Laminar Viscous Flows

Laminar Viscous Flows
FULLY DEVELOPED DUCT FLOWS

Steady Flow in Parallel Ducts
Assumptions:
incompressible viscous flow
constant properties
zero wall velocity
constant wall temperature
parallel flow independent on streamwise coordinate
Governing equations and BCs for the flow velocity:

du
(continuity)
=0
dx
# " 2u " 2u &
"p
( x -momentum)
0=!
+ % 2 + 2 (
"x
"z '
$ "y
"p
"p
0=!
=!
( y and z -momentum)
"y
"z
Hence:
! 2u ! 2u 1 ! p
+
=
" constant
! y2 ! z 2 ! x
Luca dAgostino, 2013/14.
with
u = 0 on the duct walls

The Circular Pipe: Hagen-Poiseuille Flow
Here:
1 d ! du $ 1 dp
1 dp 2
r
=
=
constant
'
u
=
r + C ln r + D
#
&
r dr " dr % dx
4 dx
Integrating with u finite on the centerline ( r = 0 ) and zero on the duct radius ( r = R ):
1 dp 2
u=!
R ! r2
(Poiseuille paraboloid)
4 dx
Volume flow rate and mean (surface-averaged) velocity:

4
2
!
R
"
R
dp
V
R
dp 1
V! = ! u dA = ! u2" r dr =
u= =!
= umax
and
A
0
8 dx
A
8 dx 2
Wall shear stress and friction coefficients:

du
1 dp 4 u
(constant)
! w = "
=" R
=
dr w
2 dx
R
2!
16
Fanning friction factor or skin friction coefficient
C f = w2 =
"u
Re D
8"
64
Darcy friction factor
! = w2 = 4C f =
#u
Re D
where Re D = 2R!u is the diameter Reynods number of the pipe

Viscous Dissipation in Hagen-Poiseuille Flows
Assuming constant wall temperature Tw , it follows that T = T ( r ) and:

k d ! dT $
16 u 2 r 2
! du $
#r
& = ' #" &% = '
r dr " dr %
dr
R4
2
(energy equation)
Integrating with T finite on the centerline ( r = 0 ) and T = Tw on the duct radius ( r = R ):
u 2 "
r4 %
T = Tw +
1! 4 ' ,
k $#
R &
Tmax
u 2
= T0 = Tw +
k
Wall heat transfer:

dT
4 u 2
T ! T0
q!w = k
=!
= 4k w
dr r = R
R
R
(since Tw < T0 , the wall is being cooled to keep constant)
Nusselt number at the wall:

2Rq!w
Nu w =
=8
k (Tw ! T0 )
Viscous dissipation is usually negligible:

"0.5 K for air
at u ! 30 m s :
Tw ! T0 ! #
$1.5 K for water
on the centerline

Hagen-Poiseuille Flows with Constant Heat Flux
Assumptions:
no viscous dissipation
q!w ! constant ! !T ! x " constant
constant temperature difference, T ! Tw
Then:
!c p u
"T k " # "T &

=
%$ r
(
" x r "r "r '
(energy equation)
Integrating with T finite on the centerline ( r = 0 ) and T = Tw on the duct radius ( r = R ):

c puR 2 "Tw #
r2 r4 &
Tw ! T =
3! 4 2 + 4 (
%
8k " x $
R
R '
Mass averaged (cup-mixing) temperature:
!uT dA
1
"
T =
=
"
!
Q
!
u
dA
"
A
!uT 2# r dr = Tw $
Nusselt number at the wall:

2Rq!w
48
Nu w =
=
= 4.36
k (Tw ! T ) 11
11
(Tw $ T0 )
18

Noncircular Ducts
Governing equation:
! 2u ! 2u 1 dp
+
=
= constant
! y 2 ! z 2 dx
with
u = 0 on the wall
Solution approaches:
separation of variables in orthonormal coordinates
conformal mapping with the transformation:
y 2 + z 2 dp
$ 2! $ 2!
!=u"
#
+
=0
4 dx
$ y2 $ z 2
Rectangular section:
(Dirichlet problem)
cosh ( i" z 2a ) & cos ( i" y 2a )

16a 2 dp +)
(i !1) 2 #
u=!
!1
1
!
(
)
%
(
*
" 3 dx i =1, 3,5,...
cosh
i
"
b
2a
i3
(
)
$
'
a 3b dp % 192a +# tanh ( i" b 2a ) (

!
V =!
1! 5
$
*)
6 dx '&
" b i =1, 3,5,...
i5
Concentric annulus:
%
1 dp " 2
2
2
2 ln ( a r )
u=!
$a ! r + a ! b
'
dx #
ln ( b a ) &
and
2
2 2 &
#
a
!
b
" dp 4
%a ! b4 !
(
V! = !
8 dx %
ln ( a b ) (
$
'

Noncircular Ducts (continued)
Mean wall shear stress:

1 P
A dp
R dp
! w = " ! w ds = #
=# h
P 0
P dx
2 dx
where:
P
= perimeter of the section A

= arc length element of P
= hydraulic radius
ds
Rh = 2A P
For circular ducts:
!w = !w ;
Rh = R ;
Cf =
16
8!
=
Re Dh uRh
For noncircular ducts:

16
8!
Cf !
=
Re Dh uRh
to be compared with the correct expression from
previous solutions:
8!
Cf =
uRh(exact)

COUETTE SHEAR FLOWS
Steady Flow between Parallel Plates
Assumptions:
incompressible viscous flow
constant properties
constant velocity and temperature BCs at y = h
2-D parallel flow independent on streamwise coordinate x
Governing equations and dimensionless variables:

du
(continuity)
=0
dx
dp
d 2u
0=!
+ 2
( x -momentum)
dx
dy
! du $
dp
d 2T
0=u
+ k 2 + # &
" dy %
dx
dy
where:
y! = y h ,
u! = u U
Boundary conditions:
u =0,
T = T0
u =U ,
T = T1
!
!
(energy)
and
at y = !h
at y = h
du "
=0
dx "
d 2u " h 2 dp
=
= #B = constant
dy"2 U dx
2
d 2T "
U 2 * " $ du " ' =
, Bu # & " ) /
dy"2 k (T1 # T0 ) ,+
% dy ( /.
T ! = (T " T0 ) (T1 " T0 )
! u" = 0 ,
! u" = 1 ,
T! = 0
T! =1
at y! = "1
at y! = 1

COUETTE SHEAR FLOWS
Steady Flow between Parallel Plates (continued)
By straightforward integration:
1
1
u ! = 1 + y! + B 1 " y!2
2
2
i.e. linear superposition ( u ! "u = 0 ) of:
Couette flow (linear)
Poiseuille flow (parabolic)
By integration with the above expression of u ! :

1
Pr Ec
T ! = 1 + y! +
1 " y!2 +
2
8
Pr Ec
Pr Ec 2
!
B y" ! y"3 +
B 1 ! y"4
6
6
Viscous dissipation is usually negligible for:
c p
U2
Br = Pr Ec =
<< 1 (Brinkman No.)
k c p (T1 ! T0 )
For instance:
!0.01 for air
!U ! 30 m s
#
#
at
Br ! "0.03 for water
"T0 ! 10 C
#9.0 for crude oil
#T ! 60 C
$
$ 1

COUETTE SHEAR FLOWS
Steady Flow between Concentric Cylinders
Assumptions:
incompressible viscous flow with constant properties
constant velocity and temperature BCs at r = r0 , r1
2-D axisymmetric flow (independent on ! )
reminiscent of the flow in bearings and seals
Governing equations:
du!
=0
d!
dp !u"2
=
dr
r
d 2u! d " u! %
+ $ ' =0
dr 2
dr # r &
(continuity)
( r -momentum)
( ! -momentum)
k d ! dT $
! du' u' $
0=
r
+
( &
#
&
#"
r dr " dr %
dr
r %
u! = " 0 r0 ,
At r = r0 :
At r = r1 :
u! = " 1r1 ,
T = T0 ,
T = T1
(energy)
p = p0

