser ammonium-sulfate

Ammonia is used in explosives, for example the explosive ammonium-nitrate

Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen and
hydrogen. Describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will
reach equilibrium. Identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic.

Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures.

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of gas. At

higher temperatures, individual molecules are more likely to have enough energy to
overcome the activation energy, or in other words more likely for an effective collision.
Hence, the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures.

Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher temperatures
using Le Chateliers principle.
Because the reaction is exothermic, the forward reaction releases heat. By increasing
the temperature, by Le Chateliers principle, the equilibrium will shift to oppose the
change, that is to use up the heat, which means that the equilibrium will now favor the
reverse reaction, and will shift to the left. Hence, at higher temperatures, the yield of the
product is reduced.

Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving reaction
energy, reaction rate and equilibrium.
Increasing the temperature not only increases the rate of reaction, but decreases the
yield of the product. A high rate of reaction and a high yield are both desirable. Thus, a
compromise must be reached between both, which is usually reached at about 400
degrees celsius.

Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and
identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process.
A catalyst, whilst it speeds up the rate of reaction by offering an alternate pathway and
thereby lowering the activation energy, does not affect the position of the equilibrium.
(this is because it speeds up both the forward and reverse reactions). The catalyst used
is magnetite, Fe3O4.

Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber process.

By Le Chateliers principle, the equilibrium will shift to oppose any change. By

increasing the pressure on the system, the equilibrium will shift to reduce the pressure.
Because there are less moles of gas on the right hand side (ratio of 4:2), the equilibrium
will favor the forward reaction, hence shifting to the right and creating more product.

Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is crucial and
discuss the monitoring required.
There are a great number of conditions that need to be maintained in the Haber process
in order to achieve safety and efficiency, and monitoring of the reaction vessel is
therefore essential.Areas that require monitoring in the reaction vessel include:
Temperature and pressure, which need to be kept in a range that will provide optimum
efficiency (excessive temperatures can damage the catalyst).
Carbon monoxide and sulfur compounds, which can poison the catalyst.
The ratio of hydrogen gas to nitrogen gas, which needs to be kept at 3:1 (the correct
stoichiometric ratio) in order to avoid the build-up of one gas.

Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions
under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its
significance at that time in world history
The Haber process is named after its developer, German chemist Fritz Haber
(1868-1934). Haber developed the process at the beginning of the twentieth century,
leading up to the First World War. At this time, nations such as Germany imported the
nitrates that they required for fertilisers and explosives from South America. Growing
world populations were placing strains on this natural source. Furthermore, in Germany,
growing militancy was promoting calls for more explosives, creating further demand for
natural nitrate resources. In 1908, Haber first developed a catalytic method of
synthesising ammonia from its elements. During the First World War, British naval
blockades prevented most of the South American nitrates from reaching Germany. The
Haber process allowed the production of fertilisers and explosives to continue in

Germany. The food and munitions that the Haber process allowed to be produced
sustained Germanys war effort and prolonged the war.
Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household chemicals, are
analysed to determine or ensure their chemical composition

Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests, perform first-hand
investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests, to identify the following
ions: phosphate sulfate carbonate chloride barium calcium lead copper
iron.

Cation tests:

Anion tests:

Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the need
to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in society
Lead is a poison: it retards intellectual development in young children, causes brain
damage and can lead to neurological disorders. Until recently it was widely used in
petrol and so was released to the atmosphere in vehicle exhausts and deposited out on
soil near busy highways. Monitoring lead concentrations in soil near highways, in
waterways and in the atmosphere in urban areas is essential to ensure that people are
not exposed to harmful concentrations.

Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform firsthand investigations to measure
the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved. Analyse
information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation and to
propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure
Weigh out some fertiliser, dissolve it in water, add barium chloride solution to precipitate
barium sulfate, then collect, dry and weigh the precipitate. Many sources of error occur
such as
Leaving some of the precipitate adhering to the walls of the beaker while transferring
the mixture to the funnel, Loss of some precipitate by spillage, incomplete drying of the
precipitate so that it still contains water when it is weighed.

P.S. here is a solubility table:

Ion

General Solubility Rule

All nitrates are soluble
All Acetates are soluble (

only moderately)

All Chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble except Ag+, Pb+
and Hg2(2+).
All sulfates are soluble except those of Ba2+, Pb2+, Ca2+ and
Sr2+
All carbonates and phosphates are insoluble except those of
Na+, K+ and NH4+.
All hydroxides are insoluble except those of Na+ and K+.
Hydroxides of Ba2+ and Ca2+ are slightly soluble.
All sulfides are insoluble except those of Na+, K+, NH4+, and
those of alkaline earths, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+.
All salts of the sodium ion, potassium ion and ammonium ion are
soluble except several uncommon ones.

Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting concentrations

of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of the effects
of trace elements
Trace element: Also known as a micronutrient, an element required in minute amounts
for normal growth of organisms. (1 to 100 ppm). For example, Iron is a trace element
that transports oxygen from the lungs to different parts of the body. Zinc is another,
which helps clot blood within the body. Also used in detection metals in waterways
(copper and aluminium), and mercury in fish. Before AAS, methods such as gravimetric
analysis were not precise enough to measure down to ppm, and so we had little
knowledge about trace elements.

If ground state atoms of an element are irradiated with light of a wavelength known to
be absorbed by them (i.e. of a wavelength in that element's emission spectrum), then
those atoms will absorb some of that light. By measuring the fraction of the light at that
wavelength that is absorbed, we can determine the concentration of the element. This is
the basis of AAS. The set up is a monochromatic lamp, which shines onto a flame (with
sample in it), through a lens, and into a photomultiplier.

AAS is so effective because measurements are made from absorption by the nearly
100% of the atoms that are in the ground state rather than from emission by only the
0.1% of the atoms in the excited state, and also because AAS only uses one
wavelength, the difference in intensity is much more obvious when using a
photomultiplier. (i.e. with a broad range, missing one frequency barely has an impact on
the energy of the light, whereas for a single frequency if it is absorbed then it is easily
detected).

Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS
measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control
AAS is good because it is accurate, able to give values to 0.01 ppm (this is especially
applicable to monitoring trace element) However, it can only measure metals, ie unable
to measure PO4, SO4 and the likes.

Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the structure of the
atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage can be
limited

Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is a layer of gas about 200 to 300 km thick that surrounds the earth.

Nitrogen

78.08%

Nitrous Oxide
(N2O)

0.2 ppm

Oxygen

20.95%

Carbon Monoxide

0.1 ppm

Argon

0.93%

Ozone

0.02ppm

Carbon Dioxide

350ppm

NO + NO2

<0.01 ppm

Methane

1.5 ppm

SO2 + H2S

<0.002 ppm

Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources
Hot air rises. A very important concept. In the troposphere, where the air above is
cooler, it means that pollutants can easily diffuse upwards. But in the stratosphere,
where the air above is warmer, substances do not transfer easily, and pollutants only
make their way to the stratosphere through slow diffusion.
Pollutant

Source

Carbon Monoxide(CO)

Motor cars, cigarettes, bushfires, slow combustion

stoves

Oxides of Nitrogen (NO+NO2) Combustion (in vehicles and power stations)

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Combustion (impurities in the fuel), metals extraction

(from sulfide ores).

Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)

from Refrigeration, air conditioning, foam plastics,

electronics cleaning, fire extinguishers

Ozone

No direct sources; formed in photochemical smog.

Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation

shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant

In the stratosphere short wavelength u.v. acts upon oxygen gas to form oxygen atoms
which then combine with O2 molecules to form ozone:

Oxygen atoms can also react with ozone:

The ozone in turn absorbs longer wavelength u.v. which decomposes the ozone back to
ordinary oxygen:

There is a balance between the formation and destruction of ozone in these four
reactions which leaves a steady state concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.
Decreasing the amount of ozone in the stratosphere means that more short wavelength
u.v. radiation (i.v. - B) reaches the Earths surface.

Ozone in the troposphere is poisonous to humans and most other life forms, if they
breathe it in or come into contact with it. For people ozone causes breathing difficulties,
aggravates respiratory problems, and produces headaches and premature fatigue.
Nitrous oxide from motor cars creates ozone:

However Nitric oxide can destroy ozone:

We have seen that the rate of a reaction depends upon concentration of reactants.
Consequently if the concentration of NO2 is high and that of NO is low, then ozone is

formed much faster, often to levels within the range of 0.1 to 0.3ppm (0.1ppm is harmful
to health). (occurs when NO2:NO is greater than 3:1)

Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond, demonstrate the formation of

coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot structures
A coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which both of the shared electrons
came from the one atom.

(Thats ozone by the way. Coordinate covalent is on the right, both electrons provided
by the middle oxygen atom)
Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for them on
the basis of molecular structure and bonding

Oxygen (O2)

Ozone (O3)

Boiling point: -183C

Boiling point: -111C. Ozone has higher

molecular mass, and hence greater
dispersion forces. Ozone is also slightly
polar.

