Artificial Intelligence

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ArtificialintelligenceWikipedia
Artificialintelligence
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Artificialintelligence(AI)isintelligenceexhibitedbymachines.Incomputerscience,anideal"intelligent"
machineisaflexiblerationalagentthatperceivesitsenvironmentandtakesactionsthatmaximizeitschanceof
successatsomegoal.[1]Colloquially,theterm"artificialintelligence"isappliedwhenamachinemimics
"cognitive"functionsthathumansassociatewithotherhumanminds,suchas"learning"and"problemsolving".[2]
Asmachinesbecomeincreasinglycapable,mentalfacilitiesoncethoughttorequireintelligenceareremovedfrom
thedefinition.Forexample,opticalcharacterrecognitionisnolongerperceivedasanexemplarof"artificial
intelligence",havingbecomearoutinetechnology.[3]CapabilitiescurrentlyclassifiedasAIincludesuccessfully
understandinghumanspeech,[4]competingatahighlevelinstrategicgamesystems(suchasChessandGo[5]),
selfdrivingcars,andinterpretingcomplexdata.SomepeoplealsoconsiderAIadangertohumanityifit
progressesunabatedly.[6]AIresearchisdividedintosubfields[7]thatfocusonspecificproblemsoronspecific
approachesorontheuseofaparticulartoolortowardssatisfyingparticularapplications.
Thecentralproblems(orgoals)ofAIresearchincludereasoning,knowledge,planning,learning,naturallanguage
processing(communication),perceptionandtheabilitytomoveandmanipulateobjects.[8]Generalintelligenceis
amongthefield'slongtermgoals.[9]Approachesincludestatisticalmethods,computationalintelligence,soft
computing(e.g.machinelearning),andtraditionalsymbolicAI.ManytoolsareusedinAI,includingversionsof
searchandmathematicaloptimization,logic,methodsbasedonprobabilityandeconomics.TheAIfielddraws
uponcomputerscience,mathematics,psychology,linguistics,philosophy,neuroscienceandartificialpsychology.
Thefieldwasfoundedontheclaimthathumanintelligence"canbesopreciselydescribedthatamachinecanbe
madetosimulateit".[10]Thisraisesphilosophicalargumentsaboutthenatureofthemindandtheethicsofcreating
artificialbeingsendowedwithhumanlikeintelligence,issueswhichhavebeenexploredbymyth,fictionand
philosophysinceantiquity.[11]Attemptstocreateartificialintelligencehaveexperiencedmanysetbacks,including
theALPACreportof1966,theabandonmentofperceptronsin1970,theLighthillReportof1973,thesecondAI
winter19871993andthecollapseoftheLispmachinemarketin1987.Inthetwentyfirstcentury,AItechniques
havebecomeanessentialpartofthetechnologyindustry,helpingtosolvemanychallengingproblemsincomputer
science.[12]
Contents
1 History
2 Research
2.1 Goals
2.2 Approaches
3 Tools
3.1 Searchandoptimization
3.2 Logic
3.3 Probabilisticmethodsforuncertainreasoning
3.4 Classifiersandstatisticallearningmethods
3.5 Neuralnetworks
3.6 Deepfeedforwardneuralnetworks
3.7 Deeprecurrentneuralnetworks
3.8 Controltheory
3.9 Languages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence
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3.9 Languages
3.10 Evaluatingprogress
4 Applications
4.1 Competitionsandprizes
4.2 Shapingthehealthcareindustry
4.3 Automotiveindustry
5 Platforms
5.1 PartnershipsbetweenBig5companiestoimproveAI
6 Philosophyandethics
6.1 Thelimitsofartificialgeneralintelligence
6.2 Intelligentbehaviourandmachineethics
6.3 Machineconsciousness,sentienceandmind
6.4 Superintelligence
6.5 Existentialrisk
7 Infiction
8 Seealso
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 AItextbooks
10.2 HistoryofAI
10.3 Othersources
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks
History
Whilethoughtcapableartificialbeingsappearedasstorytellingdevicesinantiquity,[13]theideaofactuallytrying
tobuildamachinetoperformusefulreasoningmayhavebegunwithRamonLlull(c.1300CE).WithhisCalculus
ratiocinator,GottfriedLeibnizextendedtheconceptofthecalculatingmachine(WilhelmSchickardengineeredthe
firstonearound1623),intendingtoperformoperationsonconceptsratherthannumbers.[14]Sincethe19th
century,artificialbeingsarecommoninfiction,asinMaryShelley'sFrankensteinorKarelapek'sR.U.R.
(Rossum'sUniversalRobots).[15]
Thestudyofmechanicalor"formal"reasoningbeganwithphilosophersandmathematiciansinantiquity.Inthe
19thcentury,GeorgeBoolerefinedthoseideasintopropositionallogicandGottlobFregedevelopedanotational
systemformechanicalreasoning(a"predicatecalculus").[16]Aroundthe1940s,AlanTuring'stheoryof
computationsuggestedthatamachine,byshufflingsymbolsassimpleas"0"and"1",couldsimulateany
conceivableactofmathematicaldeduction.Thisinsight,thatdigitalcomputerscansimulateanyprocessofformal
reasoning,isknownastheChurchTuringthesis.[17]Alongwithconcurrentdiscoveriesinneurology,information
theoryandcybernetics,thisledresearcherstoconsiderthepossibilityofbuildinganelectronicbrain.[18]Thefirst
workthatisnowgenerallyrecognizedasAIwasMcCullouchandPitts'1943formaldesignforTuringcomplete
"artificialneurons".[14]
ThefieldofAIresearchwasfoundedataconferenceatDartmouthCollegein1956.[19]Theattendees,including
JohnMcCarthy,MarvinMinsky,AllenNewell,ArthurSamuelandHerbertSimon,becametheleadersofAI
research.[20]Theyandtheirstudentswroteprogramsthatwere,tomostpeople,simplyastonishing:[21]computers
werewinningatcheckers,solvingwordproblemsinalgebra,provinglogicaltheoremsandspeakingEnglish.[22]
Bythemiddleofthe1960s,researchintheU.S.washeavilyfundedbytheDepartmentofDefense[23]and
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laboratorieshadbeenestablishedaroundtheworld.[24]AI'sfounderswereoptimisticaboutthefuture:Herbert
Simonpredicted,"machineswillbecapable,withintwentyyears,ofdoinganyworkamancando."Marvin
Minskyagreed,writing,"withinageneration...theproblemofcreating'artificialintelligence'willsubstantiallybe
solved."[25]
Theyfailedtorecognizethedifficultyofsomeoftheremainingtasks.Progressslowedandin1974,inresponseto
thecriticismofSirJamesLighthill[26]andongoingpressurefromtheUSCongresstofundmoreproductive
projects,boththeU.S.andBritishgovernmentscutoffexploratoryresearchinAI.Thenextfewyearswouldlater
becalledan"AIwinter",[27]aperiodwhenfundingforAIprojectswashardtofind.
Intheearly1980s,AIresearchwasrevivedbythecommercialsuccessofexpertsystems,[28]aformofAIprogram
thatsimulatedtheknowledgeandanalyticalskillsofhumanexperts.By1985themarketforAIhadreachedovera
billiondollars.Atthesametime,Japan'sfifthgenerationcomputerprojectinspiredtheU.SandBritish
governmentstorestorefundingforacademicresearch.[29]However,beginningwiththecollapseoftheLisp
Machinemarketin1987,AIonceagainfellintodisrepute,andasecond,longerlastinghiatusbegan.[30]
Inthelate1990sandearly21stcentury,AIbegantobeusedforlogistics,datamining,medicaldiagnosisandother
areas.[12]Thesuccesswasduetoincreasingcomputationalpower(seeMoore'slaw),greateremphasisonsolving
specificproblems,newtiesbetweenAIandotherfieldsandacommitmentbyresearcherstomathematical
methodsandscientificstandards.[31]DeepBluebecamethefirstcomputerchessplayingsystemtobeatareigning
worldchesschampion,GarryKasparovon11May1997.[32]
Advancedstatisticaltechniques(looselyknownasdeeplearning),accesstolargeamountsofdataandfaster
computersenabledadvancesinmachinelearningandperception.[33]Bythemid2010s,machinelearning
applicationswereusedthroughouttheworld.[34]InaJeopardy!quizshowexhibitionmatch,IBM'squestion
answeringsystem,Watson,defeatedthetwogreatestJeopardychampions,BradRutterandKenJennings,bya
significantmargin.[35]TheKinect,whichprovidesa3DbodymotioninterfacefortheXbox360andtheXbox
OneusealgorithmsthatemergedfromlengthyAIresearch[36]asdointelligentpersonalassistantsin
smartphones.[37]InMarch2016,AlphaGowon4outof5gamesofGoinamatchwithGochampionLeeSedol,
becomingthefirstcomputerGoplayingsystemtobeataprofessionalGoplayerwithouthandicaps.[5][38]
AccordingtoBloomberg'sJackClark,2015wasalandmarkyearforartificialintelligence,withthenumberof
softwareprojectsthatuseAIwithinGoogleincreasingfroma"sporadicusage"in2012tomorethan2,700
projects.Clarkalsopresentsfactualdataindicatingthaterrorratesinimageprocessingtaskshavefallen
significantlysince2011.[39]Heattributesthistoanincreaseinaffordableneuralnetworks,duetoariseincloud
computinginfrastructureandtoanincreaseinresearchtoolsanddatasets.Othercitedexamplesinclude
Microsoft'sdevelopmentofaSkypesystemthatcanautomaticallytranslatefromonelanguagetoanotherand
Facebook'ssystemthatcandescribeimagestoblindpeople.[39]
Research
Goals
Thegeneralproblemofsimulating(orcreating)intelligencehasbeenbrokendownintosubproblems.These
consistofparticulartraitsorcapabilitiesthatresearchersexpectanintelligentsystemtodisplay.Thetraits
describedbelowhavereceivedthemostattention.[8]
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Reasoning,problemsolving
Earlyresearchersdevelopedalgorithmsthatimitatedstepbystepreasoningthathumansusewhentheysolve
puzzlesormakelogicaldeductions(reason).[40]Bythelate1980sand1990s,AIresearchhaddevelopedmethods
fordealingwithuncertainorincompleteinformation,employingconceptsfromprobabilityandeconomics.[41]
Fordifficultproblems,algorithmscanrequireenormouscomputationalresourcesmostexperiencea
"combinatorialexplosion":theamountofmemoryorcomputertimerequiredbecomesastronomicalforproblems
ofacertainsize.Thesearchformoreefficientproblemsolvingalgorithmsisahighpriority.[42]
Humanbeingsordinarilyusefast,intuitivejudgmentsratherthanstepbystepdeductionthatearlyAIresearchwas
abletomodel.[43]AIhasprogressedusing"subsymbolic"problemsolving:embodiedagentapproachesemphasize
theimportanceofsensorimotorskillstohigherreasoningneuralnetresearchattemptstosimulatethestructures
insidethebrainthatgiverisetothisskillstatisticalapproachestoAImimicthehumanability.
Knowledgerepresentation
Knowledgerepresentation[44]andknowledgeengineering[45]arecentralto
AIresearch.Manyoftheproblemsmachinesareexpectedtosolvewill
requireextensiveknowledgeabouttheworld.AmongthethingsthatAI
needstorepresentare:objects,properties,categoriesandrelationsbetween
objects[46]situations,events,statesandtime[47]causesandeffects[48]
knowledgeaboutknowledge(whatweknowaboutwhatotherpeople
know)[49]andmanyother,lesswellresearcheddomains.Arepresentation
of"whatexists"isanontology:thesetofobjects,relations,conceptsandso
onthatthemachineknowsabout.Themostgeneralarecalledupper
ontologies,whichattempttoprovideafoundationforallother
knowledge.[50]
Amongthemostdifficultproblemsinknowledgerepresentationare:
Anontologyrepresentsknowledgeas
asetofconceptswithinadomainand
therelationshipsbetweenthose
concepts.