COUETTE SHEAR FLOWS
Steady Flow between Concentric Cylinders (continued)
By straightforward integrations of the momentum and energy equations
*$ " 1r12
' r $ "1
' r12 u!
1
=
#1
#
#1
,
/
" 0 r0 r12 r02 # 1 +&% " 0 r02 )( r0 &% " 0 )( r0 r .
r14 (1 ! " 1 " 0 ) #
ln ( r r0 ) , ln ( r r0 )
T ! T0
r02 & )
= Pr Ec
1
!
1
!
+
.+
%$
T1 ! T0
r14 ! r04
r 2 (' * ln ( r1 r0 ) - ln ( r1 r0 )
2
where:
Pr Ec = ! 02 r02 k (T1 " T0 )
(Brinkman number)
Pr Ec = 0 ! simple heat conduction solution
If ! 1 = 0 (nonrotating outer cylinder):

$ r12 r '
u!
1
=
#
" 0 r0 r12 r02 # 1 &% r0 r r0 )(
In particular:
u!
r
# 0
" 0 r0
r
u!
r $r
# 1
" 0 r0
r1 $ r0
as r1 ! "
(potential vortex)
as r1 ! r0
(small clearance)

FLOWS PAST SPHERES AND CYLINDERS
Steady Flows past Spheres or Cylinders
Assumptions:
axisymmetric, incompressible, viscous flow
constant properties, negligible viscous dissipation
constant velocity and temperature BCs on:
the surface of the sphere
in the far field (free stream, moving with velocity U )
linearized convective terms:
Stokes approximation: u ! "u ! 0
and
u ! "T ! 0 ( Re = Ua ! << 1 )
Oseen approximation:
and
u ! "u ! U ! "u
u ! "T ! U ! "T
Governing equations (with ht ! h = c pT ):
!"u = 0
(continuity)
T
!u " #u = $#p + # " %&#u + ( #u ) '(
(momentum)
!c pu " #T = k# 2T
(energy)
u= 0,
T = Tw
u!U ,
p ! p" ; T = T!
at r = a
(no slip, constant surface temperature)
at r ! " (far-field conditions)

Flow past a Sphere
Stokes solution in axisymmetric coordinates r and ! :

1 2 2 $ a 3r 2r 2 '
! = Ua sin " & # + 2 ) (by separation of variables)
4
a (
%r a
1 "#
1 #$
;
ur = 2
u! = "
r sin ! "!
r sin ! # r
3aU
$ 1 # ur # u" '
!
=
+
;
p = p! "
cos
#
&%
)
r
"
2
r #"
#r (
2r
Total drag on the sphere:

D = ! $ (" r# sin # + p cos # ) r = a dA
A
With dA = 2! a 2 sin " d" , 0 ! " ! # :
D = 6!Ua
Drag coefficient:
D
"
24
CD = 1
=
12
=
2 2
aU Re
2 !U a
Curve fit for 0 ! Re = 2aU " ! 2 #10 5 :
24
6
CD !
+
+ 0.4
Re 1 + Re

Flow past Circular Cylindres
Drag coefficient ( L , cylinder length):

D
CD = 1
2
2 !U aL
Stokes solution yields infinite drag
Oseen solution:
8! Re
CD !
! 1 + 10 $ Re " 2 3
1 " # + ln (16 Re )
where 1 ! Re ! 2 "10 5 , ! = 0.577... (Neper no.) and Re = 2aU ! (Reynolds no.)
Flow past Drops and Bubbles
Hadamard-Rybczynki solution (1911) with BC:

#v
#v
at r = R
! i = ! o " i
= o
#r
#r
where i, o refer to inner/outer flows, yields:
1 + 2 o 3i
D = 6! aoU
1 + o i
Notice:
D = 4! aoU
for a spherical bubble ( o i ! " )

Heat Transfer to Spheres and Circular Cylindres
Mean Nusselt number:

2aq!w
Nu m =
k (Tw ! T" )
where q!w is surface-averaged heat flux
For spheres:
"2.0
$
Nu m = #2.0 + 0.5 ! Pr Re
$2.0 + 0.3 ! Pr1 3 Re 0.6
%
(Stokes')
(Oseen)
(curve fit)
with the fit valid for 5 !10 " Re " 10 5
For circular cylinders let:

2
B=
ln ( 8 Re Pr ) ! "
where ! = 0.577... is the Neper no., then:
#0.89 Re1 3
(dashed fit)
%
Re 2 Pr 2
%
Nu m = $ B !
16 + B 2
(Oseen)
12
%
0.2
13
12
(solid fit, 0.1 " Re " 10 4 )
%0.42 Pr + 0.57 Pr Re
&
where
2aU
"
Re
=
$$
!
#
$Pr = c p
$%
k

PROBLEMS
Flow Development Drag in Circular Pipes
For laminar flow in the entrance to a pipe, the inlet flow is

uniform, u = U 0 , and the downstream flow is parabolic
(Poiseuille flow). Show that the viscous drag on the pipe
walls between 0 and x is given by:
1
$
'
D = ! r02 & p0 " px " #U 02 )
%
(
3
Vortex Decay
Using polar coordinates, show that a circular vortex flow has only
one vorticity component ! = ! z , which satisfies the equation:
$ ! 2" z 1 !" z '
!" z
1 "
with
!
=
ru# )
=#&
+
(
z
2
)
r "r
!t
r !r (
% !r
Using a similarity approach, solve the above equation for the viscous diffusion of a vortex
initially concentrated at the origin ( r = 0 ) with circulation ! 0 . Compute ! z ( r,t ) and
showthat the circumpherential velocity takes the form:
2
" $
(Oseen, 1911)
u! = 0
1 % e% r 4 & t
2# r $ r
Sketch a few profiles at various times, including t = 0 .

BOUNDARY LAYERS
Boundary Layer Thickness
Penetration of viscous and thermal effects:

! ! " t and ! T ! " t where t ! x U (transit time)
!
"
1
!T
"
1
and
!
=
!
=
x
Ux
x
Ux
Re x Pr
Re x
Hence:
! x << 1 , ! T x << 1 for Re x >> 1 and Pr = c p k = O (1)
Conventionally define:
! where u = 0.99U
! T where T ! Tw = 0.99 (Te ! Tw )
Mass flux defect in the BL:
#
%
$0 ( !eU " !u ) dn = !eU#
! "# =
&
%u )
1
$
,0 (' %eU +* dn
"
Momentum flux defect in the BL:
(nominal BL thickness)
(thermal BL thickness)
!u (U " u ) dn = !eU 2%
! "=
#u %
u(
'& 1 $ *) dn
#eU
U
(displacement thickness)
(momentum thickness)
Total enthalpy flux defect in the BL:
#T
!u ( hte " ht ) dn = !eU ( hte " hw )# ht
% # ht =
#T
& total enthalpy)

!u hte " ht
dn (
' thickness +*
!eU hte " hw

BOUNDARY LAYERS
Boundary Layer Solution Approaches
Numerical simulation of 3D (or 2D) Navier-Stokes equations:

general, inefficient, numerically stiff (rapid gradients at the boundary)
Numerical simulation of 3D (or 2D) parabolized (see later) BL equations:

only applicable to nonseparated BLs (less general)
2D similarity methods:
reduce the 2D BL equations to ODEs by means of suitable transformations
only applicable under rather restrictive conditions on the BL boundary conditions
2D boundary integral methods:

assume BL profile in the normal direction ( y )
integrate the BL equations in y from the wall to the freestream (eliminates y dependence)
reduce a 2D PDE BVP in x and y to a 1D ODE IVP in x (streamwise coordinate)
local information on the flow behavior is lost in the integration
compensate loss of information with suitable experimental correlations (not very general)
efficient but intrinsically approximate method
doubtful extrapolation for cases where experimental correlations have not been validated
can predict location of separation, but are not applicable any further