Very Stable

Easily decomposed - It is much easier for

ozones coordinate covalent bond to be
broken than oxygens double covalent
bond.

Non-reactive

Highly reactive (same as above)

Density: 1.429 g/L

Density: 2.14 g/L, more dense because it

is both polar and heavier than oxygen
molecules.

Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical

A free radical is an atom, molecule or ion which has unpaired valence electrons. Note
that free radicals are neutral species, not ions. The unpaired electrons make oxygen
free radicals much more reactive.

Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the atmosphere

Haloalkanes are compounds in which one or more H atom(s) of an alkane has been
replaced by a halogen. (That's the second from the right column on the periodic table)
A chlorofluorocarbon is a compound containing chlorine, fluorine and carbon only, that
is, they contain no hydrogen.

CFCs were introduced as a refrigerant in refrigeration. In addition CFCs are odourless,

non-flammable, non-toxic and very inert, which made them eminently more attractive
than the ammonia which they replaced. They also became widely used in aerosol spray
cans.
It was because the CFCs were inert, and because they were insoluble in water, and
were not destroyed by sunlight or oxygen, they spread out uniformly, and began to
diffuse into the stratosphere. A common CFC was trichlorofluoromethane.

Halons are compounds of carbon, bromine and other halogens. They are dense,
non-flammable liquids that are particularly good at extinguishing fires. The commonest
one is CBrClF2, and was used in fire extinguishers.

Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of
steps taken to alleviate these problems, Present information from secondary sources to
identify alternative chemicals used to replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of
their use as a replacement for CFCs

After the CFCs have diffused into the stratosphere, they are broken down by the short
wavelength u.v. radiation to form a Chlorine free radical.

The Chlorine free radical then attacks an ozone, creating a ClO free radical, and an
oxygen. The ClO free radical then combines with an oxygen free radical (which further
disbalances the equilibrium). The chlorine atom is not used up, and is free to then
attack another ozone molecule and repeat the process all over again. And so it goes on:
one chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules. We call this a chain
reaction.

There are other reactions which stop this chain reaction, for example:

Dramatic ozone depletion of stratospheric ozone has been observed only over the
Antarctic and then only in Spring. This happens because in winter the extremely cold
conditions and certain particles catalyse the following reaction:

And in spring, when the sun comes up, sunlight shines through the clouds once more,
and breaks up the chlorine:

therefore suddenly increasing the concentration of chlorine free radicals in spring,

reducing the ozone dramatically, and creating the ozone hole. On a global year-round
basis, CFCs have caused a 3 to 8% decrease in the amount of ozone in the
stratosphere: however, (of much greater concern) in recent years they have caused a
50 to 90% decrease over the Antarctic during spring.

The only way to stop ozone destruction by CFCs is to stop releasing them to the
atmosphere, because once they are released it is impossible to remove them, and they

do not decompose or get washed out by rain. Since 1987 there have been several
international agreements in which nations have undertaken to phase out the use of
CFCs and other ozone-destroying compounds. The original agreement was called the
Montreal Protocol. The most agreement (1992) was to:
-Stop using halons by the end of 1994
-Cease the manufacture and use of CFCs by 1996
-Phase out HCFCs by early in the 21st century

HCFCs, hydrochlorofluorocarbons contain C-H bonds which are susceptible to attack by

reactive radicals and atoms in the troposphere and so are decomposed to a significant
extent. They were seen as a temporary substitutes for CFCs until better compounds
were found. HFCs are now widely used as replacements for CFCs. HFCs are
hydrofluorocarbons (no chlorine, and hence no ozone destroying capacity). The most
common is 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane.

The good news is that if we remove CFCs from the atmosphere, ozone will recover.
However recovery will be very slow, because there is now so many CFCs in the
troposphere that it will take a long time for it all to diffuse into the stratosphere.
Computer models suggest that ozone destruction over the Antarctic should be peaking
about 2010, and then the problem should start to become less severe.

Analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone

concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how this information was
obtained
Ground based instruments are u.v. spectrophotometers pointing vertically upwards
through the atmosphere. They measure the intensity of light received (from the sky, i.e.
the sun) at a wavelength at which ozone absorbs and then at wavelengths either side of

this at which ozone does not absorb. Ozone is usually measured in Dobson Units, 1 DU
is the amount of ozone that corresponds to a 0.01mm thickness of pure ozone at
atmospheric pressure. The normal amount is 300 DU (or 3mm).