Defaultreasoningandthequalificationproblem
Manyofthethingspeopleknowtaketheformof"working
assumptions".Forexample,ifabirdcomesupinconversation,
peopletypicallypictureananimalthatisfistsized,sings,andflies.Noneofthesethingsaretrueaboutall
birds.JohnMcCarthyidentifiedthisproblemin1969[51]asthequalificationproblem:foranycommonsense
rulethatAIresearcherscaretorepresent,theretendtobeahugenumberofexceptions.Almostnothingis
simplytrueorfalseinthewaythatabstractlogicrequires.AIresearchhasexploredanumberofsolutionsto
thisproblem.[52]
Thebreadthofcommonsenseknowledge
Thenumberofatomicfactsthattheaveragepersonknowsisastronomical.Researchprojectsthatattemptto
buildacompleteknowledgebaseofcommonsenseknowledge(e.g.,Cyc)requireenormousamountsof
laboriousontologicalengineeringtheymustbebuilt,byhand,onecomplicatedconceptatatime.[53]A
majorgoalistohavethecomputerunderstandenoughconceptstobeabletolearnbyreadingfromsources
liketheInternet,andthusbeabletoaddtoitsownontology.
Thesubsymbolicformofsomecommonsenseknowledge
Muchofwhatpeopleknowisnotrepresentedas"facts"or"statements"thattheycouldexpressverbally.For
example,achessmasterwillavoidaparticularchesspositionbecauseit"feelstooexposed"[54]oranart
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criticcantakeonelookatastatueandinstantlyrealizethatitisafake.[55]Theseareintuitionsortendencies
thatarerepresentedinthebrainnonconsciouslyandsubsymbolically.[56]Knowledgelikethisinforms,
supportsandprovidesacontextforsymbolic,consciousknowledge.Aswiththerelatedproblemofsub
symbolicreasoning,itishopedthatsituatedAI,computationalintelligence,orstatisticalAIwillprovide
waystorepresentthiskindofknowledge.[56]
Planning
Intelligentagentsmustbeabletosetgoalsandachievethem.[57]Theyneed
awaytovisualizethefuture(theymusthavearepresentationofthestateof
theworldandbeabletomakepredictionsabouthowtheiractionswill
changeit)andbeabletomakechoicesthatmaximizetheutility(or
"value")oftheavailablechoices.[58]
Inclassicalplanningproblems,theagentcanassumethatitistheonly
thingactingontheworldanditcanbecertainwhattheconsequencesofits
actionsmaybe.[59]However,iftheagentisnottheonlyactor,itmust
periodicallyascertainwhethertheworldmatchesitspredictionsanditmust
changeitsplanasthisbecomesnecessary,requiringtheagenttoreason
underuncertainty.[60]
Multiagentplanningusesthecooperationandcompetitionofmanyagents
toachieveagivengoal.Emergentbehaviorsuchasthisisusedby
evolutionaryalgorithmsandswarmintelligence.[61]
Ahierarchicalcontrolsystemisa
formofcontrolsysteminwhichaset
ofdevicesandgoverningsoftwareis
arrangedinahierarchy.
Learning
Machinelearningisthestudyofcomputeralgorithmsthatimproveautomaticallythroughexperience[62][63]and
hasbeencentraltoAIresearchsincethefield'sinception.[64]
Unsupervisedlearningistheabilitytofindpatternsinastreamofinput.Supervisedlearningincludesboth
classificationandnumericalregression.Classificationisusedtodeterminewhatcategorysomethingbelongsin,
afterseeinganumberofexamplesofthingsfromseveralcategories.Regressionistheattempttoproducea
functionthatdescribestherelationshipbetweeninputsandoutputsandpredictshowtheoutputsshouldchangeas
theinputschange.Inreinforcementlearning[65]theagentisrewardedforgoodresponsesandpunishedforbad
ones.Theagentusesthissequenceofrewardsandpunishmentstoformastrategyforoperatinginitsproblem
space.Thesethreetypesoflearningcanbeanalyzedintermsofdecisiontheory,usingconceptslikeutility.The
mathematicalanalysisofmachinelearningalgorithmsandtheirperformanceisabranchoftheoreticalcomputer
scienceknownascomputationallearningtheory.[66]
Withindevelopmentalrobotics,developmentallearningapproacheswereelaboratedforlifelongcumulative
acquisitionofrepertoiresofnovelskillsbyarobot,throughautonomousselfexplorationandsocialinteraction
withhumanteachers,andusingguidancemechanismssuchasactivelearning,maturation,motorsynergies,and
imitation.[67][68][69][70]
Naturallanguageprocessing(communication)
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Naturallanguageprocessing[71]givesmachinestheabilitytoreadand
understandthelanguagesthathumansspeak.Asufficientlypowerful
naturallanguageprocessingsystemwouldenablenaturallanguageuser
interfacesandtheacquisitionofknowledgedirectlyfromhumanwritten
sources,suchasnewswiretexts.Somestraightforwardapplicationsof
naturallanguageprocessingincludeinformationretrieval,textmining,
questionanswering[72]andmachinetranslation.[73]
Acommonmethodofprocessingandextractingmeaningfromnatural
languageisthroughsemanticindexing.Increasesinprocessingspeedsand
thedropinthecostofdatastoragemakesindexinglargevolumesof
abstractionsoftheuser'sinputmuchmoreefficient.
Perception
Aparsetreerepresentsthesyntactic
structureofasentenceaccordingto
someformalgrammar.
Machineperception[74]istheabilitytouseinputfromsensors(suchas
cameras,microphones,tactilesensors,sonarandothersmoreexotic)todeduceaspectsoftheworld.Computer
vision[75]istheabilitytoanalyzevisualinput.Afewselectedsubproblemsarespeechrecognition,[76]facial
recognitionandobjectrecognition.[77]
Motionandmanipulation
Thefieldofrobotics[78]iscloselyrelatedtoAI.Intelligenceisrequiredforrobotstobeabletohandlesuchtasksas
objectmanipulation[79]andnavigation,withsubproblemsoflocalization(knowingwhereyouare,orfindingout
whereotherthingsare),mapping(learningwhatisaroundyou,buildingamapoftheenvironment),andmotion
planning(figuringouthowtogetthere)orpathplanning(goingfromonepointinspacetoanotherpoint,which
mayinvolvecompliantmotionwheretherobotmoveswhilemaintainingphysicalcontactwithanobject).[80][81]
Socialintelligence
Affectivecomputingisthestudyanddevelopmentofsystemsanddevices
thatcanrecognize,interpret,process,andsimulatehumanaffects.[83][84]It
isaninterdisciplinaryfieldspanningcomputersciences,psychology,and
cognitivescience.[85]Whiletheoriginsofthefieldmaybetracedasfar
backastoearlyphilosophicalinquiriesintoemotion,[86]themoremodern
branchofcomputerscienceoriginatedwithRosalindPicard's1995
paper[87]onaffectivecomputing.[88][89]Amotivationfortheresearchisthe
abilitytosimulateempathy.Themachineshouldinterprettheemotional
stateofhumansandadaptitsbehaviourtothem,givinganappropriate
responseforthoseemotions.
Kismet,arobotwithrudimentary
socialskills[82]
Emotionandsocialskills[90]playtworolesforanintelligentagent.First,it
mustbeabletopredicttheactionsofothers,byunderstandingtheirmotivesandemotionalstates.(Thisinvolves
elementsofgametheory,decisiontheory,aswellastheabilitytomodelhumanemotionsandtheperceptualskills
todetectemotions.)Also,inanefforttofacilitatehumancomputerinteraction,anintelligentmachinemightwant
tobeabletodisplayemotionsevenifitdoesnotactuallyexperiencethemitselfinordertoappearsensitiveto
theemotionaldynamicsofhumaninteraction.
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Creativity
AsubfieldofAIaddressescreativityboththeoretically(fromaphilosophicalandpsychologicalperspective)and
practically(viaspecificimplementationsofsystemsthatgenerateoutputsthatcanbeconsideredcreative,or
systemsthatidentifyandassesscreativity).RelatedareasofcomputationalresearchareArtificialintuitionand
Artificialthinking.
Generalintelligence
Manyresearchersthinkthattheirworkwilleventuallybeincorporatedintoamachinewithartificialgeneral
intelligence,combiningalltheskillsaboveandexceedinghumanabilitiesatmostorallofthem.[9]Afewbelieve
thatanthropomorphicfeatureslikeartificialconsciousnessoranartificialbrainmayberequiredforsucha
project.[91][92]
Manyoftheproblemsabovemayrequiregeneralintelligencetobeconsideredsolved.Forexample,evena
straightforward,specifictasklikemachinetranslationrequiresthatthemachinereadandwriteinbothlanguages
(NLP),followtheauthor'sargument(reason),knowwhatisbeingtalkedabout(knowledge),andfaithfully
reproducetheauthor'sintention(socialintelligence).Aproblemlikemachinetranslationisconsidered"AI
complete".Inordertoreachhumanlevelperformanceformachines,onemustsolvealltheproblems.[93]
Longtermgoals
ArtificialIntelligenceisaccomplishedfrom3viewpoints:computationalpsychology,computationalphilosophy,
andcomputerscience.Computationalpsychologyisusedtomakecomputerprogramsthatmimichuman
behavior.[94]Computationalphilosophy,isusedtodevelopanadaptive,freeflowingcomputermind.[94]
Implementingcomputerscienceservesthegoalofcreatingcomputersthatcanperformtasksthatonlypeople
couldpreviouslyaccomplish.[94]Together,thehumanesquebehavior,mind,andactionsmakeupartificial
intelligence.
TheoverallresearchgoalofAIistocreatetechnologythatallowscomputersandmachinestofunctioninan
intelligentmanner.Thiscanbedonethroughdevelopingandcreatingefficientmethodsforplanningandlearning
inorderfortheoutcomestoberelevantandapplicabletothegivensituation.[95]Shorttermandlongtermresearch
goalshavebeencreatedinordertodevelopAItechnology.Forexample,somescientistsfromtheFutureofLife
InstitutedescribedsomeshorttermresearchgoalstobehowAIinfluencestheeconomy,thelawsandethicsthat
areinvolvedwithAIandhowtominimizeAIsecurityrisks.Inthelongterm,thescientistshaveproposedto
continueoptimizingfunctionwhileminimizingpossiblesecurityrisksthatcomealongwithnewtechnologies.[96]
Approaches
ThereisnoestablishedunifyingtheoryorparadigmthatguidesAIresearch.Researchersdisagreeaboutmany
issues.[97]Afewofthemostlongstandingquestionsthathaveremainedunansweredarethese:shouldartificial
intelligencesimulatenaturalintelligencebystudyingpsychologyorneurology?Orishumanbiologyasirrelevant
toAIresearchasbirdbiologyistoaeronauticalengineering?[98]Canintelligentbehaviorbedescribedusing
simple,elegantprinciples(suchaslogicoroptimization)?Ordoesitnecessarilyrequiresolvingalargenumberof
completelyunrelatedproblems?[99]Canintelligencebereproducedusinghighlevelsymbols,similartowordsand
ideas?Ordoesitrequire"subsymbolic"processing?[100]JohnHaugeland,whocoinedthetermGOFAI(Good
OldFashionedArtificialIntelligence),alsoproposedthatAIshouldmoreproperlybereferredtoassynthetic
intelligence,[101]atermwhichhassincebeenadoptedbysomenonGOFAIresearchers.[102][103]
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Cyberneticsandbrainsimulation
Inthe1940sand1950s,anumberofresearchersexploredtheconnectionbetweenneurology,informationtheory,
andcybernetics.Someofthembuiltmachinesthatusedelectronicnetworkstoexhibitrudimentaryintelligence,
suchasW.GreyWalter'sturtlesandtheJohnsHopkinsBeast.Manyoftheseresearchersgatheredformeetingsof
theTeleologicalSocietyatPrincetonUniversityandtheRatioClubinEngland.[18]By1960,thisapproachwas
largelyabandoned,althoughelementsofitwouldberevivedinthe1980s.