BOUNDARY LAYER INTEGRAL EQUATIONS
Continuity and Energy Integral Equations
For the control volume in the figure:

mass balance:
d "
dm!
!
u
dy
$
=0
dx #0
dx
and, integrating with m! ( 0 ) = 0 :
m! =
"
!u dy =
"
%& !eU $ ( !eU $ !u ) '( dy = !eU " $ " )
(entrained mass flux)
energy balance (neglecting heat conduction and viscous dissipation in the BL):
d "T
dm!
where q!w is the wall heat transfer
!
uh
dy
$
h
= $ q!w
t
te
dx #0
dx
using continuity and the definition of ! ht , for hte ! constant :
d #T
d
%& !eU ( hte " hw )# ht '( = q!w
!
u
h
"
h
dy
=
(
)
te
t
$
0
dx
dx
and, finally:
d! ht % #e" U "
hw" (
+' +
$
! h = Ch
dx & #e U hte $ hw *) t
where primes indicate differentiation w.r.t. x , and:
q!w
(Stanton number)
Ch =
!eUc p (Tte " Tw )

BOUNDARY LAYER INTEGRAL EQUATIONS
Momentum Integral Equation
For the control volume in the figure:

momentum balance:
d " 2
dm!
d "
d"
!
u
dy
$
U
=
$
p
dy
+
p
$ %w
e
dx #0
dx
dx #0
dx
using continuity:
'
d '
d '
d
dpe
!
u
u
"
U
+
U
dy
"
U
!
u
dy
=
p
'
"
p
dy
"
'
" )w
(
)
#
%
e
$
&
(0
dx (0
dx (0
dx
dx
using the definition of ! :
%
d
d %
2
!eU " # U $ & !u dy =
( p # pe ) dy + % pe$ + ' w
0
dx
dx &0
using the definition of ! " :
d
U# %
d $
2
!eU " + !e
$ &$ =
( p & pe ) dy + $ pe# + ( w
dx
U
dx '0
finally, using
" dp
!e + 12 U 2 = B # pe$ !e + UU $ = 0 (the freestream Bernoullis eqn):
Cf
)
d! U " &
#$
1 d #
+ ( 2 + % M e2 + ! =
p
%
p
dy
+
(
e)
dx U '
!
,eU 2 dx -0
2
*
where C f and M e are the skin friction coefficient and freestream Mach No., respectively:
C f = 2! w "eU 2
and
M e2 = U 2 "e! pe! = #U "e! U !"e

INCOMPRESSIBLE BOUNDARY LAYERS
2D Boundary Layer Equations
Assumptions:
incompressible, steady, viscous, 2-D flow
constant properties
negligible body forces
Governing equations in Cartesian coordinates x and y :

!u ! v
+
=0
!x !y
(continuity)
% ! 2u ! 2u (
!u
!u
1 !p
u
+v
="
+$' 2 + 2*
!x
!y
# !x
!y )
& !x
( x -momentum)
% ! 2v ! 2v (
!v
!v
1 !p
u
+v
="
+$' 2 + 2*
!x
!y
# !y
!y )
& !x
( y -momentum)
!T
!T
k # ! 2T ! 2T & )
u
+v
=
+
+
!x
! y "cv %$ ! x 2 ! y 2 (' cv
2
2
* # !u & 2
# ! v & # !u ! v & + ( / (energy)
,2 % ( + 2 % ( + %
$
'
$
'
$
!
x
!
y
!
y
! x ' /.
,+
where:
!
" 1
" 1
"2
1
"2
1
v !U ;
! ;
! ;
!
;
!
;
x " x x " y ! " x 2 x 2 " y2 ! 2
k
! 2U
=$ "% !
#cv
x

2D Boundary Layer Equations (continued)
Neglecting terms of order ! x ! 1

!u ! v
+
=0
!x !y
Re x << 1 or higher, the 2D BL equations are:
!u
!u
1 !p
! 2u
u
+v
="
+$ 2
!x
!y
# !x
!y
1 #p
0=!
" #y
!T
!T
k ! 2T # $ ! u '
u
+v
=
+
!x
! y "cv ! y 2 cv &% ! y )(
Hence:
the pressure is constant across the BL (imposed by the external flow):
dpe 1 2
1 dp
dU
p = pe ( x )
with
+
U
=
B
#
$
=
U
" !e 2
!e dx
dx
no 2nd order x -derivative are left (equations parabolic instead of elliptic)

BL equations are 1st order in v (only the no-slip condition can be imposed on v )
having neglected ! 2u ! x 2 and ! 2T ! x 2 , no downstream BCs can be imposed on u , T
BL equations also valid on curved walls with ! R << 1 where pe ! pw ! "U 2# R " 0

Boundary Layer Shear Stress
For 2-D boundary layers:

# "u " v &
"u
! = %
+ (!
$ "y "x'
"y
(to order ! x << 1 )
In particular, the wall shear stress is:

"u
!w !
" y y= 0
Pressure Gradient and Separation
From the momentum equation at the wall ( u = v = 0 ):

" < 0 favorable, no inflection of u ( y )
2
! u
1 dpe $$
=
=# 0
neutral, u ( y ) initially straight
! y 2 y=0 dx $
$% > 0 adverse, u ( y ) with inflection
Boundary layer separation for:
!u
!y
= 0 " # w = 0 (incipient backflow)

y= 0

Reynolds Analogy
Idea and assumptions:

correlating kinematic and thermal BLs
negligible pressure gradients (flat plate)
negligible viscous dissipation ( Ec << 1)
Momentum and energy equations:

!u
!u
! 2u
u
+v
=" 2
with
!x
!y
!y
!T
!T
! 2T
u
+v
=" 2
with
!x
!y
!y
u y= 0 = 0 , v y= 0 = 0 ,
T
y= 0
= Tw ,
y= !T
u y= ! = U
= Te
Introducing the normalized velocity and temperature profiles:

u
"f
"f
"2 f
" y%
= f $ ' = f (( )
! u
+v
=# 2
with
#!&
U
"x
"y
"y
$ y'
T ! Tw
= " & ) = " (*T )
Te ! Tw
% #T (
Therefore:
f !!
"#
"#
" 2#
! u
+v
=$ 2
"x
"y
"y
with
f ( 0 ) = 0,
! ( 0 ) = 0, ! (1) = 1
q"w k $T $ y w k (Te % Tw ) & T ! ' ( 0 ) k (Te % Tw ) &

"
=
=
!
# w $u $ y w
U &
f ' (0)
U
&T
f (1) = 1
(Reynolds analogy)

Reynolds Analogy (continued)
Recall:
!T
"t
1
!
=
!
#t
Pr
Hence the thermal BL decreases for increasing Pr = ! " and:
Ch
q!w
!U 2
k$
1
=
"
= Pr "1 2
C f !Uc p (Te " Tw ) 2# w 2 c p$ T 2
(Reynolds analogy)
Pressure gradients and viscous dissipation change:

the velocity and temperature profiles, u U and (T ! Tw ) (Te ! Tw )
the density (in compressible BLs) , viscosity and heat conductivity in the boundary layer
the wall heat transfer:
where
(adiabatic wall temperature)
Taw = Taw ( Pr )
q!w " Taw ! Tw
Hence, in the general case, the appropriate definition of the Stanton number is:
q!w
! q!w = 0 for Tw = Twa
Ch =
!eUc pe (Taw " Tw )
and:
Ch
! d lnU $
(generalized Reynolds analogy)
= f # Pr,
&
"
Cf
d ln x %

Falkner-Skan Similarity Solutions
Governing equations and BCs for the BL velocity:

y #u
!u ! v
# y
+
=0
! v = v y= 0 " $
dy = "
u dy using the no slip BC v y= 0 = 0
0 #x
!x !y
# x $0
!u $ ! y
dU
! 2u
' !u
u
"&
u dy)
=U
+* 2
u y= 0 = 0 , u y!" = U
with BCs
( !y
! x % ! x #0
dx
!y
For a similarity solution (Falkner-Skan, 1931):

u ( x, y ) = U ( x ) f ! (" )
with
! = Ax n y
the momentum equation becomes:

nU
U!
f !!! "
f
f
"
f ! 2 " f !! " 1 = 0
!!
2 2n +1
2 2n
#A x
#A x
Hence similarity solutions (independent on x ) for the velocity in the BL are possible for:
nC x m
mC x m #1
m
2
U = Cx
m = 2n + 1
with
! f """ #
f
f
#
f
# f "" # 1 = 0
""
"
2 2n +1
2 2n
$A x
$A x
Choosing A = C ( m + 1) 2! :
m + 1 U ( x)
!=y
2
"x
and
% f !!! + ff !! + " 1 # f ! 2 = 0 where " = 2m ( m + 1)