The total ozone mapping spectrophotometers that have been on board several US
satellites over the past 20 years work similarly, but because satellites have been in
orbit, these instruments have been able to scan through the atmosphere and measure
the ozone concentration as a function of altitude and of geographic position.

Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical monitoring and

management assists in providing safe water for human use and to protect the
habitats of other organisms

Identify that water quality can be determined by considering: concentrations of

common ions total dissolved solids hardness turbidity acidity dissolved oxygen
and biochemical oxygen demand
Humans have four main uses of water, human consumption, domestic
uses(washing/laundry), agriculture, and recreation (swimming, fishing). Some of the
criteria used to determine if fresh water is environmentally clean or polluted:

Turbidity
Healthy: <3NTU, polluted: >20NTU
Turbidity in water means cloudiness or lack of transparency. It is caused by suspended
solids. Turbidity not only gives water an undesirable appearance but also can give it an
undesirable taste. Turbidity can be assessed by measuring the depth of water needed
to render invisible a mark (such as a black cross) on the flat bottom of a specially made
tube that looks like a very long measuring cylinder. Turbidity is measured in
nephelometric turbidity units, NTU. High concentrations of suspended solids and hence
high turbidities arise naturally from heavy rain and floods, and run-off across grasslands
or through forests. Human activities such as land clearing and farming allow water to
more easily run into rivers, increasing amounts of suspended matter carried into
waterways.

Total Dissolved Solids

Clean: <100mg/L, Polluted: >1000mg/L
TDS is the mass of solids dissolved in unit volume of water. mg/L is the same as ppm.
The amount of total dissolved solids can be measured first by filtering off suspended
solids then by evaporating a sample of water to dryness and weighing the solids left. In
practice this requires considerable care to be done accurately. Hence it is more
common to use conductivity measurements, because nearly all of the solid dissolved in
natural water is ionic. Therefore measuring the conductivity of water will give a
measurement of the total dissolved salts, which is almost exactly the same as the total

dissolved solids. Increasing salinity causes decreased crop yields and in fact can render
farmland useless.

pH (acidity)
Clean: 6.5-8.5, Polluted: <6 or >9
The pH of water samples is measured by indicator solutions, papers or a pH meter. A
pH outside the normal range of 6.5 to 8.5 indicates that some form of pollutant has been
discharged into the water body. (such as industrial waste, fertiliser run-off, sulfide ores,
or sulfuric acid). Either extreme of the pH scale will cause the water to be harmful to any
aquatic life that exists in it.

Dissolved oxygen and Biological Oxygen Demand

Clean: 7-9mg/L for oxygen, with a BOD of <5
Polluted: <4mg/L for oxygen, with a BOD of >10.
If the water is depleted in dissolved oxygen, fish die. In an aquatic system, animal life
(zooplankton, fish, crustaceans, worms) uses dissolved oxygen while other life forms
such as rooted plants and phytoplankton form it during photosynthesis. If the dissolved
oxygen falls below about 5ppm, many aquatic species will die, and the water body will
develop unpleasant smells, develop an unsightly appearance and become unfit for
human consumption.
The main cause of decreased concentrations of DO in natural water is the discharge
into it of untreated or poorly treated sewage and other organic wastes. These organic
wastes are decomposed in the water by aerobic bacteria, which convert them into CO2,
H2O, NO3, SO4, PO4, and use up oxygen in the process. The BOD of a water body is a
measure of the concentration of dissolved oxygen that is needed for the complete
breakdown of the organic matter in the water by aerobic bacteria.
To measure DO, we use electrolysis.

Using a silver ring as the electrode, a buffered KCl solution, and the fact that the rate of
electrolysis (and hence the current) is proportional to the concentration of dissolved
oxygen.
To measure BOD, simply incubate the sample at 20 degrees celsius in a sealed air-free
container in the dark for 5 days and measure the DO before and after the process, the
difference being the BOD.

Concentrations of common ions

Total phosphate: Clean: <0.03mg/L, polluted: >0.05mg/L for lakes and dams, >0.1
rivers.
Nitrate: Clean: <0.1mg/L, polluted: >0/50mg/L
Calcium and magnesium ions.
Tests for phosphate, nitrate, calcium and magnesium were all covered in previous
section.
Algal blooms lead to such deterioration of water quality that it becomes unsuitable for its
normal uses. They occur when nutrients are readily available in the water and when
environmental conditions are favourable (warm temperatures, not much water
movement). The two nutrients which are normally limit algal blooms are nitrate and
phosphate (of the two phosphate is more important).
The high concentrations of algae are difficult to filter out, give the water an unpleasant
taste and clog pumps used in irrigation. The algae also consume DO, leading to fish
suffocating and dying. They also lead to a buildup of sediments. Eutrophication is the
process in which a water body becomes enriched with nutrients such as phosphate and
nitrate to such an extent that algal blooms become highly likely.