Symbolic
Whenaccesstodigitalcomputersbecamepossibleinthemiddle1950s,AIresearchbegantoexplorethe
possibilitythathumanintelligencecouldbereducedtosymbolmanipulation.Theresearchwascenteredinthree
institutions:CarnegieMellonUniversity,StanfordandMIT,andeachonedevelopeditsownstyleofresearch.
JohnHaugelandnamedtheseapproachestoAI"goodoldfashionedAI"or"GOFAI".[104]Duringthe1960s,
symbolicapproacheshadachievedgreatsuccessatsimulatinghighlevelthinkinginsmalldemonstration
programs.Approachesbasedoncyberneticsorneuralnetworkswereabandonedorpushedintothe
background.[105]Researchersinthe1960sandthe1970swereconvincedthatsymbolicapproacheswould
eventuallysucceedincreatingamachinewithartificialgeneralintelligenceandconsideredthisthegoaloftheir
field.
Cognitivesimulation
EconomistHerbertSimonandAllenNewellstudiedhumanproblemsolvingskillsandattemptedto
formalizethem,andtheirworklaidthefoundationsofthefieldofartificialintelligence,aswellascognitive
science,operationsresearchandmanagementscience.Theirresearchteamusedtheresultsofpsychological
experimentstodevelopprogramsthatsimulatedthetechniquesthatpeopleusedtosolveproblems.This
tradition,centeredatCarnegieMellonUniversitywouldeventuallyculminateinthedevelopmentoftheSoar
architectureinthemiddle1980s.[106][107]
Logicbased
UnlikeNewellandSimon,JohnMcCarthyfeltthatmachinesdidnotneedtosimulatehumanthought,but
shouldinsteadtrytofindtheessenceofabstractreasoningandproblemsolving,regardlessofwhether
peopleusedthesamealgorithms.[98]HislaboratoryatStanford(SAIL)focusedonusingformallogicto
solveawidevarietyofproblems,includingknowledgerepresentation,planningandlearning.[108]Logicwas
alsothefocusoftheworkattheUniversityofEdinburghandelsewhereinEuropewhichledtothe
developmentoftheprogramminglanguagePrologandthescienceoflogicprogramming.[109]
"Antilogic"or"scruffy"
ResearchersatMIT(suchasMarvinMinskyandSeymourPapert)[110]foundthatsolvingdifficultproblems
invisionandnaturallanguageprocessingrequiredadhocsolutionstheyarguedthattherewasnosimple
andgeneralprinciple(likelogic)thatwouldcapturealltheaspectsofintelligentbehavior.RogerSchank
describedtheir"antilogic"approachesas"scruffy"(asopposedtothe"neat"paradigmsatCMUand
Stanford).[99]Commonsenseknowledgebases(suchasDougLenat'sCyc)areanexampleof"scruffy"AI,
sincetheymustbebuiltbyhand,onecomplicatedconceptatatime.[111]
Knowledgebased
Whencomputerswithlargememoriesbecameavailablearound1970,researchersfromallthreetraditions
begantobuildknowledgeintoAIapplications.[112]This"knowledgerevolution"ledtothedevelopmentand
deploymentofexpertsystems(introducedbyEdwardFeigenbaum),thefirsttrulysuccessfulformofAI
software.[28]Theknowledgerevolutionwasalsodrivenbytherealizationthatenormousamountsof
knowledgewouldberequiredbymanysimpleAIapplications.
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Subsymbolic
Bythe1980sprogressinsymbolicAIseemedtostallandmanybelievedthatsymbolicsystemswouldneverbe
abletoimitatealltheprocessesofhumancognition,especiallyperception,robotics,learningandpattern
recognition.Anumberofresearchersbegantolookinto"subsymbolic"approachestospecificAIproblems.[100]
Subsymbolicmethodsmanagetoapproachintelligencewithoutspecificrepresentationsofknowledge.
Bottomup,embodied,situated,behaviorbasedornouvelleAI
Researchersfromtherelatedfieldofrobotics,suchasRodneyBrooks,rejectedsymbolicAIandfocusedon
thebasicengineeringproblemsthatwouldallowrobotstomoveandsurvive.[113]Theirworkrevivedthe
nonsymbolicviewpointoftheearlycyberneticsresearchersofthe1950sandreintroducedtheuseofcontrol
theoryinAI.Thiscoincidedwiththedevelopmentoftheembodiedmindthesisintherelatedfieldof
cognitivescience:theideathataspectsofthebody(suchasmovement,perceptionandvisualization)are
requiredforhigherintelligence.
Computationalintelligenceandsoftcomputing
Interestinneuralnetworksand"connectionism"wasrevivedbyDavidRumelhartandothersinthemiddle
of1980s.[114]Neuralnetworksareanexampleofsoftcomputingtheyaresolutionstoproblemswhich
cannotbesolvedwithcompletelogicalcertainty,andwhereanapproximatesolutionisoftenenough.Other
softcomputingapproachestoAIincludefuzzysystems,evolutionarycomputationandmanystatisticaltools.
TheapplicationofsoftcomputingtoAIisstudiedcollectivelybytheemergingdisciplineofcomputational
intelligence.[115]
Statistical
Inthe1990s,AIresearchersdevelopedsophisticatedmathematicaltoolstosolvespecificsubproblems.Thesetools
aretrulyscientific,inthesensethattheirresultsarebothmeasurableandverifiable,andtheyhavebeen
responsibleformanyofAI'srecentsuccesses.Thesharedmathematicallanguagehasalsopermittedahighlevelof
collaborationwithmoreestablishedfields(likemathematics,economicsoroperationsresearch).StuartRusselland
PeterNorvigdescribethismovementasnothinglessthana"revolution"and"thevictoryoftheneats".[31]Critics
arguethatthesetechniques(withfewexceptions[116])aretoofocusedonparticularproblemsandhavefailedto
addressthelongtermgoalofgeneralintelligence.[117]Thereisanongoingdebateabouttherelevanceandvalidity
ofstatisticalapproachesinAI,exemplifiedinpartbyexchangesbetweenPeterNorvigandNoam
Chomsky.[118][119]
Integratingtheapproaches
Intelligentagentparadigm
Anintelligentagentisasystemthatperceivesitsenvironmentandtakesactionswhichmaximizeitschances
ofsuccess.Thesimplestintelligentagentsareprogramsthatsolvespecificproblems.Morecomplicated
agentsincludehumanbeingsandorganizationsofhumanbeings(suchasfirms).Theparadigmgives
researcherslicensetostudyisolatedproblemsandfindsolutionsthatarebothverifiableanduseful,without
agreeingononesingleapproach.Anagentthatsolvesaspecificproblemcanuseanyapproachthatworks
someagentsaresymbolicandlogical,somearesubsymbolicneuralnetworksandothersmayusenew
approaches.Theparadigmalsogivesresearchersacommonlanguagetocommunicatewithotherfields
suchasdecisiontheoryandeconomicsthatalsouseconceptsofabstractagents.Theintelligentagent
paradigmbecamewidelyacceptedduringthe1990s.[1]
Agentarchitecturesandcognitivearchitectures
Researchershavedesignedsystemstobuildintelligentsystemsoutofinteractingintelligentagentsina
multiagentsystem.[120]Asystemwithbothsymbolicandsubsymboliccomponentsisahybridintelligent
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system,andthestudyofsuchsystemsisartificialintelligencesystemsintegration.Ahierarchicalcontrol
systemprovidesabridgebetweensubsymbolicAIatitslowest,reactivelevelsandtraditionalsymbolicAI
atitshighestlevels,whererelaxedtimeconstraintspermitplanningandworldmodelling.[121]Rodney
Brooks'subsumptionarchitecturewasanearlyproposalforsuchahierarchicalsystem.[122]
Tools
Inthecourseof50yearsofresearch,AIhasdevelopedalargenumberoftoolstosolvethemostdifficultproblems
incomputerscience.Afewofthemostgeneralofthesemethodsarediscussedbelow.
Searchandoptimization
ManyproblemsinAIcanbesolvedintheorybyintelligentlysearchingthroughmanypossiblesolutions:[123]
Reasoningcanbereducedtoperformingasearch.Forexample,logicalproofcanbeviewedassearchingforapath
thatleadsfrompremisestoconclusions,whereeachstepistheapplicationofaninferencerule.[124]Planning
algorithmssearchthroughtreesofgoalsandsubgoals,attemptingtofindapathtoatargetgoal,aprocesscalled
meansendsanalysis.[125]Roboticsalgorithmsformovinglimbsandgraspingobjectsuselocalsearchesin
configurationspace.[79]Manylearningalgorithmsusesearchalgorithmsbasedonoptimization.
Simpleexhaustivesearches[126]arerarelysufficientformostrealworldproblems:thesearchspace(thenumberof
placestosearch)quicklygrowstoastronomicalnumbers.Theresultisasearchthatistooslowornevercompletes.
Thesolution,formanyproblems,istouse"heuristics"or"rulesofthumb"thateliminatechoicesthatareunlikely
toleadtothegoal(called"pruningthesearchtree").Heuristicssupplytheprogramwitha"bestguess"forthepath
onwhichthesolutionlies.[127]Heuristicslimitthesearchforsolutionsintoasmallersamplesize.[80]
Averydifferentkindofsearchcametoprominenceinthe1990s,basedonthemathematicaltheoryof
optimization.Formanyproblems,itispossibletobeginthesearchwithsomeformofaguessandthenrefinethe
guessincrementallyuntilnomorerefinementscanbemade.Thesealgorithmscanbevisualizedasblindhill
climbing:webeginthesearchatarandompointonthelandscape,andthen,byjumpsorsteps,wekeepmoving
ourguessuphill,untilwereachthetop.Otheroptimizationalgorithmsaresimulatedannealing,beamsearchand
randomoptimization.[128]
Evolutionarycomputationusesaformofoptimizationsearch.Forexample,theymaybeginwithapopulationof
organisms(theguesses)andthenallowthemtomutateandrecombine,selectingonlythefittesttosurviveeach
generation(refiningtheguesses).Formsofevolutionarycomputationincludeswarmintelligencealgorithms(such
asantcolonyorparticleswarmoptimization)[129]andevolutionaryalgorithms(suchasgeneticalgorithms,gene
expressionprogramming,andgeneticprogramming).[130]
Logic
Logic[131]isusedforknowledgerepresentationandproblemsolving,butitcanbeappliedtootherproblemsas
well.Forexample,thesatplanalgorithmuseslogicforplanning[132]andinductivelogicprogrammingisamethod
forlearning.[133]
SeveraldifferentformsoflogicareusedinAIresearch.Propositionalorsententiallogic[134]isthelogicof
statementswhichcanbetrueorfalse.Firstorderlogic[135]alsoallowstheuseofquantifiersandpredicates,and
canexpressfactsaboutobjects,theirproperties,andtheirrelationswitheachother.Fuzzylogic,[136]isaversionof
firstorderlogicwhichallowsthetruthofastatementtoberepresentedasavaluebetween0and1,ratherthan
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simplyTrue(1)orFalse(0).Fuzzysystemscanbeusedforuncertainreasoningandhavebeenwidelyusedin
modernindustrialandconsumerproductcontrolsystems.Subjectivelogic[137]modelsuncertaintyinadifferent
andmoreexplicitmannerthanfuzzylogic:agivenbinomialopinionsatisfiesbelief+disbelief+uncertainty=1
withinaBetadistribution.Bythismethod,ignorancecanbedistinguishedfromprobabilisticstatementsthatan
agentmakeswithhighconfidence.