'
(no slip at the wall)
& f (0) = f ! (0) = 0
' f ! ($) = 1
(external matching)
(

Falkner-Skan Velocity Profiles
Recall:
u ( x, y ) = U ( x ) f ! (" )
(self-similar profile)
with:
m + 1 U ( x)
2
"x
U ( x ) = Cx m
and f (! ) solution of:
!=y
(similarity variable)
(freestream velocity)
% f !!! + ff !! + " 1 # f ! 2 = 0 where " = 2m ( m + 1)

'
& f (0) = f ! (0) = 0
' f ! ($) = 1
(external matching)
(
Notice:
m = 0 ,! = 0 :
flat plate
m = 1,! = 1:
plane stagnation point
! 12 " m < 0 , !2 < " < 0 :
expansion corner of turning angle !" 2
0 < m < +! , 0 < ! < 2 :
compression wedge of turning angle !" 2

Falkner-Skan Temperature Profiles
Energy equation and BC:
!T
!T
k ! 2T # $ ! u '
u
+v
=
+
!x
! y "cv ! y 2 cv &% ! y )(
with
y= 0
= Tw
and
y!"
= Te
Similarity solution (Falkner-Skan, 1931):

T ( x, y ) = Te ( x ) + !T ( x )" (# )
with
!T = Tw " Te
same
!=y
( m + 1)U ( x )
2" x
and ! (" ) held by:
&
2 Pr d ln $T
PrU 2 2
f !" = #
f !!
(" !! + Pr f " ! #
m
+
1
d
ln
x
c
$
T
p
'
(" ( 0 ) = 1; " ( % ) = 0 (BCs)
)
Realistic solutions are possible for either:

flat plates with constant !T (discussed later)
no dissipation ( Ec = U 2 c p !T = 0 ) with !T ! x n
For negligible dissipation and constant !T :

G ( Pr, # )
q!w
Ch =
=
!Uc p (Tw " Te ) Pr 2 Re x (1 + m )
where
G ( Pr, ! ) =
+%
exp " Pr $ f d# dz
0

Flat-Plate Boundary Layers (Blasius, 1908)
For constant free-stream velocity ( m = 0 ):

U
u ( x, y ) = Uf ! (" )
with ! = y
2" x
and f solution of:
(Blasius equation)
# f !!! + ff !! = 0
%
$ f ( 0 ) = f ! ( 0 ) = 0 (no slip at the wall)
% f ! (") = 1
(external matching)
&
From the solution obtain:

!
5.0
(BL thickness)
!
x
Re x
! " 1.7208
!
x
Re x
Cf =
(displacement thickness)
2! w # 0.664
= !
"U 2 x
Re x
1 L
1.328
C D = ! C f dx !
L 0
Re L
(friction coeff.)
(drag coeff.)

Flat Plate with Constant Wall Temperature
For constant free-stream and wall temperatures Te and Tw :

T ( x, y ) = Te + (Tw ! Te )" (# )
and ! solution of:

%'" !! + Pr f " ! = # Pr Ec f !! 2
&
'(" ( 0 ) = 1; " ( $ ) = 0 (BCs)
with
where
! = y U 2" x
(Prandtl No.)
"Pr = c p k
#
2
Ec
=
U
c p (Tw ! Te ) (Eckert No.)
$
Formal solution (by double integration of the above 1st order ODE for " ! ):
2
Pr =1
#
# & z f %%
)
Ec )
Ec
&
! = K $ g dz + Pr Ec $ ( $
dx + g dz , ! = ( 1 - + (1 - f % ) +
1 - f %2
"
" ' 0 g
'
2*
2
*
with integrating factor:
g (!, Pr ) = e
" Pr
#0
f d!
= f $$ Pr " f $$ Pr ( 0 )
and:
K=
1 ! Pr Ec #
$ z f "" 2 '
&% #0 g dx )( g dz
g dz
Thermal boundary layers thicken with decreasing Prandtl number (as expected)

Flat Plate Adiabatic Wall (Recovery) Temperature
Wall heat transfer:

"T
U
q!w = !k
= k (Tw ! Te ) K
"y w
2# x
For adiabatic walls ( q!w " K = 0 ):

2
* $ z f ""
c p (Taw ! Te )
'
1
=
=
Pr
dx
#0 &% #0 g )( g dz
Ec aw
U2
and the adiabatic wall (or recovery) temperature is:

$& Pr
2
for Pr ! 3
U2
where r =
(recovery factor)
!%
Taw = Te + r
13
Ec aw &'1.905 Pr " 1.15 for Pr # 3
2c p
Since:
#
Taw ! Te
T !T
= " ( 0 ) wa = K $ g dz + 1 % K (Tw ! Te ) = aw# w = (Taw ! Tw ) G ( Pr )
0
Tw ! Te
g dz
in terms of Taw :
$
U
&q!w = G ( Pr ) k (Taw ! Te )
2" x
&
%
G ( Pr )
q!w
&C =
=
h
&'
#Uc p (Taw ! Te ) Pr 2 Re x
where G ( Pr ) =
"
+!
g dz
! 0.4696 Pr1 3 for Pr ! 1

Reynolds Analogy and Pressure Gradients
For Falkner-Skan BLs:

2 ( ! u ! y )w
2 (1 + m )$
Cf =
=
f
##
0
"U 2 ( x )
Ux
and, for:
negligible dissipation ( Ec << 1)
constant wall temperature, Tw
constant free stream temperature, Te
G ( Pr, # )
q!w
;
Ch =
=
!Uc p (Tw " Te ) Pr 2 Re x (1 + m )
+%
exp " Pr $ f d# dz
0
With:
G ( Pr, ! ) ! G (1, ! ) Pr1 3 (valid for gases with Pr ! 1)
the Reynolds analogy writes:
Cf
f0!!
where
! 2 Pr 2 3
Ch
G (1, " )
G ( Pr, ! ) =
!=
2m
d lnU d ln x
=2
m +1
1+ d lnU d ln x
# d lnU &
" ! = !%
$ d ln x ('
Hence, the effect of pressure gradients on the wall heat transfer is significant, unless:
x dU
! << 1 "
<< 1
(slow freestream velocity gradients)
U dx

PROBLEMS
Boundary Layer Integral Analysis
For the flat-plate incompressible BL velocity profile:
2
u
'%! 3 " ! 2 for 0 # ! = y $ # 1
= f (! ) = &
U
for ! = y $ > 1
('1
determine:
which of the nominal BCs are satisfied
! , ! " and C f as functions of !
the ODE for ! ( x ) with the appropriate IC and the solution ! x = 4.64 Re x
Assuming ht ! h = c pT + constant (negligible kinetic energy) and:

T ! Tw = (Te ! Tw ) f ( y " T ) for y ! 0
extend the analysis to the thermal boundary layer and determine:
3k
3 ! T2 #
1 ! T2 &
and
C
=
!h =
1
"
h
2 !Uc p" T
20 ! %$ 14 ! 2 ('
Using the above solution for ! ( x ) and approximating ! h ! 3! T2 20! determine:

the IVP for ! T ( x ) , its solution, and the heat transfer to the heated portion of the plate:
34
(
+
x
"
%
Nu x ( x ) ! 0.331Pr1 3 Re1x 2 *1 ! $ 0 ' *) # x & -,
!1 3
for x > x0 (within 0.23% of the exact value)

QUASI-PARALLEL FREE FLOWS
Free Shear Layers
Assumptions:
parallel, steady, incompressible streams
constant free stream velocities U1 and U 2
uniform pressure p , constant properties !1 , !2 , 1 , 2
BL momentum equation for each stream ( i = 1, 2 ):

! ui
! ui
! 2 ui
ui
+ vi
= "i 2
!x
!x
!y
Similarity solution (Lock 1951):

$ ui
&U = fi!("i )
& 1
! fi"""+ fi fi""= 0
%
U
1
&" = y
i
&'
2x# i
with kinematic and shear stress BCs:
f1!( +" ) = 1;
f2! ( "# ) = U 2 U1
f1 ( 0 ) = f2 ( 0 ) ;
f1!!( 0 ) =
(Blasius equation)
(freestreams)
"2 2
f2!!( 0 ) (interface)
"11

