DISCUSSION

1. Factors that can characterize the sendimentary rock.

Sedimentary rocks may be formed through a process called lithification, which
is the accumulation and compaction of sedimentary materials into solid rocks.
Transportation through water systems such as rivers and oceans may cause clay, silt
and other sedimentary materials to accumulate and form into rocks such as sandstone
and shale. These rocks typically have smooth and rounded edges due to erosion from
constant underwater motion.
Sedimentary rocks may be formed through the chemical dissolving and
reforming of materials in rocks. Water sources that have a higher rate of evaporation
than precipitation may facilitate the accumulation of sedimentary material, creating an
environment in which the formation of new rocks becomes possible. Chemical
weathering may cause materials such as calcium carbonate to accumulate and form
new rocks such as limestone. Calcium carbonate is comprised of organic material,
such as shells and coral, that have been broken down and dispersed in water sources
and allowed to settle. The chemical properties of these rocks may be altered to form
new rocks, such as dolomite, which is the result of limestone exposed to water
containing magnesium.
2. The sendimentary rock structure
1) Layering (bedding)
One of the most obvious features of sedimentary rocks and sediment is the layered
structure which they exhibit.

The layers are evident because of differences in

mineralogy, clast size, degree of sorting, or color of the different layers. In rocks,
these differences may be made more prominent by the differences in resistance to
weathering or color changes brought out by weathering.

2) Cross Bedding
Consists of sets of beds that are inclined relative to one another. The beds are
inclined in the direction that the wind or water was moving at the time of
deposition. Boundaries between sets of cross beds usually represent an erosional
surface. Cross bedding is very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, and river
deposited sediment. Individual beds within cross-bedded strata are useful
indicators of current direction and tops and bottoms.
3) Graded Bedding
Graded bedding means that the grain size within a bed decreases upwards.
This type of bedding is commonly associated with so called turbidity currents.
Turbidity currents originate on the the slope between continental shelves and deep
sea basins. They are initiated by slope failure (see diagram below), after sediment
buildup has steepened the slope for a while, often some high energy event
(earthquake) triggers downslope movement of sediment. As this submarine
landslide picks up speed the moving sediment mixes with water, and forms
eventually a turbid layer of water of higher density (suspended sediment) that
accelerates downslope (may pick up more sediment). When the flow reaches the
deep sea basin/deep sea plain, the acceleration by gravity stops, and the flow
decelerates. As it slows down the coarsest grains settle out first, then the next finer
ones, etc. Finally a graded bed is formed. However, decelerating flow and graded
bedding are no unique feature of deep sea sediments (fluvial sediments -- floods;
storm deposits on continental shelves), but in those other instances the association
of the graded beds with other sediments is markedly different (mud-cracks in
fluvial sediments, wave ripples in shelf deposits).

3. The uses of sendimentary rock in civil engineering

Limestone can used as roofing granules, a coating that helps shingles resist the
heat and weathering. Floor tiles, window sills, facing stone and stair treads are
commonly made from limestone blocks. Crushing limestone to the size of sand
particles creates a useful material for reducing soil acidity.
Dolomite is used as a source of magnesia (MgO), a feed additive for livestock,
a sintering agent and flux in metal processing, and as an ingredient in the production
of glass, bricks, and ceramics.
4. The strength and stability of sendimentary rock in construction perspective
Compressive strength and stability of sandstone is influenced by its porosity,
the amount and type of cement, and matrix material, grain contact and composition.
Siliceous cement is stronger than calcareous cemented sandstones. Pore water plays a
significant role in the compressive strength and deformation characteristics of
sandstone. It can reduce the unconfined compressive strength by 30 to 60%.Shale
mineral content influences geotechnical properties; most important is the quartz-clay
mineral ratio. The liquid limit of clay shale increases with increasing clay-mineral
content.