Defaultlogics,nonmonotoniclogicsandcircumscription[52]areformsoflogicdesignedtohelpwithdefault
reasoningandthequalificationproblem.Severalextensionsoflogichavebeendesignedtohandlespecific
domainsofknowledge,suchas:descriptionlogics[46]situationcalculus,eventcalculusandfluentcalculus(for
representingeventsandtime)[47]causalcalculus[48]beliefcalculus[138]andmodallogics.[49]
Probabilisticmethodsforuncertainreasoning
ManyproblemsinAI(inreasoning,planning,learning,perceptionandrobotics)requiretheagenttooperatewith
incompleteoruncertaininformation.AIresearchershavedevisedanumberofpowerfultoolstosolvethese
problemsusingmethodsfromprobabilitytheoryandeconomics.[139]
Bayesiannetworks[140]areaverygeneraltoolthatcanbeusedforalargenumberofproblems:reasoning(using
theBayesianinferencealgorithm),[141]learning(usingtheexpectationmaximizationalgorithm),[142]planning
(usingdecisionnetworks)[143]andperception(usingdynamicBayesiannetworks).[144]Probabilisticalgorithmscan
alsobeusedforfiltering,prediction,smoothingandfindingexplanationsforstreamsofdata,helpingperception
systemstoanalyzeprocessesthatoccurovertime(e.g.,hiddenMarkovmodelsorKalmanfilters).[144]
Akeyconceptfromthescienceofeconomicsis"utility":ameasureofhowvaluablesomethingistoanintelligent
agent.Precisemathematicaltoolshavebeendevelopedthatanalyzehowanagentcanmakechoicesandplan,
usingdecisiontheory,decisionanalysis,[145]andinformationvaluetheory.[58]Thesetoolsincludemodelssuchas
Markovdecisionprocesses,[146]dynamicdecisionnetworks,[144]gametheoryandmechanismdesign.[147]
Classifiersandstatisticallearningmethods
ThesimplestAIapplicationscanbedividedintotwotypes:classifiers("ifshinythendiamond")andcontrollers
("ifshinythenpickup").Controllersdo,however,alsoclassifyconditionsbeforeinferringactions,andtherefore
classificationformsacentralpartofmanyAIsystems.Classifiersarefunctionsthatusepatternmatchingto
determineaclosestmatch.Theycanbetunedaccordingtoexamples,makingthemveryattractiveforuseinAI.
Theseexamplesareknownasobservationsorpatterns.Insupervisedlearning,eachpatternbelongstoacertain
predefinedclass.Aclasscanbeseenasadecisionthathastobemade.Alltheobservationscombinedwiththeir
classlabelsareknownasadataset.Whenanewobservationisreceived,thatobservationisclassifiedbasedon
previousexperience.[148]
Aclassifiercanbetrainedinvariouswaystherearemanystatisticalandmachinelearningapproaches.Themost
widelyusedclassifiersaretheneuralnetwork,[149]kernelmethodssuchasthesupportvectormachine,[150]k
nearestneighboralgorithm,[151]Gaussianmixturemodel,[152]naiveBayesclassifier,[153]anddecisiontree.[154]The
performanceoftheseclassifiershavebeencomparedoverawiderangeoftasks.Classifierperformancedepends
greatlyonthecharacteristicsofthedatatobeclassified.Thereisnosingleclassifierthatworksbestonallgiven
problemsthisisalsoreferredtoasthe"nofreelunch"theorem.Determiningasuitableclassifierforagiven
problemisstillmoreanartthanscience.[155]
Neuralnetworks
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Thestudyofnonlearningartificialneuralnetworks[149]beganinthe
decadebeforethefieldofAIresearchwasfounded,intheworkofWalter
PittsandWarrenMcCullouch.FrankRosenblattinventedtheperceptron,a
learningnetworkwithasinglelayer,similartotheoldconceptoflinear
regression.EarlypioneersalsoincludeAlexeyGrigorevichIvakhnenko,
TeuvoKohonen,StephenGrossberg,KunihikoFukushima,Christophvon
derMalsburg,DavidWillshaw,ShunIchiAmari,BernardWidrow,John
Hopfield,EduardoR.Caianiello,andothers.
Themaincategoriesofnetworksareacyclicorfeedforwardneural
networks(wherethesignalpassesinonlyonedirection)andrecurrent
neuralnetworks(whichallowfeedbackandshorttermmemoriesof
previousinputevents).Amongthemostpopularfeedforwardnetworksare
perceptrons,multilayerperceptronsandradialbasisnetworks.[156]Neural
networkscanbeappliedtotheproblemofintelligentcontrol(forrobotics)
orlearning,usingsuchtechniquesasHebbianlearning,GMDHor
competitivelearning.[157]
Aneuralnetworkisaninterconnected
groupofnodes,akintothevast
networkofneuronsinthehuman
brain.
Today,neuralnetworksareoftentrainedbythebackpropagationalgorithm,whichhadbeenaroundsince1970as
thereversemodeofautomaticdifferentiationpublishedbySeppoLinnainmaa,[158][159]andwasintroducedto
neuralnetworksbyPaulWerbos.[160][161][162]
Hierarchicaltemporalmemoryisanapproachthatmodelssomeofthestructuralandalgorithmicpropertiesofthe
neocortex.[163]
Deepfeedforwardneuralnetworks
Deeplearninginartificialneuralnetworkswithmanylayershastransformedmanyimportantsubfieldsofartificial
intelligence,includingcomputervision,speechrecognition,naturallanguageprocessingandothers.[164][165][166]
Accordingtoasurvey,[167]theexpression"DeepLearning"wasintroducedtotheMachineLearningcommunity
byRinaDechterin1986[168]andgainedtractionafterIgorAizenbergandcolleaguesintroducedittoArtificial
NeuralNetworksin2000.[169]ThefirstfunctionalDeepLearningnetworkswerepublishedbyAlexeyGrigorevich
IvakhnenkoandV.G.Lapain1965.[170]Thesenetworksaretrainedonelayeratatime.Ivakhnenko's1971
paper[171]describesthelearningofadeepfeedforwardmultilayerperceptronwitheightlayers,alreadymuch
deeperthanmanylaternetworks.In2006,apublicationbyGeoffreyHintonandRuslanSalakhutdinovintroduced
anotherwayofpretrainingmanylayeredfeedforwardneuralnetworks(FNNs)onelayeratatime,treatingeach
layerinturnasanunsupervisedrestrictedBoltzmannmachine,thenusingsupervisedbackpropagationforfine
tuning.[172]Similartoshallowartificialneuralnetworks,deepneuralnetworkscanmodelcomplexnonlinear
relationships.Overthelastfewyears,advancesinbothmachinelearningalgorithmsandcomputerhardwarehave
ledtomoreefficientmethodsfortrainingdeepneuralnetworksthatcontainmanylayersofnonlinearhiddenunits
andaverylargeoutputlayer.[173]
Deeplearningoftenusesconvolutionalneuralnetworks(CNNs),whoseoriginscanbetracedbacktothe
NeocognitronintroducedbyKunihikoFukushimain1980.[174]In1989,YannLeCunandcolleaguesapplied
backpropagationtosuchanarchitecture.Intheearly2000s,inanindustrialapplicationCNNsalreadyprocessedan
estimated10%to20%ofallthecheckswrittenintheUS.[175]Since2011,fastimplementationsofCNNsonGPUs
havewonmanyvisualpatternrecognitioncompetitions.[166]
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DeepfeedforwardneuralnetworkswereusedinconjunctionwithreinforcementlearningbyAlphaGo,Google
Deepmind'sprogramthatwasthefirsttobeataprofessionalhumanplayer.[176]
Deeprecurrentneuralnetworks
Earlyon,deeplearningwasalsoappliedtosequencelearningwithrecurrentneuralnetworks(RNNs)[177]which
aregeneralcomputersandcanrunarbitraryprogramstoprocessarbitrarysequencesofinputs.Thedepthofan
RNNisunlimitedanddependsonthelengthofitsinputsequence.[166]RNNscanbetrainedbygradient
descent[178][179][180]butsufferfromthevanishinggradientproblem.[164][181]In1992,itwasshownthat
unsupervisedpretrainingofastackofrecurrentneuralnetworkscanspeedupsubsequentsupervisedlearningof
deepsequentialproblems.[182]
NumerousresearchersnowusevariantsofadeeplearningrecurrentNNcalledthelongshorttermmemory
(LSTM)networkpublishedbyHochreiter&Schmidhuberin1997.[183]LSTMisoftentrainedbyConnectionist
TemporalClassification(CTC).[184]AtGoogle,MicrosoftandBaiduthisapproachhasrevolutionisedspeech
recognition.[185][186][187]Forexample,in2015,Google'sspeechrecognitionexperiencedadramaticperformance
jumpof49%throughCTCtrainedLSTM,whichisnowavailablethroughGoogleVoicetobillionsofsmartphone
users.[188]GooglealsousedLSTMtoimprovemachinetranslation,[189]LanguageModeling[190]andMultilingual
LanguageProcessing.[191]LSTMcombinedwithCNNsalsoimprovedautomaticimagecaptioning[192]anda
plethoraofotherapplications.
Controltheory
Controltheory,thegrandchildofcybernetics,hasmanyimportantapplications,especiallyinrobotics.[193]
Languages
AIresearchershavedevelopedseveralspecializedlanguagesforAIresearch,includingLisp[194]andProlog.[195]
Evaluatingprogress
In1950,AlanTuringproposedageneralproceduretotesttheintelligenceofanagentnowknownastheTuring
test.Thisprocedureallowsalmostallthemajorproblemsofartificialintelligencetobetested.However,itisa
verydifficultchallengeandatpresentallagentsfail.[196]
Artificialintelligencecanalsobeevaluatedonspecificproblemssuchassmallproblemsinchemistry,hand
writingrecognitionandgameplaying.SuchtestshavebeentermedsubjectmatterexpertTuringtests.Smaller
problemsprovidemoreachievablegoalsandthereareaneverincreasingnumberofpositiveresults.[197]
OneclassificationforoutcomesofanAItestis:[198]
1.Optimal:itisnotpossibletoperformbetter.
2.Strongsuperhuman:performsbetterthanallhumans.
3.Superhuman:performsbetterthanmosthumans.
4.Subhuman:performsworsethanmosthumans.
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Forexample,performanceatdraughts(i.e.checkers)isoptimal,[199]performanceatchessissuperhumanand
nearingstrongsuperhuman(seecomputerchess:computersversushuman)andperformanceatmanyeveryday
tasks(suchasrecognizingafaceorcrossingaroomwithoutbumpingintosomething)issubhuman.
Aquitedifferentapproachmeasuresmachineintelligencethroughtestswhicharedevelopedfrommathematical
definitionsofintelligence.Examplesofthesekindsoftestsstartinthelateninetiesdevisingintelligencetestsusing
notionsfromKolmogorovcomplexityanddatacompression.[200]Twomajoradvantagesofmathematical
definitionsaretheirapplicabilitytononhumanintelligencesandtheirabsenceofarequirementforhumantesters.
AderivativeoftheTuringtestistheCompletelyAutomatedPublicTuringtesttotellComputersandHumans
Apart(CAPTCHA).Asthenameimplies,thishelpstodeterminethatauserisanactualpersonandnotacomputer
posingasahuman.IncontrasttothestandardTuringtest,CAPTCHAadministeredbyamachineandtargetedtoa
humanasopposedtobeingadministeredbyahumanandtargetedtoamachine.Acomputerasksauserto
completeasimpletestthengeneratesagradeforthattest.Computersareunabletosolvetheproblem,socorrect
solutionsaredeemedtobetheresultofapersontakingthetest.AcommontypeofCAPTCHAisthetestthat
requiresthetypingofdistortedletters,numbersorsymbolsthatappearinanimageundecipherablebya
computer.[201]
Applications
AIisrelevanttoanyintellectualtask.[202]Modernartificialintelligence
techniquesarepervasiveandaretoonumeroustolisthere.Frequently,
whenatechniquereachesmainstreamuse,itisnolongerconsidered
artificialintelligencethisphenomenonisdescribedastheAIeffect.[203]
HighprofileexamplesofAIincludeautonomousvehicles(suchasdrones
andselfdrivingcars),medicaldiagnosis,creatingart(suchaspoetry),
provingmathematicaltheorems,playinggames(suchasChessorGo),
searchengines(suchasGooglesearch),onlineassistants(suchasSiri),
imagerecognitioninphotographs,spamfiltering,predictionofjudicial
decisions[204]andtargetingonlineadvertisements.[202][205][206]
WithsocialmediasitesovertakingTVasasourcefornewsforyoung
peopleandnewsorganisationsincreasinglyreliantonsocialmedia
platformsforgeneratingdistribution,[207]majorpublishersnowuse
artificialintelligence(AI)technologytopoststoriesmoreeffectivelyand
generatehighervolumesoftraffic.[208]
Competitionsandprizes
Anautomatedonlineassistant
providingcustomerserviceonaweb
pageoneofmanyveryprimitive
applicationsofartificialintelligence.