Falkner-Skan BLs with Wall Suction/Injection
Solutions of the Falkner-Skan equation:
f !!! + ff !! + " 1 # f ! 2 = 0
with
$ f ( 0 ) = f0 ! 0 (vw ! 0)
&
(uw = 0)
% f " (0) = 0
& f " (#) = 1
(ue = U )
'
represent boundary layers with free stream velocity U = Cx m and:

! f ( 0 ) < 0 injection (wall cooling, superficial combustion)
m + 1 "U
vw = ! f ( 0 )
;
"
2 x
# f ( 0 ) > 0 suction (boundary layer transition control)
For:
m = 0 (flat plate):
vw ! x !1 2
thinner (thicker) BL for f ( 0 ) > 0 ( < 0 )
diverging solutions for !0.876 < f ( 0 ) < 0
m = 1 (plane stagnation point):
vw = constant
thinner (thicker) BL for f ( 0 ) > 0 ( < 0 )

Asymptotic Suction Flow on a Flat Plate
Assumptions:
x -independent 2-D parallel flow
uniform freestream velocity, U , and wall suction, vw < 0
Continuity and momentum equations reduce to:

dv
=0
! v = vw = constant
dy
du
d 2u
!vw
= 2
dy
dy
Obtain:
! ! "4.6
Cf =
! u = U 1 " evw y #
#
vw
2! w
vw
=
#2
"U 2
U
Asymptotic conditions reached for:

v
2.0
(Iglisch, 1944)
! w !
U
Re x
Drag coefficient on a flat plate with

uniform suction (Iglisch, 1944)

PROBLEM
Temperature Profile for Asymptotic Suction Flow on a Flat Plate
For a 2-D parallel incompressible viscous flow on an infinite flat plate with:
constant properties, !, " , k, cv = c p
uniform wall suction, vw < 0 , and free stream velocity, U
uniform wall and free stream temperatures, Tw and Te
solve the energy equation :
2
" du %
dT
d 2T
!cv vw
= k 2 + $ ' ;
# dy &
dy
dy
u = U 1 ! evw y "
with the relevant BCs and determine:

the temperature profile:
T ! Tw
Pr Ec
= 1 ! evw y " +
e2vw y # ! evw y " ;
Te ! Tw
2 ( 2 ! Pr )
)
U2
;
Ec =
cv (Tw ! Te )
Pr =
the adiabatic wall (recovery) temperature Taw as a function of the Prandtl number
the Eckert number, Ec aw , for which Taw = Te
the expression of the Stanton number based on Taw :
q!w
as a function of the Prandtl number
Ch =
!Uc p (Te " Taw )
Plot (T ! Tw ) (Te ! Tw ) as a function of vw y ! for Pr = 1 and Ec = 0, Ec aw
!
"

Momentum Integral Equation
Continuity and momentum equations for steady 2-D incompressible BLs:

!u ! v
!u
!u
!U 1 !#
+
= 0;
u
+v
=U
+
!x !y
!x
!y
!x " !y
multiply the continuity equation by U ! u :
!u
!u
!v
!v
U
"u
+U
"u
=0
!x
!x
!y
!y
subtract from the momentum equation:
!
!U !
1 !$
uU " u 2 + (U " u )
+ (Uv " uv ) = "
!x
!x !y
# !y
integrate in y with no slip at the wall and ! and v vanishing in the free stream:
d +"
dU +"
$w
u
U
!
u
dy
+
U
!
u
dy
=
(
)
(
)
dx #0
dx #0
%
introduce the definitions of ! and ! " :

d
dU
d!
dU $ w
U 2! +
U" # = U 2
+ 2! + " # U
=
dx
dx
dx
dx
%
normalize ! w with respect to U ! :
U! d!
U %! & w!
+ 2! + # $
=
" dx
"
U
(von Krmn, 1921)
#an ODE for " ( x ) once the coefficients have

! $
%been assigned as functions of x and/or "

One-Parameter Pohlhausen Solution
Assume (Pohlhausen 1921):

u
"
3
= f (!, " ) = 2! # 2! 3 + ! 4 + ! (1 # ! )
U
6
where:
y
!=
"
and
u=0
and
u =U
and
U "# 2
!=
$
!u " w
=
at y = 0
!y
!u
=0
at y = !
!y
Then, from von Krmns integral momentum equation obtain an integrable ODE for ! ( x ) :
d!
= f (! ,U,U ",U "", # )
dx
Drawbacks (ineffective formulation):

u > U for ! > 12 : nonphysical solutions for large favorable pressure gradients
! = "12 at separation is too large w.r.t. experimental values ( ! ! "5 )
need for U !! introduces large errors when only U is known at discrete locations

One-Parameter Momentum Integral Solution
More generally, assume (Holstein & Bohlen, 1940):

u
with f ! unspecified
= f (!, " )
U
where:
y
!=
"
and
Then:
! w"
#u
=
U
#y
!"
=
#
U "# 2
!=
$
1
"
= f $ ( 0, % ) ( f (1 & f ) d' = S ( % )
0
U
& (1 $ f ) d% = H ( ' )
& f (1 $ f ) d%
(shear correlation)
0
1
(shape correlation)
and von Krmns integral momentum equation writes:

d # !&
U % ( = 2 *+ S ) ( 2 + H ) ! ,- = F ( ! ) . 0.45 ) 6.0 ! (Thwaites, 1949)
dx $ U " '
Finally, using the integrating factor ! ( x ) = "U U # and ! ( x0 ) = ! 0 for U ( x0 ) = U 0 , obtain:
"
! = 0.45 6
U
2
U 06 2
#x0 U dx + U 6 ! 0
( 3% accurate ! end of the story)

One-Parameter Momentum Integral Solution (continued)
Finally, ! w and ! " are estimated from the shear and shape correlations:
U
and
! " = # H ($ )
!w =
S (# )
"
accurate within 5% for favorable pressure gradients and within 15% near separation

Thermal Energy Integral Equation
Governing equations for steady 2-D incompressible BLs:

!u ! v
+
=0
!x !y
"u
"u
" p "$
!u
+ !v
=#
+
"x
"y
"x "y
"T
"T
" q!
"u
!ucv
+ !vcv
=#
+$
"x
"y
"y
"y
multiply the momentum equation by u and add to the energy equation:
" #
u2 &
" #
u2 &
" q!
"p "
!u % cvT + ( + !v % cvT + ( = )
)u
+ ( u* )
"x $
2'
"y $
2'
"y
"x "y
use ! p ! y = 0 , ht ! cvT + p " + u 2 2 (in the BL approximation) and hte = constant :
"
"
" q! "
!u ( ht # hte ) + !v ( ht # hte ) = #
+ ( u$ )
"x
"y
"y "y
use continuity and integrate in y with usual kinematic BCs and q! = 0 for y = ! T :
d #T
d #T
Ec = U 2 c p (Tw ! Te ) << 1
for
q!w =
!
u
h
"
h
dy
"
!uc p (T " Te ) dy
(
)
t
te
$
$
dx 0
dx 0
introduce the definition of ! ht (for constant wall temperature Tw ):
d! h U "
q"w
d! h
+ !h !
= Ch ( Re, Pr ) %
= f (! h ,U,U ", & , ' )
dx U
#eUc p (Tw $ Te )
dx

One-Parameter Energy Integral Solution
By dimensional analysis and experiment (in analogy with BL velocity analysis):

U d 2
(Smith & Spalding 1958)
" c = f ( #c , Pr ) $ a ( Pr ) % b ( Pr ) #c
! dx
( )
where:
!c =
k (Tw " Te )
q!w
(conduction thickness)
U "# c2
!c =
$
and, from Falkner-Skan solutions:
"a !1 2 ! 0.332 Pr 0.35
for 0.1 < Pr < 10
#
0.07
b
!
2.95
Pr
$
Integrating with ! c ( x0 ) = ! c0 for U ( x0 ) = U 0 :