The main source of nutrients is from sewage and fertiliser run offs. You can use
colorimetric analysis to determine the quantities of both nutrients (shining a light through
and measuring its absorbance).
Salts of Calcium and Magnesium form precipitates with common soap, and form a grey
scum which removes soap from solution and hence spoils its cleaning power. Water
hardness is measured by determining the total concentration of calcium and magnesium
ions in the water and expressing the result as milligrams of CaCO3 per litre.

Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural
bodies of water such as rivers and oceans
Naturally, ions appear in rivers and oceans through sources such as being dissolved in
rainwater runoffs as the rainwater surges into the river water. Of more concern is the
effect humans have upon this process, speeding it up through fertiliser and sewage
discharge into water bodies.

Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass
water supplies
The geographic area from which all the streams and rainfall drain into a citys water
storage dam is called its catchment.

Treatment is split into clarifying the water (removing any turbidity or colour) and
sanitising it (removing anything, particularly organisms, that would cause the water to be
harmful to people). A precipitate that is widely used to clarify water is iron(III) hydroxide.
This is done by first raising the water about ph7, and then adding a solution of an
iron(III) compound such as iron(III) chloride. Iron(III) hydroxide is extremely insoluble,
and the small particles stick together in a process called coagulation.
After clarification the water is generally sanitised by having gaseous chlorine dissolved
in it, destroying bacteria and some viruses.
Current methods are not perfect at removing disease-causing agents, as shown through
events such as the Giardia and Cryptosporidium incident in Sydney in 1998.

Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain how
they purify contaminated water
A membrane filter is essentially a thin film of a synthetic polymer through which there
are pores of fairly uniform size. Polymers that are commonly used are polypropylene,
and polytetrafluoroethylene.

Ordinary filters consist of coarse material packed into a thick bed, where big particles
get trapped, and the small ones make it through. Such filters are called depth filters. A
membrane filter consists of a solid film through which uniformly sized holes have been
punched. Membrane filters are much thinner and have a sharp cut-off in terms of
diameter of particle they will let through - the diameter of the hole. They can also be
cleaned (back flushed) and reused. For drinking water, membrane filters can remove
virtually all particles larger than 0.2 micrometers including GIardia and Cryptosporidium.
Currently, membrane filtration is considered too expensive for the relatively small
improvement in water quality that it would provide. Membrane filters cant be used to
process untreated sewage, the pores would become clogged far too quickly, they would
have to go through good quality secondary treatment plans. Most bottled water has
been purified by passing it through a membrane filter. Another disadvantage is that they
cannot remove dissolved in the water (such as nitrate or phosphate or heavy metal
ions).

Gather, process and present information on the features of the local town water supply
in terms of: catchment area possible sources of contamination in this catchment
chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants physical and
chemical processes used to purify water chemical additives in the water and the
reasons for the presence of these additives

Warragamba is the largest of Sydneys five drinking water catchments, covering an area
of 9,050 square kilometres. Mining is a significant community issue and an important
focus for WaterNSW. There is a long history of coal mining in the Sydney drinking water
catchments and, in recent years, coal seam gas has been an emerging issue.

Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests used
to: identify heavy metal pollution of water monitor possible eutrophication of
waterways
Heavy metals(the transition metals), such as mercury and lead, can cause various
health problems. The heavy metal pollution of water can be tested using: Atomic
absorption spectroscopy, using a light source specific to the heavy metal being tested.
Flame tests.

Firstly we can add Na2S solution to the water(which is slightly acidic), and see if a
precipitate forms, signifying Pb2, Ag1, Hg2, Cu2, Cd2, As3. Then make the solution
slightly basic, and if a precipitate forms then one of the following is present: Cr3, Zn2,
Fe2, Fe3, Ni2, Co2, Mn2, Al3. After adding the Na2S, the Nas go away, and nearly all
of the S is converted into H2S, which is a very weak acid. The small amount of S left is
sufficient to precipitate solids such as lead and copper:

And because the minute amount of S is being used up, equilibrium one is forced to
move to the left to produce more S, which is then used up, which continues until all the
lead is precipitated.