Thereareanumberofcompetitionsandprizestopromoteresearchinartificialintelligence.Themainareas
promotedare:generalmachineintelligence,conversationalbehavior,datamining,roboticcars,robotsoccerand
games.
Shapingthehealthcareindustry
Artificialintelligenceisbreakingintothehealthcareindustrybyassistingdoctors.AccordingtoBloomberg
Technology,MicrosofthasdevelopedAItohelpdoctorsfindtherighttreatmentsforcancer.[209]Thereisagreat
amountofresearchanddrugsdevelopedrelatingtocancer.Indetail,therearemorethan800medicinesand
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vaccinestotreatcancer.Thisnegativelyaffectsthedoctors,becausetherearewaytoomanyoptionstochoose
from,makingitmoredifficulttochoosetherightdrugsforthepatients.Microsoftisworkingonaprojectto
developamachinecalled"Hanover".Itsgoalistomemorizeallthepapersnecessarytocancerandhelppredict
whichcombinationsofdrugswillbemosteffectiveforeachpatient.Oneprojectthatisbeingworkedonatthe
momentisfightingmyeloidleukemia,afatalcancerwherethetreatmenthasnotimprovedindecades.
AccordingtoCNN,therewasarecentstudybysurgeonsattheChildren'sNationalMedicalCenterinWashington.
Theysuccessfullypracticedasurgeonwitharobot,ratherthanahuman.Theteamsupervisedanautonomous
robotperformingasofttissuesurgery,stitchingtogetherapig'sbowelduringopensurgery,anddoingsobetter
thanahumansurgeon.[210]
Automotiveindustry
AdvancementsinAIhavecontributedtothegrowthoftheautomotiveindustrythroughthecreationandevolution
ofselfdrivingvehicles.Asof2016,thereareover30companiesutilizingAIintothecreationofdriverlesscars.A
fewcompaniesinvolvedwithAIincludeTesla,Google,andApple.[211]
Manycomponentscontributetothefunctioningofselfdrivingcars.Thesevehiclesincorporatesystemssuchas
braking,lanechanging,collisionprevention,navigationandmapping.Together,thesesystems,aswellashigh
performancecomputersareintegratedintoonecomplexvehicle.[212]
Onemainfactorthatinfluencestheabilityforadriverlesscartofunctionismapping.Ingeneral,thevehicle
wouldbepreprogrammedwithamapoftheareabeingdriven.Thismapwouldincludedataonthe
approximationsofstreetlightandcurbheightsinorderforthevehicletobeawareofitssurroundings.However,
Googlehasbeenworkingonanalgorithmwiththepurposeofeliminatingtheneedforpreprogrammedmapsand
instead,creatingadevicethatwouldbeabletoadjusttoavarietyofnewsurroundings.[213]Someselfdrivingcars
arenotequippedwithsteeringwheelsorbrakes,sotherehasalsobeenresearchfocusedoncreatinganalgorithm
thatiscapableofmaintainingasafeenvironmentforthepassengersinthevehiclethroughawarenessofspeedand
drivingconditions.[214]
Platforms
Aplatform(or"computingplatform")isdefinedas"somesortofhardwarearchitectureorsoftwareframework
(includingapplicationframeworks),thatallowssoftwaretorun".AsRodneyBrookspointedoutmanyyears
ago,[215]itisnotjusttheartificialintelligencesoftwarethatdefinestheAIfeaturesoftheplatform,butratherthe
actualplatformitselfthataffectstheAIthatresults,i.e.,thereneedstobeworkinAIproblemsonrealworld
platformsratherthaninisolation.
AwidevarietyofplatformshasalloweddifferentaspectsofAItodevelop,rangingfromexpertsystemssuchas
CyctodeeplearningframeworkstorobotplatformssuchastheRoombawithopeninterface.[216]Recentadvances
indeepartificialneuralnetworksanddistributedcomputinghaveledtoaproliferationofsoftwarelibraries,
includingDeeplearning4j,TensorFlow,TheanoandTorch.
PartnershipsbetweenBig5companiestoimproveAI
Amazon,Google,Facebook,IBM,andMicrosofthaveestablishedanonprofitpartnershiptobenefitpeopleand
society.Thecompanieshaveestablishedapartnershiptoformulatethebestpracticesonartificialintelligence
technologies,advancethepublic'sunderstanding,andtoserveasaplatformaboutartificialintelligence.[217]There
willbe10membersontheboard,onefromeachcompany.Theremainderoftheboardwillbefilledwith
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representativesfromacademiaandthenonprofitworld,accordingtoapressrelease.Theystated:"This
partnershiponAIwillconductresearch,organizediscussions,providethoughtleadership,consultwithrelevant
thirdparties,respondtoquestionsfromthepublicandmedia,andcreateeducationalmaterialthatadvancethe
understandingofAItechnologiesincludingmachineperception,learning,andautomatedreasoning."[217]
Thereareconcernswiththeriseofartificialintelligenceandtheimpactsitcanhaveonhumanity.Inresult,
accordingtobothFortuneandCNNtechnologynews,thegroup'sfocuswillbeonethics.Accordingtothe
announcementbythegroups,"Thepartnershipwillconductresearchandrecommendbestpracticesrelatingto
"ethics,fairnessandinclusivitytransparency,privacy,andinteroperabilitycollaborationbetweenpeopleandAI
systemsandthetrustworthiness,reliabilityandrobustnessofthetechnology."[218]Thecorporatememberswill
makefinancialandresearchcontributionstothegroup,whileengagingwiththescientificcommunitytobring
academicsontotheboard.[219]
Philosophyandethics
TherearethreephilosophicalquestionsrelatedtoAI:
1.Isartificialgeneralintelligencepossible?Canamachinesolveanyproblemthatahumanbeingcansolve
usingintelligence?Oraretherehardlimitstowhatamachinecanaccomplish?
2.Areintelligentmachinesdangerous?Howcanweensurethatmachinesbehaveethicallyandthattheyare
usedethically?
3.Canamachinehaveamind,consciousnessandmentalstatesinexactlythesamesensethathumanbeings
do?Canamachinebesentient,andthusdeservecertainrights?Canamachineintentionallycauseharm?
Thelimitsofartificialgeneralintelligence
Canamachinebeintelligent?Canit"think"?
Turing's"politeconvention"
Weneednotdecideifamachinecan"think"weneedonlydecideifamachinecanactasintelligentlyasa
humanbeing.Thisapproachtothephilosophicalproblemsassociatedwithartificialintelligenceformsthe
basisoftheTuringtest.[196]
TheDartmouthproposal
"Everyaspectoflearningoranyotherfeatureofintelligencecanbesopreciselydescribedthatamachine
canbemadetosimulateit."ThisconjecturewasprintedintheproposalfortheDartmouthConferenceof
1956,andrepresentsthepositionofmostworkingAIresearchers.[220]
NewellandSimon'sphysicalsymbolsystemhypothesis
"Aphysicalsymbolsystemhasthenecessaryandsufficientmeansofgeneralintelligentaction."Newelland
Simonarguethatintelligenceconsistsofformaloperationsonsymbols.[221]HubertDreyfusarguedthat,on
thecontrary,humanexpertisedependsonunconsciousinstinctratherthanconscioussymbolmanipulation
andonhavinga"feel"forthesituationratherthanexplicitsymbolicknowledge.(SeeDreyfus'critiqueof
AI.)[222][223]
Gdelianarguments
Gdelhimself,[224]JohnLucas(in1961)andRogerPenrose(inamoredetailedargumentfrom1989
onwards)madehighlytechnicalargumentsthathumanmathematicianscanconsistentlyseethetruthoftheir
own"Gdelstatements"andthereforehavecomputationalabilitiesbeyondthatofmechanicalTuring
machines.[225]However,themodernconsensusinthescientificandmathematicalcommunityisthatthese
"Gdelianarguments"fail.[226][227][228]
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Theartificialbrainargument
Thebraincanbesimulatedbymachinesandbecausebrainsareintelligent,simulatedbrainsmustalsobe
intelligentthusmachinescanbeintelligent.HansMoravec,RayKurzweilandothershavearguedthatitis
technologicallyfeasibletocopythebraindirectlyintohardwareandsoftware,andthatsuchasimulation
willbeessentiallyidenticaltotheoriginal.[92]
TheAIeffect
Machinesarealreadyintelligent,butobservershavefailedtorecognizeit.WhenDeepBluebeatGarry
Kasparovinchess,themachinewasactingintelligently.However,onlookerscommonlydiscountthe
behaviorofanartificialintelligenceprogrambyarguingthatitisnot"real"intelligenceafterallthus"real"
intelligenceiswhateverintelligentbehaviorpeoplecandothatmachinesstillcannot.Thisisknownasthe
AIEffect:"AIiswhateverhasn'tbeendoneyet."
Intelligentbehaviourandmachineethics
Asaminimum,anAIsystemmustbeabletoreproduceaspectsofhumanintelligence.Thisraisestheissueofhow
ethicallythemachineshouldbehavetowardsbothhumansandotherAIagents.Thisissuewasaddressedby
WendellWallachinhisbooktitledMoralMachinesinwhichheintroducedtheconceptofartificialmoralagents
(AMA).[229]ForWallach,AMAshavebecomeapartoftheresearchlandscapeofartificialintelligenceasguided
byitstwocentralquestionswhichheidentifiesas"DoesHumanityWantComputersMakingMoralDecisions"[230]
and"Can(Ro)botsReallyBeMoral".[231]ForWallachthequestionisnotcenteredontheissueofwhether
machinescandemonstratetheequivalentofmoralbehaviorincontrasttotheconstraintswhichsocietymayplace
onthedevelopmentofAMAs.[232]
Machineethics
Thefieldofmachineethicsisconcernedwithgivingmachinesethicalprinciples,oraprocedurefordiscoveringa
waytoresolvetheethicaldilemmastheymightencounter,enablingthemtofunctioninanethicallyresponsible
mannerthroughtheirownethicaldecisionmaking.[233]ThefieldwasdelineatedintheAAAIFall2005
SymposiumonMachineEthics:"Pastresearchconcerningtherelationshipbetweentechnologyandethicshas
largelyfocusedonresponsibleandirresponsibleuseoftechnologybyhumanbeings,withafewpeoplebeing
interestedinhowhumanbeingsoughttotreatmachines.Inallcases,onlyhumanbeingshaveengagedinethical
reasoning.Thetimehascomeforaddinganethicaldimensiontoatleastsomemachines.Recognitionofthe
ethicalramificationsofbehaviorinvolvingmachines,aswellasrecentandpotentialdevelopmentsinmachine
autonomy,necessitatethis.Incontrasttocomputerhacking,softwarepropertyissues,privacyissuesandother
topicsnormallyascribedtocomputerethics,machineethicsisconcernedwiththebehaviorofmachinestowards
humanusersandothermachines.Researchinmachineethicsiskeytoalleviatingconcernswithautonomous
systemsitcouldbearguedthatthenotionofautonomousmachineswithoutsuchadimensionisattherootofall
fearconcerningmachineintelligence.Further,investigationofmachineethicscouldenablethediscoveryof
problemswithcurrentethicaltheories,advancingourthinkingaboutEthics."[234]Machineethicsissometimes
referredtoasmachinemorality,computationalethicsorcomputationalmorality.Avarietyofperspectivesofthis
nascentfieldcanbefoundinthecollectededition"MachineEthics"[233]thatstemsfromtheAAAIFall2005
SymposiumonMachineEthics.[234]
MalevolentandfriendlyAI
PoliticalscientistCharlesT.RubinbelievesthatAIcanbeneitherdesignednorguaranteedtobebenevolent.[235]
Hearguesthat"anysufficientlyadvancedbenevolencemaybeindistinguishablefrommalevolence."Humans
shouldnotassumemachinesorrobotswouldtreatusfavorably,becausethereisnoapriorireasontobelievethat
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theywouldbesympathetictooursystemofmorality,whichhasevolvedalongwithourparticularbiology(which
AIswouldnotshare).Hyperintelligentsoftwaremaynotnecessarilydecidetosupportthecontinuedexistenceof
mankind,andwouldbeextremelydifficulttostop.Thistopichasalsorecentlybeguntobediscussedinacademic
publicationsasarealsourceofriskstocivilization,humans,andplanetEarth.