" x b #1
U 0b
2
! c = a b $ U dx + b ! c0
U x0
U
Thus q!w = k (Tw ! Te ) " c and, in particular, for ! c0 = 0 :
$ a U 0b
q!w L
Nu L =
=
k (Tw ! Te ) &% Re L U b
2
'
U b !1 dx U 0b # c0
+
"x0 U0b !1 L U b L2 )(
x
!1 2
(Nusselt number)

Stratford Laminar Separation Criterion
Up to the minimum pressure point x0 where:
#%U = U 0
p = pmin ! $
%&" = " 0
approximate the BL as a Blasius layer with U = U 0
choose the Blasius origin x B to match local value of:
! = !0
#
" 0.45 6
U0
x0
!p
<0
!x
p = pmin
#
U 5 dx = 0.45
( x % xB )
U max 0
U0
Blasius layer
!0
xB
x0
Us
!s
xs
At the (later) separation point xs > x0 match the Blasius layer with the inner layer where:
u ( y ) ! u y= 0
du
+
dy
1 d 2u
y+
2
2
dy
y= 0
y2 + . . . !
y= 0
1 dp 2
y + ...
2 dx
Can show that for this to happen the pressure coefficient:

p! p
C p = 1 2min
2 "u max
must satisfy the relation:
(x ! x )
B
" dC %
C p $ p ' ! 0.0104
# dx &
(Stratford laminar separation criterion)
matched
velocity
profile

Steady Axisymmetric Boundary Layer Equations
Assumptions:
incompressible, steady flow with constant properties
negligible body forces
axisymmetric flow, local surface radius r0 >> !
In curvilinear body-fitted coordinates x and y such that:

dx ! ex dx + ey dy + e! r0 d!
where
r0 = r0 ( x )
the governing equations for axisymmetric BLs (Mangler 1945) write:
! ( r0u ) ! ( r0 v )
+
=0
(continuity)
!x
!y
!u
!u
dU
! 2u
u
+v
=U
+" 2
( x -momentum)
!x
!y
dx
!y
1 #p
0=!
( y -momentum)
" #y
!T
!T
k ! 2T # $ ! u '
u
+v
=
+
!x
! y "cv ! y 2 cv &% ! y )(
with boundary conditions:
u=v=0
and
T = Tw ( x )
and
u ! U ( x)
T ! Te ( x )
(energy)
at y = 0
at y ! "

The Mangler Transformation (1945)
With:
2
"'
' x! ' ' y! '
x r
"
0
=
!
x
=
dx
$ ' x ' x ' x! + ' x ' y! =
$$
!0 L2
$
& #
#
$ y! = r0 y
$ ' = ' x! ' + ' y! ' =
$%
$% ' y ' y ' x! ' y ' y!
L
and:
'u! ( x!, y! ) = u ( x, y )
)
$
L!
y dr0
(
!
!
!
v
x
,
y
=
v
x,
y
+
u
x,
y
(
)
(
)
(
)
#
&
)
r0 "
r0 dx
%
*
r02 '
y dr0 '
+
L2 ' x! L dx ' y!
r0 '
L ' y!
'u ( x, y ) = u! ( x!, y! )
)
r0
y dr0
(
!
!
!
v
x,
y
=
v
x
,
y
,
u ( x, y )
(
)
(
)
)
L
r
dx
0
*
the axisymmetric boundary layer equations transform into:

! u! ! v!
+
=0
! x! ! y!
! u!
! u! ! !U!
! 2u!
with usual BCs
u!
+ v!
=U
+" 2
! x!
! y!
! x!
!y
!T!
!T!
! 2T! " $ ! u! '
u!
+ v!
=# 2 + & )
! x!
! y!
! y!
cv % ! y (
"$u! = v! = 0 on y! = 0
#
on y! = !!
$%u! = U!
Hence axisymmetric BLs transform into equivalent 2-D BLs in Cartesian coordinates x!, y! .

Similarity Solutions of Steady Axisymmetric Incompressible BLs
Freestream velocity past a cone of half-angle ! :

U = Cx n
where
r0 = x sin !
Therefore, from Mangler transformation:
1 x 2
x 3 sin 2 "
r0 y xysin !
!
x! = 2 ! r0 dx =
;
y
=
=
L 0
3L2
L
L
L!
yu dr0 $
L !
yu $
u! = u ;
v! = # v +
=
v
+
#
&
r0 "
r0 dx &% x sin ' "
x%
2
"
%
3L
n
U! = U = Cx = C $ 2 '
# sin ! &
n 3
x! n 3 = Kx! m (wedge flow with m = n 3 )
Similarity solutions: from Falkner-Skan flows:

m + 1 U!
n+3 U
u! !
u
!! = y!
=y
=!
= f ! ("! ) = f ! (" ) = ;
!
!
2 "x
2 "x
U
U
with f (! ) = f! (!! ) solution of:
% f !!! + ff !! + " 1 # f ! 2 = 0 where " = 2m ( m + 1) = 2n ( n + 3)

'
& f (0) = f ! (0) = 0
' f ! ($) = 1
(external matching)
(

Axisymmetric Integral Equations
As usual for the momentum and energy integral eqns obtain:

U d # r02 ! &
! 0.45 ) 6.0 !
r02 dx %$ U " ('
U d $ r02 "c '
! a ( Pr ) * b ( Pr ) "c
! r02 dx &% U # )(
with
U "# 2
!=
$
with
U "# c2
!c =
$
which, using the integrating factors and BCs:
#%! ( x0 ) = ! 0
$
%&" c ( x0 ) = " c0
at the location x = x0 where U ( x0 ) = U 0 respectively integrate to:
" r02U
"c r02U
! ( x) =
, !c ( x ) =
U#
U#
"
! = 0.45 2 6
r0 U
2
and
U 06 2
#x0 r U dx + U 6 ! 0
x
2
0
With these results:
!w =
U
S (# ) ;
"
! " = # H ( $ ) ; q!w =
# U 0b !1
q!w L
!1 2
Nu L =
=a
Re L % 2 b
k (Tw ! Te )
$ r0 U
and
"
! =a 2 b
r0 U
2
c
k (Tw ! Te )
"c
b !1
dx &
2U
r
"0 0 U0b !1 L ('
x
x
x0
2
0
rU
b #1
U 0b 2
dx + b ! c0
U
(as for the 2-D case)

!1 2
(Nusselt number for ! c0 = 0 )

PROBLEM
Laminar Axisymmetric Jets
In spherical polar coordinates, r, ! , " let:

1 "#
1 #$
; u! = "
and
ur = 2
r sin ! "!
r sin ! # r
where ! ( r, " ) is the Stokes stream function
u! = 0
Show that the Navier-Stokes equations are satisfied by:

2# r sin 2 "
! ( r, " ) =
with a = constant
1 + a $ cos "
Determine:
the jet profile ur (! ) for a given r
the jet width ! = ! ( r ) ( ur = 0.01umax )
In the narrow jet limit ( ! << 1 ):
r ! x ; ! " y x and ! ( r, " ) # ! ( x, y )
determine ! ( x, y ) and show that:
! ( x, y ) satisfies the axisymmetric BL equations with r0 ! constant and U ! = 0

umax = 4! ax is the maximum axial velocity on a plane x = constant
m! = 8! x is the mass flux at x = constant (linear in x )
P!x = 32!"# 2 3a is the momentum flux at x = constant ( P!x = constant , why?)

