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Measurement
Prof. R.G. Longoria
Updated Fall 2011
http://scienceblogs.com/dotphysics/2010/02/diy_force_probe.php
xin
F = k x
xkey
Force
Force Sensing
Device
Voltage
Sensitivity = voltage/force
Examples:
Sensing Mechanism
To measure force (or torque), it is usually necessary
to design a compliant mechanical structure. This
structure may itself be a sensing material.
Force will induce stress, leading to strain which can be
detected in various ways, for example:
using strain gauges (piezoresistive effect)
using crystals or ceramics (piezoelectric effect)
optically
Wheatstone
bridge
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
Matrix length
Terminals
Gage width
Gage length
Connecting
wires
Insulating layer and bonding cement
Matrix
width
Types
unbonded wire - basically a
wire under strain (c. 1940s)
foil - type shown to left (c.
1950s) are most common
semiconductor (c. 1960s)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Typical values:
80% Ni, 20% Cr, G = 2
45% Ni, 55% Cu, G = 2
Platinum, G = 4.8
95% Pt, 5% Ir, G = 5.1
Semiconductor, G =70 to 135
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
1 dR
1 d
G=
= (1 + 2 ) +
R
Piezoresistive effect
Strain Detection
Order of Magnitude Calculation
R = G R = 2 1 10 120 = 0.0024
You need to measure a 0.002% change in R!
How would you detect such a change?
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
Beam Sensors
The beam structure/geometry is used
extensively in designing many types of force
and torque sensors.
A beam offers certain advantages:
easy geometry for basic analysis and design
strain gauges can be mounted easily and configured
in several different ways to achieve different
objectives
See beam configurations
in Appendix C.
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
Output DC voltage
R1 R4 R2 R3
vo =
Vs
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )
R1 R3
=
Null condition is satisfied when:
R2 R4
Vs
If all the gauges have the same resistance, you can show:
Balanced Bridge
The bridge is balanced when the ratio of resistances of any two
adjacent arms is equal to the ratio of resistances of the remaining
two arms (taken in the same sense).
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
or,
R1 R2
=
R3 R4
4
D
Signal Conditioning:
Impedance Bridges
Impedance bridges are used to convert the output
of resistive, capacitive, or inductive sensors into
a voltage signal
IMPEDANCE
VOLTAGE
GR
vo
Sensing
Mechanism
Bridge
vamplified
Amplifier
Displacement measurements
Mechanical (gage blocks, rulers, etc.)
Strain gauges measure deflection
Contact sensors
LVDT
Inertial sensors (accelerometers, seismometers)
Non-contact sensors
Optical
There are MANY ways to
measure displacement
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
Coil 1
(secondary)
Primary
coil
Coil 2
(secondary)
Secondary
Motion
v1
Primary
Constant
AC voltage
Insulating
form or
bobbin
Difference voltage
vo = v1 v2
(a)
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
core
Core
Difference voltage
vo = v1 v2
v2
Secondary
(b)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Summary
Force measurement takes advantage of the
relationship between force, displacement and
stiffness.
Strain gauges are a common basis for sensors
that can measure force or torque
We wrap the sensor with signal conditioning
to get a measurable signal (voltage or current)
Strain gauges are core knowledge for
mechanical engineers
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
Appendix A:
Omega
Piezoelectric
Omega
Sensotec
XYZ force sensor from
PCB Piezotronics
Force and
acceleration
Bruel and Kjaer
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
General purpose
PCB Piezotronics
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Piezoresistivity (1)
We know that for a conductor of uniform area, the resistance is given by,
l
A
where is the resistivity (cm ohm)., l is the length, and A is the cross-sectional
area.
R
R
R
dR =
dl +
dA +
d
l
A
l
dR = dl 2 dA + d
A
A
A
For typical conductors, the resistivity values in units of ohm mm2/m are: Aluminum 0.0278, Pure Iron 0.1,
Constantan 0.48, Copper 0.0172, Gold 0.0222, Tungsten 0.059, Manganese 0.423, Nickel 0.087.
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
Appendix B:
Piezoresistivity (2)
The fractional change of R is of more interest, so we
find,
dR dl dA d
=
+
R
l
A
dl
= fractional change in length
l
dA
= fractional change in area
A
d
= fractional change in resistivity
Appendix B:
Piezoresistivity (3)
For a linearly elastic body, xx = F / Ao = E x = E
where E is the Youngs modulus. Recall x =
dl
l
dl
dl
dl
, y = , z =
l
l
l
dA dw dt
=
+ = 2 x
A
w
t
dR
d
= (1 + 2 ) x +
R
Geometric
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
Output a
resistance change
Material
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Appendix C:
Strain gauge orientations for axially-loaded and cantilevered Beams
Axially-Loaded Beam
SIDE
SIDE
Sensitive
Compensated
with dummy
gage in arm 2 or
arm 3
TOP
1
Compensated
Compensated
(with four-arm
bridge and
dummy gages in
arms 2 and 3)
SIDE
D
TOP
Temperature
1
1
SIDE
Sensitive to
both axial
and torsion
loads
Compensated with
dummy gage in
arm 2 or arm 3
1
2
2A
1A
2B
1B
2A
1A
SIDE
1+
Compensated
Compensated
with two-arm
bridges.
Compensated
for both axial
Compensated
and torsion
loads
2
a
1+b/a
2
TOP
Axial/
Torsion
TOP
TOP
TOP
SIDE
SIDE
Cantilevered Beam
Bending Temperature
TOP
2 independent bridges
2
4
2
SIDE
2(1+)
Compensated
Compensated
through fourarm bridge.
H
TOP
Compensated
for both axial
and torsion Compensated
loads
2 independent bridges
4 1
2
3
1
4
Compensated
for both axial
and torsion Compensated
loads
NOTES: All axially-loaded beams sensitive to torsion. Requirement for null: R1/R2 = R3/R4
K = Bridge constant = (output of bridge)/(output of primary gage)
Appendix D:
Impedance Bridges
From Beckwith,
Buck, and
Marangoni,
Mechanical
Measurements,
Addison-Wesley,
3rd ed, 1982.
Appendix E:
DMD 465WB
Omega Engineering
Appendix F:
Appendix F:
Appendix F:
Appendix F:
0 xin ?
km = 21.6
gm
mm
mt
xkey
xkey
Push tube
Rubber
dome
mt = 16.15 gm
xin
data :=
(mm)
(gm)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
0
30
42.5
45
38
30
22.5
30
55
100
F (gm)
depress
release
xkey
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory
xkey (mm)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Appendix G:
Appendix G:
Variable-reluctance sensors
Reluctance is inversely related to inductance
In all of these
devices, the
inductance, L, is
changing based
on geometry.
You can also have
material change
to affect
reluctance.
ME 144L Prof. R.G. Longoria
Dynamic Systems and Controls Laboratory