PhysicistStephenHawking,MicrosoftfounderBillGatesandSpaceXfounderElonMuskhaveexpressed
concernsaboutthepossibilitythatAIcouldevolvetothepointthathumanscouldnotcontrolit,withHawking
theorizingthatthiscould"spelltheendofthehumanrace".[236]
OneproposaltodealwiththisistoensurethatthefirstgenerallyintelligentAIis'FriendlyAI',andwillthenbe
abletocontrolsubsequentlydevelopedAIs.Somequestionwhetherthiskindofcheckcouldreallyremainin
place.
LeadingAIresearcherRodneyBrookswrites,"Ithinkitisamistaketobeworryingaboutusdeveloping
malevolentAIanytimeinthenextfewhundredyears.Ithinktheworrystemsfromafundamentalerrorinnot
distinguishingthedifferencebetweentheveryrealrecentadvancesinaparticularaspectofAI,andtheenormity
andcomplexityofbuildingsentientvolitionalintelligence."[237]
Devaluationofhumanity
JosephWeizenbaumwrotethatAIapplicationscannot,bydefinition,successfullysimulategenuinehuman
empathyandthattheuseofAItechnologyinfieldssuchascustomerserviceorpsychotherapy[238]wasdeeply
misguided.WeizenbaumwasalsobotheredthatAIresearchers(andsomephilosophers)werewillingtoviewthe
humanmindasnothingmorethanacomputerprogram(apositionnowknownascomputationalism).To
WeizenbaumthesepointssuggestthatAIresearchdevalueshumanlife.[239]
Decreaseindemandforhumanlabor
MartinFord,authorofTheLightsintheTunnel:Automation,AcceleratingTechnologyandtheEconomyofthe
Future,[240]andothersarguethatspecializedartificialintelligenceapplications,roboticsandotherformsof
automationwillultimatelyresultinsignificantunemploymentasmachinesbegintomatchandexceedthe
capabilityofworkerstoperformmostroutineandrepetitivejobs.Fordpredictsthatmanyknowledgebased
occupationsandinparticularentryleveljobswillbeincreasinglysusceptibletoautomationviaexpertsystems,
machinelearning[241]andotherAIenhancedapplications.AIbasedapplicationsmayalsobeusedtoamplifythe
capabilitiesoflowwageoffshoreworkers,makingitmorefeasibletooutsourceknowledgework.[242]
Machineconsciousness,sentienceandmind
IfanAIsystemreplicatesallkeyaspectsofhumanintelligence,willthatsystemalsobesentientwillithavea
mindwhichhasconsciousexperiences?Thisquestioniscloselyrelatedtothephilosophicalproblemastothe
natureofhumanconsciousness,generallyreferredtoasthehardproblemofconsciousness.
Consciousness
Computationalism
Computationalismisthepositioninthephilosophyofmindthatthehumanmindorthehumanbrain(orboth)isan
informationprocessingsystemandthatthinkingisaformofcomputing.[243]Computationalismarguesthatthe
relationshipbetweenmindandbodyissimilaroridenticaltotherelationshipbetweensoftwareandhardwareand
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thusmaybeasolutiontothemindbodyproblem.ThisphilosophicalpositionwasinspiredbytheworkofAI
researchersandcognitivescientistsinthe1960sandwasoriginallyproposedbyphilosophersJerryFodorand
HilaryPutnam.
StrongAIhypothesis
ThephilosophicalpositionthatJohnSearlehasnamed"strongAI"states:"Theappropriatelyprogrammed
computerwiththerightinputsandoutputswouldtherebyhaveamindinexactlythesamesensehumanbeings
haveminds."[244]SearlecountersthisassertionwithhisChineseroomargument,whichasksustolookinsidethe
computerandtrytofindwherethe"mind"mightbe.[245]
Robotrights
MaryShelley'sFrankensteinconsidersakeyissueintheethicsofartificialintelligence:ifamachinecanbe
createdthathasintelligence,coulditalsofeel?Ifitcanfeel,doesithavethesamerightsasahuman?Theideaalso
appearsinmodernsciencefiction,suchasthefilmA.I.:ArtificialIntelligence,inwhichhumanoidmachineshave
theabilitytofeelemotions.Thisissue,nowknownas"robotrights",iscurrentlybeingconsideredby,forexample,
California'sInstitutefortheFuture,althoughmanycriticsbelievethatthediscussionispremature.[246]Thesubject
isprofoundlydiscussedinthe2010documentaryfilmPlug&Pray.[247]
Superintelligence
Aretherelimitstohowintelligentmachinesorhumanmachinehybridscanbe?Asuperintelligence,
hyperintelligence,orsuperhumanintelligenceisahypotheticalagentthatwouldpossessintelligencefarsurpassing
thatofthebrightestandmostgiftedhumanmind.Superintelligencemayalsorefertotheformordegreeof
intelligencepossessedbysuchanagent.
Technologicalsingularity
IfresearchintoStrongAIproducedsufficientlyintelligentsoftware,itmightbeabletoreprogramandimprove
itself.Theimprovedsoftwarewouldbeevenbetteratimprovingitself,leadingtorecursiveselfimprovement.[248]
Thenewintelligencecouldthusincreaseexponentiallyanddramaticallysurpasshumans.Sciencefictionwriter
VernorVingenamedthisscenario"singularity".[249]Technologicalsingularityiswhenacceleratingprogressin
technologieswillcausearunawayeffectwhereinartificialintelligencewillexceedhumanintellectualcapacityand
control,thusradicallychangingorevenendingcivilization.Becausethecapabilitiesofsuchanintelligencemaybe
impossibletocomprehend,thetechnologicalsingularityisanoccurrencebeyondwhicheventsareunpredictableor
evenunfathomable.[249]
RayKurzweilhasusedMoore'slaw(whichdescribestherelentlessexponentialimprovementindigital
technology)tocalculatethatdesktopcomputerswillhavethesameprocessingpowerashumanbrainsbytheyear
2029,andpredictsthatthesingularitywilloccurin2045.[249]
Transhumanism
Youawakeonemorningtofindyourbrainhasanotherlobefunctioning.Invisible,thisauxiliarylobe
answersyourquestionswithinformationbeyondtherealmofyourownmemory,suggestsplausible
coursesofaction,andasksquestionsthathelpbringoutrelevantfacts.Youquicklycometorelyon
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thenewlobesomuchthatyoustopwonderinghowitworks.Youjustuseit.Thisisthedreamof
artificialintelligence.
Byte,April1985[250]
RobotdesignerHansMoravec,cyberneticistKevinWarwickandinventorRayKurzweilhavepredictedthat
humansandmachineswillmergeinthefutureintocyborgsthataremorecapableandpowerfulthaneither.[251]
Thisidea,calledtranshumanism,whichhasrootsinAldousHuxleyandRobertEttinger,hasbeenillustratedin
fictionaswell,forexampleinthemangaGhostintheShellandthesciencefictionseriesDune.
Inthe1980sartistHajimeSorayama'sSexyRobotsserieswerepaintedandpublishedinJapandepictingtheactual
organichumanformwithlifelikemuscularmetallicskinsandlater"theGynoids"bookfollowedthatwasusedby
orinfluencedmoviemakersincludingGeorgeLucasandothercreatives.Sorayamaneverconsideredtheseorganic
robotstoberealpartofnaturebutalwaysunnaturalproductofthehumanmind,afantasyexistinginthemind
evenwhenrealizedinactualform.
EdwardFredkinarguesthat"artificialintelligenceisthenextstageinevolution",anideafirstproposedbySamuel
Butler's"DarwinamongtheMachines"(1863),andexpandeduponbyGeorgeDysoninhisbookofthesamename
in1998.[252]
Existentialrisk
Thedevelopmentoffullartificialintelligencecouldspelltheendofthehumanrace.Oncehumans
developartificialintelligence,itwilltakeoffonitsownandredesignitselfataneverincreasingrate.
Humans,whoarelimitedbyslowbiologicalevolution,couldn'tcompeteandwouldbesuperseded.
StephenHawking[253]
Acommonconcernaboutthedevelopmentofartificialintelligenceisthepotentialthreatitcouldposetomankind.
ThisconcernhasrecentlygainedattentionaftermentionsbycelebritiesincludingStephenHawking,Bill
Gates,[254]andElonMusk.[255]AgroupofprominenttechtitansincludingPeterThiel,AmazonWebServicesand
Muskhavecommitted$1billiontoOpenAIanonprofitcompanyaimedatchampioningresponsibleAI
development.[256]Theopinionofexpertswithinthefieldofartificialintelligenceismixed,withsizablefractions
bothconcernedandunconcernedbyriskfromeventualsuperhumanlycapableAI.[257]
InhisbookSuperintelligence,NickBostromprovidesanargumentthatartificialintelligencewillposeathreatto
mankind.HearguesthatsufficientlyintelligentAI,ifitchoosesactionsbasedonachievingsomegoal,willexhibit
convergentbehaviorsuchasacquiringresourcesorprotectingitselffrombeingshutdown.IfthisAI'sgoalsdonot
reflecthumanity'soneexampleisanAItoldtocomputeasmanydigitsofpiaspossibleitmightharmhumanity
inordertoacquiremoreresourcesorpreventitselffrombeingshutdown,ultimatelytobetterachieveitsgoal.
Forthisdangertoberealized,thehypotheticalAIwouldhavetooverpoweroroutthinkallofhumanity,whicha
minorityofexpertsargueisapossibilityfarenoughinthefuturetonotbeworthresearching.[258][259]Other
counterargumentsrevolvearoundhumansbeingeitherintrinsicallyorconvergentlyvaluablefromtheperspective
ofanartificialintelligence.[260]
Concernoverriskfromartificialintelligencehasledtosomehighprofiledonationsandinvestments.InJanuary
2015,ElonMuskdonatedtenmilliondollarstotheFutureofLifeInstitutetofundresearchonunderstandingAI
decisionmaking.Thegoaloftheinstituteisto"growwisdomwithwhichwemanage"thegrowingpowerof
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technology.MuskalsofundscompaniesdevelopingartificialintelligencesuchasGoogleDeepMindandVicarious
to"justkeepaneyeonwhat'sgoingonwithartificialintelligence.[261]Ithinkthereispotentiallyadangerous
outcomethere."[262][263]
Developmentofmilitarizedartificialintelligenceisarelatedconcern.Currently,50+countriesareresearching
battlefieldrobots,includingtheUnitedStates,China,Russia,andtheUnitedKingdom.Manypeopleconcerned
aboutriskfromsuperintelligentAIalsowanttolimittheuseofartificialsoldiers.[264]
Infiction
Thoughtcapableartificialbeingshaveappearedasstorytellingdevicessinceantiquity.[13]
Theimplicationsofaconstructedmachineexhibitingartificialintelligencehavebeenapersistentthemeinscience
fictionsincethetwentiethcentury.Earlystoriestypicallyrevolvedaroundintelligentrobots.Theword"robot"
itselfwascoinedbyKarelapekinhis1921playR.U.R.,thetitlestandingfor"Rossum'sUniversalRobots".