COMPRESSIBLE BOUNDARY LAYERS
Compressible Boundary Layer Equations
Assumptions:
compressible, steady, viscous, 2-D, force-free flow
temperature-dependent , k ! T n
thin layer approximation ! x ! ! T x << 1
Boundary layer equations in Cartesian coordinates:

!
!
( "u ) + ( "v ) = 0
!x
!y
!u
!u
!p
! $ !u '
"u
+ "v
=# e +
!x
!y
! x ! y &% ! y )(
!p
0=#
!y
2
with BCs
"u = v = 0
$u = U
$
#
$T = Tw
$%T = Te
at y = 0
at y = !
at y = 0
at y = ! T
$ !u '
!h
!h
!p
! $ !T '
"u
+ "v
=u e +
k
+
&% ! y )(
!x
!y
! x ! y &% ! y )(
where dh = c p dT , p = ! RT , and, from the free-stream momentun and energy equations:
dU
#p
!eU
=" e
dhe
dU
dx
#x
(also obtained from hte = he + 12 U 2 = constant )
!
= "U
#h
#p
dx
dx
!eU e = U e
#x
#x

Total Energy Equation for BLs in Perfect Gases
Assumptions:
perfect gas with constant specific heats c p , cv
In the BL approximation:
1
1
ht = h + u ! u " c pT + u 2
2
2
! cp
"T " ht
"u
=
#u
"y "y
"y
Using the x -momentum and the static enthalpy equations:

"u
"u
"p
" $ "u '
!u
+ !v
=# e +
"x
"y
" x " y &% " y )(
2
# "u &
# "u &
"h
"h
"p
" # "T &
" pe " # " ht " u &
!u
+ !v
= u e + %k
+
=
u
+
)
u
+
%$ " y ('
%$ " y ('
"x
"y
" x " y $ " y ('
" x " y %$ Pr " y Pr " y ('
the mechanical energy equation is:
# "u &
" #1 &
" #1 &
"p
" # "u &
"p
" # "u &
!u % u 2 ( + !v % u 2 ( = )u e + u % ( = )u e + % u ( ) % (
$ "y'
"x $ 2 '
"y $ 2 '
"x
"y $ "y'
"x "y $ "y'
and therefore the equation for the total enthalpy writes:
"h
"h
" * " ht $
1'
"u !u t + !v t =
+
1
#
u
&
)
"x
" y " y ,+ Pr " y %
Pr (
" y /.

Crocco-Busemann Energy Integrals
Assumptions:
Pr = 1
hte ! constant
(dissipation balances heat conduction)

(uniform far field)
Then for perfect gases:

"h
"h
" # " ht &
!u t + !v t =
"x
" y " y %$ " y ('
ht = hte at y = ! T
For adiabatic walls the wall BC is ! ht ! y w ! q"w = 0 and above equation has the solution:
ht = hte ! constant
with
(1st Crocco-Busemann energy integral, 1932)
For flat plates, using the similarity assumption ht = ht ( u ) and the momentum equation:
! pe
"u
"u " $ "u '
where
=0
!u
+ !v
#
=
0
!x
"x
" y " y &% " y )(
the total enthalpy equation gives:
2
d 2 ht " ! u %
dht * ! u
!u ! " !u %
=
+ (v
)
, (u
/=0
du 2 $# ! y '&
du ,+ ! x
! y ! y $# ! y '& /.
and integrating with ht ( 0 ) = hw and ht (U ) = hte , obtain:
ht = hw + ( hte ! hw ) u U
(2nd Crocco-Busemann energy integral)

Second Crocco-Busemann Energy Integral
Recall:
ht = hw + ( hte ! hw )
u
1
= h + u2
U
2
Therefore:
u 1 2
! u
U 2
Hence h goes through a maximum in high speed BLs on cold walls ( hte > hw ).
h = hw + ( hte ! hw )
For Pr = 1:
Taw = Tte
and
u u2
T = Tw + (Taw ! Tw ) !
U 2c p
Differentiating:
kw # T # y w
kw # u # y w
q!w
kw 2$ w
=
=
=
!wUc p (Taw " Tw ) !wUc p (Taw " Tw )
!wU 2 c p
2 w c p !wU 2
! Ch =
Cf
2 Prw
(Reynolds analogy also valid in flat-plate compressible BLs)
For Pr ! 1:
1 2
Taw = Te + r
U and
2c p
u
u2
T ! Tw + (Taw ! Tw ) ! r
U
2c p
! surprisingly accurate in $
#" flat-plate compressible BLs&%

The Dorodnitsyn-Illingworth Transformation
Look for similarity solutions with hte ! constant (uniform far field) and:
u ( x, y ) = U (! ) f " (# ) and h ( x, y ) = he (! ) g (" ) (Dorodnitsyn 1942, Illingworth 1950)
where:
x
U ( x) y
and
(similarity variables)
! ( x, y ) =
# dy
! ( x ) = # "e ( x )U ( x ) e ( x ) dx
$
0
0
2"
Substituting in the BLs equations for perfect gases:

,
! + ff !! + 2 "
C
f
!!
(
)
.
U
.
. f (0) = f ! (0) = 0
. f ! (+) = 1
/
dU % #e
2(
$
f
!
*) = 0
d" '& #
(external matching)
where:
!e pe T T
=
! !g
!
p Te Te
and
( p ! constant across the boundary layer)
!
1" T %
C=
! $ ' ! g n (1
!e e g # Te &
(Chapman-Rubesin parameter)
U2 U2
=
= (! " 1) M e2
he c pTe
( Me = U
$
! + fg! = " U 2 h Cf !! 2
C
g
Pr
!
(
)
e
&
&&
$& g ( 0 ) = gw (Tw # constant)
%either: %
&' g! ( 0 ) = 0 (adiabatic wall)
&
& g ( ( ) = 1 (external matching)
&'
! RTe " freestream Mach number)

The Dorodnitsyn-Illingworth Transformation (continued)
For similarity solutions:

Pr = Pr ( f , g ) or constant
gw ! constant
2 d lnU d ln ! = " # constant
U 2 he ! constant
! Tw " constant
! U ! " # 2 (wedge or cone flow)
! U 2 ! Te (constant free stream Mach number M e )
Therefore:
(Cf !! )' + ff !! = " f ! 2 # g
(Cg! )' + Pr fg! = " (#
( Pr ! constant in perfect gases)
with
" 1) C Pr M e2 f !! 2
with
#% f ( 0 ) = f ! ( 0 ) = 0
(momentum)
$
%& f ! ( " ) = 1
#% g ( ! ) = 1
(energy)
$
g
0
=
g
or
g
0
=
0
"
( )
%& ( )
w
Realistic solutions can be obtained for:

any Pr ( f , g ) and C ( f , g ) if:
U and M e ! constant
(flat plate flow)
U ! ! and M e << 1
(stagnation flow)
Pr = 1 and C = 1 if:
U ! ! " 2 , M e # variable (Falkner-Skan flows)

Approximate Flat Plate Solution
For ! = 0 :
! = "eU e x
and
!=
Ux
2" e
(Cf !! )!
# dy
#e x
f
Cf !!
C
Integrating from ! = 0 to ! " # with:
1
C ! Cw ! constant ;
f ! f !! ( 0 )" 2 + ...
2
and the relevant BCs for f , obtain:
0.47 fB!!( 0 )
f !! ( 0 ) !
!
Cw
Cw
(Cf !! )! + ff !! = 0 "
=#
( B indicates Blasius incompressible solution)
Similarly:
! w = w
"u
"y
=
w
eUf ## ( 0 )
Cw = ! w, B Cw
2$ e x U
u
= f ! (" ) ! fB! " Cw
U

Approximate Flat Plate Solution (continued)
Temperature profile:
T T
T + Tw
r
g = ! w + aw
f ! " (# " 1) M 2 f ! 2
Te Te
Te
2
Reynolds analogy factor C f Ch :

Pr f $$ ( 0 ) %&Taw Te # g ( 0 ) '(
2! w "eU 2
=
q!w "eUc p (Taw # Tw )
g$ ( 0 )
Notice:
C = ! !e e ! (T Te )
n "1
= C (T )
( )
In low speed flows can use C ! = C T ! evaluated for a suitable value of:
T ! ! Tw +
1
2
(Taw " Tw ) " 13 (Taw " Te )
(film temperature, Dorrance 1962)
Boundary layer thickness:
! = "eU e x
! "=
Ux
2# e
and, integrating with ! (" ) ! 3.5 :
!
Cw" e
=
x
Ux
$ dy
$e x
+
.
#
Tw &
2
5.0
+
0.2
+
0.9
)
*
1
M
) e0
%$
(' (
T
aw
,
/
dy
=
x
2" e #e
d$ =
Ux #
2" e T
d$
Ux Te
(quite large at high M e if Tw ! Taw )

Exact Flat Plate Solutions
Flow conditions:
Pr = 0.75 , variable specific heats
Sutherland law, ! T 3 2 T + Tref
insulated or cold wall ( Tw = Te 4 )
Main features:
u nearly linear in y for insulated walls
! increases with T and M e