Later,theSFwriterIsaacAsimovdevelopedtheThreeLawsofRoboticswhichhesubsequentlyexploredinalong
seriesofrobotstories.Asimov'slawsareoftenbroughtupduringlaymandiscussionsofmachineethics[265]while
almostallartificialintelligenceresearchersarefamiliarwithAsimov'slawsthroughpopularculture,theygenerally
considerthelawsuselessformanyreasons,oneofwhichistheirambiguity.[266]
ThenovelDoAndroidsDreamofElectricSheep?,byPhilipK.Dick,tellsasciencefictionstoryaboutAndroids
andhumansclashinginafuturisticworld.Elementsofartificialintelligenceincludetheempathybox,moodorgan,
andtheandroidsthemselves.Throughoutthenovel,Dickportraystheideathathumansubjectivityisalteredby
technologycreatedwithartificialintelligence.[267]
NowadaysAIisfirmlyrootedinpopularcultureintelligentrobotsappearininnumerableworks.HAL,the
murderouscomputerinchargeofthespaceshipin2001:ASpaceOdyssey(1968),isanexampleofthecommon
"roboticrampage"archetypeinsciencefictionmovies.TheTerminator(1984)andTheMatrix(1999)provide
additionalwidelyfamiliarexamples.Incontast,therareloyalrobotssuchasGortfromTheDaytheEarthStood
Still(1951)andBishopfromAliens(1986)arelessprominentinpopularculture.[268]
Seealso
Glossaryofartificialintelligence
Abductivereasoning
Casebasedreasoning
Commonsensereasoning
Emergentalgorithm
Softcomputing
Machinelearning
Evolutionarycomputing
Notes
1.Theintelligentagentparadigm:
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.27,3258,968972
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.721
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.235240
Hutter2005,pp.125126
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Thedefinitionusedinthisarticle,intermsofgoals,actions,perceptionandenvironment,isduetoRussell&Norvig
(2003).Otherdefinitionsalsoincludeknowledgeandlearningasadditionalcriteria.
2.Russell&Norvig2009,p.2.
3.Schank,RogerC.(1991)."Where'stheAI".AImagazine.Vol.12no.4.p.38.
4.Russell&Norvig2009.
5."AlphaGoGoogleDeepMind".
6.http://betanews.com/2016/10/21/artificialintelligencestephenhawking/
7.PamelaMcCorduck(2004,pp.424)writesof"theroughshatteringofAIinsubfieldsvision,naturallanguage,decision
theory,geneticalgorithms,robotics...andthesewithownsubsubfieldthatwouldhardlyhaveanythingtosaytoeach
other."
8.ThislistofintelligenttraitsisbasedonthetopicscoveredbythemajorAItextbooks,including:
Russell&Norvig2003
Luger&Stubblefield2004
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998
Nilsson1998
9.Generalintelligence(strongAI)isdiscussedinpopularintroductionstoAI:
Kurzweil1999andKurzweil2005
10.SeetheDartmouthproposal,underPhilosophy,below.
11.ThisisacentralideaofPamelaMcCorduck'sMachinesWhoThink.Shewrites:"Iliketothinkofartificialintelligenceas
thescientificapotheosisofavenerableculturaltradition."(McCorduck2004,p.34)"Artificialintelligenceinoneformor
anotherisanideathathaspervadedWesternintellectualhistory,adreaminurgentneedofbeingrealized."(McCorduck
2004,p.xviii)"Ourhistoryisfullofattemptsnutty,eerie,comical,earnest,legendaryandrealtomakeartificial
intelligences,toreproducewhatistheessentialusbypassingtheordinarymeans.Backandforthbetweenmythand
reality,ourimaginationssupplyingwhatourworkshopscouldn't,wehaveengagedforalongtimeinthisoddformof
selfreproduction."(McCorduck2004,p.3)ShetracesthedesirebacktoitsHellenisticrootsandcallsittheurgeto
"forgetheGods."(McCorduck2004,pp.340400)
12.AIapplicationswidelyusedbehindthescenes:
Russell&Norvig2003,p.28
Kurzweil2005,p.265
NRC1999,pp.216222
13.AIinmyth:
McCorduck2004,pp.45
15.AIinearlysciencefiction.
McCorduck2004,pp.1725
16.Nilsson1998,Section1.3.
17.Formalreasoning:
Berlinski,David(2000).TheAdventoftheAlgorithm.HarcourtBooks.ISBN0156013916.OCLC46890682.
18.AI'simmediateprecursors:
Crevier1993,pp.2732
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.15,940
Moravec1988,p.3
19.Dartmouthconference:
Crevier1993,pp.4749,whowrites"theconferenceisgenerallyrecognizedastheofficialbirthdateofthenew
science."
Russell&Norvig2003,p.17,whocalltheconference"thebirthofartificialintelligence."
NRC1999,pp.200201
20.HegemonyoftheDartmouthconferenceattendees:
Russell&Norvig2003,p.17,whowrite"forthenext20yearsthefieldwouldbedominatedbythesepeopleand
theirstudents."
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22."Goldenyears"ofAI(successfulsymbolicreasoningprograms19561973):
Crevier1993,pp.52107
Moravec1988,p.9
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.1821
TheprogramsdescribedareArthurSamuel'scheckersprogramfortheIBM701,DanielBobrow'sSTUDENT,Newell
andSimon'sLogicTheoristandTerryWinograd'sSHRDLU.
23.DARPApoursmoneyintoundirectedpureresearchintoAIduringthe1960s:
Crevier1993,pp.51,6465
NRC1999,pp.204205
24.AIinEngland:
Howe1994
25.OptimismofearlyAI:
HerbertSimonquote:Simon1965,p.96quotedinCrevier1993,p.109.
MarvinMinskyquote:Minsky1967,p.2quotedinCrevier1993,p.109.
26.Lighthill1973.
27.FirstAIWinter,MansfieldAmendment,Lighthillreport
NRC1999,pp.212213
Howe1994
28.Expertsystems:
ACM1998,I.2.1
Nilsson1998,chpt.17.4
McCorduck2004,pp.327335,434435
Crevier1993,pp.14562,197203
29.Boomofthe1980s:riseofexpertsystems,FifthGenerationProject,Alvey,MCC,SCI:
Crevier1993,pp.161162,197203,211,240
NRC1999,pp.210211
30.SecondAIwinter:
NRC1999,pp.214216
31.Formalmethodsarenowpreferred("Victoryoftheneats"):
32.McCorduck2004,pp.480483.
33.Deeplearning:
citationinprogress
34.MachinelearningandAI'ssuccessesintheearly21stcentury:
citationinprogress
35.Markoff2011.
36.Administrator."Kinect'sAIbreakthroughexplained".iprogrammer.info.
37.Rowinski,Dan(15January2013)."VirtualPersonalAssistants&TheFutureOfYourSmartphone[Infographic]".
ReadWrite.
38."Artificialintelligence:Google'sAlphaGobeatsGomasterLeeSedol".BBCNews.12March2016.Retrieved1October
2016.
39.Clark,Jack(8December2015)."Why2015WasaBreakthroughYearinArtificialIntelligence".BloombergNews.
Retrieved23November2016."Afterahalfdecadeofquietbreakthroughsinartificialintelligence,2015hasbeena
landmarkyear.Computersaresmarterandlearningfasterthanever."
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40.Problemsolving,puzzlesolving,gameplayinganddeduction:
Russell&Norvig2003,chpt.39,
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,chpt.2,3,7,9,
Luger&Stubblefield2004,chpt.3,4,6,8,
Nilsson1998,chpt.712
41.Uncertainreasoning:
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.452644,
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.345395,
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.333381,
Nilsson1998,chpt.19
42.Intractabilityandefficiencyandthecombinatorialexplosion:
43.Psychologicalevidenceofsubsymbolicreasoning:
Wason&Shapiro(1966)showedthatpeopledopoorlyoncompletelyabstractproblems,butiftheproblemis
restatedtoallowtheuseofintuitivesocialintelligence,performancedramaticallyimproves.(SeeWasonselection
task)
Kahneman,Slovic&Tversky(1982)haveshownthatpeopleareterribleatelementaryproblemsthatinvolve
uncertainreasoning.(Seelistofcognitivebiasesforseveralexamples).
Lakoff&Nez(2000)havecontroversiallyarguedthatevenourskillsatmathematicsdependonknowledgeand
skillsthatcomefrom"thebody",i.e.sensorimotorandperceptualskills.(SeeWhereMathematicsComesFrom)
44.Knowledgerepresentation:
ACM1998,I.2.4,
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.2346,6981,169196,235277,281298,319345,
Nilsson1998,chpt.18
45.Knowledgeengineering:
Nilsson1998,chpt.17.117.4
46.Representingcategoriesandrelations:Semanticnetworks,descriptionlogics,inheritance(includingframesandscripts):
47.Representingeventsandtime:Situationcalculus,eventcalculus,fluentcalculus(includingsolvingtheframeproblem):
48.Causalcalculus:
49.Representingknowledgeaboutknowledge:Beliefcalculus,modallogics:
50.Ontology:
51.Qualificationproblem:
McCarthy&Hayes1969
Russell&Norvig2003
WhileMcCarthywasprimarilyconcernedwithissuesinthelogicalrepresentationofactions,Russell&Norvig2003
applythetermtothemoregeneralissueofdefaultreasoninginthevastnetworkofassumptionsunderlyingallour
commonsenseknowledge.
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52.Defaultreasoninganddefaultlogic,nonmonotoniclogics,circumscription,closedworldassumption,abduction(Pooleet
al.placesabductionunder"defaultreasoning".Lugeretal.placesthisunder"uncertainreasoning"):
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.248256,323335,
Nilsson1998,~18.3.3
53.Breadthofcommonsenseknowledge:
Russell&Norvig2003,p.21,
Crevier1993,pp.113114,
Moravec1988,p.13,
Lenat&Guha1989(Introduction)
54.Dreyfus&Dreyfus1986.
55.Gladwell2005.
56.Expertknowledgeasembodiedintuition:
Dreyfus&Dreyfus1986(HubertDreyfusisaphilosopherandcriticofAIwhowasamongthefirsttoarguethat
mostusefulhumanknowledgewasencodedsubsymbolically.SeeDreyfus'critiqueofAI)
Gladwell2005(Gladwell'sBlinkisapopularintroductiontosubsymbolicreasoningandknowledge.)
Hawkins&Blakeslee2005(HawkinsarguesthatsubsymbolicknowledgeshouldbetheprimaryfocusofAI
research.)
57.Planning:
ACM1998,~I.2.8,
Nilsson1998,chpt.10.12,22
58.Informationvaluetheory:
59.Classicalplanning:
Nilsson1998,chpt.10.12,22
60.Planningandactinginnondeterministicdomains:conditionalplanning,executionmonitoring,replanningandcontinuous
planning:
61.Multiagentplanningandemergentbehavior:
62.ThisisaformofTomMitchell'swidelyquoteddefinitionofmachinelearning:"Acomputerprogramissettolearnfrom
anexperienceEwithrespecttosometaskTandsomeperformancemeasurePifitsperformanceonTasmeasuredbyP
improveswithexperienceE."
63.Learning:
ACM1998,I.2.6,
Nilsson1998,chpt.3.3,10.3,17.5,20
64.AlanTuringdiscussedthecentralityoflearningasearlyas1950,inhisclassicpaper"ComputingMachineryand
Intelligence".(Turing1950)In1956,attheoriginalDartmouthAIsummerconference,RaySolomonoffwroteareporton
unsupervisedprobabilisticmachinelearning:"AnInductiveInferenceMachine".(Solomonoff1956)
65.Reinforcementlearning:
66.Computationallearningtheory:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
67.Wengetal.2001.
68.Lungarellaetal.2003.
69.Asadaetal.2009.
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70.Oudeyer2010.
71.Naturallanguageprocessing:
ACM1998,I.2.7
72."Versatilequestionansweringsystems:seeinginsynthesis"(https://www.academia.edu/2475776/Versatile_question_answ
ering_systems_seeing_in_synthesis),Mittaletal.,IJIIDS,5(2),119142,2011
73.Applicationsofnaturallanguageprocessing,includinginformationretrieval(i.e.textmining)andmachinetranslation:
74.Machineperception:
Nilsson1998,~chpt.6
75.Computervision:
ACM1998,I.2.10
Nilsson1998,chpt.6
76.Speechrecognition:
ACM1998,~I.2.7
77.Objectrecognition:
78.Robotics:
ACM1998,I.2.9,
79.Movingandconfigurationspace:
80.Tecuci2012.
81.Roboticmapping(localization,etc):
82.Kismet.
83.Thro1993.
84.Edelson1991.
85.Tao&Tan2005.
86.James1884.
87.Picard1995.
88.KleineCosack2006:"TheintroductionofemotiontocomputersciencewasdonebyPickard(sic)whocreatedthefieldof
affectivecomputing."
89.Diamond2003:"RosalindPicard,agenialMITprofessor,isthefield'sgodmotherher1997book,AffectiveComputing,
triggeredanexplosionofinterestintheemotionalsideofcomputersandtheirusers."
90.Emotionandaffectivecomputing:
Minsky2006
91.GeraldEdelman,IgorAleksanderandothershavearguedthatartificialconsciousnessisrequiredforstrongAI.
(Aleksander1995Edelman2007)
92.Artificialbrainarguments:AIrequiresasimulationoftheoperationofthehumanbrain
Crevier1993,pp.271and279
Afewofthepeoplewhomakesomeformoftheargument:
Moravec1988
Kurzweil2005,p.262
Hawkins&Blakeslee2005
Themostextremeformofthisargument(thebrainreplacementscenario)wasputforwardbyClarkGlymourinthemid
1970sandwastouchedonbyZenonPylyshynandJohnSearlein1980.
93.AIcomplete:Shapiro1992,p.9
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94.Shapiro,StuartC.(1992),"ArtificialIntelligence",inStuartC.Shapiro(ed.),EncyclopediaofArtificialIntelligence,2nd
edition(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons):5457.4December2016.
95.Sandewall,Erik."TheGoalsofArtificialIntelligenceResearchABriefintroduction".KnowledgeRepresentation
FrameworkProjectLinkopingUniversity.N.p.,8August2010.8December2016.
96.Russel,Stuart.,DanielDewey,andMaxTegmark.ResearchPrioritiesforRobustandBeneficialArtificialIntelligence.
AIMagazine36:4(2015).8December2016.
97.NilsNilssonwrites:"Simplyput,thereiswidedisagreementinthefieldaboutwhatAIisallabout"(Nilsson1983,
p.10).
98.Biologicalintelligencevs.intelligenceingeneral:
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.23,whomaketheanalogywithaeronauticalengineering.
McCorduck2004,pp.100101,whowritesthatthereare"twomajorbranchesofartificialintelligence:oneaimed
atproducingintelligentbehaviorregardlessofhowitwasaccomplioshed,andtheotheraimedatmodeling
intelligentprocessesfoundinnature,particularlyhumanones."
Kolata1982,apaperinScience,whichdescribesMcCarthy'sindifferencetobiologicalmodels.Kolataquotes
McCarthyaswriting:"ThisisAI,sowedon'tcareifit'spsychologicallyreal"[1](https://books.google.com/book
s?id=PEkqAAAAMAAJ&q=%22we+don't+care+if+it's+psychologically+real%22&dq=%22we+don't+care+if+it's
+psychologically+real%22&output=html&pgis=1).McCarthyrecentlyreiteratedhispositionattheAI@50
conferencewherehesaid"Artificialintelligenceisnot,bydefinition,simulationofhumanintelligence"(Maker
2006).
99.Neatsvs.scruffies:
McCorduck2004,pp.421424,486489
Crevier1993,pp.168
Nilsson1983,pp.1011
100.Symbolicvs.subsymbolicAI:
Nilsson(1998,p.7),whousestheterm"subsymbolic".
101.Haugeland1985,p.255.
102.Law1994.
103.Bach2008.
104.Haugeland1985,pp.112117
105.ThemostdramaticcaseofsubsymbolicAIbeingpushedintothebackgroundwasthedevastatingcritiqueofperceptrons
byMarvinMinskyandSeymourPapertin1969.SeeHistoryofAI,AIwinter,orFrankRosenblatt.
106.Cognitivesimulation,NewellandSimon,AIatCMU(thencalledCarnegieTech):
McCorduck2004,pp.139179,245250,322323(EPAM)
107.Soar(history):
108.McCarthyandAIresearchatSAILandSRIInternational:
Crevier1993
109.AIresearchatEdinburghandinFrance,birthofProlog:
Howe1994
110.AIatMITunderMarvinMinskyinthe1960s:
Crevier1993,pp.83102,163176
111.Cyc:
McCorduck2004,p.489,whocallsit"adeterminedlyscruffyenterprise"
Lenat&Guha1989
112.Knowledgerevolution:
McCorduck2004,pp.266276,298300,314,421
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113.EmbodiedapproachestoAI:
Brooks1990
Moravec1988
114.Revivalofconnectionism:
115.Computationalintelligence
IEEEComputationalIntelligenceSociety(http://www.ieeecis.org/)
116.Hutter2012.
117.Langley2011.
118.Katz2012.
119.Norvig2012.
120.Agentarchitectures,hybridintelligentsystems:
Russell&Norvig(2003,pp.27,932,970972)
Nilsson(1998,chpt.25)
121.Hierarchicalcontrolsystem:
Albus2002
122.Subsumptionarchitecture:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
123.Searchalgorithms:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.79164,193219
124.Forwardchaining,backwardchaining,Hornclauses,andlogicaldeductionassearch:
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.~4652
Nilsson1998,chpt.4.2,7.2
125.Statespacesearchandplanning:
126.Uninformedsearches(breadthfirstsearch,depthfirstsearchandgeneralstatespacesearch):
Nilsson1998,chpt.8
127.Heuristicorinformedsearches(e.g.,greedybestfirstandA*):
Poole,Mackworth&Goebel1998,pp.pp.132147,
Nilsson1998,chpt.9
128.Optimizationsearches:
129.Artificiallifeandsocietybasedlearning:
130.Geneticprogrammingandgeneticalgorithms:
Nilsson1998,chpt.4.2,
Holland1975,
Koza1992,
Poli,Langdon&McPhee2008.
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131.Logic:
ACM1998,~I.2.3,
132.Satplan:
Nilsson1998,chpt.21
133.Explanationbasedlearning,relevancebasedlearning,inductivelogicprogramming,casebasedreasoning:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.~422442,
Nilsson1998,chpt.10.3,17.5
134.Propositionallogic:
Nilsson1998,chpt.13
135.Firstorderlogicandfeaturessuchasequality:
ACM1998,~I.2.4,
Nilsson1998,chpt.15
136.Fuzzylogic:
137.Subjectivelogic:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
138."TheBeliefCalculusandUncertainReasoning",YenTehHsia
139.Stochasticmethodsforuncertainreasoning:
ACM1998,~I.2.3,
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.165191,333381,
Nilsson1998,chpt.19
140.Bayesiannetworks:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.~182190,363379,
141.Bayesianinferencealgorithm:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.~363379,
Nilsson1998,chpt.19.4&7
142.Bayesianlearningandtheexpectationmaximizationalgorithm:
Nilsson1998,chpt.20
143.BayesiandecisiontheoryandBayesiandecisionnetworks:
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144.Stochastictemporalmodels:
DynamicBayesiannetworks:
HiddenMarkovmodel:
(Russell&Norvig2003,pp.549551)
Kalmanfilters:
145.decisiontheoryanddecisionanalysis:
146.Markovdecisionprocessesanddynamicdecisionnetworks:
147.Gametheoryandmechanismdesign:
148.Statisticallearningmethodsandclassifiers:
149.Neuralnetworksandconnectionism:
Nilsson1998,chpt.3
150.kernelmethodssuchasthesupportvectormachine:
151.Knearestneighboralgorithm:
152.Gaussianmixturemodel:
153.NaiveBayesclassifier:
154.Decisiontree:
155.Classifierperformance:
vanderWalt&Bernard2006
156.Feedforwardneuralnetworks,perceptronsandradialbasisnetworks:
157.Competitivelearning,Hebbiancoincidencelearning,Hopfieldnetworksandattractornetworks:
158.SeppoLinnainmaa(1970).TherepresentationofthecumulativeroundingerrorofanalgorithmasaTaylorexpansionof
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164.IanGoodfellow,YoshuaBengio,andAaronCourville(2016).DeepLearning.MITPress.Online(http://www.deeplearnin
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193.Controltheory:
ACM1998,~I.2.8,
194.Lisp:
Crevier1993,pp.5962,
195.Prolog:
Luger&Stubblefield2004,pp.641676,575581
196.TheTuringtest:
Turing'soriginalpublication:
Turing1950
Historicalinfluenceandphilosophicalimplications:
Haugeland1985,pp.69
Crevier1993,p.24
Russell&Norvig2003,pp.23and948
197.SubjectmatterexpertTuringtest:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
198.Rajani2011.
199.GameAI:
CITATIONINPROGRESS.
200.Mathematicaldefinitionsofintelligence:
HernandezOrallo2000
Dowe&Hajek1997
HernandezOrallo&Dowe2010
201.O'Brien&Marakas2011.
203.CNN2006.
204.N.AletrasD.TsarapatsanisD.PreotiucPietroV.Lampos(2016)."PredictingjudicialdecisionsoftheEuropeanCourt
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205."TheEconomistExplains:Whyfirmsarepilingintoartificialintelligence".TheEconomist.31March2016.Retrieved
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209.DinaBass(September20,2016)."MicrosoftDevelopsAItoHelpCancerDoctorsFindtheRightTreatments".
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216."HackingRoomba".hackingroomba.com.
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219.Fiegerman,Seth."Facebook,Google,AmazonCreateGrouptoEaseAIConcerns".CNNMoney.n.d.4December2016.
220.Dartmouthproposal:
McCarthyetal.1955(theoriginalproposal)
Crevier1993,p.49(historicalsignificance)
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221.Thephysicalsymbolsystemshypothesis:
Newell&Simon1976,p.116
McCorduck2004,p.153
222.Dreyfuscriticizedthenecessaryconditionofthephysicalsymbolsystemhypothesis,whichhecalledthe"psychological
assumption":"Themindcanbeviewedasadeviceoperatingonbitsofinformationaccordingtoformalrules."(Dreyfus
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223.Dreyfus'critiqueofartificialintelligence:
Dreyfus1972,Dreyfus&Dreyfus1986
224.Gdel1951:inthislecture,KurtGdelusestheincompletenesstheoremtoarriveatthefollowingdisjunction:(a)the
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solutionsexist.Gdelfinds(b)implausible,andthusseemstohavebelievedthehumanmindwasnotequivalenttoa
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225.TheMathematicalObjection:
MakingtheMathematicalObjection:
Lucas1961
Penrose1989
RefutingMathematicalObjection:
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Hofstadter1979
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240.Ford&2009Thelightsinthetunnel.
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BBCNews2006
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629649.doi:10.1016/j.joi.2011.06.002.
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AI(https://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Artificial_Intelligence/)atDMOZ
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fortheAdvancementofArtificialIntelligence,theleadingorganizationofacademicAIresearchers.
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