Exact Flat Plate Solution (continued)
Main features:
Reynolds analogy holds also at high M e
the Fanning and Stanton numbers decrease with M e
the Fanning and Stanton numbers decrease with Tw
boundary layer thickness increases with M e
! increases dramatically for adiabatic walls
approximate analysis is rather accurate for:
wall shear distribution
wall heat transfer distribution

Compressible Falkner-Skan Boundary Layers
For C = Pr = 1 similarity solutions:

u ( x, y ) = U ( x ) f ! (" )
h ( x, y ) = he ( x ) g (! )
and
are possible in the Falkner-Skan formulation:
m +1 U
and
U ( x ) = Kx m
!=y
2 " te x
Here f and g satisfy:
f !!! + ff !! + " g # f ! 2 = 0
with
f ! (") = 1
and
f (0) = f ! (0) = 0
g!! + fg! = " (# " 1) M e2 f !! 2
with
g (!) = 1
and
g ( 0 ) = gw or g! ( 0 ) = 0
As for the incompressible case:
! = 2m ( m + 1)
pressure gradient parameter
m=0:
flat plate
! 12 " m < 0 :
expansion corner, turning angle !" 2 < 0
0 < m < +! :
compression wedge, turning angle !" 2 > 0
m = 1:
plane stagnation point
Also let:
S = ht hte ! 1
total enthalpy parameter

Compressible Falkner-Skan Boundary Layers (continued)
Pressure gradients and wall temperature strongly affect:

separation:
!sep = "0.3260 for cold walls
!sep = "0.1306 for hot wall (earlier separation)
wall friction
wall heat transfer

COMPRESSIBLE STAGNATION POINT FLOW
Blunt Bodies
Near the stagnation point:

(turning angle ! ! " 2 )
! =1
M e ! 0 (nearly incompressible flow)
U = Kx (stagnation velocity gradient)
(Chapman-Rubesin parameter)
C ! Cw
and the similarity equations write:
$&( C f !! )' + ff !! + g " f ! 2 = 0
w
%
&' f ! ( # ) = 1 and f ( 0 ) = f ! ( 0 ) = 0
$&( C g! )' + 1 f !! ( 0 )" 2 Pr g! = 0
w
2
%
&' g ( # ) = 1 and g ( 0 ) = gw
f !
( )
1
f "" ( 0 )# 2 + O # 3
2
% 6Cw (
1 " g (0)
!
! $ ( 43 ) '
*
g# ( 0 )
Pr
f
0
##
(
)
&
)
13
"
he " hw
q#w
Hence:
13
q!w ! ( he " hw ) ( Pr Cw )
Specifically, from the experiments by Fay and Riddel (1958):

0.1
)0.570 plane flows
1 2 # "w w &
!0.6
q!w = K h Pr ( "e e K ) %
h
!
h
with
K
=
(
)
*
e
w
h
$ "e e ('
+0.763 axisymmetric flows
where K = dU dx , and !e ! !te , he ! hte for strong, (almost normal) bow shocks

Stagnation Point Flow
In general:
KD "e he
,
,
= f ( free-stream, body shape )
V! "! h!
At M e < 1 (freestream or behind the bow shock):
2
#
KD % 4 (1" 0.416M ! + ...) spheres
!$
V! % 3(1" 0.252M !2 + ...) cylinders
&
!e , he " obtained from shock/isentropic relations
Newtonian Impact Theory (Local Inclination Method)
Assumptions:
hypersonic incoming flow ( M ! > 5 6 )
thin, quasi-parallel shock layer:
uniform pressure p >> p! across the layer
normal velocity component is lost
tangential velocity component is preserved (no significant shear at the shock)
From the axial momentum balance across the shock layer:

V! cos 2 " # V! $!V! sin " dA ! ( p! # p ) sin " dA % p ! pe = p! + $!V!2 sin 2 "

Stagnation Point Heat Transfer on Round Bodies
Near the stagnation point (subscript 0) of a round body of curvature 1 R :

x2
2
2
U = Kx
sin ! = 1 " cos ! ! 1 " 2
and
R
and in hypersonic flows from the Bernoullis equation:
1
1
pe + !eU 2 = p" + !"V"2 sin 2 # + !e K 2 x 2 = B ! constant
2
2
Differentiating w.r.t. x :
x
V
!2 "#V#2 2 + "e K 2 x = 0 ! K = "
R
R
2 #"
#e0
in the heat transfer equation (Fay & Riddell 1958):
q!w
12
!e e K ) " !w w %
(
= 0.763
while:
!e0 !t 2
=
!"
!1
0.1
( he ( hw )
Pr 0.6
$# ! '&
e e
and
he0 Te0 Tt 2
!
=
h! T!
T1
are obtained from normal shock relations as

functions of M !

AXISYMMETRIC COMPRESSIBLE BOUNDARY LAYERS
The Lees-Mangler Transformation
For nonsimilar BLs:

generalize the similarity variables (Lees 1956):
x
"eUr0j y "
2j
and
!=
dy
! = # "eU e r0 dx
$
0 "
0
2#
e
is the local surface radius (Mangler 1945)
for plane/axisymmetric flows
(same equations for f and g are obtained)
use Falkner-Skan solutions with local value of ! ( x )
r0
j = 0,1
In high-speed flows obtain:

stagnation conditions, p0 , T0 , from normal shock relations
local flow conditions, pe , Te , M e , U , from Newtonian theory:
" ! (! "1)
pe # ! " 1 2 &
p) #
*)V)2 2 &
! %1 +
Me (
!
1+
sin + (
%
$
'
p0
2
p0 $
p)
'
Te #
! "1 2&
= %1 +
Me (
$
'
T0
2
q!w ( x )
=
q!w ( 0 )
"1
and
U = M e ! RTe
r0j CeU # x 2 j CeU &

r0
dx
2 j +1 K C0V! %$ "0
C0V! ('
V!
)1
(Lees 1956)

PROBLEMS
Hypersonic Drag
Assume complete base flow separation and use the Newtonian

impact theory to show that the pressure drag coefficient of a
sphere of radius R in an hypersonic free stream of velocity V!
and density !" is:
2D p
C Dp =
!1
! R 2 "#V#2
Repeat the analysis for a cone of length L and half-angle ! = 0.1 rad , showing that:
2D p
C Dp =
! 2 sin 3 $
2
2
! RB "#V#
Using the Newtonian theory and the Lees-Mangler transformation, estimate:

2D f
the friction drag coefficient C Df =
! RB2 "#V#2
the heat transfer Q! to the cone for Tw = T! << Taw
the ratio
Q!
heat power load
=
V! D f mechanical power dissipation
the ratio of the skin friction coefficients on a cone and a flat plate at equal Reynolds no.
What is the order of magnitude of C Dp C Df and Q! V! D f ?

The Integral Momentum Equation
Thwaites method can be extended to the compressible integral momentum equation:

Cf
d! U " &
#$
1 d #
2)
+
2 + % Me + ! =
( p % pe ) dy +
dx U ('
!
, U 2 dx -0
2
*
e
with the transformation proposed by Mann and Whitten (1970):

* Te )
U d" i2
! 2 Si ( # ) $ # %& H i ( # ) + 2 '( + Si ( # ) ,
$ 1/
! te dx
+ Tte te
.
where:
2 Si ( ! ) " ! #$ H i ( ! ) + 2 %& ! 0.45 " 6 !
(Thwaites 1949)
and the compressible parameters ! , H , ! w are related to the incompressible parameters ! ,

! i , H i and Si by the equations:
" i2 dU
!=
# te dx
with
"T %
! = !i $ t '
# Te &
(compressible momentum thickness)
!T $!
' (1 2$ ' (1 2
H = H i # aw & # 1 +
Me & +
Me
"
%
T
2
2
" t %
(compressible shape factor)
te T ! " w# i
Si = !
Te $eU
(incompressible shear function)

Laminar Viscous Flows

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Laminar Viscous Flows

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Laminar Viscous Flows

FULLY DEVELOPED DUCT FLOWS

Governing equations and BCs for the flow velocity:

Luca dAgostino, 2013/14.

u = 0 on the duct walls